In�uence of 200 years of water resourcemanagement on a typical central European riverDoes industrialization straighten a river?Stefanie Sabine Wolf ( [email protected] )
RWTH Aachen University: Rheinisch-Westfalische Technische Hochschule Aachenhttps://orcid.org/0000-0003-2928-6834
Verena Esser Department of Geography, RWTH Aachen University
Holger Schüttrumpf Institute for Hydraulic Engineering and Water Resources Management, RWTH Aachen University
Frank Lehmkuhl Department of Geography, RWTH Aachen University
Research
Keywords: tipping point, human impact, industrialization, river course development, river straightening
Posted Date: January 26th, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-102525/v2
License: This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Read Full License
Version of Record: A version of this preprint was published on February 8th, 2021. See the publishedversion at https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-021-00460-8.
1
Influence of 200 years of water resource management 1
on a typical central European river 2
3
Does industrialization straighten a river? 4
5
Stefanie Wolf1*, Verena Esser2, Holger Schüttrumpf1, Frank Lehmkuhl2 6
7
1 Institute for Hydraulic Engineering and Water Resources Management, RWTH Aachen 8
University, Mies-van-der-Rohe-Straße 17, 52056 Aachen, Germany. 9
2 Department of Geography, RWTH Aachen University, Wüllnerstraße 5b, Aachen 52064, 10
Germany. 11
12
Email addresses: Verena Esser ([email protected]), Holger Schüttrumpf 13
([email protected]), Frank Lehmkuhl ([email protected]) 14
15
*Corresponding author: [email protected] 16
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2
Abstract 34
Background 35
Over the last 200 years, the courses of most European rivers have experienced significant 36
irreversible changes. These changes are connected to different kinds of anthropogenic river 37
use and exploitation, which have varied from running water mills and rafting to large-scale 38
hydroelectric power plants, industrial water withdrawal and flood protection measures. Today, 39
in most developed countries, water quality and ecological river development are important 40
factors in water management. The aim of this study is to evaluate the specific impacts of 41
different time periods during the last 200 years on river courses and their effects on current 42
river management using the example of the 165 km-long German Rur River (North Rhine-43
Westphalia). The Rur River is a typical central European upland to lowland river whose 44
catchment has been affected by various phases of industrial development. 45
46
Methods 47
In this study, a range of morphological changes over the last 200 years are determined based 48
on historic maps and up-to-date orthophotos. River length, sinuosity, oxbow structures, 49
sidearms and the number of islands are used to investigate human impact. The results are 50
correlated with historic time periods. 51
52
Results 53
This analysis shows that river straightening increases, especially during the Industrial 54
Revolution, even without direct hydraulic channelization. The period and grade of river 55
straightening have a direct morphodynamic impact on today’s river restorations. Since the Rur 56
River is a typical upland to lowland river, the results show an additional impact by geofactors, 57
such as landform configurations. 58
59
Conclusions 60
3
Morphodynamic development is correlated with five historic periods of industrial development 61
between 1801 and 2019 up to the introduction of the EU - Water Framework Directive (EU-62
WFD). Each period shows a different influence on the watercourse, which is connected with 63
human intervention. Even if worldwide comparisons show that the five historical phases differ 64
slightly in their timing between regions, they are applicable to other study areas. 65
66
Key Words: tipping point, human impact, industrialization, river course development, river 67
straightening 68
69
70
Background 71
History of Human Influence on River Systems 72
Rivers are one of the most anthropogenically influenced ecosystems in the world [1]. Most 73
European rivers have experienced extensive channel changes, whereby the human impact is 74
an important key driver [2, 3]. Since the beginning of the Holocene, the influence of humans 75
on the environment has continuously increased [4–6]; hence, many fluvial systems have been 76
negatively and profoundly influenced worldwide by human actions for centuries [7–12]. In the 77
early Holocene, rivers were mainly anabranching, which changed in the late Holocene [3]. 78
While geomorphologic changes before the late Holocene are mainly attributed to climatic 79
factors [4, 13], the establishment of agriculture and large-scale deforestation in the Neolithic 80
period led to a tipping point [14, 15]. Increased human land use has led to siltation of secondary 81
channels, which changes river morphology [3]. 82
The first hydraulic engineering measures were river straightening, dam and weir construction 83
and the construction of mill canals and ponds [13, 16]. In the Middle Ages, as the main energy 84
source, the establishment of water mills increased dramatically [17]. 85
Various studies have investigated human impacts on river systems worldwide at different times 86
[7, 8, 18, 19]. Gibling evaluates human influences using worldwide examples and creates a 87
timeline divided into six phases from the late Pleistocene to the Holocene [19]. He emphasizes 88
4
that in many cases, serious changes were connected with the Industrial Revolution and 89
technological advances in the 20th century, which are included in his 6th phase, the 90
Technological Era (after 1800 CE) (cf. Figure 1). 91
In the last two centuries, changes in land use, industry, flood protection, drinking water supply 92
and hydroelectric power measures as well as shipping have caused further morphodynamic 93
impacts on fluvial systems [14, 20, 21]. In particular, the development of automated production 94
and the steel industry has caused a higher demand for hydroelectric power, process water and 95
transportation routes provided by waterways [22–25]. In the late 19th century, the Industrial 96
Revolution led to changes in river morphology throughout Europe [26, 27]. The alpine Rhone, 97
Isar and Danube Rivers, for example, were channelized in the mid- to late-19th century, causing 98
braided structures and large gravel bars to form [28]. The Tisza River in Ukraine and Hungary 99
has shortened by approximately 30% through river training [26]. Therefore, the increased use 100
of fossil energy from 1950 onwards can be linked to rapid river degradation and river pollution 101
in the Western World [27, 29–31]. Although sewage systems were introduced, pollution from 102
industry, agriculture and urban areas since the late 19th century has led to long-term changes 103
in river ecosystems [27, 32]. 104
Today, industries are still dependent on the water supply and hydroelectric power [33, 34], 105
and it is expected that anthropogenic influences on rivers will continue to increase [35, 36]. 106
Apart from that, in recent decades, a rethinking of the protection of fluvial systems has 107
occurred. Especially in Europe, sustainable development of water bodies has become a 108
common goal with the legislative basis of the EU-WFD [37]. Therefore, the timeframe from the 109
Middle Ages to modern times is considered to have had the largest impact on lateral channel 110
movement due to hydraulic structures [33]. 111
112
Five Phases of River Management on the Rur River 113
Hence, the culture of river management has changed several times within the last 200 years. 114
Focusing on the history of industrial development, this study period of 200 years can be divided 115
5
into five phases of river management of the Rur River (cf. Figure 2). Thus, each phase has 116
different water management characteristics on which the emphasis is placed. The phases are 117
