Psychological Skills Training in Portuguese Professional
Soccer: Reality or Utopia?
The Views of Elite Soccer Coaches and Players
Simão Pedro Fernandes de Freitas
Orientadores / Supervisors :
Cláudia S. L. Dias, PhD
António M. Fonseca, PhD
Dissertação de doutoramento em
Ciências do Desporto apresentada
à Faculdade de Desporto da
Universidade do Porto de acordo
com o Decreto-lei nº 74/2006 de 24
de Março.
Doctoral dissertation in Sport
Sciences presented to the
University of Porto, Faculty of Sport,
according to the Decree-law nº
74/2006 from March 24th.
Porto, 2013
ii
Freitas, S. (2013). Psychological skills training in Portuguese professional
soccer: Utopia or reality? The views of elite soccer coaches and players. Porto:
S. P. F. de Freitas. Dissertação de Doutoramento em Ciências do Desporto
apresentada à Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto.
KEY-WORDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING, PSYCHOLOGICAL
TECNHIQUES, PORTUGUESE SOCCER, ELITE, COACHES, PLAYERS.
iii
This thesis is dedicated to
my Parents, Dete and Antonieta Ochoa
Thank you very much for the
endless support and encouragement
Esta tese é dedicada aos
meus Pais, à Dete e à Antonieta Ochoa
Muito obrigado pelo
incansável apoio e incentivo
v
Agradecimentos
Em primeiro lugar tenho que agradecer aos Professores Doutores
Cláudia Dias e António M. Fonseca pela orientação, partilha de conhecimento e
disponibilidade evidenciada ao longo desta dissertação. Foi um enorme
privilégio ter sido orientado por dois profissionais de excelência na área da
Psicologia do Desporto. Agradece-lhos profundamente o enriquecimento
pessoal e profissional que me proporcionaram.
A outro nível tenho que agradecer ao meu amigo e «companheiro de
batalhas», Rui Bento, por todas as experiências práticas, pela compreensão e
incentivo durante todos estes anos.
Um agradecimento também muito especial ao Antero Henrique e ao Luís
Castro pela compreensão evidenciada ao longo da elaboração da presente
tese. Um grande obrigado ainda pelos exemplos práticos de liderança que
contribuíram indubitavelmente para o meu desenvolvimento pessoal.
No mesmo sentido tenho que agradecer as importantes conversas que
tive oportunidade de privar com treinadores que eu considero como referências
no contexto futebolístico, nomeadamente o professor Jesualdo Ferreira e o
«mister» Jorge Jesus. Muito obrigado por todos os ensinamentos valiosos bem
como pelos vários conselhos práticos transmitidos ao longo destes anos.
Ao professor Vítor Frade que «com os seus textos e quadras; potenciou
e muito todo o meu saber; ao invés de um teorema de Pitágoras; ensinou-me
um operacionalizar para vencer».
Uma palavra também de reconhecido agradecimento para todos os
prestigiados jogadores e treinadores, que tão generosamente contribuíram para
esta investigação. Sem a sua prestimosa colaboração a concretização desta
dissertação não teria sido possível.
vi
Gostaria ainda de deixar um agradecimento profundo à «minha
faculdade» - Faculdade de Desporto da Universidade do Porto - na pessoa do
Professor Jorge Olímpio Bento, não só pela formação académica mas também
por todo o apoio evidenciado ao longo de todos estes anos.
E por fim, às pessoas mais importantes da minha vida… aos meus pais
e à Dete por tudo aquilo que fizeram por mim e à Antonieta Ochoa por tornar a
minha vida plena de sentido. Apesar de ser muito difícil expressar por palavras
tudo aquilo que vocês significam para mim, deixo-vos um…Muito obrigado por
tudo.
Simão Freitas
vii
Contents
List of figures ………………………………………………………………… viii
List of tables ............................................................................................ ix
Abstract …………………………………………………...…………………… xi
Resumo ………………………………………………………………………… xiii
List of abbreviations ………………………………………………………… xv
General introduction ………………………………………………………… 17
Paper I
Psychological skills training applied to soccer: A systematic review based
on research methodologies ……………………………………………………
29
Paper II
What do coaches think about psychological skills training in soccer? A
study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams ………………………………
47
Paper III
How do elite soccer coaches prepare their players and teams
psychologically? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams ……….
71
Paper IV
Elite soccer coaches use of Psychological techniques …………………….
93
Paper V
Psychological skills training in Portuguese premier soccer league: Players’
perspectives and experiences ………………………………………………...
121
Paper VI
Elite soccer players’ use of psychological techniques. Where, when and
why ……………………………………………………………………………….
139
General discussion and conclusions ……………………………………. 161
References …………………………………………………………………….. 169
viii
List of figures
General introduction
Figure 1. Vealey’s framework for understand psychological skills in sport 21
Paper II
Figure 1. Soccer coaches’ educational background in Sport Psychology 55
Figure 2. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about psychological skills
training on soccer players and teams …………………………
57
Figure 3. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about psychological skills
training on soccer coaches ………………………………………
60
Figure 4. Soccer coaches’ perspectives on sport psychologists ………. 62
Paper III
Figure 1. Activities, exercises and strategies used by coaches with their
players and teams ………………………………………………..
83
Figure 2. Psychological techniques employed by coaches with their
players and teams ………………………………………………..
86
Paper IV
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension ……. 104
Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of imagery general dimension ………… 108
Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of goal-setting general dimension …… 110
Paper V
Figure1. Soccer players’ perspectives’ about the importance of
psychological skills training ……………………………………...
129
Figure 2. Soccer players’ perspectives’ and experiences regarding PST
interventions ……………………………………………………….
130
Paper VI
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension ……. 150
Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the goal-setting general dimension … 152
Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of imagery general dimension ………… 155
Figure 4. Hierarchical structure of relaxation general dimension ………. 156
ix
List of tables
Paper I
Table 1. Year overview and journals …………………………………...… 37
Table 2. Research designs ………………………………………………... 38
Table 3. Data collection ……………………………………………………. 38
Table 4. Sample characteristics …………………………………………... 40
Table 4. PST focus category …..…………………………………………... 41
xi
Abstract
Despite the research on psychological skills training (PST) applied to soccer
has increased considerably in recent years, there are few studies regarding the
PST perspectives of elite soccer coaches and players - key elements of PST
process. This gap in literature is even more critical in Portuguese professional
soccer reality. Therefore, the purpose of this dissertation was to identify the
most frequently used methods (i.e., sample, research approach, and data
collection methods) in research on PST applied to soccer, as well as explore
the views of elite soccer coaches and players regarding the PST process in
Portuguese premier soccer league. To accomplish these aims we conducted a
systematic analysis of selected studies in the field of PST applied to soccer (i.e.,
28 articles), and developed five qualitative studies to explore the perspectives of
top-elite coaches (n=13) and players (n=16) concerning several aspects of PST.
Overall, the studies showed that the majority of soccer coaches and players
acknowledge the importance of PST process, and revealed receptiveness for
PST interventions. Nevertheless, the participants mentioned they didn’t use
PST programs systematically in their soccer routines. Data of the studies were
discussed and practical implications / recommendations were highlighted.
KEY-WORDS: PSYCHOLOGICAL SKILLS TRAINING, PSYCHOLOGICAL
TECNHIQUES, PORTUGUESE SOCCER, COACHES, PLAYERS.
xiii
Resumo
Apesar do estudo do treino das competências psicológicas (TCP) ter florescido
nos últimos anos, existe uma clara escassez de investigações acerca das
perspectivas dos treinadores e os jogadores de futebol relativamente ao
processo de TCP. Esta lacuna é ainda mais evidente quando analisa á luz do
panorama do futebol profissional em Portugal, onde os estudos conduzidos
nesta área são praticamente inexistentes. A presente dissertação procurou
identificar as metodologias de investigação mais frequentes nos estudos na
área do TCP aplicado ao futebol, bem como explorar as visões de treinadores e
jogadores de elite sobre o TCP na primeira liga Portuguesa de futebol
profissional. De modo a atingir os objectivos anteriormente definidos realizou-
se uma análise de revisão sistemática de artigos seleccionados (n=28) na área
do TCP aplicado ao futebol e desenvolveram-se cinco estudos qualitativos para
explorar o conhecimento sobre as perspectivas de alguns treinadores (n=13) e
jogadores (n=16) de elite. De um modo geral, os estudos evidenciaram que a
maioria dos treinadores reconheceram a importância do TCP e revelaram
receptividade para intervenções a este nível. No entanto, os participantes
mencionaram que na prática não utilizam programas de TCP. Os resultados
dos estudos foram discutidos e as implicações / recomendações práticas foram
destacadas.
PALAVRAS-CHAVE: TREINO DAS COMPETÊNCIAS PSICOLÓGICAS,
TÉCNICAS PSICOLÓGICAS, FUTEBOL PORTUGUÊS, TREINADORES,
JOGADORES
xv
List of abbreviations
AAASP: Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology
FA: Football Association
FIFA: Fédération Internationale de Football Association (English: International
Federation of Football Association)
PP: Psychological Preparation
PPC: Psychological Preparation for a Competition
PST: Psychological Skills Training
SPs: Sport Psychologists
TCP: Treino de Competências Psicológicas
TTM: Transtheoretical Model
UEFA: Union of European Football Association
USA: United States of America
19
General introduction
Since the earliest days of sport psychology , one of the most important
issues addressed by sport psychologists has been related to the psychological
skills training (PST) intended to aid people in making their performance more
effective (Gould & Eklund, 2007). Thus is not surprising that the PST in sport
has significantly evolved in in the last decade as the knowledge based has
expanded with a plethora of books describing the practice of PST as well as
journal articles focusing on psychological skills, PST interventions, and
professional practice issues (Vealey, 2007). Due to the availability of these
applied materials, the PST programs have increased substantially in quantity
and quality (Daw & Burton, 1994).
From early interventions to programmatic intervention models
According to the sport psychological literature, the Soviet Union was the
first country to systematically engage in psychological training with athletes and
coaches in 1950s (Ryba, Stambulova, & Wrisberg, 2005, Vealey, 2007,
Williams & Straub, 2006). In this context, one of the earliest contributing figures
to the field was the Russian Avksenty Cezarevich Puni who formalized their
theory in an applied model called Psychological Preparation for a Competition
(PPC; see: Puni, 1969, 1973), which included self-regulation of arousal,
confidence, attentional focusing, distraction control, and goal setting. The Puni's
theory continued to shape the development of psychological training in the
Soviet Union for over 50 years and his influence persists to the present day in
Russia and other East European countries (Ryba et al., 2005).
Despite the systematic practice and study of PST in sport in North
American did not emerge until the 1980, several pioneers began to work in this
field prior to this time (Vealey, 2007). In 1938, P.K. Wrigley, owner of the
Chicago Cubs professional baseball, hired the “father of sport psychology in
United States of America (USA)” – Coleman Griffith – to help improve the
team’s performance. Griffith and an assistant filmed and measured the players’
skills, attempting to build a psychological training program for the team (Green,
20
2003). Their intervention included practice management strategies for
enhanced learning and automation of skills, communication skills for coaches,
team dynamics and leadership development, goal setting, confidence building,
competitive simulation, a battery test for measuring players’ basic physical and
“visual” skills, and a recommendation that psychological testing and observation
to be included in scouting (Green, 2003; Vealey, 2007). Another historical figure
in this field was Dorothy Hazeltine Yates who worked with a collegiate boxers
team in the early 1940s (Kornspan, & MacCracken, 2001, Vealey, 2007). Yate’s
work with boxers consisted of an intervention called the “relaxation set-method”
(see Kornspan, & MacCracken, 2001). Furthermore, Yates also engaged in
controlled experimental investigations of the effectiveness of her psychological
intervention, with positive results (Vealey, 2007; Yates, 1943, 1957).
