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TheOldTestamentisthefirstsectionoftheChristianBible,basedprimarilyupontheHebrewBible,acollectionofreligiouswritingsbyancientIsraelites.[1]ItisthecounterparttotheNewTestament,theChristianBible'ssecondsection.TheOldTestamentcanonvariesbetweenChristiandenominationsProtestantsacceptonlythebooksfoundinthecanonoftheHebrewBible,dividingtheminto39books,whileCatholic,EasternOrthodox,andOrientalOrthodoxchurchesacceptsomewhatlargercollectionsofwritings.[2]

TheOldTestamentconsistsofmanydistinctbookswritten,compiled,andeditedbyvariousauthors[3]overaperiodofcenturies.ItisnotentirelyclearatwhatpointtheparametersoftheHebrewBible,thebasisfortheChristianOldTestament,werefixed.SomescholarshaveopinedthatthecanonoftheHebrewBiblewasestablishedalreadybyaboutthe3rdcenturyBC.[4][5]ThedevelopmentofthevariousformsoftheChristianOldTestament,atanyrate,continuedforcenturies.

ThebooksoftheOldTestamentcanbebroadlydividedintoseveralsections:1)thefirstfivebooksorPentateuch(Torah)2)thehistorybookstellingthehistoryoftheIsraelites,fromtheirconquestofCanaantotheirdefeatandexileinBabylon3)thepoeticand"Wisdom"booksdealing,invariousforms,withquestionsofgoodandevilintheworld4)andthebooksofthebiblicalprophets,warningoftheconsequencesofturningawayfromGod.

Contents

1Content1.1Table

2Composition3Themes4Fromscripturetocanon:formationoftheOldTestament

4.1Greek,LatinandProtestantOldTestaments4.1.1GreekBible4.1.2LatinBible

4.2Otherversions5Literaryevaluations6ChristiantheologyandtheOldTestament7Seealso8Notes9References10Bibliography11Furtherreading12Externallinks

Content



TheOldTestamentcontains39(Protestant)or46(Catholic)ormore(Orthodoxandother)books,divided,verybroadly,intothePentateuch(Torah),thehistoricalbooks,the"wisdom"booksandtheprophets.[6]

Table

ThetableusesthespellingsandnamespresentinmoderneditionsoftheBible,suchastheNewAmericanBibleRevisedEdition,RevisedStandardVersionandEnglishStandardVersion.Thespellingandnamesinboththe160910DouayOldTestament(andinthe1582RheimsNewTestament)andthe1749revisionbyBishopChalloner(theeditioncurrentlyinprintusedbymanyCatholics,andthesourceoftraditionalCatholicspellingsinEnglish)andintheSeptuagintdifferfromthosespellingsandnamesusedinmoderneditionswhicharederivedfromtheHebrewMasoretictext.[a]

FortheOrthodoxcanon,Septuaginttitlesareprovidedinparentheseswhenthesedifferfromthoseeditions.FortheCatholiccanon,theDouaictitlesareprovidedinparentheseswhenthesedifferfromthoseeditions.Likewise,theKingJamesVersionreferencessomeofthesebooksbythetraditionalspellingwhenreferringtothemintheNewTestament,suchas"Esaias"(forIsaiah).

InthespiritofecumenismmorerecentCatholictranslations(e.g.theNewAmericanBible,JerusalemBible,andecumenicaltranslationsusedbyCatholics,suchastheRevisedStandardVersionCatholicEdition)usethesame"standardized"(KingJamesVersion)spellingsandnamesasProtestantBibles(e.g.1ChroniclesasopposedtotheDouaic1Paralipomenon,12Samueland12Kingsinsteadof14Kings)inthosebookswhichareuniversallyconsideredcanonical,theprotocanonicals.

TheTalmud(theJewishcommentaryonthescriptures)inBavaBatra14bgivesadifferentorderforthebooksinNevi'imandKetuvim.ThisorderisalsocitedinMishnehTorahHilchotSeferTorah7:15.TheorderofthebooksoftheTorahareuniversalthroughalldenominationsofJudaismandChristianity.

Thedisputedbooks,includedinonecanonbutnotinothers,areoftencalledtheBiblicalapocrypha,atermthatissometimesusedspecificallytodescribethebooksintheCatholicandOrthodoxcanonsthatareabsentfromtheJewishMasoreticTextandmostmodernProtestantBibles.Catholics,followingtheCanonofTrent(1546),describethesebooksasdeuterocanonical,whileGreekOrthodoxChristians,followingtheSynodofJerusalem(1672),usethetraditionalnameofanagignoskomena,meaning"thatwhichistoberead."TheyarepresentinafewhistoricProtestantversionstheGermanLutherBibleincludedsuchbooks,asdidtheEnglish1611KingJamesVersion.[b]

Emptytablecellsindicatethatabookisabsentfromthatcanon.