to be understood as cultural epochs, and the time divisions are determined using the example 118
of the Rur catchment. Cultural epochs are generally variable in time and space [38, 39]. 119
Interventions in water bodies in favor of industry started in the Pre-Industrial Phase (1) in the 120
18th century with lignite and ore mining [40–42]. In the 19th century, as a result of water conflicts 121
between agriculture and industry, textile companies were given preferential treatment [42]. 122
In the Industrial Phase (2), rivers were primarily used for water-demanding industries. In this 123
phase, in the Rur catchment, water-demanding industries, such as sugar cane and paper 124
industries, settled near rivers in Aachen as well as Jülich and Düren [42, 43]. Increased water 125
demands of industries led to a water crisis [42] and finally to the construction of larger dams 126
from 1900 onwards, which ultimately had a greater impact on flowing waters [44]. 127
The Industrial Phase (2) is superseded by the Agricultural Phase (3) after World War I, where 128
large area structural changes for food production and a shift from water power to electricity 129
occurred. Important land use changes occurred after the late 1940s when intense agriculture 130
and rapid urbanization developed [45]. After World War II to the early 1980s, the reclamation 131
of floodplains for agriculture as well as expanding settlements were the main goals of river 132
management [42, 43]. Since 1980, water quality and the environment have been the focus 133
(Phase of Ecological Improvement, 4). In 1986, waterbodies were recognized as part of 134
ecosystems for the first time in the Federal Water Act in Germany [46]. 135
Today, we are in the second management cycle of the EU-WFD (Water Framework-Directive) 136
[47], the Phase of EU-WFD (5) (cf. Figure 2). Sustainability of running waters and renaturation 137
largely determine the actions of people [48], but industries are still large stakeholders in water 138
management [49, 50]. 139
In this context, the increased use of water resources as well as flood protection are often 140
connected with riverbed regulations [25, 51], but does industrialization truly straighten a river? 141
6
Despite the massive anthropogenic influences, geofactors of riverine landscapes still affect the 142
morphology and hydrology of rivers and their floodplains today [52]. Irreversible tipping points 143
in watercourse development are highly dependent on the nature of the catchment area, which 144
is why watercourses react with varying degrees of sensitivity to a particular anthropogenic 145
impact [53, 54]. 146
147
Human Influences on Morphodynamic Structures 148
Sinuosity, oxbows, braided and anastomosing structures 149
Oxbows often develop from meander cutoffs [55, 56] and therefore are a sign of river 150
straightening. Generally, a low degree of sinuosity indicates anthropogenic disturbance [57]. 151
According to Gibling (2018), human impacts cause changes from meandering to braided 152
planforms and from multithread channel to single channel riverbeds [19]. With a decreasing 153
main channel sinuosity, a change from anastomosing to braided channels is common [58]. 154
Braided streams are generally characterized by low sinuosities [59]. Therefore, braiding is a 155
general indicator of river straightening. When sinuosity decreases and braiding increases, the 156
development is often accompanied by higher peak flows and higher monthly discharge 157
variability [59]. These changes in discharge are commonly caused by human activities, such 158
as deforestation, mining and agriculture [60]. If a channel is anastomosing or braided, it 159
depends on the sediment supply from upstream [61]. For example, Scorpio et al. (2018) found 160
that braided structures only formed downstream of sediment confluences that were rich in 161
sediment in the alpine Adige River [62]. Braided rivers have a high supply rate but a low 162
transport capacity, which leads to the deposition of material [63]. Downstream of artificial river 163
straightening higher river bank erosion occurs due to bedload deficits [57, 64], which explains 164
changes from anastomosing to braided channels. Anastomosing structures are more common 165
for lower slopes and non-confining thalwegs [55]. The main sediment transport is suspended 166
load [55]. Anastomosing channels have a relatively low ability to erode and transport sediment 167
[63] and therefore develop towards a natural equilibrium. 168
7
Side arms and islands 169
A marker of a natural and unspoiled bedload balance is a high morphological development 170
capacity leading to the formation of islands and side channels [57]. Usually, hydraulic forces 171
in channelized river sections are too high for island formation [65]. Islands reestablish when 172
river channelization is dismantled [65] and are therefore a sign of increasing structural 173
diversity. The dynamic equilibrium of a river is shown in small-scale changes, such as island 174
formations [66]. Side arms vanish during times of high sediment input due to siltation and are 175
restored through river management actions [67]. Therefore, they increase the structural 176
diversity of the river. 177
178
Scope of Present Study 179
The aim of this study is to assess the correlation between river management in the last 200 180
years and the changes in river courses by means of historic maps and digital orthophotos using 181
the Rur River as an example. Comparable studies showed that these types represent valuable 182
sources for information on river channel changes and that the period of analysis should be at 183
least 100 years [68]. Therefore, large-scale morphological changes over the last 200 years are 184
determined using the following indicators: river length, sinuosity, oxbow structures, sidearms 185
and number of islands. Due to the importance of the Technological Era after Gibling (2018) 186
[19], this period is subclassified into different river management phases. Understanding the 187
interaction between human influences and changes in fluvial systems from the past is the key 188
to sustainable river management in the future. 189
Therefore, periods of hydraulic development, including industrialization, in the study area, the 190
Rur River catchment (North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany), are compiled from the literature (cf. 191
Figure 2). The influence of these phases of water management on the Rur River can be 192
distinguished from each other via clearly formulated definitions. Afterwards, different historic 193
maps and morphodynamic indicators are used to assess whether those periods lead to specific 194
morphodynamic changes of the river within the specific Phases 1-5. Changes in river 195
8
straightening and structural diversity of the river are determined from changes in the indicators 196
by simple formulas. Differences between low mountainous regions and lowlands are also 197
considered to address the impact of geofactors. Finally, the transferability of the results to river 198
systems worldwide is discussed. 199
200
Study area 201
To investigate the long-term effects of anthropogenic influences on fluvial systems, especially 202
during industrialization, the Rur catchment (North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany) was chosen. 203
Changes in smaller catchments have direct effects on the fluvial system, and morphological 204
investigations are possible with higher spatial resolution [8, 69]. Hence, the Rur River 205
catchment is particularly suited since it is of a moderate size with 2,361 km2 [70]. It also extends 206
from the mid-mountainous area of the northern Eifel Mountains in its upper reach to the 207
lowlands of the Lower Rhine Embayment in its lower reach [71]. The springs of the 165 km-208
long Rur River are located in the raised bog area of the High Fens in Belgium at an altitude of 209