During the late 1970s, an interest in psychological training with athletes
emerged in the United States. The term PST was coined to describe techniques
and strategies designed to teach or enhance psychological skills that facilitate
performance and a positive approach to sport competition (Vealey, 1988). A
major premise of PST is that psychological skills (like physical skills) can be
taught and learned to a certain degree (Vealey, 1988).
Interest in PST has proliferated in North America during the 1980s
(Vealey, 1988, 2007). Several books outlining various PST approaches have
been published, a professional association (Association for the Advancement of
Applied Sport Psychology- AAASP) has been formed for researchers and
practitioners interested in PST applications (Vealey, 1988), and two new applied
journals (The Sport Psychology in 1987 and the Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology in 1989) were establish.
The evolution of PST in sport in the last years is impressive as the
knowledge based has grown and psychological practice has become more
sophisticated (Vealey, 2007). A plethora of books (e.g., Brewer, 2009; Hardy,
Jones, & Gould, 1996; Murphy, 1995; Smith & Bar-Eli, 2007; Tenenbaum &
Eklund, 2007; Weinberg & Gould, 2011) and journal articles focusing on PST
and professional practice issues have been published, the PST programs have
increased substantially in quantity and quality (Daw & Burton, 1994), and a
21
variety of models and frameworks has been advanced and discussed on PST
literature, over the last decades (e.g., Hardy, et al., 1996; Vealey, 2007).
Nowadays it is widely recognized that the PST involves a comprehensive
and complex process as opposed to the simple application of psychological
techniques. PST has matured form early interventions that focused on the
random application of psychological techniques, such as imagery and goal
setting, to programmatic intervention models (Vealey, 2007).
A closer look at the Vealey’s framework for understanding PST in sport
Figure 1. Vealey’s framework for understanding PST in sport
22
As illustrated in figure 1, Vealey (2007) argued that the PST process is a
complex, multilayer and integrative approach to developing psychological skills
in athletes and coaches. The mainly targets for PST are foundation,
performance, personal development, and team skills. According to Vealey
(2007), these types of psychological skills are very important for success and
well-being in athletes and coaches.
As shown in figure 1, the PST process is made up of hierarchical layers
that define the consultant’s approach to enhance psychological skills. The first
layer in the PST process is the consultant philosophy or the consultant’s beliefs
and values concerning the nature of psychological skills and PST. According to
Poczwardowski, Sherman, and Ravizza (2004), professional philosophy
significantly shapes the consultant’s approach to the essential elements of the
consulting process such as gaining entry, assessment, conceptualization of the
issue and the intervention, implementation, evaluation, and bringing closure to
the consulting relationship. These authors have conceptualized a hierarchical
structure of professional philosophy for sport psychology service delivery that is
consistent to the hierarchical layers point out in the Vealey framework (2007).
Several examples of consultant’s philosophies are available in the sport
psychology literature (e.g. Gordon, 1990; Loehr, 1990; Nideffer, 1989; Orlick,
1989; Ravizza, 1990; Salmela, 1989). According to Vealey (2007) the three
main philosophical differences in PST in sport have been: educational versus
clinical approaches, programed-centered versus athlete-centered approaches,
and performance enhancement versus development approaches.
The second layer in the PST process, emanating from philosophy, is the
model of intervention, or the overarching thematic framework from which
specific psychological strategies and techniques are developed and utilized
(Vealey, 2007). The PST literature abounds with the description of multiple
models of intervention (see Murphy, 1995; Vealey, 2007).
The third layer of the PST process is the strategies that emanate from
the consultant’s philosophy and intervention model. For Vealey (2007), the
strategies are “the organizational plans of action that operationalize how the
intervention specifically works, typically using sequential steps, multiple phases,
23
or the practical packaging of mental training techniques into a coherent,
integrative program” (p. 294). The author (2007) cited several examples of
psychological strategies that included the Five-Step Strategy (Singer, 1988), the
four-phase psychological skill program for close-skill performance enhancement
(Boutcher & Rotella, 1987), P3 Thinking and goal mapping (Vealey, 2005),
centering (Nideffer & Sagal, 2006), competition focus plans (Orlick, 1986), the
five-step approach to mental training using biofeedback (Blumenstein, Bar-Eli, &
Tenenbaum, 2002), and visuo-motor behavioral rehearsal (Suinn, 1993).
The final layer of the PST process is the techniques or methods used in a
PST strategy (Vealey, 2007). Examples of psychological techniques include
imagery, goal-setting, self-talk, relaxation, biofeedback training, performance
profiling, etc.
Finally, it should be noted when PST is coordinated by consultants, their
interpersonal (e.g., listening skills, being able to relate to athletes and coaches,
being open, flexible and trustworthy) and technical skills (e.g., ability to
relevantly apply concepts to create concrete, useful strategies for athletes and
coaches, the ability to adapt psychological training strategies and techniques to
fit specific personalities and situations) are critical in the effectiveness of the
PST process (Vealey, 2007). For the author, effective PST requires
interpersonally and technically skilled consultants, who are able to personally
and professionally fit PST programs to meet the special needs of athletes,
coaches, teams, and organizations.
As reviewed, significant advances have occurred in the last decades
regarding PST on sport. Nowadays, the PST literature abounds with the
description of multiple models and frameworks which give important guidelines
not only for gaining a better understanding of this complex process but also for
designing more specific and effective programs that better promote the
attainment of elite performance. In this regard the framework for understanding
PST in sport, presented by Vealey (2007) has been considered a valuable tool
for understand this complex process. Obviously other models and frameworks
24
are available in this field, but the intent has been to stimulate critical thinking
about this important service delivery component of sport psychology.
PST applied to soccer
Currently, it is widely accepted that psychological skills play a crucial role
on soccer performance (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004;
Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010). The analysis of public and private
statements made by soccer players, coaches, directors or fans, shows the
underpinning role of psychological dimension to the determination of outcomes
or performance levels shown by players and teams. Indeed, there is not a single
game where psychological factors are not evoked in an attempt to predict,
describe or interpret a player or team performance (Fonseca, 2004).
In this sense, it would be expected that PST plays a privileged role in
elite soccer. But is that what really happens? Is this acknowledgement related
to the importance of psychological factors translated into what is practiced on
the field? Does this area constitute one of the priorities of the training process?
And how exactly is that training implemented? What goals does it aim to
achieve?
On the other hand, it is important not only to think about the training of
players/teams’ psychological skills but also to consider the psychological
preparation of the soccer coach. The social-sportive framing of the soccer
coaches exposes them to a high psychological pressure since they are usually
subjected to a constant public exposure of their decisions, permanent
demanding of sports outcomes, unpredictability of the competition, among other
factors. The soccer coach is also constantly exposed to behavioral and
emotional fluctuations, on one day experiencing moments of frenzy glory and on
the other living moments of frustration, isolation and contempt. Coaches are not
machines at the service of a soccer club and thus it is worth noticing that they
are indeed affected by several factors which may influence their performance.
Based on the previous considerations, it would be expected that PST
also assume a crucial role in coaches’ psychological preparation. But is this a
reality? Do the coaches invest on their own psychological preparation? Do the
25
coaches contemplate the training of their own psychological skills? And, in
which molds is this training is processed? And, what are the goals that this
training aims to pursue?
Regarding the Portuguese soccer reality, several authors (Barreiros,
Silva, Freitas, Duarte, Fonseca, 2011; Fonseca, 1997; 2004) stressed that sport
psychology is not yet sufficiently valued which seems to compromise PST.
Furthermore the existence of a sport psychologist in Portuguese elite soccer
teams is the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004). The same author
stated that in 2004 there were only three psychologists in the Portuguese
Premier soccer league and this was the highest number ever found. Taken the
aforementioned considerations, several pertinent questions may be posed: Why
the inclusion of sport psychologists has not become an acquired procedure in
Portugal? What are the reasons/barriers to the inclusion of these specialists into
Portuguese soccer teams? Almost a decade of Fonseca’s (2004) statement, are
we still facing the same reality? Or can we find a growing number of sport
psychologists working in Portuguese soccer? Are the coaches and players
receptive to this kind of collaboration/intervention? Are coaches and players
aware of what can be done by the sport psychologists?
Given the importance of PST on sport performance and the relevance of
the previous questions, we would expect a high number of scientific studies
associated with PST applied to soccer. However, although recently PST
literature applied to soccer have increased in the number of experimental
studies supporting the positive influence of PST in soccer performance (e.g.,
Johnson et al., 2004; Thelwell, et al., 2010; 2006), there is still a considerable
lack of studies that examine soccer players and coaches’ perceptions regarding
this issue. This gap in literature is even more critical in Portuguese soccer
reality. Indeed, we could only identify one study that investigated soccer
coaches’ perceptions concerning different aspects of the psychological
dimension (see Barreiros, et al., 2011). According to Côté, Salmela, & Russell,
(1995), evolution comes from the description of specific work experiences. For
these authors, a profound analysis concerning the knowledge of coaches and
players may constitute an important contribute since success models may
26
provide insightful information to the improvement of current understanding on
this matter. Therefore, is a need to assess the views of Portuguese soccer
players’ and coaches’ regarding PST process. As Gilbert and Trudel (2004),
stated: “the development of any profession relies on research, training
programs and innovations in practice” (p. 388).
Given the above, the main purpose of this dissertation was to examine
the current state and use of PST in Portuguese soccer through the views
(perspectives) of elite soccer coaches and players.
Outline of the Doctoral Dissertation
This doctoral dissertation incorporates a group of papers that focus on
the research questions that underpin the thesis. We tried to organize this
dissertation with an evident research rationale that connected all the articles in
order to achieve the main goal of the thesis. Therefore, the dissertation is
organized into three sections, each of them with specific goals, as we explain
bellow.
In section I, we conducted a systematic review of research
methodologies employed in PST studies in soccer (paper I). We considered it
valuable to develop the dissertation according to the most up-to-date
information about the research methodology frequently used by investigators.
This is an important step to identify gaps in literature and suggest new
directions for further research. The following research questions were raised in
this first section:
1 – What are the sample characteristics of the studies in the field of
psychological skills applied to soccer (e.g., sample size, gender, mean age,
level of competition, participant´s focus, nationality) (paper I)?
2 – What is the research approach more frequently used (i.e., research
design) (paper I)?
3 – What are the data collection methods most preferred by the
researchers (paper I)?