Tanakh(HebrewBible)(24books)[c]

BooksinboldarepartoftheKetuvim

ProtestantOld

Testament(39books)

CatholicOldTestament(46books)

EasternOrthodoxOldTestament(51books)

Originallanguage

Torah PentateuchortheFiveBooksofMosesBereishit Genesis Genesis Genesis HebrewShemot Exodus Exodus Exodus HebrewVayikra Leviticus Leviticus Leviticus Hebrew



Bamidbar Numbers Numbers Numbers HebrewDevarim Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Deuteronomy Hebrew

Nevi'im(Prophets) HistoricalbooksYehoshua Joshua Joshua(Josue) Joshua(Iesous) HebrewShofetim Judges Judges Judges Hebrew

Rut(Ruth)[d] Ruth Ruth Ruth Hebrew

Shemuel1Samuel 1Samuel(1Kings)[e]

1Samuel(1Kingdoms)[f]

Hebrew

2Samuel 2Samuel(2Kings)[e]2Samuel(2Kingdoms)[f]

Hebrew

Melakhim1Kings 1Kings(3Kings)[e]

1Kings(3Kingdoms)[f]

Hebrew

2Kings 2Kings(4Kings)[e]2Kings(4

Kingdoms)[f]Hebrew

DivreiHayamim(Chronicles)[d]

1Chronicles 1Chronicles(1Paralipomenon)1Chronicles(1Paralipomenon) Hebrew

2Chronicles 2Chronicles(2Paralipomenon)2Chronicles(2Paralipomenon) Hebrew

1Esdras Hebrew

EzraNehemiah[d]Ezra Ezra(1Esdras) Ezra(2Esdras)[f][g] HebrewandAramaic

Nehemiah Nehemiah(2Esdras) Nehemiah(2Esdras)[f][g]

Hebrew

Tobit(Tobias) Tobit(Tobias) Aramaic(andHebrew?)Judith Judith Hebrew

Esther[d] Esther Esther[h] Esther[h] Hebrew

1Maccabees(1Machabees)[i]

1Maccabees Hebrew

2Maccabees(2Machabees)[i]

2Maccabees Greek

3Maccabees Greek

4Maccabees[j] Greek

Ketuvim(Writings) Wisdombooks

Iyov(Job)[d] Job Job Job Hebrew

Tehillim(Psalms)[d] Psalms Psalms Psalms[k] Hebrew

PrayerofManasseh Greek

Mishlei(Proverbs)[d] Proverbs Proverbs Proverbs Hebrew



Qoheleth(Ecclesiastes)[d]

Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes Ecclesiastes Hebrew

ShirHashirim(SongofSongs)[d]

SongofSolomon

SongofSongs(CanticleofCanticles)

SongofSongs(AismaAismaton) Hebrew

Wisdom Wisdom GreekSirach(Ecclesiasticus) Sirach Hebrew

Nevi'im(LatterProphets) MajorprophetsYeshayahu Isaiah Isaiah(Isaias) Isaiah Hebrew

Yirmeyahu Jeremiah Jeremiah(Jeremias) Jeremiah HebrewandAramaicEikhah

(Lamentations)[d]Lamentations Lamentations Lamentations Hebrew

Baruch[l]Baruch[l] Hebrew[8]

LetterofJeremiah[m]Greek

(majorityview)[n]

Yekhezqel Ezekiel Ezekiel(Ezechiel) Ezekiel Hebrew

Daniel[d] Daniel Daniel[o] Daniel[o] Hebrewand

AramaicTwelveMinorProphets

TheTwelveor

TreiAsar

Hosea Hosea(Osee) Hosea HebrewJoel Joel Joel HebrewAmos Amos Amos Hebrew

Obadiah Obadiah(Abdias) Obadiah HebrewJonah Jonah(Jonas) Jonah HebrewMicah Micah(Micheas) Micah HebrewNahum Nahum Nahum Hebrew

Habakkuk Habakkuk(Habacuc) Habakkuk HebrewZephaniah Zephaniah(Sophonias) Zephaniah HebrewHaggai Haggai(Aggeus) Haggai Hebrew

Zechariah Zechariah(Zacharias) Zechariah HebrewMalachi Malachi(Malachias) Malachi Hebrew

SeveralofthebooksintheEasternOrthodoxcanonarealsofoundintheappendixtotheLatinVulgate,formerlytheofficialBibleoftheRomanCatholicChurch.