660 m above sea level [70]. In the Dutch city of Roermond, the Rur River flows into the Meuse 210
River at an elevation of 30 m above sea level [70]. Approximately 6.7% of the Rur catchment 211
is located in Belgium, approximately 4.6% is within Dutch territory, and almost 90% is located 212
in Germany [72]. The catchment area of the Rur River comprises 7% of the Meuse catchment 213
area, but it is the only river in the catchment that is significantly regulated by dams, which 214
balance the water levels [71]. 215
After approximately 10 river-km in Belgium, the upper reach of the Rur River flows through the 216
Eifel, a low mountain range in Germany [73]. The Eifel is one of the most rural areas in 217
Germany [74]. The catchment is wholly anthropogenic, marked by forestry in the highlands 218
and grassland and farmland on the plateaus [71]. The Lower Rhine Embayment is marked by 219
agriculture [75] and lignite open cast mining [71]. The largest cities in the catchment are 220
Aachen, Düren, Stolberg, Eschweiler and Heinsberg in Germany and Roermond in the 221
9
Netherlands, which are all located in the middle and lower catchments of the Rur River (cf. 222
Figure 3). 223
North Rhine-Westphalia has a comparatively humid but cool climate due to its proximity to the 224
Atlantic Ocean [71, 76]. Precipitation in the Eifel Mountain region is significantly higher than 225
that in the northern lowlands [71]. Due to its source region in Eifel, the year-round aquiferous 226
and dam-regulated Rur River has a rain- and snow-influenced discharge regime and is affected 227
by snowmelt from the low mountain range [43]. 228
Related to climatic characteristics, the river regime is pluvio-nival with the highest discharge in 229
winter and long periods of dry weather runoff in summer. Flood events occur mainly in spring 230
and winter due to prolonged rainfall or snowmelt and in summer due to storm events. Due to 231
the dams, the discharge of the Rur River is regulated; thus, runoff peaks are smaller [41, 43]. 232
In the last 200 years, northern Eifel has been characterized by urbanization, grassland cover 233
of arable land in the low mountain ranges and foothills, and reforestation measures in the Eifel 234
forests [77]. Today, the Rur River is strongly anthropogenically influenced. Private companies, 235
especially those in the paper industry, are still the largest water consumers in the Rur-Eifel 236
region to date [76, 78]. Most days of the year, various reservoirs in the upper catchment 237
withdraw a reduced amount of water, which is morphodynamically ineffective [78]. The largest 238
settlement on the Rur River in the low mountain range is Monschau, where massive bank 239
protection characterizes the river (cf. Figure 4 b). In the low mountain range, the Rur River is 240
categorized as a German river type 9, indicating a silicate, low mountain range river rich in fine 241
to coarse material. The course of the river today in the upper catchment is partially similar to 242
the ecological mission statement, which calls for stretched to slightly sinuous, natural sections 243
existing with numerous characteristic longitudinal benches, sliding slopes and riffle pool 244
sequences [79, 80]. Side channels would be characteristic but are missing [79]. In the 245
lowlands, the Rur River is categorized as a German river type 17, indicating a gravel-embossed 246
lowland river [73]. Immense hydraulic engineering between the 1940s and 1970s led to a 247
completely embossed straightened channel with strong incision [80]. Additionally, the flow is 248
regulated by dams, and a large number of transverse structures restrict continuity [80]. 249
10
Nevertheless, near-natural sections can be found in the lowlands between Schophoven and 250
Kirchberg and between Jülich and Linnich (cf. Figure 4 f)) [80]. 251
252
Focus Regions 253
The three focus regions cover one section each of the upper (A), middle (B) and lower (C) 254
reaches of the Rur catchment (cf. Figure 6, Table 1). Focus region A and focus region B cover 255
the Rur segments that are siliceous, low mountain rivers rich in fine to coarse material (German 256
river type 9). In focus region C, the Rur River is characterized as a gravel-embossed lowland 257
river (German river type 17). 258
Focus region A is located upstream from the dams starting at the end of the village of 259
Monschau. In the low Eifel mountain range around Monschau, large riverbed shifts are 260
topographically not possible. Therefore, characteristic waterway bends are used to mark the 261
start and end of the focus region. Focus region B, which is 20 km long, covers a typical 262
agricultural area. In this focus region, the city of Düren plays an important role in industrial 263
development in the Rur catchment. As a transshipment point for rafted wood in the Middle 264
Ages, it later became the main location for the paper industry, and afterwards, sugar cane 265
factories (cf. Figure 7). Focus region B is located downstream from today’s dams, and the Inde 266
tributary marks its lower boundary. The Wurm tributary marks the lower boundary of the 15 267
km-long focus region C. 268
Table 1: Characteristics of the focus regions. 269
mid. elevation slope
average discharge winter summer
[m.a.m.s.l.] [%] [m3/s] [m3/s]
Focus Region A 395 0.7 5.7 3.9
Focus Region B 100 0.3 12.0*
Focus Region C 30 0.1 26.7 17.8 * No detailed data for summer/winter available 270
271
11
Methods 272
To analyze the river course development over the last 200 years, historic maps and digital 273
orthophotos are evaluated in three focus regions (cf. Figure 5). 274
Map sheets were used that were previously georeferenced by the Cologne District Council. 275
Therefore, information on accuracy and rectification errors cannot be given. However, since 276
the analyses are based on quantitative data, for the purpose of this paper, an accurate cutoff 277
of the focus regions in the various maps is more important than the accuracy of the 278
georeferencing. To ensure that the focus regions in all time slices included identical river 279
sections, their start points and end points were defined with the help of historic monuments 280
and tributaries, which can be found in all historical maps and orthophotos. Details on the pixel 281
size and scale of different maps are shown in Table 2. 282
Table 2: Information regarding the pixel size and scale of the different maps used in this study. 283
Map Year of origin Size of 1 pixel [m x m]
Scale Techniques
Tranchot 1801-1828 1.5 x 1.5 1:25.000 Hand sketched
Uraufnahme 1836-1850 1.5 x 1.5 1:25.000 Hand sketched
Neuaufnahme 1891-1912 1.5 x 1.5 1:25.000 Chalcography and lithographic
limestone; First and topographic map
TK1937 1936-1945 1.5 x 1.5 1:25.000 /
DOP1998 1998 0.3 x 0.3 / Photogrammetric methods
DOP2003 2003 0.3 x 0.3 / Photogrammetric methods
DOP2010 2010 0.2 x 0.2 / Photogrammetric methods
DOP2013 2013 0.2 x 0.2 / Photogrammetric methods
DOP2016 2016 0.1 x 0.1 / Photogrammetric methods
DOP2019 2019 0.1 x 0.1 / Photogrammetric methods
284
285
Digitalization of river courses and resolution 286
12
River courses are digitalized manually with QGIS as line objects approximating the middle line 287
of the riverbed. Quality parameters for the accuracy of digitalization were introduced to make 288
the length of the digitalized river courses comparable. The accuracy of a line object can be 289
identified by its number of knots per length. Adding more knots leads to a better approximation 290
of curved elements but elongates the total length. With the criterion of 4 knots per 100 m, river 291
course comparability is ensured. The consistent distribution of knots is controlled visually using 292
the distance matrix function. For straightened river segments, a coarser resolution is sufficient, 293
whereas highly sinuous segments need more knots for an adequate approximation. 294
Additionally, morphodynamic structural elements of the Rur River are digitalized, which serve 295
