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Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
DASAR – DASAR RISET
Disajikan oleh:
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Jurusan Manajemen
Fakultas Bisnis & Ekonomi
Universitas Surabaya (UBAYA)
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Filsafat Ringkas
1. Epistemologi (yunani: episcmc = knowledge/pengetahuan dan
logos = teori) yang pertama kali digunakan oleh J.F. Ferrier
(1854) --------- teori tentang pengetahuan atau the nature of
knowledge
2. Ontologi (yunani: on = being/wujud atau apa dan logos = teori) -
--------- teori tentang perwujudan/empiris atau the nature of
reality
3. Axiologi (yunani: axios = nilai dan logos = teori) ---------- teori
kemanfaatan
4. Metodologi --------- teori tentang cara/metode atau the nature of
how one comes to know
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
METODE PENELITIAN PADA DASARNYA MERUPAKAN CARA ILMIAH UNTUK MENDAPATKAN INFORMASI DENGAN TUJUAN DAN KEGUNAAN TERTENTU
CARA ILMIAH DIDASARKAN PADA CIRI-CIRI KEILMUAN:
RASIONAL
EMPIRIS
SISTEMATIS
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
1. Purposiveness
2. Rigor
3. Testability
4. Replicability
5. Precision and confidence
6. Objectivity
7. Generalizability
8. Parsimony
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Types of research
From the viewpoint of
Application ObjectivesType of information
sought
Pure
research
Descriptive
research
Exploratory
research
Quantitative
research
Applied
research
Correlational
research
Explanatory
research
Qualitative
research
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Klasifikasi Riset: How research is used?
Basic AppliedResearch is intrinsically satisfying and judgments
are by other sociologist
Research is part of a job and is judged by
sponsors who are outside the discipline of
sociology
Research problem and subject are selected with a
great deal of freedom
Research problem are “narrowly constrained” to
the demand of employers or sponsors
Research is judged by absolute norm of scientific
rigor, & the highest standard of scholarship are
sought
The rigor & standard of scholarship depend on
the use of result. Research can be “quick and
dirty” or may match high scientific standard
The primary concern is with the internal logic and
rigor of research design
The primary concern is with the ability to
generalize findings to areas of interest to sponsor
The driving goal is to contribute to basic,
theoretical knowledge
The driving goal is to have practical payoffs or
uses for results
Success come when result appear in a scholarly
journal & have an impact on others in the
scientific community
Success come when results are used by sponsor
in decision making
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Klasifikasi Riset: Purposes of the study
Research design
Exploratory Research Conclusive Research
Descriptive Causal
Cross sectional Longitudinal
Single Cross Sectional Multiple Cross Sectional
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Perbandingan Desain Dasar Riset
Exploratory Descriptive Causal
Objective Discover idea and insight Describe market
characteristic or function
Determine cause and
effect relationship
Characteristics Flexible
Versatile
Often the front end of total
research design
Marked by the prior
formulation of specific
hypothesis
Preplanned and
structured design
Manipulation of one or
more independent
variables
Control of other
mediating variables
Methods Experts survey
Pilot survey
Secondary data
Qualitative research
Secondary data
Survey
Panels
Observational & Other
data
Experiments
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Perbedaan Qualitative dan Quantitative
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
Objective To gain a qualitative understanding of
the underlying reasons and
motivations
To quantify the data and generalize
the results from the sample to the
populations of interest
Sample Small number of nonrepresentative
cases
Large number of representative
cases
Data Collection Unstructured Structured
Data Analysis Nonstatistical Statistical
Outcome Develop an initial understanding Recommend a final course of
action
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Exploratory research design
Klasifikasi prosedur riset kualitatif
Qualitative Research Procedures
Direct (Nondisguised) Nondirect (Disguised)
Focus Group Depth Interview
Association
Techniques
Completion
Techniques
Construction
Techniques
Expressive
Techniques
Projective Techniques
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Descriptive research design
Survey dan Observasi
Survey Method
Telephone Interview Personal Interview Mail Interview Electronic Interview
Observation Method
Personal Observation Mechanical Observation Audit Content Analysis Trace Analysis
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Causal research design
Experimen
Experimental Design
Pre-Experimental True-Experimental Quasi or Field Exp. Statistical
One Shot
Case Study
One Group
Pretest-posttest
Static Group
Pretest-posttest
Control Group
Post test only
Control Group
Solomon
Four Group
Time Series
Multiple Time
Series
Randomized Blocks
Latin Square
Factorial
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Sumber Error dalam PenelitianTotal Error
Random Sampling Error,
occur because the particular
sample selected is an
imperfect representation
of the population of interest
Nonsampling Error
Response Error Nonresponse Error
Researcher Error Interviewer Error Respondent Error
Surrogate Information Error
Measurement Error
Population Definition Error
Sampling Frame error
Data Analysis error
Respondent Selection Error
Questioning Error
Recording Error
Cheating error
Inability Error
Unwillingness Error
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Klasifikasi Teknik Sampling
Sampling technique
Nonprobability Probability
Convenience/
Haphazard/
Accidental
Judgmental/
Purposive
Quota Snowball
Simple Random Systematic Stratified Cluster Others
Proportionate Disproportionate
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Kapan mempergunakan Nonprobability sampling VS Probability sampling?