In section II, we focused attention on the coaches’ views of PST. The
coach is an inseparable element of the training process and has great influence
27
on the psychological skills of players and teams. Additionally, the coach needs
to maximize his own psychological state in order to enhance his coaching
effectiveness. Buceta (1998) mentioned that the coach has a double function,
stimulating interpersonal skills that positively influence the psychological
preparation of their athletes, and regulating personal skills to optimize their own
psychological state. Thus, our aim was to explore the perspectives’ of elite
Portuguese coaches regarding (i) the psychological preparation and training of
psychological skills of soccer players and teams, as well as, (ii) their own
psychological preparation and training of psychological skills. This provides
valuable insights about the current state of PST in professional Portuguese
soccer. Therefore, we investigated the following research questions:
1 – What is the educational background on sports psychology of
Portuguese elite soccer coaches (paper II)?
2 – What are the coaches’ perspectives on the importance of PST of
soccer players and teams (paper II)?
3 – What are the coaches’ role on PST of their players and teams (paper
II and III)?
4 – How do soccer coaches prepare their players and teams
psychologically? What strategies do they apply? Where and for what purposes
do they apply it (paper III)?
5 - What are the coaches’ perspectives’ on the importance of PST of
soccer coaches (paper II)?
6 – Do the coaches use psychological techniques to improve their own
performance (paper IV)? Where, when and why do they use it?
7 – What are the coaches’ perspectives’ about the role of the sports
psychologists in soccer (paper II)?
In section III, we focused on soccer player’s views on PST. The soccer
player is the key element of the whole process of PST and he is the major
beneficiary of the improvement of psychological preparation. The goal was to
explore and analyze the perspectives of elite soccer players regarding their
psychological preparation and training of psychological skills. This analysis aims
to complement the knowledge already exposed in section II, providing a more
28
complete “frame” of the PST study. Therefore, the main research questions of
this section were:
1 – What is the importance assigned to PST by Portuguese elite soccer
players (paper V)?
2 – What are the player’s personal experiences regarding PST
interventions (paper V)?
3 – Do the player’s use psychological techniques in their soccer
routines? Where, when and why do they used it? (paper VI)
4 – What are the soccer players’ perspectives about the role of a sport
psychologist in soccer (paper V)?
At the final part of the dissertation the final conclusions are presented, as
well as some practical implications and recommendations for the future of the
PST in professional soccer.
29
Paper I
Psychological skills training applied to soccer: A systematic review
based on research methodologies 1
____________________
1 Accepted for publication at the Review of European Studies: vol.5, nº5, December
2013
31
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to provide a systematic review of studies on
psychological skills training (PST) applied to soccer from 1980 until the end of
2012. A total of 28 studies were evaluated and reported in five sections: year
overview and journals, research designs, data collection, sample characteristics
and PST focus category.PST articles applied to soccer were spread throughout
a wide range of journals and had a considerable growth during the 2008-12
period. Results also indicated that most of the research on PST applied to
soccer was experimental, longitudinal and combined quantitative and qualitative
data. Furthermore, the majority of studies focused on non-elite players with a
age under 16 and were conducted in North American countries. Critical and
innovative reflections were made in order to highlight potential research gaps
and to suggest new perspectives for further investigation.
Key-words: psychological skills training, soccer, research design, data
collection, sample characteristics
.
32
Introduction
Soccer is undoubtedly one of the most popular sports in the world,
engaging people worldwide as players, spectators and TV viewers (Haugaasen
& Jordet, 2012). A survey by the Fédération Internationale de Football
Association (FIFA) in 2006 reported that 265 million people regularly play
soccer (FIFA, 2007b), making soccer one of the most highly participated sports
in the world. In addition, large soccer events have in recent years drawn more
TV viewers than most other sporting events. The world cup tournament of 2006
had 27 billion accumulated viewers and the final alone attracted an audience of
more than 700 million (FIFA, 2007a). For Joseph S. Blater, FIFA president,
soccer popularity remains undiminished and is actually increasing (FIFA,
2007c).
This global access to soccer requires an optimal performance from all of
its practitioners, particularly, soccer players. In order to boost soccer players’
performance, researchers all over the world have actively studied these
practitioners in different areas of sports sciences, including sport psychology. In
this context, Psychological skills training (PST) research has emerged as an
important tool to support the psychological preparation of soccer players in the
accomplishment of higher performances (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006,
2010).
The development of any profession relies on research, training
programmes and innovations in practice (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004). A detailed
analysis of published research provides a resource for those conducting
research in the area and for those reading the body of literature (Silverman &
Skonie, 1997). In order to overcome the limitations of traditional reviews or
narrative summaries, several authors (Littell, Corcoran, & Pillai, 2008; Noblit &
Hare, 1988) had promoted the development of systematic methods (i.e.,
systematic reviews and meta-analysis). Craig et al., (2008) stressed the
benefits of conducting systematic reviews in developing interventions and
designing future studies. According to Craig et al., systematic reviews allow
researchers to use the best available evidence and appropriate theories to
develop future research directions and intervention strategies, as well as to
33
raise awareness of the range of research methods employed in the study area.
However, systematic reviews analyzing research methods employed in PST
studies applied to soccer are clearly undeveloped. In fact, to our knowledge, no
research was identified with this specific purpose.
There are different ways to conduct research (i.e., experimental or
descriptive; cross-sectional or longitudinal; qualitative or quantitative), and
different research designs can provide different views about the same research
topic. Therefore, when it comes to answering specific questions, researchers
have to be critical about the advantages and disadvantages of each research
methodology and decide about the most appropriate research tools. In addition,
research quality is influenced by sample characteristics, particularly the level of
competition, nationality, gender and age of participants. If research trends
exhibited their focus on only one type of sample characteristic instead of setting
the parameter characteristics of the wider population, the research data would
have to face several limitations, since poor sampling is unhelpful for the
researcher (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2007).
Given the above, it seems useful to conduct a systematic review of PST
studies applied to soccer in order to identify current knowledge of area under
study and future research directions. Thus the purpose of this study was to
provide a systematic review of studies on PST applied to soccer, focusing on
research designs, data collection methods, sample characteristics and focus
category. It should be noted, that we do not intend to appraise the quality or
suitability of the research methodologies developed by the investigators but to
examine the multiplicity of approaches employed.
Method
The current research design was based on similar recent systematic
reviews of literature on athletes’ career transition out of sport (Park, Lavallee, &
Tod, 2013) and self-talk-performance relationship (Tod, Hardy, & Oliver, 2011).
34
Search strategy
The search strategy included the use of the following electronic
databases: Google Scholar, PsycARTICLES, PsycBOOKS, PsycINFO,
SPORTDiscus, and Web of Knowledge. In addition to the computerized
database search we conducted a manual search of journals, including
International Education Studies, International Journal of Sport Psychology,
International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, Journal of Applied
Sport Psychology, Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, Journal of Sport
Behavior, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, Journal of Sports Sciences,
Psychology of Sport and Exercise, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport,
and The Sport Psychologist. The following search terms were used in
combination with “football” or “soccer”: PST, mental training, psychological
preparation, psychological strategies, psychological techniques, psychological
skills, imagery, self-talk, relaxation, and goal-setting
Inclusion criteria for the present investigation were as follows. Studies
had to be: a) related to PST on soccer, b) based on soccer population (groups
of soccer populations), c) written in English, and d) published in peer-reviewed
journals.
The focus of this search was only on research published in journals,
because it represents “a record of an area’s scholarships and provides a
foundation to understand research trends” (Silverman & Skonie, 1997, p. 300).
We acknowledge that other sources (e.g., dissertations, books, conference
proceedings) exist and should not be overlooked when seeking to understand,
or study the PST process. Nevertheless, “master’s theses and doctoral
dissertations are not easily accessible, and a rigorous review process is not
always required for books” (Gilbert & Trudel, 2004, p. 389). Finally, based on
the previous recommendations on conducting systematic reviews (Knipschild,
1995), we do not include the studies that had been published as abstracts or
conference proceedings.
35
Procedure and analysis
Hard copies of studies were collected and assessed against the inclusion
criteria. Once studies met the selection criteria, we analysed their content based
on similar systematic review procedures used by several authors (Goodger,
Gorely, Lavallee, & Harwood, 2007; Park et al., 2013; Sallis, Prochaska, &
Taylor, 2000; Tod et al., 2011).
Each study was listed alphabetically according to the first author and
assigned with a reference number. All papers included in the current
systematic review are indicated in the reference list with an asterisk (*). Data
tables were developed to reflect published research articles, research designs,
sample characteristics and PST focus category.
Three authors familiar with the field of PST and with experience at
employing a variety of qualitative analysis techniques coded the data
independently and crossed results. Every time disparities were spotted, the
researchers discussed the most suitable changes. Through discussion, a
consensus and final coding of the data were agreed between all three
researchers.
Results
Results are presented according to: (a) year overview and journals, (b)
research designs, (c) data collection, (d) sample characteristics, and (e) PST
focus category.
General findings
Following the aforementioned search strategy, 46 studies were initially
identified as being potentially relevant for the review. However, an initial
screening procedure excludes 18 papers for the following reasons: i) book
chapters (3), ii) unpublished dissertations (3), iii) unpublished documents (4), iv)
non-English written papers (8). Consequently, a final count of 28 studies was
considered for the purpose of the data collection.
36
Year overview and journals
Table 1 provides an overview of the publication year and journals. PST
articles applied to soccer were spread throughout a wide range of journals. The
first PST articles applied to soccer emerged in the early 1990s. Since then, this
kind of study clearly experienced a large increase in the annual publication
mean, from 0.5 articles published yearly in the early 1990s to 4.0 articles
published annually most recently. During the 2008-12 period the number of
articles published had considerable growth. PST articles applied to soccer were
spread throughout a wide range of journals.
Research design
Table 2 depicts results regarding the research design employed in the
selected studies. The present review highlighted a marked imbalance between
the experimental and descriptive studies, with a large predominance of the
former over the latter. At this level it is also important to note that 11 of the
experimental studies did not use a control group (i.e. quasi-experimental
studies). Investigators used longitudinal designs more frequently than cross
sectional methods. Over half of the PST studies applied to soccer employed
mixed methods. In addition quantitative methods were used in nine studies
while only three studies employed qualitative research methods.
Data collection
As seen in table 3, the majority of the studies collected data via
questionnaires and observation. The most frequently used questionnaire was
the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ: Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998;
and SIQ-C: Hall, Munroe-Chandler, Fishburne, & Hall, 2009;) employed in three
studies (Jordet, 2005; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, & Shannon, 2005;
Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012) and two studies (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, &
Fishburne, 2008; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy, & Hall, 2012)
respectively.