as indicators for morphodynamic activity and river straightening (cf. Figure 8). For this study, 296
islands in the riverbed that are not part of a braided river section are digitalized as islands. 297
They can quickly obtain vegetation [66] and are more permanent than bars [81]. Large islands 298
that divide the channel into two approximately equal anabranches, causing the river corridor 299
to widen, are not marked as islands but as anastomosing channels. Anastomosing channels 300
are multithread channels in which the outflow is divided into a multitude of watercourses [59]. 301
Braided channel structures are characterized by intertwined blurred shorelines and variable 302
bedload deposits in the riverbed [59]. Braid bars are not vegetated [82]. Although anabranching 303
channels can be braided [81], in this study, braided single-channel rivers and anabranching 304
rivers are distinguished [83]. Oxbows are either permanently connected to the watercourse or 305
separated former river sections [84], and hence are constantly or temporarily flowing through 306
former watercourses [84]. Side arms are permanently flowing side waters, whose start and end 307
are attached to the main course. Side arms differ from anabranches since they are smaller 308
than the main channel. 309
Hand- sketched historic maps at a low resolution and vegetation in digital orthophotos lead to 310
difficulties in digitalization, as also recognized by Roccati et al. [85]. The transition between 311
islands and short sections of single braided channel or two anastomosing channel structures 312
is fluent. Therefore, some structural elements are digitalized with a possible alternative (cf. 313
Table 3). 314
13
Table 3: Decision matrix for digitalizing structural elements 315
Characteristics
structure (possible) alternative
channel river
corridor island(s)
no. of channels enlarged
flow distribution widening size number vegetated
1
yes - no small more than 1
no braided river island
maybe - no small to medium
1 no island braided river (beginning/end of section)
no - no maybe island
1 or 2 yes - maybe medium to large
1 yes island anastomosing river
more than 1
yes evenly
maybe medium to large
1 or more
yes anastomosing river
island(s)
yes large 1 or more
yes anastomosing river
2 -
uneven yes large 1 yes side arm anastomosing river
definitely uneven
yes large 1 yes side arm
316
For the analysis, the first choice for the type of structural element is considered with a weight 317
of 0.8, and the alternative is considered with a weight of 0.2. From the digitalized channels and 318
its structural elements, indicators are computed for each time slice according to Table 4. 319
Inaccuracies reaching 20 m in historical maps of the 19th century lead to a variation in the 320
results of less than 0.2%. Focus regions are not affected by sheet lines or map edges. 321
Therefore, the results can be specified without an error range. 322
Computing the change in the total river length of the Rur River in the three focus regions, 323
today’s river length is compared to the corresponding length from historic maps or orthophotos. 324
A change of 0.0 means that the total river length has not changed in comparison to 2019, 325
whereby a change of 0.1 means that the river course has been 10% longer in a previous time 326
slice compared to today. A change of -0.1 means that the river course was 10% shorter in 327
previous times. With this normalized approach, focus regions can be compared with each other 328
in addition to covering unequally long river sections. 329
14
To calculate the river sinuosity, the thalweg for each focus region is computed using a digital 330
elevation model (DEM) with a grid resolution of 25 meters (DEM25). By using a relatively 331
coarse DEM, it is ensured that the thalweg and not the river coarse is computed (e.g., [86]). 332
333
Table 4: Morphologic indicators for channel changes and their meaning. DEM25=digital elevation model with a grid 334
resolution of 25 meters, DOP= digital orthophoto. 335
INDICATOR DESCRIPTION MEANING
CHANGE IN TOTAL
RIVER LENGTH
Total river length of the Rur River
in a focus region compared to
today’s river length, estimated
from the DOP 2019
Decrease in the river length is a sign for artificial
straightening [87]
SINUOSITY Total river length of the Rur River
in a focus region divided by the
thalweg [88–92], computed with
the DEM 25
Reduced sinuosity often is a sign for river
straightening [54, 93], an increase is a sign for
tending towards a new equilibrium [87] but can
also occur when the flow velocity increases [55].
RELATIVE LENGTH
OF CHANNEL
STRUCTURES
Total length of channel structures
in a focus region divided by the
river length in the focus region
An increase in the channel structures is a
reaction to changes in the sediment load and/or
changes in the river slope [87], often due to
straightening [94]
- ANASTOMOSIN
G CHANNEL
… for anastomosing channels Anabranching rivers are often caused by flood-
dominated flow regimes [63, 83]
- BRAIDED
CHANNEL
… for braided river structures in
single channels
Sign for excess bedload, coarse bottom
substrate and high valley bottom slope [57, 95],
instable state [96]
- SIDE ARM … for side arms Occur at flood events as a reaction to hydraulic
stress; today side arms are preserved as
habitats [97]
RELATIVE NUMBER
OF OXBOWS
Number of oxbows in a focus
region divided by the river length
in km
Oxbows as channel cut-offs are a sign for river
course shortening [55]
RELATIVE NUMBER
OF ISLANDS
Number of islands in a focus
region divided by the river length
in km
Changes in islands indicate recent flood events,
island formation is a sign for coarse sediment
input [55]
336
Indicators are used to evaluate the development of river straightening (Eq. I). Additionally, 337
whether the structural diversity of rivers is increasing is evaluated (Eq. II). If structural 338
development is driven by fluvial processes it is very likely self-sustaining [98]. 339
340
15
The increase in river straightening between two time slices is defined as: 341 ∆𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔= −∆𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 + ∆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 + ∆𝑂𝑥𝑏𝑜𝑤𝑠 (Eq. I) 342
With: ∆𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 Change in sinuosity between two time slices; indicator for river 343
straightening according to [54, 58, 93] 344 ∆𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 Change in length of braided channel sections between two time slices; 345
indicator for river straightening according to [58, 63, 95] 346 ∆𝑂𝑥𝑏𝑜𝑤𝑠 Change in the number of oxbows between two time slices; indicator for 347
river straightening according to [55] 348
349
The increase in structural diversity between two time slices is defined as: 350 ∆𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦= ∆𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑠 + ∆𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 + ∆𝐼𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 (Eq. II) 351
With: ∆𝑆𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝐴𝑟𝑚𝑠 Change in length of side arms between two time slices; indicator for 352
river straightening according to [97] 353 ∆𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 Change in length of anastomosing channels between two time slices; 354
indicator for river straightening according to [63] 355 ∆𝐼𝑠𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 Change in the number of islands between two time slices; indicator for 356
river straightening according to [55] 357
358
To evaluate whether the Rur River experienced significant straightening during the Industrial 359
Phase (2), the increase in river straightening (Eq. I) is evaluated in each of the five phases. A 360
positive value means, that the river has experienced straightening during a specific period. A 361
negative value means, that straight river sections have been reduced. Additionally, one 362