Factors Conditions Favoring The use of
Nonprobability Probability
Nature of researc Exploratory Conclusive
Relative magnitude of
sampling and non sampling
errors
Non sampling error are
larger
Sampling error are large
Variability in the population Homogeneous (Low) Heterogeneous (High)
Statistical considerations Unfavorable Favorable
Operational consideration Favorable Unfavorable
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Sinonim: Independent dan Dependent
Independent Variable Dependent Variable
Explanatory Explained
Regressor Regressand
Exogenous Endogenous
Covariate (Metric)
Factor (Nonmetric-katagorical)
Outcome
Predictor Predictand
Predictor Criterion
Stimulus Response
Antecedent Consequence
Control Variable Controlled Variable
Predicted From Predicted To
Presumed Cause Presumed Effect
Manipulated Measured Outcome
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
JENIS VARIABEL BERDASARKAN
KEDUDUKANNYA DI DALAM HIPOTESIS
Antecedent
Independent
Intervening/
Mediating
Moderating
Dependent
Concomitant CONFOUNDING Control
Intraneous
Extraneous
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Keterangan:
Variabel Intraneous merupakan variabel yg tercakup dalam riset.
V. Extraneous merupakan variabel yang tidak tercakup dalam riset,
dimana sifatnya benalu yang dapat menggerogoti informasi.
Variabel Intervening merupakan variabel yang bersifat menjadi
perantara (mediating) dari hubungan variabel bebas ke variabel
dependen.
Contoh:* Kualitas Produk Sales Profit
dalam hal ini sales merupakan jembatan/pengantara.
Artinya tidak akan ada profit bila tidak ada sales.
* Pendidikan Gaji Kinerja
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Keterangan:
Variabel Moderator merupakan variabel yg bersifat
memperkuat/memperlemah pengaruh variabel bebas terhadap var.
dependen.
Cth: Kualitas Produk Sales
Promosi
Dimana ada/tidak promosi, sales tetap ada, namun banyak/sedikitnya
tergantung pada promosi yg dilakukan.
V. Confounding (Pembaur) merupakan var. yg tidak tercakup dalam
hipotesisi, akan tetapi muncul dalam riset dan berpengaruh terhadap
var. dependen. Pengaruhnya mencapuri atau berbaur dengan
variabel bebas
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Keterangan:
Variabel Control (Kendali) merupakan variabel pembaur yang
pengaruhnya dapat dikendalikan. Pengendalian dapat dilakukan
dengan cara blocking dengan membuat kriteria ekslusi-inklusi, yaitu
dengan mengeluarkan objek yang tidak memenuhi kriteria (ekslusi)
dan mengambil objek yang memenuhi kriteria (inklusi).
Variabel Concomitant (Penyerta) merupakan variabel pembaur yang
tidak dapat dikendalikan, sehingga tetap menyertai dalam proses
riset. Konsekuensinya: data tersebut harus diamati. Pengaruh
baurnya dihilangkan pada tahap analisis data.
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Var.Dependent Var.Independent Alat
Skala Jumlah Skala Jumlah
metrik 1 Metrik
Nonmetrik
> 1
> 1
Regresi
metrik 1 Nonmetrik > 1 ANOVA
metrik > 1 Nonmetrik > 1 MANOVA
metrik 1 Metrik (covariate)
Nonmetrik (Factor)
> 1
> 1
ANCOVA
Nonmetrik 1 Metrik > 1 Discriminant anaylsis
Nonmetrik or
Metrik
1 Nonmetrik >1 Conjoint Analysis
Nonmetrik
Metrik
> 1 Nonmetrik
Metrik
> 1 Canonical Correlation
Metrik * > 1 Nonmetrik
Metrik
> 1 Structural Equation Model
Beberapa Alat Multivariat
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Teknik Multivariate (Hair et.al., 2006)
What type of relationship
How many variable
are being predicted
Is the structure of
relationship among:
Dependence Interdependence
Multiple Dependent
& independence
Several Dependent One DependentVariables Case/Resp. Object
SEMWhat’s scale of the
Dependent variable?
What’s scale of the
Dependent variable?
Metric MetricNon-Metric Non-Metric
Non-MetricMetric
What’s scale of the
Independent variable?
Canonical with
Dummy var.
Regression &
Conjoint An.
MDA &
Linear Prob.
Canonical
Correl. An.MANOVA
Factor
AnalysisCFA
Cluster
Analysis
How are the
Attribute
Measure?
Metric Non-Metric
Non-Metric
MDSCorrespondence
Analysis
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Validity dan ReliabilityReliability means dependability or consistency. It suggests that the
same thing is repeated or recur under the identical or very similar
conditions.