37
Table 1. Year overview and journals
Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)
Year Overview
• 1992 – 1995 1, 23 2 (7.1)
• 1996 – 1999 7 1 (3.6)
• 2000 – 2003 2, 28 2 (7.1)
• 2004 – 2007 9, 10, 13, 16, 19, 20, 25 7 (25)
• 2008 – 2012 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 22,
24, 26, 27
16 (57.2)
Note: The years were delineated into 4-year periods for comparison across equal periods of time
Journals
• Journal of Applied Sport
Psychology
3, 5, 6, 10, 23, 25 6 (21.4)
• The Sport Psychologist 7, 9, 17, 18 4 (14.3)
• Journal of Sports Science 1, 14 2 (7.1)
• Journal of Sport Behavior 26, 28 2 (7.1)
• Asian Journal of Sports Medicine 8, 24 2 (7.1)
• Psychology of Sport and Exercise 15 1 (3.6)
• European Journal of Sport
Science
16 1 (3.6)
• Journal of Sports Science and
Medicine
4 1 (3.6)
• Journal of Applied Behavior
Analysis
2 1 (3.6)
• International Education Studies 22 1 (3.6)
• Perceptual and Motor Skills 19 1 (3.6)
• Journal of Human Movement
Studies
20 1 (3.6)
• Imagination, Cognition and
Personality
13 1 (3.6)
• Journal of Education and Practice 21 1 (3.6)
• Physical Education and Sport
Pedagogy
12 1 (3.6)
• Procedia- Social and Behavior
Sciences
27 1 (3.6)
• Scottish Journal of Arts, Social Sciences and Scientific Studies
11
1 (3.6) Studies’ reference numbers: 1 (Blair, Hall, & Leyshon, 1993); 2 (Brobst & Ward, 2002); 3 (Burton,
Gillham, & Glenn, 2011); 4 (Edvardsson, Ivarsson, & Johnson, 2012); 5 (Gucciardi, Gordon, &
Dimmock, 2009a); 6 (Gucciardi, Gordon, & Dimmock, 2009b); 7 (Hale & Whitehouse, 1998); 8
(Hashim & Yusof, 2011); 9 (Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004); 10 (Jordet, 2005); 11
(Kerkez, Kulak, & Aktas, 2012); 12 ( Maitland & Grevis, 2010); 13 (Munroe-Chandler & Hall,
2004); 14 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Fishburne, 2008); 15 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne,
Murphy & Hall, 2012); 16 (Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne & Shannon, 2005); 17 (O & Munroe-
Chandler, 2008); 18 (Pain, Harwood, & Anderson, 2011); 19 (Papaioannou, Ballon, Theodorakis,
& Auwelle, 2004); 20 Papanikolaou, Nikolaidis, Patsiaouras, & Lazou, 2004); 21 (Papanikolaou,
Voutselas, Mantis, & Laparidis, 2012); 22 (Sadeghi, Omar-Fauzee, Jamalis, Ab-Latif, & Cheric,
2010); 23 (Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994); 24 (Seif-Barghi, Kordi, Memari, Ali-Mansournia, &
Jalali-Ghomi, 2012); 25 (Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006); 26 (Thelwell, Greenlees, &
Weston, 2010); 27 (Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012); 28 (Voight & Callaghan, 2001b)
38
Table 2. Research designs
Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)
Research design
• Descriptive 3, 6, 12, 14, 22, 23, 27/1 7 (25)
• Experimental 1*, 2, 4*, 5*, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11*, 13*, 15, 16, 17*, 18, 19*, 20*,
21*, 24*, 25, 26, 27/2*, 28
22 (78.6)
• Cross-Sectional 3, 6, 7, 12, 14, 22, 23, 27/1 8 (28.6)
• Longitudinal 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25,
26, 27/2, 28
21 (75)
• Qualitative 6, 12, 22 3 (10.7)
• Quantitative 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 14, 19, 21, 23 9 (32.1)
• Mix Methods 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26, 271, 28 16 (57.2)
Notes: * Studies using experimental and control group
Paper 27 reported multiple studies and consequently we assigned it with an additional the same sub number:
27/1 ( Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012, study 1), 27/2 ( Veraksa & Gorovaya, 2012)
271
- 27/1 + 27/2
Table 3. Data collection
Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)
Data Collection
• Interviews 6, 9, 10, 12, 18, 22, 24 7
• Observation 1, 2, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26,
27/2,
16
• Questionnaires 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 23, 25, 26,
27/1, 28
19
OSSTPQ 3
TSCI 3
TEOSQ 3
MPS 3
SAS 3, 4
OSDBQ 3
LESCA 4
ACSI-28 4
AFMTI 5
DRS 5
DFS-2 5
39
Sample characteristics
The analysis of the PST literature applied to soccer allowed a clear
picture of the types of samples that researchers have employed (Table 4). As a
result, we are able to highlight sampling gaps. The majority of the studies
included or relied exclusively on soccer players. Regarding the gender analysis,
approximately one third of the studies did not provide gender information. When
gender was identified, 11 of the studies contained male participants only, six
contained both genders and seven contained female participants only.
Inspection of table 4 also reveals that nearly one third of the studies (32.1%)
employed samples with a mean age under 16, while none of the studies
reported samples with a mean age over 25. With respect to the competitive
level, the studies included a range of competitive levels, but focus was mainly
on non-professional players. The majority of the studies were conducted in
North American countries (n=11) (particularly in Canada and USA). Eight
Table 3. continued
Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)
CEF 5
CSAI-2 7, 14
POMS-A 8
SIQ 10, 16, 27
SIQ-C 14, 15
SEQ-S 14
MIQ-R 15, 17
MIQ 18
FSS 18
BMRI-2 18
IUQ-SP 23
TTCT 27
CEF 28
Social validation 2, 5, 25, 26
Not validated 1
• Others
1
1, 4, 7, 11, 15, 18 6
Notes: Each article may have included more than one method of data collection, and, therefore, the sum
of the category total is greater than the 28 articles in the database.
Others 1
: Stopwatch; daily record; polares; MP3; biofeedback instruments (galvanic skin response – GSR;
heart rate variability - HRV).
40
studies had been conducted in Europe, while five studies did not identify where
data originated.
Table 4. Sample characteristics
Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)
Participant type
• Players 1, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12,13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28
24 (85.8)
• Players and coaches 2, 9 2 (7.1)
• Players, coaches and
parents
5, 6 2 (7.1)
Mean Age
• Under 16 3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 15, 16, 20, 27 9 (32.1)
• 16-20 1, 4, 12, 17, 28 5 (17.9)
• 21-25 7, 10, 18, 19, 21 5 (17.9)
• Range Given 2, 11, 13, 14, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 9 (32.1)
Participant level
• Competitive travelling 13, 14, 16 3 (10.7)
• High school / University 1, 2, 4, 7, 17, 18, 21, 22, 25 9 (32.2)
• Club Regional level 3, 9, 26, 27, 28 5 (17.9) Youth leagues 5, 6, 15, 20, 24 5 (17.9)
• Professional / Elite 10, 12 2 (7.1)
• Mixed 19, 23 2 (7.1)
• Not Specified 8, 11 2 (7.1)
Gender
• Females 1, 2, 3, 9, 13, 16, 28 7 (25)
• Males 5, 7, 10, 11, 18, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 27 11 (39.3)
• Both Genders 4, 12, 14, 15, 17, 23 6 (21.4)
• Not specified 6, 8, 19, 26 4 (14.3)
Location
• North America 1, 3, 9, 13,14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 23, 28 11 (39.3)
• Europe 4, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 19, 26 8 (28.6)
• Asia 22, 27 2 (7.1)
• Australia 5, 6 2 (7.1)
• Not identified 2, 8, 20, 24, 25 5 (17.9)
41
PST focus category
An overview of the PST focus category is presented in Table 5. All of the
PST studies were targeted at soccer players. In addition, the majority of the
research occurred in a training or competition context, while only two studies
occurred within laboratory conditions.
Discussion
The present study aimed to provide a systematic review of the research
methodologies employed in PST studies applied to soccer. Although PST
research proliferated in North America during the 1980s (Vealey, 2007), our
findings showed that PST soccer research only had a consistent development
since 2004. Indeed, before the Nineties, PST research applied to soccer seems
to be almost non-existent. One possible explanation is that the majority of PST
research until the 1990’s was targeted for athletes in general rather than
athletes of specific sports (Vealey, 1988). A further explanation may be related
to the lower popularity of soccer in the USA (where the first sport psychology
journals emerged). In a content analysis of PST approaches published in North
Table 5. PST focus category
Characteristics Reference of studies Articles n (%)
PST Target
Toward soccer players 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28
28(100)
Toward soccer coaches - 0 (0)
Environment / Context
Competition 5, 10, 18, 24, 25, 26 6 (21.4)
Training 1, 3, 11, 14 , 15, 16, 17, 19, 20 9 (32.2)
Training and comp. 2, 9, 2 (7.1)
Laboratory conditions 4, 8 2 (7.1)
Not specific 6, 7,12, 13, 21, 22, 23, 27, 28 9 (32.2)
42
America between 1980 and 1988, Vealey (1988) stated that 74% of the studies
were targeted for athletes in general and only 26% were targeted for athletes in
specific sports. PST approaches targeted for specifc sports included golf
(Keogh & Smith, 1985; Rotella & Bunker, 1981), body building (Kubistant,
1988), skiing (Loudis, Lobitz, & Singer, 1986), basketball (Mikes, 1987) and
tennis (Weinberg, 1988).
Boutcher and Rotella (1987) emphasize that PST must be structured
according to the specific characteristics and demands of a particular sport to be
effective. However sport-specific programmes are more the exception than the
rule (Birrer & Morgan, 2010). “This is remarkable, bearing in mind that the
performance-relevant tasks of say a soccer player and a 200m breaststroke
swimmer are very different” (Birrer & Morgan, 2010, p. 79). Toward this end,
PST soccer articles have been published in several academic journals,
particularly in the last few years. This can be considered a positive trend for
researchers, as there appears to be a broad spectrum of journals from which to
select when submitting PST studies applied to soccer. However, this increase of
PST soccer studies also creates a new challenge for researchers and
practitioners because new substantial contributions to specific scientific
knowledge are required. Therefore, it seems important to assess current
research methodologies employed in PST studies applied to soccer (“what was
done”) and to reflect on new directions or approaches that researchers may
have to adopt to contribute to the growth of this field (“what needs to be done”).
In terms of research designs our findings highlighted a prevalence of
experimental over descriptive studies. Although experimental designs are a
useful strategy for the examination of different variable relationships, they do
not explain in detail the state of art about a specific phenomenon. Therefore,
more descriptive studies are needed in the study of PST in soccer.
Furthermore, descriptive research allows a measure of status, which is useful to
develop the theoretical framework on which experimental research is based.
On the other hand, the examined studies pointed out a dominance of
longitudinal approaches. Take into consideration the issue of the present
review, i.e. PST, this finding can be considered a positive trend. Longitudinal
43
studies provide rich data that can trace changes overtime with great accuracy
(Cohen et al., 2007). These types of studies describe a variety of designs that
are conducted over a period of time on the same sample group. For example,
longitudinal designs are crucial to determine if the soccer players properly
learned to use their psychological skills. In addition, longitudinal designs are
also crucial to examine the influence and efficacy of PST interventions over
time.
Over half of the PST studies applied to soccer used mixed methods,
which is in agreement with the recommendations of several authors (Gratton &
Jones, 2004; Page, Martin, & Wayda, 2001; Robbins & Dummer, 2001). Gratton
and Jones (2004) stressed the importance of mixing methods combining
quantitative and qualitative data. Triangulation of data (i.e. the use of multiple
means of data to examine a single phenomenon) can strengthen the validity of
the research. Another advantage is the complementary of both qualitative and
qualitative methods, providing a global and in-depth exploration of the
phenomenon simultaneously (Gratton & Jones, 2004). If research about a
specific phenomenon shows an imbalance between the use of quantitative and
qualitative methods, it is possible that findings may be biased.
The high reliance on questionnaires and systematic observation pointed
out in the present review emphasizes the need for researchers in this field to
use a more diverse array of research methods. A theoretical and applied
context would be profitable with a diversity of multi-method approaches.