assumes an increase in structural diversity in the Phase of EU-WFD (5). Therefore, as a 363
second outcome value, the increase or decrease in structural diversity within the five phases 364
is evaluated. 365
366
Results 367
First, changes in river length and sinuosity in the three focus regions are evaluated. In focus 368
region A, the river course was 2.6% shorter in the early 19th century compared to today, 369
16
meaning that a small river elongation has occurred (cf. Figure 9). The river section elongated 370
from 14.44 km to 14.82 km. In focus region B, a river course shortening of approximately 20% 371
has occurred during the same time period. The length of the river section changed from 23.08 372
km to 19.20 km between the early 19th century and 2019. In focus region C, the largest river 373
course shortening of approximately 43% has occurred since the early 19th century. Here, the 374
length of the river section changed from 19.05 km to 13.29 km. Since the 21st century, the 375
length of the river courses has remained static in all three focus regions. 376
Overall, the total river length changed the least in focus region A in the low mountain area. In 377
the lowlands, greater changes in total river length occurred, whereby the greatest change 378
occurred in focus region C, where the Rur River is categorized as a gravel-embossed lowland 379
river. 380
The sinuosity in focus region A slightly increased from 1.11 to 1.14 over the last 200 years (cf. 381
Figure 9). According to the criteria of Brice [92], the Rur River in focus region A is classified as 382
sinuous in all five phases. In focus region B, the sinuosity dropped from 1.02 to 0.85, meaning 383
that the main course of the river is shorter than the thalweg predicted by the DEM25. The 384
largest decreases in sinuosity occurred during the Pre-Industrial (1) and Agricultural (3) 385
Phases. With a sinuosity smaller than 1.06, the Rur River in focus region B has been straight 386
over the last 200 years [92]. The Rur River in focus region C changed its sinuosity from 1.30 387
to 0.91. Therefore, the river course changed from meandering to straight [92]. Since the early 388
21st century, river sinuosities have stabilized with a very slight tendency to increase. 389
Braided channels only occur in small areas, whereby anastomosing channels can be found 390
more often (cf. Figure 10 a). In the Pre-Industrial Phase (1), the length of anastomosing 391
channels increased from 1.5% (approx. 0.2 km of additional channel length) of the total river 392
length in focus region A to 3.5% (approx. 0.5 km). During the Industrial Phase (2), 393
anastomosing channels almost vanished (approx. 0.03 km), but some braided river structures 394
occurred (approx. 0.04 km). Since the Phase of EU-WFD (5), anastomosing channels are 395
expanding again (back to approx. 0.2 km). In focus region B, anastomosing channels had 396
significant lengths during the Pre-Industrial Phase (1) (approx. 6.9 km). During Phase 2, the 397
17
length of the additional channel declined to approx. 0.6 km. However, braided channel sections 398
were at their longest, with approx. 1.7 km. Since the Agricultural Phase (3), anastomosing 399
channels have expanded slightly (approximately 1 km of additional channel length), and since 400
the early 21st century, braided channel sections have disappeared again. 401
Side arms are not present in focus region A, which can be explained by the steep thalweg (cf. 402
Figure 10 b). Only one anastomosing channel is digitalized with a “side arm” as an alternative 403
in early orthophotos (1998 and 2003). Later, a third channel occurs, marking the section as an 404
anastomosing river. Due to dense vegetation, the channel width cannot be determined. In 405
focus region B, the total length of the side arms decreased during the Industrial Phase (2) from 406
>1 to 0.6 km. Today, side arms total approximately 2 km in focus region B. In focus region C, 407
side arms were of significant length during Phase 2. Four side arms had a total length of 408
approximately 2.6 km. Today, only one anastomosing structure is digitalized with a “side arm” 409
as an alternative. 410
In focus region A, oxbows rarely occur, with less than one oxbow per river-km; however, they 411
increased in the late 20th century, when two small oxbows occurred (cf. Figure 10 c). In focus 412
region B, oxbows occur more often. In the 19th century, 12 to 48 oxbows were counted in hand-413
sketched maps. After Phase 2, the number of oxbows per km dropped from approximately 2.0 414
to 0.5 with a decreasing tendency to the present . Since the 21st century, approximately five 415
oxbows have been counted in orthophotos. In focus region C, a maximum of 24 oxbows 416
occurred in Phase 2. Afterwards, numbers have been declining, reaching three oxbows today. 417
Overall, the number of islands per river-km has decreased in the last 200 years in focus region 418
A from four to one island (cf. Figure 10 d). In focus region B, the average number of islands 419
varies heavily between 12 islands (map of Tranchot) and one island (DOP2010). After a 420
decrease in islands during Phase 1 in focus region C from six to two, the number of islands 421
stayed low. In focus region C, between three and one islands were counted in the first 422
topographical map and orthophotos. 423
18
The greatest changes in river sinuosity occur at the Rur River in focus region C during Phases 424
2 and 3 (cf. Figure 11). In focus region B, the decrease in river sinuosity is almost as significant 425
as that in focus region C. The largest changes in braided and anastomosing channel sections 426
occur in focus region B. During Phases 1 and 2, anastomosing channels decreased and 427
braided river structures increased. During Phase 3, both braided and anastomosing channels 428
as well as the sinuosity of the Rur River decreased in focus region B. The number of oxbows 429
greatly varied during Phase 1, Phase 2 and Phase 3 in focus regions B and C. Additionally, 430
the number of islands varied during this time, but for both indicators, a significant increase 431
during the Industrial Phase (2) can be observed. Since the general focus shifted towards 432
improving the water quality and sustainability in river management (Phases 4 and 5), the 433
number of oxbows slightly decreased and the number of islands slightly increased in focus 434
region B, whereas both small-scale indicators decreased in focus region C. 435
With these indicators (cf. Figure 11), using equations I and II, the development of river 436
straightening and structural diversity in the five phases of river management can be evaluated 437
(cf. Figure 12). In contrast to the other two focus regions, no river straightening is observed in 438
focus region A. Additionally, changes in structural diversity are very small in focus region A. In 439
the Pre-Industrial Phase (1), river straightening and structural diversity decreased in focus 440
region B and increased in focus Region A. During the Industrial Phase (2), both river 441
straightening and structural diversity increased in focus regions B and C, which are both 442
located in the lowlands of the Rur catchment. 443
During the Agricultural Phase (3), developments were similar to those in the Pre-Industrial 444
Phase, except structural diversity further decreased. Since the 1980s (Phase of Ecological 445
Improvement (4) and Phase of EU-WFD (5)), river straightening has decreased, but structural 446
diversity has only increased for focus region B. 447
The Rur River was only regulated in small local sections before 1950 [99]. Between 1962 and 448
1970, larger sections from Düren to Heinsberg were channelized, leading to an artificial 449
shortening of the river course [42, 100]. 450
19
451
Discussion 452
The results show the development of river length, sinuosity and morphodynamic indicators 453