BooksintheAppendixtotheVulgateBibleNameinVulgate NameinEasternOrthodoxuse

3Esdras 1Esdras4Esdras

PrayerofManasseh PrayerofManassehPsalmofDavidwhenheslewGoliath(Psalm151) Psalm151

Composition

ThefirstfivebooksGenesis,Exodus,Leviticus,bookofNumbersandDeuteronomycomprisetheTorah,thestoryofIsraelfromtheGenesiscreationnarrativetothedeathofMoses.FewscholarstodaydoubtthatitreacheditspresentforminthePersianperiod(538332BC),andthatitsauthorsweretheeliteofexilicreturneeswhocontrolledtheTempleatthattime.[9]

ThebooksofJoshua,Judges,SamuelandKingsfollow,formingahistoryofIsraelfromtheConquestofCanaantotheSiegeofJerusalemc.587BC.Thereisabroadconsensusamongscholarsthattheseoriginatedasasinglework(thesocalled"Deuteronomistichistory")duringtheBabylonianexileofthe6thcenturyBC.[10]ThetwoBooksofChroniclescovermuchthesamematerialasthePentateuchandDeuteronomistichistoryandprobablydatefromthe4thcenturyBC.[11]

ChronicleslinkswiththebooksofEzraandNehemiah,whichwereprobablyfinishedduringthe3rdcenturyBC.[12]CatholicandOrthodoxOldTestamentscontaintwo(CatholicOldTestament)tofour(Orthodox)BooksofMaccabees,writteninthe2ndand1stcenturiesBC.

ThehistorybooksmakeuparoundhalfthetotalcontentoftheOldTestament.Oftheremainder,thebooksofthevariousprophetsIsaiah,Jeremiah,Ezekiel,Danielandthetwelve"minorprophets"werewrittenbetweenthe8thand6thcenturiesBC,withtheexceptionsofJonahandDaniel,whichwerewrittenmuchlater.[13]The"wisdom"andotherbooksJob,Proverbsandsoondatefrombetweenthe5thcenturyBCandthe2ndor1stBC,withtheexceptionofsomeofthePsalms.[14]

Themes

Godisconsistentlydepictedastheonewhocreatedorputintoorder[15]theworldandguidesitshistory.Althoughheisnotconsistentlypresentedastheonlygodwhoexists,heisalwaysdepictedastheonlygodwhomIsraelistoworship,andbothJewsandChristianshavealwaysinterpretedthebibleasanaffirmationoftheonenessofGod.[16]

TheOldTestamentstressesthespecialrelationshipbetweenGodandhischosenpeople,Israel,butincludesinstructionsforproselytesaswell.Thisrelationshipisexpressedinthebiblicalcovenant(contract)betweenthetwo,receivedbyMoses.ThelawcodesinbookssuchasExodusandespeciallyDeuteronomyarethetermsofthecontract:IsraelswearsfaithfulnesstoYahweh,andGodswearstobeIsrael'sspecialprotectorandsupporter.[16]



TheinterrelationshipbetweenvarioussignificantancientmanuscriptsoftheOldTestament,accordingtotheEncyclopaediaBiblica(1903).Somemanuscriptsareidentifiedbytheirsiglum.LXXheredenotestheoriginalSeptuagint.

FurtherthemesintheOldTestamentincludesalvation,redemption,divinejudgment,obedienceanddisobedience,faithandfaithfulness,amongothers.Throughoutthereisastrongemphasisonethicsandritualpurity,bothofwhichGoddemands,althoughsomeoftheprophetsandwisdomwritersseemtoquestionthis,arguingthatGoddemandssocialjusticeabovepurity,andperhapsdoesnotevencareaboutpurityatall.TheOldTestament'smoralcodeenjoinsfairness,interventiononbehalfofthevulnerable,andthedutyofthoseinpowertoadministerjusticerighteously.Itforbidsmurder,briberyandcorruption,deceitfultrading,andmanysexualmisdemeanors.AllmoralityistracedbacktoGod,whoisthesourceofallgoodness.[17]

TheproblemofevilplaysalargepartintheOldTestament.TheproblemtheOldTestamentauthorsfacedwasthatagoodGodmusthavehadjustreasonforbringingdisaster(meaningnotably,butnotonly,theBabylonianexile)uponhispeople.Thethemeisplayedout,withmanyvariations,inbooksasdifferentasthehistoriesofKingsandChronicles,theprophetslikeEzekielandJeremiah,andinthewisdombookslikeJobandEcclesiastes.[17]

Fromscripturetocanon:formationoftheOldTestament

Greek,LatinandProtestantOldTestaments

TheprocessbywhichscripturesbecamecanonsandBibleswasalongone,anditscomplexitiesaccountforthemanydifferentOldTestamentswhichexisttoday.TimothyH.Lim,aprofessorofHebrewBibleandSecondTempleJudaismattheUniversityofEdinburgh,identifiestheOldTestamentas"acollectionofauthoritativetextsofapparentlydivineoriginthatwentthroughahumanprocessofwritingandediting."[3]Hestatesthatitisnotamagicalbook,norwasitliterallywrittenbyGodandpassedtomankind.Byaboutthe5thcenturyBCJewssawthefivebooksoftheTorah(theOldTestamentPentateuch)ashavingauthoritativestatusbythe2ndcenturyBCtheProphetshadasimilarstatus,althoughwithoutquitethesamelevelofrespectastheTorahbeyondthat,theJewishscriptureswerefluid,withdifferentgroupsseeingauthorityindifferentbooks.[18]