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what we actually wish
to measure.
Summary of measurement reliability and validity type
Reliability (Consistency) Validity (True Measure)
Stability – over time Face – in the judgment of others
Representative – across subgroups Content – capture the entire meaning
Equivalence – across indicators Criterion – agree with external sources:
* Concurrent – agree with a pre-existing
measure
* Predictive – agree with future behavior
Construct – multiple indicator are consistent
* Convergent – alike one are similar
* Discriminant – different ones differ
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Other uses of the terms Reliable and Valid
• Internal Validity : there are no error internal to the design of the
research project.
• External Validity : it is the ability to generalize finding from a specific
setting and small group to a broad range of setting
and people.
• Statistical Validity : the correct statistical procedure is chosen and its
assumptions are fully met.
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Relationship between Validity and Reliability
Low Reliability High reliability High reliability
& Low Validity but Low validity & High validity
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Type What is Measured Methods
Content Degree to which the content of the items
adequately represents the universe of all
relevant items under study
• Judgmental
• Panel evaluation with
content validity ratio
Criterion – Related
Concurrent
Predictive
Degree to which the predictor is
adequate in capturing the relevant
aspect of the criterion.
Description of the present; criterion data
are available at the same time as
predictor scores
Prediction of the future; criterion data are
measured after the passage of time
• Correlation
• Correlation
• Correlation
Construct Answer the question, “what accounts for
the variance in the measure?”; attempts
to identify the underlying construct being
measured and determine how well the
test represent it.
• Judgmental
• Correlation of proposed
test with established one
• Convergent – discriminant
techniques
• Factor analysis
• Multitrait – multimethod
analysis
Summary of Validity Estimate
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Summary of Reliability Estimate
Type Coefficient What is Measured Methods
Test-Retest Stability Reliability of a test or instrument
inferred from examinee scores; same
test is administered twice to same
subject over an interval of less than
six months
•Correlation
Parallel Form Equivalence Degree to which alternative forms of
the same measure produce same of
similar result; administered
simultaneously or with a delay. Inter
rater estimates of the similarity of
judges observations or scores.
•Correlation
Split Half, KR20,
Cronbach’s Alpha
Internal
Consistency
Degree to which instrument items are
homogeneous and reflect the same
underlying construct
•Specialized
correlations formula
Dr. Werner R. Murhadi
Aliran Riset (Neuman, 2003, p.91)
Positivism Interpretive Critical Feminist Postmodern
Reason
for
research
To discover natural
laws so people can
predict and control
To understand & describe
meaningful social action
To smash myths &
empower people to
change society radically
To smash myths &
empower people to
advance value of
nurturing other & equality
To express the
subjective self, to be
playful, & to entertain &
stimulate other people
Nature of
social
reality
Stable preexisting
patterns or order that
can be discovered
Fluid definitions of a
situation created by
human interaction
Conflict filled & governed
by hidden underlying
structures
Conflict filled, structured
power relations that keep
many people oppressed
Chaotic & fluid without
any real patterns or
master plan
Nature of
human
beings
Self interested &
rational individual who
are shaped by external
forces
Social being who create
meaning & who
constantly make sense of
their world
Creative, adaptive people
with unrealized potential,
trapped by illusion &
exploitation
Creative, gendered being
with unrealized potential
who are often trapped by
unseen forces
Creative, dynamic
beings with unrealized
potential
Role of
common
sense
Clearly distinct from &
less valid than science
Powerful every day
theories used by ordinary
people
False beliefs that hide
power & objective
condition
False beliefs that hide
power & objective
conditions
The essence of social
reality that is superior to
scientific or bureaucratic
form of reasoning
Theory
looks like
A logical deductive
system of
interconnected
definition, axiom, & law
A description of how a
groups meaning system
is generated & sustained
A critique that reveals
true condition & help
people see the way to a
better world
A critique that reveals
true conditions & help
people see the way to a
better world
A performance or work
of artistic expression
that can amuse, shock
or stimulate others
An
explanatio
n that is
true
Is logically connected to
laws & based on fact
Resonates or feels right
to those who are being
studied
Supplies people with
tools needed to change
the world
Supplies ideas/tools to
help liberate people from
oppressive relations
No one explanation is
more true; all are true
for those who accept
them
Good
evidence
Is based on precise
observations that other
can repeat
Is embedded in the
context of fluid social
interactions
Is informed by a theory
that unveils illusions
Is informed by theory that
unveils illusion
Has aesthetic properties
& resonates with people
inner feeling/emotions
Place for
values
Science is value free, &
value have no place
except when choosing
a topic
Value are an integral part
of social life; no group
values are wrong, only
different.
All science must begin
with a value position,
some position are right,
some are wrong
Value are essential to
research, & feminist
ones are clearly preferred
Value are integral to
research, but all value
positions are equal.