over five phases of river management during the last 200 years. River length and sinuosity are 454
direct indicators of river straightening. However, the validity of indicators derived from 455
morphodynamic structural elements needs to be discussed, since they are dependent on 456
geological and climatic factors and river type. 457
458
River development in the Rur catchment 459
River straightening 460
In comparison to focus region A in the low mountainous area, focus regions B and C in the 461
lowlands experienced significantly more changes over the last 200 years (cf. Figure 13 e). 462
River straightening, which leads to channel shortening, is often connected with land 463
reclamation for agricultural activities. A study from Brookes shows that river straightening is 464
less likely to be used when valleys are too steep for farmland [87], as is the case in the low 465
mountainous area of focus region A. In addition, the small changes in sinuosity and river 466
braiding in focus region A in comparison to focus regions B and C indicate that the narrow 467
valleys lead to a more stable river morphology [82, 101]. 468
Changes in sinuosity from 1.02 to 0.85 in focus region B, which is characterized by farmland, 469
indicate that the river has experienced artificial straightening. During the Pre-Industrial Phase 470
(1), the river length in focus region B significantly decreased, although river regulation works 471
started more than 100 years later [99]. This leads to the theory, that intense agricultural 472
activities to make fertile floodplains usable and reduce flooding led to river straightening during 473
this phase. In addition to agriculture, local riverbed straightening around bridges is common 474
[102], which means that an expanding infrastructure leads to river straightening. A 475
considerable expansion of industrial and urban settlements in focus region B (cf. Figure 7) is 476
another explanation for river straightening in this area. 477
20
With a decreasing sinuosity and assuming an increase in oxbow and braided river structures 478
are signs of river straightening, the Industrial Phase straightened the river. In addition, 479
structural changes over large areas for agriculture led to river straightening in the lowlands. 480
Some of these changes can be explained by large-scale river regulation between 1962 and 481
1970 in the middle and lower reaches [42, 100]. 482
Structural Diversity 483
During the Industrial Phase (2), the number of islands increased, which can be explained by a 484
higher sediment yield due to land clearance and deforestation for uprising industries [42]. The 485
significant drop in islands during Agricultural Phase (3) in focus regions B and C can be 486
explained by dam construction in the 20th century and the resulting regulation of discharge in 487
the Rur River. In particular, the systems of three dams, as they are installed in the Rur River, 488
can trap nearly all inflowing sediments [103]. In addition, the land use change, which was 489
connected with land reclamation, explains the decrease in side arms and oxbows during the 490
Agricultural Phase (3) in focus regions B and C (cf. Figure 13). Since the general focus shifted 491
towards improving the water quality and sustainability in river management in the late 20th 492
century, the number of oxbows slightly decreased and the number of islands slightly increased 493
in focus region B, whereas both small-scale indicators decreased in focus region C. Regarding 494
the Agricultural Phase within the Technological Era according to [19] one needs to keep in 495
mind that in the early Anthropocene, land consumption for farming was considerably higher 496
[104]. Hence, morphodynamic changes in the Agricultural Phase according to this study very 497
likely intensified during the early Anthropocene. 498
In the 20th century, the reduction in baseflow levels due to the installation of hydroelectric power 499
plants in many rivers led to the siltation of many side arms [105]. In addition, the increasing 500
urbanization from the 20th century onwards has also led to increased sediment inputs into the 501
waters at the beginning of urbanization due to land plot clearing [93]. If urban structures are 502
largely developed, the sediment input is reduced again, but the hydrological retention of the 503
area is greatly reduced [93]. At the end of the 20th century, restoration of side arms began to 504
create habitats [105]. 505
21
Contrary to expectations, structural diversity does not increase significantly in the Phase of 506
EU-WFD (5). On the one hand the Phase of Ecological Improvement and the Phase of EU-507
WFD are much shorter than previous ones, and therefore, the river has less time to develop. 508
On the other hand, human interference on the Rur River changed key drivers such as 509
hydrology through damming and land use. Geology, biology and hydrology can be considered 510
key drivers of river morphodynamics [101]. These drivers balance each other, which explains 511
why anabranching channels are stabilized by vegetation, jet hydrology has only a minor 512
impact, and braided river sections are not influenced by vegetation but rather by high stream 513
power [101, 106]. When a key driver is anthropogenically over-pronounced, natural river 514
recovery will be slow unless the impact can be balanced through (artificial) river restoration 515
[101]. Filling incised channels or reintroducing the establishment of protected areas for beavers 516
are two examples of countervailing measures [3, 101] restoring “wilder” river sections. For the 517
last two decades, beavers have repopulated northwest Germany [107]. The repopulation of 518
beavers in the Rur catchment is carried out and accompanied by local institutions. Today, 519
numerous beavers are again living on the Rur River and especially on its tributaries [108]. 520
Nevertheless, the analysis of orthophotos did not show evidence for these animals in the focus 521
regions, and morphodynamic effects of the beaver population could not be observed in this 522
work. Regardless, the repopulation holds chances for future river development [109]. Today, 523
“controlled rewilding” on suitable river sections is promoted to create valuable habitats with 524
native vegetation [110]. In the 19th and 20th centuries on the Wurm River, a main tributary of 525
the Rur River, water mills from medieval times were abandoned [111, 112]. When abandoned 526
weirs were partially removed, mill ditches were left to “rewild” [111]. This phase of “natural 527
rewilding” was very local and soon superimposed by institutional river regulation. Thus, we 528
expect that “controlled” or “natural rewilding” will be used for river restoration in the future. . 529
Future studies should be conducted to determine the effects of rewilding on river morphology. 530
531
European transferability of the concept of the five phases of river management 532
22
To transfer the findings to other river systems, the transferability of the five phases of river 533
management, which apply to the Rur catchment, needs to be discussed. Therefore, the five 534
phases of river management in the Rur catchment are compared to the history in catchments 535
with increasingly strong industrial development in the last 200 years. Furthermore, findings 536
from recent GIS-based studies of anthropogenically influenced development on rivers in the 537
Technological Era are compared to this study to find generalities. 538
Generally, the period from the late eighteenth century to World War I is declared a phase of 539
European industrialization, but the growth rate varies greatly between different countries [113]. 540
Around the fourth to fifth decades of the nineteenth century, the phase of economic preparation 541
was completed for countries in middle Europe, and their industrial development sped up [113]. 542
River straightening and the increase in structural diversity on the Rur River are explained by 543