GreekBible



ThescriptureswerefirsttranslatedintoGreekinAlexandriabetweenabout280130BC.[19]TheseearlyGreektranslationssupposedlycommissionedbyPtolemyPhiladelphuswerecalledtheSeptuagint(Latin:"Seventy")fromthesupposednumberoftranslatorsinvolved(henceitsabbreviation"LXX").ThisSeptuagintremainsthebasisoftheOldTestamentintheEasternOrthodoxChurch.[20]

ItvariesinmanyplacesfromtheMasoreticTextandincludesnumerousbooksnolongerconsideredcanonicalinothertraditions:1stand2ndEsdras,Judith,Tobit,3rdand4thMaccabees,theBookofWisdom,Sirach,andBaruch.[21]EarlymodernBiblicalcriticismtypicallyexplainedthesevariationsasintentionalorignorantcorruptionsbytheAlexandrianscholars,butmostrecentscholarshipholdsitissimplybasedonearlysourcetextsdifferingfromthoselaterusedbytheMasoretesintheirwork.

TheSeptuagintwasoriginallyusedbyJewssothoroughlyHellenizedthattheirknowledgeofGreekwasbetterthantheirHebrew.TheeverincreasingnumberofgentileconvertstoChristianitycreatedagrowingneedfortranslationsoftheHebrewScripturesintoGreekandLatin.ThethreemostacclaimedearlyinterpreterswereAquilaofSinope,SymmachustheEbionite,andTheodotioninhisHexapla,OrigenplacedhiseditionoftheHebrewtextbesideitstranscriptioninGreeklettersandfourparalleltranslations:Aquila's,Symmachus's,theSeptuagint's,andTheodotion's.Thesocalled"fifth"and"sixtheditions"weretwootherGreektranslationssupposedlymiraculouslydiscoveredbystudentsoutsidethetownsofJerichoandNicopolis:thesewereaddedtoOrigen'sOctapla.[22]

In331,ConstantineIcommissionedEusebiustodeliverfiftyBiblesfortheChurchofConstantinople.Athanasius[23]recordedAlexandrianscribesaround340preparingBiblesforConstans.Littleelseisknown,thoughthereisplentyofspeculation.Forexample,itisspeculatedthatthismayhaveprovidedmotivationforcanonlists,andthatCodexVaticanusandCodexSinaiticusareexamplesoftheseBibles.TogetherwiththePeshittaandCodexAlexandrinus,thesearetheearliestextantChristianBibles.[24]ThereisnoevidenceamongthecanonsoftheFirstCouncilofNicaeaofanydeterminationonthecanon,however,Jerome(347420),inhisProloguetoJudith,makestheclaimthattheBookofJudithwas"foundbytheNiceneCounciltohavebeencountedamongthenumberoftheSacredScriptures".[25]

LatinBible

InWesternChristianityorChristianityintheWesternhalfoftheRomanEmpire,LatinhaddisplacedGreekasthecommonlanguageoftheearlyChristians,andabout400ADPopeDamasusIcommissionedJerome,theleadingscholaroftheday,toproduceanupdatedLatinbibletoreplacetheVetusLatina.SometimeinthecenturiesaftertheSeptuagint(exactlywhenisdisputed)theRabbis(Jewishreligiousscholarsandteachers)definedtheJewishcanon,whichisamuchshortercanonofonly24books,andJeromeusedit(commonlycalledtheHebrewBible)insteadoftheGreekOldTestamentasthebasisforhistranslation,citing"HebraicaVeritas"(Latin:TruthoftheHebrew).HisVulgate(i.e.commonlanguage)OldTestamentbecamethestandardbibleusedintheWesternChurch,specificallyastheSixtoClementineVulgate,whiletheChurchesintheEastcontinued,andstillcontinue,tousetheSeptuagint.[26]

JeromehadwantedtodropallthebooksthatdidnotappearintheHebrewBible,butStAugustine,abishopandanothergreatscholaroftheday,opposedhimandwontheargument,notablyattheCouncilofCarthageon28August397.Inthe16thcenturytheProtestantreformersreopenedthedebate,andsidedwithJerome,butonlyfortheirowncongregations:yetalthoughProtestantBiblesnowhaveonlythosebooksthatappearintheJewishBible,theyhavethemintheorderoftheGreekBible.[27]



Rome,largelyinreactiontothisattackontradition,officiallyadoptedacanon,theCanonofTrent,whichcanbeseenasfollowingAugustine'sCarthaginianCouncilsortheCouncilofRome,[p]andincludesmost,butnotall,oftheSeptuagint(3Ezraand3and4Maccabeesareexcluded)[28]theAnglicansaftertheEnglishCivilWaradoptedacompromiseposition,restoringthe39ArticlesandkeepingtheextrabooksthatwereexcludedbytheWestminsterConfessionofFaith,butonlyforprivatestudyandforreadinginchurches,whileLutheranskeptthemforprivatestudy,gatheredinanappendixasBiblicalApocrypha.[27]