Questionnaires and quantitative methodologies alone are not enough to
completely understand this phenomenon (i.e. PST in soccer), and qualitative
instruments must also be employed. The use of interviews, for example,
provides the researcher with a more holistic and contextualized knowledge
about the problem and produces relevant information which is not always
provided by other assessment methods (Valles, 1999). For the Vealey (1988)
“information such as this can facilitate the development of salient and
appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332). The
deep understanding of athletes’ self-perceptions, beliefs and opinions about
their knowledge of, use of, and importance placed on PST, could enhance the
44
PST interventions and increase the number of soccer players adhering to
intervention programmes. What is the importance assigned to the PST by
soccer players? Which psychological skills they considered most important for
their performance? What are the psychological strategies that they used in their
soccer routines? Where, when and why do they used them? Are they receptive
to PST interventions? What are their personal experiences regarding PST
interventions?
Regarding sample characteristics, the majority of reviewed studies
comprised a sample composed of young and non-elite soccer players.
Targeting youth soccer players can be considered a positive trend. According to
several authors (Cruz, 1984; Vealey, 1988), the perspectives of adhesion and
success of this type of programme will be radically different if, instead of
focusing on experienced athletes, it is geared to younger athletes. In addition,
“PST with younger athletes can be especially effective rewarding as a means of
helping youngsters develop appropriate psychological skills for sport
competition” (Vealey, 1988, p. 323). As Orlick (1982) stated if we expose
youngsters to stressful situations such as organized competitive sport, we have
a responsibility to teach them strategies to cope with that stress.
On the other hand a possible reason for the lack of studies with elite
soccer players could include the extreme difficulty for contact between
researchers and these practitioners. Indeed the great popularity of elite soccer
players make them practically inaccessible for the majority of the researchers. It
should be noted however, that the study of elite athletes can provides useful
insights into the current state of PST in a specific-sport (Calmels, d’Arripe-
Longueville, Fournier, & Soulard, 2003; Fletcher & Hanton, 2003), as well as
valuable information for practitioners (Bull, 1991; Leffingwell, Durand-Bush,
Wurzberger, & Cada, 2005). Therefore, more studies with elite soccer players
are needed in the study area.
The official survey of FIFA revealed that in 2006 only 26 million (10%) of
the 265 million players actively involved in soccer worldwide were women and
girls (FIFA, 2007b). Indeed women's football has shown slow growth, mainly
due to social and cultural barriers that restrain women’s participation in this
45
sport (FIFA, 2007d). Surprisingly, the results from the present review showed a
balance between participant gender patterns. It should be noted, however that
this finding may be connected with the high number of studies conducted in
North America countries, specifically in Canada and USA, where women’s
football have large popularity. The considerable number of studies devoted
exclusively to female samples can be considered important to emphasise the
need for PST, as well as to help this gender to overcome some of the social
barriers that they still face in some of the countries.
Another relevant finding highlighted by the present review was the
expressive interest that researchers have on PST studies targeted for soccer
players. It is widely recognized that the soccer player is a central figure in the
PST process. However we cannot forget that several other practitioners,
particularly the soccer coach, have a large influence on this process. According
to Vealey (1988), coaches “have been long viewed as a key in the PST
process, as they must enthusiastically endorse the skills and techniques being
taught and implemented with their athletes” (p. 323). Therefore, future research
should try to overcome this evident lack of literature. What is the opinion of
soccer coaches regarding the training of psychological skills in soccer players
and teams? What is their role in this process? How do they prepare their
players psychologically? What psychological strategies and techniques do they
often employed? Where, when and why they use it? Are they receptive to work
with sport psychologists?
Additionally, it should be noted that the coaches also needs to maximize
his own psychological state in order to enhance his coaching effectiveness.
Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002) stated “that coaches are often
required to deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete
performance-related issues, decision making) while ensuring that their own
psychological and emotional states remain optimal” (p. 38). It is clear that
coaches have special needs of their own and would benefit from PST
programming specifically designed for them (Vealey, 1988). Thus, a more detail
understanding of this specific area of research (i.e., PST programmes toward to
soccer coaches) is also necessary. What are the soccer coaches’ opinions
46
about the PST toward to themselves? What else they do to prepare themselves
psychologically for their job? Do coaches use psychological techniques in their
coaching routines? Where, when and why they use it? Are they receptive to
sport psychologist interventions?
Finally, the results from our review showed a balance between the
research employed in training and competition settings. This is an encouraging
finding, because sport psychology research (Gould, Flett, & Bean, 2009) has
exposed the equivalent importance of training and competition in psychological
preparation. Further research should explore more fully the use and effects of
PST in different time frames (before, during and after) of both environments.
There are a number of limitations associated with the current study that
ought to be acknowledged. Indeed, the search terms employed and the
exclusion of the non-English studies may have resulted in the omission of
relevant, high-quality literature. Furthermore, it is also possible that the
exclusion criteria were too many or too restrictive.
Conclusion
Research in the area of PST applied to soccer has increased
considerably in recent years, as reflected in the growing number of studies. To
date, investigators have contributed to a better understanding of PST in soccer,
however there is still much to explore and further research is needed.
The current systematic review reported the current research
methodologies employed in PST soccer studies (“what was done”) and
highlighted limitations in this field (“what needs to be done”). Suggestions for
future directions for PST applied to soccer have been pointed out. These
suggestions have included targeting expert and elite soccer players, targeting
coaches in addition to soccer players, increasing descriptive designs to explore
in detail the state of art of the PST process in soccer, develop multi-methods for
examining the PST process, explore more deeply the use and effects of PST in
training and competition settings. It is hoped that these suggested directions
may facilitate productive growth and development in the PST applied to soccer
research.
47
Paper II
What do coaches think about psychological skills training in soccer?
A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams 2
____________________
2 Freitas, S., Dias, C., & Fonseca A. (2013). What do coaches think about
psychological skills training in soccer? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams.
International Journal of Sports Science, 3(3), 81-91. doi: 10.5923/j.sports.20130303.04
49
Abstract
It is widely recognized that the coach is a key element in the psychological skills
training (PST) process. However PST research targeting coaches is very
limited, specifically in a soccer context. Therefore, 13 elite coaches from
Portuguese Premier Soccer League were interviewed to explore their thinking
about PST process. It was also our aim to examine the coaches’ educational
background in sport psychology, as well as their opinions about the role of sport
psychologists in soccer. Content analysis of the data revealed that participants
acknowledge the importance of PST and the role of the sport psychologist in
elite soccer. Nevertheless, participants seem to be unprepared to implement
and conduct PST programs. A list of barriers to PST interventions in soccer also
emerged from the data. Findings provide several applied implications for
practitioners (coaches, directors and sport psychologists). They also serve as a
guide to future research and contribute to the development of more specific and
effective PST interventions with soccer players and coaches.
Key-words: psychological skills training, elite soccer, sport psychologists
.
50
Introduction
The main goal of psychological skills training (PST) is to assist sport
participants in the development of psychological skills to achieve performance
success and personal well-being (Vealey, 2007). PST comprises of a
systematic and consistent practice of psychological skills for the purpose of
enhancing performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and
physical activity self-satisfaction (Weinberg & Gould, 2011). In order to enhance
the psychological preparation of athletes, coaches and teams a systematic PST
is required (Figone, 1999). According to several studies, PST programs have
been shown to be an effective strategy for improving athletic performance in a
wide variety of sports (Blakeslee & Golf, 2007; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001). In
this sense, the study of PST has emerged as one of the main topics in sport
psychology.
A successful implementation of PST programs is dependent on the head
coach because he or she is the manager of the team. Therefore a need exists
for an examination of coaches PST knowledge. An in-depth examination of
expert coaches’ knowledge would enhance the development and standards of
PST programs for coaches and athletes (Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995).
According to Côté et al., it becomes important to examine in more depth the
knowledge domain of expert coaches in order to provide useful insights to sport
psychologists and new coaches concerning the art of intervening with athletes.
It is also important to think not only of the psychological preparation of
athletes and coaches in general but also the PST programs for a specific sport.
In fact, the different psychological skills, variables and techniques do not exert
the same influence in achieving success across the different sports. Thus in
attempting to prepare specific PST programs for a certain sport it is crucial to
examine the knowledge of the coaches of this sport.
In this regard some PST studies were conducted with tennis (Gould,
Medbery, Damarjian, & Lauer, 1999) and netball (Grobbelaar, 2007) coaches.
Grobbelaar reported that despite the fact that 89,9 % of the netball coaches
regard PST as very important, only 46,43% implement PST programmes
themselves or made use of sport psychologists. This same author also found
51
that goal-setting, self-confidence, and concentration were the most frequently
implemented skills by the coaches who implemented PST programs. Similarly,
Gould et al., (1999) indicated that enjoyment/fun, focus/concentration, self-
confidence, emotional control, honesty/integrity, motivation/passion, and
positive self-talk/ thinking were the most important psychological skills for junior
tennis players to develop. These authors stated that while the junior tennis
coaches felt that they were fairly knowledgeable in sport psychology their PST
knowledge was more influenced by the experience of working with the players
rather than by formal courses or books. According to several studies, trial-and-
error learning becomes a common procedure among strategies for
psychological preparation (Gould et al., 1999; Sullivan & Hodge, 1991).
Although PST is recognized as an invaluable training tool by coaches of
various sports (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007; Ottley, 2000; Sullivan &
Hodge, 1991), it is often excluded from coaching practices because some
coaches can be unwilling to implement PST programs and express a negative
view point towards using a sport psychologist. Possible explanations for this
trend include several stigmas toward PST. A lack of PST knowledge was
suggested to be a primary reason why coaches often fail to implement PST
programs with their athletes (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar, 2007; Ottley,
2000). In this context, a recent study showed that 98,4% of coaches of elite
athletes recognized a need for more support in the area of PST (Reade et al.,
2009). The lack of time for the coaches to teach psychological skills is another
frequent barrier to justify the lack of psychological interventions (Gould et al.,
1999). The lack of finance is also identified as a common barrier for the
inclusion of sport psychologists within a team’s staff (Voight & Callaghan,
2001a). Another recurrent barrier that sport psychologists have to face is the
stigma that links the sport psychologist to a “shrink”. Martin, Wrisberg, Beitel,
and Lounsbury (1997) stated that the athletes that approach a sport
psychologist may fear being stigmatized by the coach or team-mates for having
psychological problems.
According to Hanrahan, Grove and Lockwood (1990) better results could
be reached if a sport psychologist was responsible for conducting the PST
52
program. Since the coaches have the power to allow or not allow the
interference of external collaborators (e.g., sport psychologists) in their
coaching process (Morris, 1997), their attitude regarding to the sport
psychologist will interfere with the degree of adherence in PST programs
expressed by athletes.
Although the aforementioned studies (Gould et al., 1999; Grobbelaar,
2007) offer valuable insight into the PST with athletes, it should be noted that
they do not include the psychological preparation of the coaches. According to
Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002), coaches are often required to
deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete
performance related issues, decision making) while also ensuring that their own
psychological and emotional states remain optimal. For Vealey (2007), the
purpose of PST is to assist athletes and coaches in the development of
psychological skills to achieve performance success and personal well-being.
Therefore, a more detailed understanding of this area of research is necessary,
because as Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, and Hutchings (2008a) stated, “the
coach can, or should be considered a performer” (p. 38).