the catchment-specific development of the last 200 years. 544
In Poland, a preparation phase for industrialization took place in the mid-19th century [114], 545
approximately 100 years behind the development in the Rur catchment. The landscape of the 546
Vistula catchment has been influenced since the 13th century through water mills and 547
settlements [17]. Over the last 200 years, landscape changes, differences in the use of process 548
water and drainage, as well as the construction of infrastructure have impacted the 549
development of the Vistula River [17]. Since the early 20th century, river channelization and 550
straightening for shipping have intensified in Poland [115]. Similar to the Rur catchment, the 551
Skawa River was not channelized for navigation, but industrialization led to irreversible 552
changes in river morphology [116]. After World War II, industrial development in Poland sped 553
up, so the last 75 years can be viewed as the main part of the Industrial Phase [114]. 554
Additionally, the demand for process water was still growing 25 years ago [117]. In Poland, 555
industrial development is accompanied by the construction of small water mills as local and 556
independent energy sources [118]. After intense river straightening on river systems in 557
northern Poland in the last century, the water quality decreased [119]. Since the early 21st 558
century, the situation has improved due to oxbow and old arm restoration and its maintenance 559
23
[119]. This development is comparable to the Phase of Ecological Improvement and the Phase 560
of EU-WFD in the Rur catchment. 561
For the Skawa River, which is a mountain tributary of the Vistula River, five digitalized maps 562
from the mid-19th century to 2016 were evaluated to explain the human impact on the river 563
[116]. Similar to the Rur River in its upper reach, the Skawa River is a gravelly embossed river 564
[116]. Witkowski evaluated sinuosity, the braiding and anastomosing index, as well as the 565
average number of mid-channel forms and the average distance of the outer banks of the river 566
channel [116]. Although indicators and proceedings slightly differ from the present study, the 567
findings are very comparable. In the early 20th century, agriculture and settlements in the 568
floodplain of the Skawa River led to the construction of embankments [116]. Between 1864 569
and 1911, islands decreased, and the bed narrowed, meaning that anastomosing structures 570
decreased [116]. On the Rur River, a drop in islands also correlates with increasing settlements 571
and agriculture in the floodplains (cf. Figure 10). In the mid-20th century, the riverbed of the 572
Skawa River was completely channelized [116]. Since the 21st century, more anabranching 573
structures have occurred, and sinuosity has increased again after the removal of riverbank 574
protections on the Skawa River [116]. The channel width has increased since the late 1970s. 575
These developments overlap with the Phase of Ecological Improvement and the Phase of EU-576
WFD of the Rur River. 577
This means that the anthropogenic influence on the rivers is slowly adapting overall between 578
European countries in moderate climatic zones. In summary, the examples show that the 579
development of river management in the last 200 years is comparable in Europe. 580
Worldwide context 581
Common anthropogenic drivers of morphological changes in rivers worldwide are land cover 582
and land use changes, dam construction, bank protection and instream mining [120]. In the 583
early days of Industrial Phase small-scale water mills were an important energy source [121]. 584
During the peak time of the Industrial Phase, rivers played a primary role in transportation, 585
which led to the building of various canals [122–124]. Over the past 150 years, the Mississippi 586
24
River has been straightened mostly for navigation [66, 125]. At the same time, navigable canals 587
in France extended [58]. In England in the early 19th century, canals expanded, providing a 588
cheap way to transport coal [126]. The Rhine, Rhône and Danube Rivers were also 589
channelized in the 19th century [127]. Swedish hydropower developed after World War I for 590
industrial purposes, which led to river regulation [128] 591
Although the Rur River was not channelized for shipment, it straightened during the Industrial 592
Revolution. Therefore, in industrialization periods , the impact of human activities straightens 593
rivers, either by direct channel construction or by overall anthropogenic influences on the river. 594
Large river course structures such as anastomosing structures are not dependent on a certain 595
climate type [63], so it can be assumed that river straightening during an industrial phase 596
occurs independently from climate conditions and discharge regime. Nevertheless, valley 597
configurations, base slope and sediment input are important for the formation of structures, 598
such as braided and anastomosing sections and islands. 599
600
601
Conclusions 602
In this study, the specific human impact of different time periods on river courses during the 603
last 200 years is investigated using the example of the Rur River (Germany, North Rhine-604
Westphalia), which is a typical European upland to lowland river. 605
Five historic phases of industrial development between 1801 and 2019 can be distinguished: 606
1. Pre- Industrial Phase (Mid-18th – mid-19th century ) 607
2. Industrial Phase (Mid-19th century – WWI ) 608
3. Agricultural Phase (After WWI – 1980s ) 609
4. Phase of Ecological Improvement (1980s – 2000) 610
5. Phase of EU-WFD (From 2000 to the present ) 611
25
These phases correlate with changes in the river course, which can be explained by 612
corresponding human interventions. The changes are detected by means of the following 613
morphodynamic indicators sinuosity, anastomosing and braided river structures, side arms, 614
oxbows and islands. Changes in river straightening and structural diversity are determined 615
from these indicators by two simple equations. 616
The morphodynamic indicators show significant differences between focus regions in the low 617
mountain range and in the lowlands. In total, focus regions in the lowlands are more strongly 618
characterized by changes over the last 200 years compared to focus regions in the low 619
mountain area. In this context, the sinuosity or river braiding indicators show that the 620
mountainous valley configurations lead to a more stable river morphology. 621
The Industrial Phase, in contrast to the Pre- Industrial Phase, was characterized by intense 622
river straightening, indicated by decreasing sinuosity and increasing numbers of oxbows and 623
braided river structures. The Agricultural Phase led to river straightening in the lowlands due 624
to land reclamation. Both the Phase of Ecological Improvement and the Phase of EU-WFD 625
show no significant changes so far, which can be explained by the short time frame. 626
A combination of historical maps and digital orthophotos together with historical documents is 627
very well suited for comparable investigations. 628
The comparison of historical periods in different regions generally shows a global transferability 629
of the concept of the five river management phases. Since the different periods are to be 630
understood as cultural epochs, their starting and ending points may vary in time and space, 631
depending on factors such as wealth disparity or legislation. Therefore, they are still applicable 632
to other study areas, especially in regions characterized by an earlier development stage of 633
industrialization. 634
To complement this study, further research in regions with strongly differing historical frame 635
conditions and physiographic differences is needed. The key to sustainable river management 636
in the future is understanding the interaction between fluvial systems and human intervention 637
26