Otherversions

WhiletheHebrew,GreekandLatinversionsoftheHebrewBiblearethebestknownOldTestaments,therewereothers.AtmuchthesametimeastheSeptuagintwasbeingproduced,translationswerebeingmadeintoAramaic,thelanguageofJewslivinginPalestineandtheNearEastandlikelythelanguageofJesus:thesearecalledtheAramaicTargums,fromawordmeaning"translation",andwereusedtohelpJewishcongregationsunderstandtheirscriptures.[29]

ForAramaicChristianstherewasaSyriactranslationoftheHebrewBiblecalledthePeshitta,aswellasversionsinCoptic(theeverydaylanguageofEgyptinthefirstChristiancenturies,descendedfromancientEgyptian),Ethiopic(foruseintheEthiopianchurch,oneoftheoldestChristianchurches),Armenian(ArmeniawasthefirsttoadoptChristianityasitsofficialreligion),andArabic.[29]

Literaryevaluations

TheOldTestamentisconsideredoneofthemostimportantandinfluentialworksofliteratureinworldliterature,andhasprovidedinspirationforwriters(bothreligiousandsecular)throughoutsubsequenthistory.In1886,FriedrichNietzschewrote:"IntheJewishOldTestament,therearemen,thingsandspeechesinsograndastylethatGreekandIndianliteraturehavenothingtocomparetoit.Onestandswithaweandreverencebeforethesetremendousremnantsofwhatmanoncewas...ThetastefortheOldTestamentisatouchstoneof"greatness"and"smallness".TohavegluedthisNewTestament,akindofrococooftasteineveryrespect,totheOldTestamenttoformonebook...thatisperhapsthegreatestaudacityandsinagainstthespiritthatEuropehasonitsconscience.[30]

ChristiantheologyandtheOldTestament

ChristianityisbasedontheclaimthatthehistoricalJesusisalsotheChrist,asintheConfessionofPeter.ThisclaimisinturnbasedonJewishunderstandingsofthemeaningoftheHebrewtermmessiah,which,liketheGreek"Christ",means"anointed".IntheHebrewScripturesitdescribesakinganointedwithoilonhisaccessiontothethrone:hebecomes"TheLORD'sanointed"orYahweh'sAnointed.BythetimeofJesus,someJewsexpectedthatafleshandblooddescendantofDavid(the"SonofDavid")wouldcometoestablisharealJewishkingdominJerusalem,insteadoftheRomanprovince.[31]

OthersstressedtheSonofMan,adistinctlyotherworldlyfigurewhowouldappearasajudgeattheendoftimeandsomeharmonisedthetwobyexpectingathisworldlymessianickingdomwhichwouldlastforasetperiodandbefollowedbytheotherworldlyageorWorldtoCome.SomethoughttheMessiahwasalreadypresent,butunrecognisedduetoIsrael'ssinssomethoughtthattheMessiahwouldbeannouncedbyaforerunner,probablyElijah(aspromisedbytheprophetMalachi,whosebooknowendstheOld



TestamentandprecedesMark'saccountofJohntheBaptist).NonepredictedaMessiahwhosuffersanddiesforthesinsofallthepeople.[31]ThestoryofJesus'deaththereforeinvolvedaprofoundshiftinmeaningfromthetraditionoftheOldTestament.[32]

Thename"OldTestament"reflectsChristianity'sunderstandingofitselfasthefulfillmentofJeremiah'sprophesyofaNewCovenant(whichissimilarto"testament"andoftenconflated)toreplacetheexistingcovenantbetweenGodandIsrael(Jeremiah31:31).[1]Theemphasis,however,hasshiftedfromJudaism'sunderstandingofthecovenantasaneternalcontractbetweenGodandIsraeltoonebetweenGodandthosewhoare"inChrist".[33]

Seealso

AbrogationofOldCovenantlawsBiblicalnarrativesandtheQuranBookofJobinByzantineilluminatedmanuscriptsBooksoftheBibleCovenant(biblical)ExpoundingoftheLawHebrewBible:TimelineLawandGospelListofancientlegalcodesListofHebrewBiblemanuscriptsNoncanonicalbooksreferencedintheBibleQuotationsfromtheHebrewBibleintheNewTestamentSupersessionism

Notesa. GenerallyduetoderivationfromtransliterationsofnamesusedintheLatinVulgateinthecaseofCatholicism,

andfromtransliterationsoftheGreekSeptuagintinthecaseoftheOrthodox(asopposedtoderivationoftranslations,insteadoftransliterations,ofHebrewtitles)suchEcclesiasticus(DRC)insteadofSirach(LXX)orBenSira(Hebrew),Paralipomenon(Greek,meaning"thingsomitted")insteadofChronicles,SophoniasinsteadofZephaniah,NoeinsteadofNoah,HenochinsteadofEnoch,MessiasinsteadofMessiah,SioninsteadofZion,etc.

b. ThefoundationalThirtyNineArticlesofAnglicanism,inArticleVI,assertsthesedisputedbooksarenotused"toestablishanydoctrine,"but"readforexampleoflife."AlthoughtheBiblicalapocryphaarestillusedinAnglicanLiturgy,[7]themoderntrendistonotevenprinttheOldTestamentapocryphaineditionsofAnglicanusedBibles.