Despite being the centre of much public interest and media attention
worldwide, little is known about the PST knowledge of expert soccer head
coaches. For Potrac, Jones, and Cushion (2007) it could be suggested that
there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding the top-level soccer coaches
and the means and methods that they utilize in their respective quests to
produce successful soccer players and teams.
Given the above, a need exists to examine the expert soccer head
coach’s knowledge and opinions regarding the PST in soccer. Thus, the present
study with coaches of Portuguese elite teams was designed to examine their: a)
educational background on sport psychology, b) perspectives on PST with
soccer players and teams (including importance of PST, crucial psychological
skills, ability to conduct PST programs, and roadblocks to PST), c) perspectives
on PST with themselves, and d) receptiveness to work with sport psychologists.
53
Method
Participants
The sample of the current study was composed of 13 male professional
Portuguese high-level soccer coaches, who ranged in age from 43 to 63 (50.6 ±
5.8 years; mean ± SD). Their experience as soccer coaches ranged from 10 to
29 years. The sample was selected based upon the following criteria: i) have
worked, or currently work with “elite-level” athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, &
Coughlan, 2005), ii) be employed by their respective governing bodies of sport
(national squads) or by professional clubs (Thelwell et al., 2008b), and iii) had a
minimum of ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom, Durand-Bush, &
Salmela, 1997; Sedgwick, Côté, & Dowd, 1997).
At the time of the interview, all the participants occupied head coach
positions in Portuguese Premier League soccer clubs. Furthermore all of the
soccer coaches had the highest level of the Union of European Football
Associations (UEFA) coaching qualification: UEFA Pro License. This research
was reviewed and approved by the commission responsible for the ethical
issues. All coaches gave their informed consent to participate in the study.
Instruments
A semi-structure interview guide was used to conduct the interviews. The
interview guide was developed based on the interview protocol of Taylor and
Schneider (1992) and was organized into five sections. Section 1 contained
demographic information and other introductory comments. In this section
participants were informed about the purpose of the study and the structure of
the interview. Several brief key definitions (e.g., “sport psychology”,
“psychological skills”, “psychological techniques” and “psychological skills
training”) were clarified for the participants in order to establish rapport and to
orient them to the interview process. Section 2 analysed the coaches’
educational background on sport psychology (e.g., Did you have formal
education in sport psychology? Where did your sport psychology knowledge
come from?). Section 3 examined the importance assigned to PST in soccer
(e.g., What is your opinion about the importance of PST in soccer? Which
54
psychological skills do you consider crucial for soccer players and the team’s
performance? ). Section 4 explored the coaches’ perceptions regarding the
sport psychologist services in soccer (e.g., What is your opinion about the
importance of sport psychologists in soccer? Are you receptive to work with
these experts?).The last section of the interview guide provided the opportunity
for any final comments and summary questions from both the interviewer and
interviewee.
Procedures
All interviews were conducted face-to-face by the first author of the
present investigation. The interviewer had previous experience as assistant
soccer coach in the Portuguese Premier League and was therefore familiar with
the history, experiences and terminology used by the participants. For Lincoln
and Guba (1985), this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the
data collection. Each interview lasted between 60 and 90 minutes and was
conducted face to face in an environment comfortable for the participants. Nine
of the 13 interviews took place in the coaches’ office before or after a training
session. Of the remaining interviews, three were conducted in the coach’s
home, and one in a hotel room.
Data analysis
Interviews were analysed in a process of inductive-deductive content
analysis (Patton, 2002), which consisted of several steps. First, interviews were
transcribed, read and reread by the first author in order to become completely
familiar with the content. Second, raw data themes i.e. quotes or paraphrasing
to represent a meaningful point or thought, were identified and coded. Different
levels of coding were developed to refine categories until saturation of data was
reached. First-order subthemes, second- order subthemes and general
dimensions were established according to a progressive level of higher
abstraction. Next, in order to establish trustworthiness, all findings were
presented and discussed with another author to serve as a “devil advocate”
(Marshall & Rossman, 1995). After discussion, different suggestions were
55
presented, changes were made as appropriate and a final consensus was
reached. Finally, the first author checked all the findings again in depth to
provide a validity check.
Results
The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions that
emerged from 66 raw data themes identified by the participants. The
dimensions were abstracted from 14 second-order subthemes and these from
25 first-order subthemes represented in figures 1-4.
Educational background in sport psychology
This dimension comprised of the coaches’ education in sport psychology.
Eight raw data themes were included in this dimension and two second-order
subthemes were used to define it (Figure 1).
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
• Sport Science (n=4)
• Contact with Sport Psychology discipline (n=3)
Academic courses
(n=4)
Educational background
Formal education
• UEFA pro licence (n=13)
• UEFA advanced licence (n=13)
• Contact with sport psychology contents (n=9)
Soccer coaching courses (n=13)
• Experience as coach (n=8)
• Trial and error learning (n=6)
• Experience as athlete (n=4)
Personal experiences
(n=11)
Personal experience
Figure 1. Soccer coaches’ educational background in sport psychology
Note: The number following each raw data theme and below the first order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them
56
The formal education of the participants in sport psychology was based
on academic courses (n=4) and coaching training courses (n=13). Four
participants indicated having contact with sport psychology discipline in their
sports science academic courses. They also referred to additional contact with
sport psychology discipline due to their participation in soccer coaching training
courses. However, others coaches mentioned that their only formal
psychological education was the hours of sport psychology within their soccer
coaching courses. For example, one participant stated:
I haven’t got any academic education. The only study I’ve had has been
my soccer course at level III and IV. A discipline with sports psychology
content exists within these courses and this is the only formal education
I’ve received.
Eleven participants also mentioned that their knowledge in sport
psychology resulted from their personal experiences, such as their own
experience as elite player and coach. The following quote clearly expresses this
specific view:
My knowledge of sport psychology results from my personal
experience…I was a professional player for 12 years and I’ve been a
coach for 30 years... I’ve already orientated a lot of teams, lots of groups
and players from different cultures and with different personalities. All this
experience has made me acquire a considerable knowledge in this area.
PST with soccer players and teams
The second dimension is related to the coaches’ perspective about the
PST with soccer players and teams. This dimension included 27 raw data
subthemes that were grouped into four second order subthemes: importance of
PST, crucial psychological skills, ability to conduct PST and roadblocks to PST
with soccer players and teams (Figure 2).
57
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
• Very important (n=5)
• Crucial in elite soccer (n=4)
• One of the most important factors of performance (n=2)
• Needed to stay at top (n=1)
• Helps to achieve high level results (n=1)
Importance of PST (n=13)
Importance of PST with
soccer players and teams
PST with soccer
players and teams
• Concentration (n=5)
• Self-confidence (n=4)
• Motivation (n=3)
• Stress management (n=2)
Psychological skills (n=11)
Crucial psychological
skills for soccer players and
teams
• Team cohesion (n=4)
• Team confidence (n=2)
• Team motivation (n=2)
Team skills (n=5)
• Goal setting (n=1) P. techniques (n=1)
• Ability to sacrifice (n=3)
• Responsibility as elite player (n=2)
• Decision Making (n=1)
• Manage to failure (n=1)
• Manage to success (n=1)
Other psychological
attributes (n=5)
• Feel prepared due to their experience (n=3)
Feel prepared to conduct PST
(n=3)
Ability to
conduct PST programs with players and
teams
• Used some psychological techniques but not regularly (n=1)
• Did not feel prepared to use PST regularly (n=10)
Feel unprepared to conduct
PST (n= 10)
• Lack of PST knowledge (n= 9)
• Lack of time (n=2)
• Lack of players’ interested (n=1)
• Lack of practical resources (n=1)
• Current materials too complex (n=1)
• Difficult to evaluate PST success (n= 1)
Roadblocks to PST
(n=10)
Roadblocks to PST with
players and teams
Figure 2. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about PST on soccer players and teams
58
In the first second-order subtheme, the coaches were unanimous in
recognizing the importance of the PST with soccer players and teams. In
particular coaches considered PST as very important (n=5), as crucial in elite
soccer (n=4), as one of the most important factors of performance (n=4), as
needed to stay at the top (n=1) and to achieve high level results (n=1). The
following quote clearly express one of these specific views:
I think that psychological training of players and teams is a crucial factor
in elite soccer. At this level there is no room for mistakes and
consequently psychological training has got to be present.
The second second-order subtheme, illustrated a set of psychological
and team skills that coaches considered crucial for soccer players and team
performance, such as concentration, self-confidence and team cohesion. The
following quotations are representative of those perspectives:
Concentration is an important key to soccer players… when the players
are focused the things come out better… it seems that the players are
better physically, technically and all other things come out better. I think
concentration is the fundamental basis for the players to perform well.
One of the most important psychological skills for soccer players is self-
confidence… when the players are confident they can perform at their
best level
Another crucial skill is team cohesion… the group has to be more
important than parts
Also in the second second-order, some coaches mentioned a range of
psychological attributes that they considered important for soccer players (e.g.,
ability to sacrifice, responsibility as elite player). At this level it should be noted
that only one coach mentioned the importance of a specific psychological
technique, namely goal setting.
59
Regarding the ability to implement and conduct PST programs with
soccer players and teams, ten of the participants reported did not feel prepared
to conduct regular PST programs. On the other hand, three coaches reported
feeling prepared (due to their vast experience) to conduct this process. For
example one of the coaches stated:
I am not prepared to apply the specific techniques that you referred to in
the introduction. I lack scientific knowledge to do it but wouldn’t say that I
don’t feel able to prepare my players psychologically. I can’t utilize
specific techniques but my long experience allows me to use several
strategies in training and competition that improves my players
psychologically. For example, sometimes my speeches with my players
have psychological effects and consequently serve to prepare them
psychologically.
Finally, the participants listed several roadblocks to PST. In particular the
roadblock most identified by the participants was the lack of PST knowledge.
In my opinion the biggest problem that a soccer coach has in PST is the
lack of scientific knowledge in this area.
PST with soccer coaches
The third general dimension pointed out the coaches’ perspectives about
the PST with themselves. Eighteen raw data themes comprised this dimension
and four second-order subthemes were used to define it (Figure 3).
60
The first second-order subtheme highlighted the importance of the PST
with coaches. Nine of the participants recognized the important role of their own
PST. Additionally two coaches also mentioned that the coaches PST was
needed to stay at the top (n=2).
The second second-order theme, crucial psychological skills for soccer
coaches, illustrated the importance given by 11 participants to psychological
skills such as motivation, emotional control and leadership. In this second-order
subtheme, some participants also mentioned a range of other psychological
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
• Important (n=9)
• Needed to stay at top (n=2)
Importance of PST (n=13)
Importance of PST with
soccer coaches
PST with soccer
coaches
• Motivation (n=4)
• Emotional control (n=4)
• Leadership (n=3)
• Communication (n=2)
• Self-confidence (n=2)
Psychological skills (n=11)
Crucial psychological
skills for soccer coaches
• Self-talk (n=2) P. techniques (n=2)
• Honesty (n=1)
• Responsibility (n=1)
• Intelligence (n=1)
• Passion (n=1)
• Ability to deal with players (n=1)
Other psychological
attributes (n=5)
• Feel prepared due to their experience (n=3)
Feel prepared to conduct PST
(n=3)
Ability to conduct PST programs with
themselves
• Used some psychological techniques but not regularly (n=1)
• Did not feel prepared to use PST regularly (n=10)
Feel unprepared to conduct
PST (n= 10)
• Lack of PST knowledge (n= 9)
• Lack of time (n=4)
Roadblocks to PST
(n=10)
Roadblocks to PST with
themselves
Figure 3. Soccer coaches’ perspectives about PST on soccer coaches
61
attributes (n=5) and a specific psychological technique (n=2) that they consider
important for their own performance.