in the past. Thus, the findings and the concept of this study can be used for further research 638
and investigation. 639
640
641
Declarations 642
643
Authors' contributions 644
SW and VE wrote the first draft of the manuscript. All authors contributed to specific aspects 645
of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. 646
647
Authors' information (optional) 648
1 Institute of Hydraulic Engineering and Water Resources Management, RWTH Aachen 649
University, Mies‑van‑der‑Rohe‑Straße 17, 52056 Aachen, Germany. 650
2 Department of Geography, RWTH Aachen University, Wüllnerstraße 5b, Aachen 52064, 651
Germany. 652
653
Acknowledgments 654
We sincerely thank the editor and two anonymous reviewers who improved the manuscript. 655
656
Competing interests 657
The authors declare that they have no competing interests. 658
659
Availability of data and material 660
Not applicable. 661
662
27
Consent for publication 663
Not applicable. 664
665
Ethics approval and consent to participate 666
Not applicable. 667
668
Funding 669
This work is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) – under project number 670
418362535 671
672
673
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139. Geobasis NRW 2018 Basis DLM (2018): Digitales Landschaftsmodel (DLM). dl-de/by-2-0. 1026
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statistical-units/countries. Accessed 20 Oct 2020 1031
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european/corine-land-cover/clc2018. Accessed 19 Oct 2020 1033
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34
Figure captions 1036
Figure 1: a) Tipping points of human development, b) Classification of the five phases of river 1037
management in the Rur River catchment into phases of human impacts on river courses 1038
worldwide; Source: own illustration modified after [19] 1039
1040
Figure 2: The fve phases of river management in the Rur catchment over the last 200 years, 1041
definition and characteristics; Source: own illustration, data according to [41–43, 45–48, 77, 1042
129–135] 1043
1044
Figure 3: Overview of the Rur catchment and its location in Europe; Source: own illustration; 1045
DEM: [136]; river system: [137, 138]; towns: [139]; country borders: [140] 1046
1047
Figure 4: a) Upper reach near Monschau, b) Bank protection in Monschau City, c) Upper reach 1048
in focus area A, d) Rur Dam, e) Middle reach in focus area B in Düren city, and f) Example of 1049
a near-natural section in the lowlands before Düren; Source: own illustration 1050
1051
Figure 5: Focus region; Source: own illustration; DEM: [136]; River system and catchment 1052
area: [137, 138]; towns: [139]; country borders: [140]; German river type: [71] 1053
1054
Figure 6: Impressions of the Rur River from the three focus regions. a) Rur River below 1055
Monschau, b) Rur River near Düren, and c) Rur River near Heinsberg; Source: own illustration 1056
1057
Figure 7: Development of industry and land use in the Rur catchment from 1850 to today; 1058
Source: own illustration; River system and catchment area: [137, 138]; towns: [139]; Corine 1059
land use data: [77, 141] 1060
1061
Figure 8: Objects of digitalized river courses; Source: own illustration; Criteria according to [59, 1062
83, 84] 1063
1064
Figure 9: Changes in river length and sinuosity in the three focus regions of the Rur River over 1065
its five phases of river management in the last 200 years; Source: own illustration 1066
1067
Figure 10: Change inindicators over the five phases of river management in the last 200 years 1068
in the three focus regions of the Rur River, a) changes in the length of anastomosing and 1069
braided river structures in comparison to the total river length, b) changes in the length of side 1070
arms in comparison to the total river length, c) changes in the average nuber of oxbows per 1071
river-km, and d) changes in the average number of islands per river-km; Source: own 1072
illustration 1073
1074
Figure 11: Development of indicators for morphodynamic activity and river straightening in the 1075
three focus regions over the five phases of water management in the last 200 years; Source: 1076
own illustration 1077
1078
Figure 12: Qualitative development of all indicators for river straightening and natural 1079
morphological activity after the five historical phases of the last 200 years; Source: own 1080
illustration 1081
1082
35
Figure 13: Changes in river courses in the three focus regions of the Rur River over the five 1083
phases of water management in the last 200 years. a) development of agricultural use of 1084
floodplains in the three focus regions, b) development of industrial use of floodplains in the 1085
three focus regions, c) main demand in the different phases of water management, d) 1086
amendment of the German Federal Water Act, and e) river course development of a 1087
representative section of the focus regions; Source: own illustration 1088
Figures
Figure 1
a) Tipping points of human development, b) Classi�cation of the �ve phases of river management in theRur River catchment into phases of human impacts on river courses worldwide; Source: own illustrationmodi�ed after [19]
Figure 2
The �ve phases of river management in the Rur catchment over the last 200 years, de�nition andcharacteristics; Source: own illustration, data according to [41–43, 45–48, 77, 129–135]
Figure 3
Overview of the Rur catchment and its location in Europe; Source: own illustration; DEM: [136]; riversystem: [137, 138]; towns: [139]; country borders: [140]
Figure 4
a) Upper reach near Monschau, b) Bank protection in Monschau City, c) Upper reach in focus area A, d)Rur Dam, e) Middle reach in focus area B in Düren city, and f) Example of a near-natural section in thelowlands before Düren; Source: own illustration
Figure 5
Focus region; Source: own illustration; DEM: [136]; River system and catchment area: [137, 138]; towns:[139]; country borders: [140]; German river type: [71]
Figure 6
Impressions of the Rur River from the three focus regions. a) Rur River below Monschau, b) Rur River nearDüren, and c) Rur River near Heinsberg; Source: own illustration
Figure 7
Development of industry and land use in the Rur catchment from 1850 to today; Source: own illustration;River system and catchment area: [137, 138]; towns: [139]; Corine land use data: [77, 141]
Figure 8
Objects of digitalized river courses; Source: own illustration; Criteria according to [59, 83, 84]
Figure 9
Changes in river length and sinuosity in the three focus regions of the Rur River over its �ve phases ofriver management in the last 200 years; Source: own illustration
Figure 10
Change inindicators over the �ve phases of river management in the last 200 years in the three focusregions of the Rur River, a) changes in the length of anastomosing and braided river structures incomparison to the total river length, b) changes in the length of side arms in comparison to the total riverlength, c) changes in the average nuber of oxbows per river-km, and d) changes in the average number ofislands per river-km; Source: own illustration
Figure 11
Development of indicators for morphodynamic activity and river straightening in the three focus regionsover the �ve phases of water management in the last 200 years; Source: own illustration
Figure 12
Qualitative development of all indicators for river straightening and natural morphological activity afterthe �ve historical phases of the last 200 years; Source: own illustration
Figure 13
Changes in river courses in the three focus regions of the Rur River over the �ve phases of watermanagement in the last 200 years. a) development of agricultural use of �oodplains in the three focusregions, b) development of industrial use of �oodplains in the three focus regions, c) main demand in thedifferent phases of water management, d) amendment of the German Federal Water Act, and e) rivercourse development of a representative section of the focus regions; Source: own illustration