c. The24booksoftheHebrewBiblearethesameasthe39booksoftheProtestantOldTestament,onlydividedandordereddifferently:thebooksoftheMinorProphetsareinChristianBiblestwelvedifferentbooks,andinHebrewBibles,onebookcalled"TheTwelve".Likewise,ChristianBiblesdividetheBooksofKingdomsintofourbooks,either12Samueland12Kingsor14Kings:JewishBiblesdividetheseintotwobooks.TheJewslikewisekeep12Chronicles/Paralipomenonasonebook.EzraandNehemiaharelikewisecombinedintheJewishBible,astheyareinmanyOrthodoxBibles,insteadofdividedintotwobooks,aspertheCatholicandProtestanttradition.

d. ThisbookispartoftheKetuvim,thethirdsectionoftheJewishcanon.TheyhaveadifferentorderinJewishcanonthaninChristiancanon.

e. ThebooksofSamuelandKingsareoftencalledFirstthroughFourthKingsintheCatholictradition,muchliketheOrthodox.



f. NamesinparenthesesaretheSeptuagintnamesandareoftenusedbytheOrthodoxChristians.g. SomeEasternOrthodoxchurchesfollowtheSeptuagintandtheHebrewbiblesbyconsideringthebooksofEzra

andNehemiahasonebook.h. TheCatholicandOrthodoxBookofEstherincludes103versesnotintheProtestantBookofEsther.i. TheLatinVulgate,DouayRheims,andRevisedStandardVersionCatholicEditionplaceFirstandSecond

MaccabeesafterMalachiotherCatholictranslationsplacethemafterEsther.j. InGreekBibles,4Maccabeesisfoundintheappendix.k. EasternOrthodoxchurchesincludePsalm151andthePrayerofManasseh,notpresentinallcanons.l. InCatholicBibles,BaruchincludesasixthchaptercalledtheLetterofJeremiah.BaruchisnotintheProtestant

BibleortheTanakh.m. EasternOrthodoxBibleshavethebooksofBaruchandtheLetterofJeremiahseparate.n. Hebrew(minorityview)seeLetterofJeremiahfordetails.o. InCatholicandOrthodoxBibles,DanielincludesthreesectionsnotincludedinProtestantBibles.ThePrayerof

AzariahandSongoftheThreeHolyChildrenareincludedbetweenDaniel3:2324.SusannaisincludedasDaniel13.BelandtheDragonisincludedasDaniel14.ThesearenotintheProtestantOldTestament.

p. Augustine's"2ofEsdras"couldbe1EsdrasandEzraNehemiahasintheSeptuagintandOrthodoxcanonorEzraandNehemiahasintheVulgateandCatholiccanon.

References

1. Jones2001,p.215.2. Barton2001,p.3.3. Lim,TimothyH.(2005).TheDeadSeaScrolls:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.

p.41.4. Riches,John(2000).TheBible:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.p.37.ISBN978

0192853431.5. PhilipR.DaviesinTheCanonDebate,page50:"Withmanyotherscholars,Iconcludethatthefixingofa

canonicallistwasalmostcertainlytheachievementoftheHasmoneandynasty."6. Boadt1984,pp.11,1516.7. TheApocrypha,BridgeoftheTestaments(http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf)(PDF),Orthodox

Anglican,"TwoofthehymnsusedintheAmericanPrayerBookofficeofMorningPrayer,theBenedictusesandBenedicite,aretakenfromtheApocrypha.OneoftheoffertorysentencesinHolyCommunioncomesfromanapocryphalbook(Tob.4:89).LessonsfromtheApocryphaareregularlyappointedtobereadinthedaily,Sunday,andspecialservicesofMorningandEveningPrayer.Therearealtogether111suchlessonsinthelatestrevisedAmericanPrayerBookLectionary[Booksusedare:IIEsdras,Tobit,Wisdom,Ecclesiasticus,Baruch,ThreeHolyChildren,andIMaccabees.]"

8. Britannica,19119. Blenkinsopp1998,p.184.

10. Rogerson2003,pp.15354.11. Coggins2003,p.282.12. Grabbe2003,pp.21314.13. Miller1987,pp.1011.14. Crenshaw2010,p.5.15. Thereisamajordiscussioninthefieldoftheologyaboutthemeaningoftheword"bara",thesecondwordof

Genesis.Someinterpretitas"created"(outofnothing),butothersargueitwas"remodelled/ordered"(somethingexistingbefore)

16. Barton2001,p.9.17. Barton2001,p.10.18. Brettler2005,p.274.19. Gentry2008,p.302.20. Wrthwein1995.21. Jones2001,p.216.22. Cave,William.Acompletehistoryofthelives,acts,andmartyrdomsoftheholyapostles,andthetwo