With respect to the third second-order subtheme, ability to implement
PST programs with themselves, the majority of the sample (n=10) reported not
feeling prepared for this.
The last second-order subtheme, roadblocks to the coaches PST,
illustrated two roadblocks identified by the participants: lack of PST knowledge
(n=9) and the lack of time (n=4).
In my opinion the biggest obstacle that a coach faces regarding his own
psychological preparation is the lack of knowledge as well as the lack of
time to implement the PST programs.
Sport psychologists service in soccer
The last general dimension is related to a group of issues regarding the
coach’s opinions about the role of the sport psychologist in soccer.Thirteen raw
data themes were included in this dimension that was grouped directly into four
second-order subthemes: importance of sport psychologists, receptiveness to
working with sport psychologists, previous experience with sport psychologists
and barriers to sport psychologist’s interventions (Figure 4).
62
Ten of the participants were unanimous in stating the important role of
sport psychologists in soccer. For instance, one participant said:
It is evident that the sport psychologist could be important in soccer.
Soccer involves many branches of science and these exist in conjunction
with several specialists that include the sport psychologist. I believe that
these experts can and should be in elite soccer.
Regarding the coaches receptiveness to work with sport psychologists in
soccer, 11 participants showed receptiveness to this type of collaboration.
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
• Equal importance to other sport science specialists (n=1)
• Important role in soccer (n=2)
• Can help the players and coaches (n=3)
Important role in soccer
(n=10)
Importance of sport
psychologists
Sport psychologist
(SP’s) in soccer
• No opinion (n= 3)
Without opinion (n=3)
• Full receptiveness (n=6)
• Receptiveness (n=5)
Receptive (n=11)
Receptiveness to working with
SP’s
• Doubts about the usefulness of the collaboration with SP’s (n=1)
Unreceptive (n=2)
• Currently working with a SP (n=1)
• Previous contact with a SP (n=1)
Work/contact with SP’s (n=2)
Previous experience with
SP’s
• Never contacted or worked with a SP (n=11)
Never worked/contact
with SP’s (n=11)
• Lack of sport specific knowledge (n=5)
• Mentality/culture in soccer (n=3)
• Financial barrier (n=2)
Barriers to SP’s intervention
(n=10)
Barriers to SP’s interventions
Figure 4. Soccer coaches’ perspectives on sport psychologists
63
If I feel that the collaboration with the sport psychologist is going to bring
benefits for the players, and if the administrators don’t object to hiring
these experts, I would be receptive to working with them.
In contrast one of the coaches expressed some doubts about the
usefulness of the collaboration with these experts in soccer. The following quote
illustrates this opinion:
I think an experienced coach is perfectly capable of managing their
players and teams psychologically. I could say to you that I am receptive
to working with a psychologist but I wouldn’t be honest with you. At the
moment, for lots of reasons, I can’t see myself working with an expert in
this area.
When the participants were asked about their previous experience with
sport psychologists, more than half of the sample stated that they have never
worked with these experts. On the other hand, one of the coaches mentioned
currently working with a sport psychologist. However this coach reported that
the sport psychologist had no direct contact with the players and team, as is
well illustrated in the following expression:
I worked with a sport psychologist for a couple of years, but he was never
hired by the club. The sport psychologist was a personal service and
consequently he had no direct contact with the team or with the players.
He was a consultant that helped me to coordinate the psychological
preparation of my players and teams as well as my own preparation.
Also in this context, the same coach expressed one idea that can be
linked with some of the barriers to a sport psychology intervention.
I know that this isn’t an ideal type of intervention but as you know
sometimes we can’t hire all of the assistant coaches that we want for the
club. We are limited to hiring one or two assistant coaches because the
club already has other internal assistant coaches.
64
With respect to the aforementioned (barriers to sport psychologist
intervention in soccer) the participants listed other possible reasons, such as
lack of sport specific knowledge (n=5), mentality / culture in soccer (n=3) and
lack of time (n=1) and finances (n=1).
Discussion
The current study was designed to examine the thoughts of Portuguese
soccer coaches regarding the PST process. Additionally, we intend to explore
the soccer coaches’ educational background in sport psychology and their
opinions about the role of sport psychologists in soccer.
With respect to the formal education in sport psychology, only four of the
coaches were exposed to sport psychology in their academic courses. On the
other hand, all of the coaches reported had formal contact with sport
psychology contents during their coaching training courses (UEFA licence,
promoted by the Portuguese Federation of soccer). Therefore it should be
expected that this group of coaches would be well educated in the field of sport
psychology. However, doubts can be raised regarding soccer coaches
psychological education in these courses. In fact, these soccer coaching
courses do not seem to give the necessary importance to the discipline of sport
psychology. For example, according to the regulation of the UEFA Pro licence
(UEFA, 2009) only 15 hours were used in the discipline of the behaviour of
science (that includes sport psychology contents). In contrast, 56 hours were
used in the discipline of training methodology and 50 hours for the disciplines of
technical/tactical and physical skills. In line with this, Fonseca (2000) stated that
soccer coaching courses in Portugal give less importance to psychological
factors since the amount of hours designated to sport psychology within these
courses, is significantly less than others modules.
Therefore it is not surprising that more than half of the sample considered
that their sport psychology knowledge came from personal and practical
experiences, especially coaching experience. In the same way, Gould et al.,
(1999) found that tennis coaches’ knowledge of sport psychology was more
influenced by the experience of working with players rather than by formal
65
courses. Gould et al., (1999) and Sullivan and Hodge (1991) stated that trial
and error learning becomes a common procedure among strategies for
psychological preparation. In this regard, Grobbelaar (2007) reported that
although the majority of netball coaches made use of trial and error methods,
they perceived these methods rather ineffective.
Given the above, it seems important that the Portuguese Federation of
Soccer (responsible for the coaching soccer courses) should pay more attention
for the good practice examples of other countries. For example, the Football
Association of England has recently introduced its ‘Psychology for Football’
strategy to develop better players and coaches in England. A range of courses
aimed at coaches, players and support staff has been developed to educate
these groups in the concepts of sport psychology (Pain & Harwood, 2004).
Similarly, Morris (1997) indicated that coaching organizations in several
countries (e.g., UK, USA and Australia) have established sport psychology
modules in their different levels of coaching education programmes.
The second research question sought to determine the importance
assigned by the coaches to the PST in soccer. All of the coaches revealed a
positive and favourable perspective about the importance of PST, which are in
agreement with the PST literature (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas,
2004; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006,
2010). This is an encouraging finding and reflects the high status that PST in
soccer has among these elite national coaches.
When evaluating the crucial psychological skills for soccer players and
teams, one could argue that concentration, self-confidence and team cohesion
were the skills most frequently mentioned by the coaches. These findings are
not surprising, because the importance of these three psychological skills is
often addressed in the psychological skill literature as well as in the soccer
media. Several studies show the crucial role that self-confidence and
concentration play in athlete’s performance (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002;
Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; Greenleaf, Gould, & Dieffenbach 2001;
Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002). Relative to group cohesion, investigators
showed this skill as being effective for improving relationship patterns among all
66
elements of the group, pursuing the established goals that lead to team success
(Carron, Bray, & Eys, 2002; Heuzé, Bosselut, & Thomas, 2007; Heuzé,
Raimbault, & Fontayne, 2006). It is also encouraging that the three
psychological skills most mentioned by our coaches are often discussed in the
psychological skills literature. However, a review in soccer PST literature shows
that few or no studies investigated the concrete strategies that coaches used to
enhance the concentration, self-confidence and cohesion of their players and
teams. Given the above, sport psychology researches should consider
exploring these issues.
With respect to the psychological skills considered most relevant for the
soccer coaches, the results of our analysis revealed that motivation and
emotional self-control were the skills most frequently mentioned by the sample.
The professional instability and the high psychological pressure that the soccer
coach is constantly subjected to, may explain this finding.
For Vealey (2007), it seems important to identify key psychological skills
that are related to performance success and personal well-being to guide the
development of psychological skills interventions. In this sense the set of
psychological skills identified in the present study should serve as a relevant
indicator for the development of more specific and effective psychological
interventions in soccer. However, for this support to be most effective and
specific as possible, future research should identify the key psychological skills
according to the players and coaches characteristics (e.g., gender, age), as well
as the players position in the field (e.g., goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders and
attackers).
Although participants were aware of the importance of PST on soccer
players and coaches performance and elected a set of crucial psychological
skills (that are consistent with the sport psychological literature), they have
given less relevance to the psychological techniques.
According to the above it is not surprising that the majority of the coaches
admitted to feeling unprepared to conduct and apply the PST process. This
finding is in agreement with the PST literature that showed that coaches have
difficulties in understanding deep psychological techniques (Barrero, 1994).
67
In this context it should be noted that even the coaches who considered
themselves to be relatively well prepared to conduct psychological training,
mentioned that their intervention was based only on their experience as coach
and previously as players. Thus, it seems evident that these coaches do not
have the correct understanding about the PST process. According to Fonseca
(2004) one thing is the coach had general knowledge about sport psychology
that allowed them to perform better and positively influence their players and
teams psychologically. Another thing is the coach was prepared to use the
different psychological techniques and help their players to develop strategies in
this sense.
Results of the current study also revealed information about the
roadblocks to the development of PST in soccer. In particular, the biggest
roadblocks identified by this sample of coaches included the lack of PST
knowledge. Malete and Feltz (2000) stated that a lack of knowledge on PST
was a barrier to coaching effectiveness. Similarly, Vealey (1988) indicated that
coaches usually neglected the PST because they lacked the knowledge to train
these skills. To help overcome these obstacles, coaches may benefit from
collaboration with sport psychologists.
Therefore, the agreement of the majority of the sample about the
importance of sport psychologists and the receptiveness to work with these
experts was not surprising. Similarly, Sullivan and Hodge (1991) found that 97%
of the coaches’ surveyed in their study indicated interest in working with a sport
psychologist. In this context, Anderson (2009) described a twofold perspective
of collaboration between coach and sport psychologists. One form of coach
consultation is focused on the coaching practices in order to support the
psychological preparation of his/her athletes. Another situation occurs when
coaches seek consultation not for their athletes but for their own personal and
professional needs (e.g., anxiety). This study did not attempt to evaluate the
type of soccer coach/sport psychologists’ collaboration. Future research could
explore this topic.
According to the previous finding, we would expect a high level of
collaboration between elite Portuguese soccer head coaches and sport
68
psychologists. However, when the coaches were asked about their previous
experience with sport psychologists, only one coach reported that he had the
support of a sport psychologist. In this respect, Fonseca (2004) referred that the
existence of a sport psychologist in professional, Portuguese soccer teams is
an exception not the rule.
Therefore we are faced with a paradox which is important to understand.