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Bandstra,BarryL(2004),ReadingtheOldTestament:anintroductiontotheHebrewBible(http://books.google.com/?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA489&lpg=PA489&dq=Bandstra,+Barry+L+%282004%29.+Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false),Wadsworth,ISBN9780495391050Barton,John(1997),HowtheBiblecametobe(http://books.google.com/?id=UfU4_9M4N2YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+came+to+be+Barton#v=onepage&q&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664257859(2001),"IntroductiontotheOldTestament",inMuddiman,JohnBarton,John,BibleCommentary(http://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA6&dq=B.+Collecting+the+Hebrew+Scriptures#v=onepage&q=B.%20Collecting%20the%20Hebrew%20Scriptures&f=false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005Blenkinsopp,Joseph(1998),"ThePentateuch",inBarton,John,TheCambridgecompaniontobiblicalinterpretation(http://books.google.com/?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Cambridge+companion+to+biblical+interpretation#v=onepage&q&f=false),CambridgeUniversityPress,ISBN9780521485937Boadt,Lawrence(1984),ReadingtheOldTestament:anintroduction(http://books.google.com/?id=LGQNT6G_do8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809126316Brettler,MarcZvi(2005),HowtoreadtheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=39nQafdJ_ssC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Brettler+how+to+read+the+bible#v=onepage&q&f=false),JewishPublicationSociety,ISBN9780827610019Bultman,Christoph(2001),"Deuteronomy",inBarton,JohnMuddiman,John,OxfordBibleCommentary(http://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Oxford+Bible+commentary#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy&f=false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005Coggins,RichardJ(2003),"1and2Chronicles",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo

22. Cave,William.Acompletehistoryofthelives,acts,andmartyrdomsoftheholyapostles,andthetwoevangelists,St.MarkandLuke(http://books.google.no/books?id=L5UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA406),Vol.II.Wiatt(Philadelphia),1810.Accessed6Feb2013.

23. Apol.Const.424. TheCanonDebate,pp.41415,fortheentireparagraph25. "BookofJudith".CatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.1913.Canonicity:"..."the

SynodofNicaeaissaidtohaveaccounteditasSacredScripture"(Praef.inLib.).ItistruethatnosuchdeclarationistobefoundintheCanonsofNicaea,anditisuncertainwhetherSt.Jeromeisreferringtotheusemadeofthebookinthediscussionsofthecouncil,orwhetherhewasmisledbysomespuriouscanonsattributedtothatcouncil".

26. Wrthwein1995,pp.9199.27. Barton1997,pp.8081.28. Soggin1987,p.19.29. Wrthwein1995,pp.7990,1004.30. BeyondGoodandEvil,translatedbyWalterKaufmann,NewYork:RandomHouse,1966reprintedinVintage

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11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Chronicles+Richard+J+Coggins#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110Crenshaw,JamesL(2010),OldTestamentwisdom:anintroduction(http://books.google.com/?id=tKpWNrkO8dEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+wisdom:+an+introduction++By+James+L.+Crenshaw#v=onepage&q&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664234591Davies,GI(1998),"IntroductiontothePentateuch",inBarton,John,OxfordBibleCommentary(http://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA12&dq=Oxford+Bible+Commentary+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch#v=onepage&q=Oxford%20Bible%20Commentary%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f=false),OxfordUniversityPress,ISBN9780198755005Dines,JenniferM(2004),TheSeptuagint(http://books.google.com/?id=Qv8Riv3QIbQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dines+Septuagint#v=onepage&q&f=false),Continuum,ISBN9780567084644Farmer,Ron(1991),"Messiah/Christ",inMills,WatsonEBullard,RogerAubrey,MercerdictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA570#v=onepage&q&f=false),MercerUniversityPress,ISBN9780865543737Gentry,PeterR(2008),"OldGreekandLaterRevisors",inSollamo,RaijaVoitila,AnssiJokiranta,Jutta,Scriptureintransition(http://books.google.com/?id=NoCJKyxEujEC&pg=PA301&dq=Old+Greek+and+Later+Revisors:+Can+we+always+distinguish+them#v=onepage&q=Old%20Greek%20and%20Later%20Revisors%3A%20Can%20we%20always%20distinguish%20them%3F&f=false),Brill,ISBN9789004165823Grabbe,LesterL(2003),"Ezra",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110Hasel,GerhardF(1991),OldTestamenttheology:basicissuesinthecurrentdebate(http://books.google.com/?id=yJJ6bE0kt1YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+theology#v=onepage&q&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802805379Herion,GaryA(2000),"Covenant",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.ca/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9789053565032Jobes,KarenHSilva,Moises(2005),InvitationtotheSeptuagint,BakerAcademicJones,BarryA(2000),"CanonoftheOldTestament",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.ca/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9789053565032Juel,Donald(2000),"Christ",inFreedman,DavidNoel,DictionaryoftheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9789053565032Lim,TimothyH.(2005).TheDeadSeaScrolls:AVeryShortIntroduction.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.McLay,Tim(2003),TheuseoftheSeptuagintinNewTestamentresearch(http://books.google.com/?id=41rxTDIF9gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Use+of+the+Septuagint+in+New+Testament+Research#v=onepage&q&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802860910



Miller,JohnW(2004),HowtheBiblecametobe(http://books.google.com/?id=a4VnOtjstoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809141838Miller,JohnW(1987),Meettheprophets:abeginner'sguidetothebooksofthebiblicalprophets(http://books.google.com/?id=mHXM3wjVPgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Meet+the+prophets:+a+beginner%27s+guide+to+the+books+of+the+biblical+prophets#v=onepage&q&f=false),PaulistPress,ISBN9780809128990Rogerson,JohnW(2003),"Deuteronomy",inDunn,JamesDGRogerson,JohnWilliam,CommentaryontheBible(http://books.google.com/?id=2Vo11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false),Eerdmans,ISBN9780802837110Schniedewind,WilliamM(2004),HowtheBibleBecameaBook(http://books.google.com/?id=tCTVc8_2vVQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+Became+a+Book#v=onepage&q&f=false),Cambridge,ISBN9780521536226Soggin,J.Alberto(1987),IntroductiontotheOldTestament(http://books.google.com/?id=mqSNsKXnHQgC&pg=PA40&dq=Soggin+Hebrew+bible#v=onepage&q=Soggin%20Hebrew%20bible&f=false),WestminsterJohnKnoxPress,ISBN9780664221560Wrthwein,Ernst(1995),ThetextoftheOldTestament:anintroductiontotheBibliaHebraica(http://books.google.com/?id=FSNKSBObCYwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=W%C3%BCrthwein+The+Text+of+the+Old+Testament#v=onepage&q&f=false),WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN9780802807885

Furtherreading

Anderson,Bernhard.UnderstandingtheOldTestament.ISBN0139483993Bahnsen,Greg,etal.,FiveViewsonLawandGospel(GrandRapids:Zondervan,1993).Berkowitz,ArielBerkowitz,D'vorah(2004),TorahRediscovered(4thed.),Shoreshim,ISBN0975291408.Dever,WilliamG.(2003),WhoWeretheEarlyIsraelites?,GrandRapids,MI:WilliamBEerdmans,ISBN0802809758.vonRad,Gerhard(1982/1984),TheologiedesAltenTestaments[TheologyoftheOldTestament](inGerman),Band12,Munich:AuflageCheckdatevaluesin:|date=(help).Hill,AndrewWalton,John(2000),ASurveyoftheOldTestament(2nded.),GrandRapids:Zondervan,ISBN0310229030.Kuntz,JohnKenneth(1974),ThePeopleofAncientIsrael:anintroductiontoOldTestamentLiterature,History,andThought,Harper&Row,ISBN0060438223.Lancaster,DThomas(2005),Restoration:ReturningtheTorahofGodtotheDisciplesofJesus,Littleton\publisher=FirstFruitsofZion.PapadakiOekland,Stella,ByzantineIlluminatedManuscriptsoftheBookofJob,ISBN9782503532325.Rouvire,JeanMarc(2006),BrvesmditationssurlaCrationdumonde[BriefmeditationsonthecreationoftheWorld](inFrench),Paris:L'Harmattan.Salibi,Kamal(1985),TheBibleCamefromArabia,London:JonathanCape,ISBN0224028308.Schmid,Konrad(2012),TheOldTestament:ALiteraryHistory,Minneapolis:Fortress,ISBN9780800697754.Silberman,NeilAetal.(2003),TheBibleUnearthed(HARDBACK),NewYork:Simon&Schuster,ISBN0684869128,ISBN0684869136(paperback).Sprinkle,JosephJoeM(2006),BiblicalLawandItsRelevance:AChristianUnderstandingandEthicalApplicationforTodayoftheMosaicRegulations(CLOTHBOUND),Lanham,MD:UniversityPressofAmerica,ISBN0761833714andISBN0761833722(paperback).



Externallinks

"TheOldTestamentCanon",Scripture&tradition(http://www.churchfathers.org/category/scriptureandtradition/oldtestamentcanon/),ChurchFathers.Biblegateway(http://www.biblegateway.com/).FulltextsoftheOld(andNew)TestamentsincludingthefullRomanandOrthodoxCatholiccanons."OldTestament",critures(http://www.lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm),LafeuilledOlivier.ProtestantOldTestamentonasinglepage."OldTestament",ReadingRoom(http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/readingrooms/oldt),CA:TyndaleSeminary.ExtensiveonlineOTresources(incl.commentaries)."OldTestament",Religiousstudies(http://oyc.yale.edu/religiousstudies)(VIDEO)(lectures),YaleUniversity,20111130.Bible(http://www.bible.x10host.com/),X10host:OldTestamentstoriesandcommentary.OldTestamentTimeline(http://www.lds.org/gospellibrary/materials/OT_Timeline_000.pdf)(PDF),LDS.TanakhML(http://www.tanakhml.org/)(parallelBible)BibliaHebraicaStuttgartensiaandtheKingJamesVersion.

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