If the soccer coaches are receptive to working with sport psychologists, why are
they not hired by the clubs?
The coaches of the sample mentioned a list of barriers that limited the
sport psychologist intervention in soccer. A lack of sport-specific knowledge on
the part of the sport psychologist was cited as the most significant barrier.
Gould, Murphy, Tammen and May (1991), found that Olympic coaches
suggested that sport psychologists should increase their sport-specific
knowledge and, consequently, the specific psychological skills strategies. For
this purpose, one of the most recognized soccer coaches in the world, Fábio
Capello (cit. in Fonseca, 2004), stated that “is crucial that a sport psychologist
working in elite soccer completely understands soccer, is involved in this sport,
and is prepared to understand the problems related to this type of activity”.
Other barriers that are well described in literature such as lack of time
and lack of finances (Pain & Harwood, 2004), also emerged in the present
study. However, in our opinion these perspectives are quite questionable. In
fact, with the huge budgets that currently exist in professional soccer the
inclusion of a sport psychologist will not endanger the budget of the club.
Therefore, the question of background seems to be connected with the
idea that some of the coaches believe that sport psychologists, have a small
contribution to the performance of soccer players and coaches. At this level, it
should be noted that three of the participants stated that the general cultural
mentality in Portuguese soccer was a barrier to sport psychologists. For Pain
and Harwood (2004), despite the continued success of sport psychology across
the globe, negative connotations of the field still exist, particularly within sports
such as soccer, that have tended to resist change.
69
An educational program on the psychological concepts, targeting
coaches and directors may help to remove negative connotations of sport
psychologists and consequently change the culture of soccer. At this level,
soccer coaching courses promoted by the Portuguese Football Federation
could play an important role because for the majority of the participants these
courses are the only source of formal education in sport psychology. It should
be noted, however, that it is fundamental to reformulate these courses,
increasing the number of hours devoted to sport psychology.
If the Portuguese Federation of Soccer delivers the appropriate
Psychology education to the soccer coaches and administrators and if sport
psychologists can enhance their soccer knowledge, the barriers could be
overcome and the opportunities for the collaboration between coaches and
sport psychologists will increase.
Conclusion
The findings of our study may be interpreted as being supportive of the
importance of the PST process in professional soccer. However, although the
participants acknowledge the importance of PST and the role of sport
psychologists, they did not feel able to design and apply PST programs with
players, as well as, with themselves. Therefore the need to educate soccer
coaches providing more applicable, concrete and practical PST information is
necessary.
While the present study provides important implications relative to PST
process in the context of Portuguese professional soccer, it should be noted
that the findings are related to the unique characteristic of our sample and
transferability of the results is limited. Therefore, methodological limitations
must be considered when making interpretations about the type of sport (i.e.,
only one sport-soccer) and gender (i.e., only one gender – male) of the sample.
However, since the purpose of the current study was not to make comparisons
between groups, these issues did not affect the trustworthiness of the research.
On the other hand the sport represented (soccer – one of the most important
sports worldwide) and the high quality of the sample (i.e. coaches of elite
70
Portuguese Teams) can be considered a strength of this research. Finally it
should be noted that the current study reflected the thoughts and not
necessarily the actual behavior of the coaches. Therefore, further research is
needed to assess the actual PST behavior of coaches.
In summary, the current study can serve as a guide to future PST soccer
research and, from a practical perspective, may serve to highlight several
recommendations for making PST more effective in the context of Portuguese
soccer.
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Paper III
How do soccer coaches prepare their players and teams
psychologically? A study with coaches of elite Portuguese teams 3
____________________
3 Accepted for publication at the Journal of Physical Education and Sport: vol.13, nº3,
September 2013
73
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine the psychological preparation
strategies often used by soccer coaches with their players and teams, as well
as to ascertain where and why they employed these strategies. Thirteen elite
coaches from Portuguese premier soccer league clubs were interviewed.
Globally, results showed that the participants used a considerable set of
strategies and activities with psychological effects in training, competition, and
outside these environments. However they exhibited a limited use of
psychological techniques, specifically in the practice setting. Overall, the
findings seem to suggest that the participants mostly based their psychological
intervention on their vast experience as coach, as well as during their soccer
playing careers. Practical implications and future directions to enhance the
psychological preparation of soccer players and teams are discussed.
Key-words: psychological preparation, psychological techniques, Portuguese
elite soccer teams, qualitative study, coaches’ perspectives
.
74
Introduction
Nowadays, the importance of psychological preparation in the
development of athletic performance is well known. According to Gould and
Maynard (2009), psychological preparation can be viewed in several ways. For
these authors, it can be broadly defined as anything athletes do to prepare
themselves for sport involvement, or in a more specific manner in terms of
techniques used by athletes to ready themselves for specific athletic tasks (e.g.,
visualization to aid in the execution of a balance beam routine). In the current
study, psychological preparation is defined as ‘‘those cognitive, emotional, and
behavioural strategies athletes and teams use to arrive at an ideal performance
state or condition that is related to optimal psychological states and peak
performance either for competition or practice’’ (Gould, Flett, & Bean, 2009, p.
53). Based on the work of Vealey (1988), a distinction is also made between
psychological skills or states the athlete is trying to achieve (e.g., stress
management, concentration, self-confidence and motivation) and the methods
or cognitive or behavioural strategies the athletes use to arrive at these states
or skills (e.g., goal-setting, imagery, relaxation and self-talk).
Research has shown that athletes of several sports can benefit from the
use of psychological techniques to improve sport performance (Frey, Laguna, &
Ravizza, 2003; Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2003). Goal-
setting, relaxation, imagery and self-talk are the four psychological techniques
more often referred to in the sport psychology literature. However, in order for
athletes’ to successfully apply these and other psychological techniques they
need to learn the basic principles of each technique and be taught the most
effective way to use them. Bertollo, Saltarelli, and Robazza (2009) stated, that
some athletes may be helped to learn, refine, and practice psychological
techniques aimed at gaining personal control of debilitative states and
improving psychophysical conditions that facilitate performance. Psychological
skills can be developed by elite level performers in formal settings when, for
example, they decide to undertake sport psychology consultancy, or in informal
ways through the influence of significant persons, such as coaches, (Durand-
Bush & Salmela, 2002; Gould, Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002).
75
The coach is the manager of the team and therefore has great influence
in the psychological development of their athletes and teams. According to
Gould and Maynard (2009), they facilitate this development in several ways,
including emphasizing certain things such as hard work, discipline, having fun,
having characteristics that facilitated athlete trust, providing encouragement and
support, directly teaching or fostering psychological skills, and by understanding
the athletes. Furthermore, coaches have the power to allow or not allow the
interference of external collaborators (e.g., sport psychologists) in the work with
their team and athletes (Morris, 1997).
Psychological preparation and sport psychology were identified as
coaching actions that had helped the athletes and teams to perform to their
maximum potential (Gould & Maynard, 2009). Accordingly, coaching literature
emphasizes the importance of integrating psychology preparation into the
coaching process (Côté, Bruner, Erickson, Strachan, & Fraser-Thomas, 2010;
Côté & Gilbert, 2009; Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995; Fraser-Thomas & Côté,
2009; Gould, Chung, Smith, & White, 2006). Coaches must believe in the value
of psychological training, understand their principles and apply them on a
regular basis in the coaching plan. Although research on psychological
preparation strategies used by coaches, has not been studied as extensively as
other areas in sport psychology, it has not been completely ignored (Bloom,
Stevens, & Wickwire, 2003; Côté, & Sedgwick, 2003; Gould, Damarjian, &
Medbery, 1999; Sedgwick, Côté, & Dowd, 1997). For example, Gould and
colleagues (1999) found that concentration drills, simulating pressure, imagery,
goal-setting, enhanced motivation, thought stopping, initiating team activities,
discussion and teaching about mistakes, breathing, and relaxation techniques
were some of the specific exercises/strategies used by elite junior tennis
coaches with their players. Although the aforementioned investigations offer
valuable insight into the psychological skills and techniques used by coaches
with athletes, a more detailed understanding of this area of research is
necessary, namely regarding where, when and for what purposes coaches use
them.
76
At this level, it should be noted that the implementation of psychological
preparation strategies (and its’ consequent effectiveness), needs to consider
the requirements of each athlete as well as the specific sport demands.
Different athletes and different sports required different things from their
coaches at different points in their careers. This emphasized the importance of
coaches reading athletes’ psychological needs and using different approaches
at different times and in different situations (Gould & Maynard, 2009). In line
with this, Taylor (1995) developed a conceptual model that describes several
critical aspects in the development of competitive psychological preparation
strategies. Specifically, the model emphasizes the importance of understanding
the individual needs of athletes, the particular demands of sports, and
integrating this information into an effective intervention package. Integration of
this information enables consultants to develop customized competitive
psychological preparation strategies that will optimally prepare each individual
athlete for the particular sport settings in which they compete.
Despite elite soccer coaches being the center of public interest and
media attention worldwide, little is known about their actions and attitudes
regarding the psychological preparation of their players and teams. For Potrac,
Jones, and Cushion (2007) there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding
the top-level soccer coaches and the means and methods that they utilize in
their respective quests to produce successful soccer teams.
Although international literature supported the positive influence of
psychological techniques on soccer players’ performance (e.g., Johnson,
Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Thelwell, Greenlees & Weston, 2006, 2010),
there are a paucity of studies concerning the specific strategies employed by
soccer coaches to prepare their players and teams psychologically. This gap in
literature is even more critical on a national level. Indeed, to our knowledge, no
previous research has focused on this specific research topic. Knowing the
psychological preparation strategies used by coaches with their players and
teams can bring important insights about the relevance of psychological
intervention in Portuguese soccer.
77
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the repertoire of
psychological preparation strategies used by Portuguese elite soccer coaches
with their players and teams. Additionally, we intended to examine where and
for what purpose they use these strategies.
Due to the in-depth nature of the question being asked (i.e., what, where,
and why), a qualitative approach was deemed appropriate. Through the use of
qualitative methodology, we believed our findings could bring a new and in-
depth vision to this phenomenon and be useful to provide tools for reflection
about psychological intervention in the context of Portuguese soccer.
Method
Participants
Thirteen male professional soccer head coaches composed the sample
of this study. Their ages ranged between 43 and 63 and their experience as
soccer coaches ranged from 10 to 29 years. The sample was selected based
on the three following criteria: i) have worked, or currently work with “elite-level”
athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), ii) be employed by their
respective governing bodies of sport (national squads) or by professional clubs
(Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008b) and iii) had a minimum of
ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom, Durand-Bush, & Salmela,
1997; Sedgwick et al., 1997).
All of the participants held coach positions in Portuguese soccer premier
League clubs (one of the top ten European Soccer Leagues). They also had the
highest level of the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) coaching
qualification: UEFA Pro License. For most participants (n=9) these courses
were the only source of sport psychology education. On the other hand, four of
the coaches had academic courses which contained sport psychology
modules.
Interview guide
An interview guide was developed in accordance with the specific
purposes of the current study. Three pilot interviews were conducted with three
78
professional soccer assistant coaches. Minor amendments to the questions
were made to the appropriateness of the probe and elaboration questions. As a
result, the final interview guide was comprised of three sections. The first
section included demographic information and other introductory comments.
The second section composed the main body of the interview and focused on
the psychological preparation strategies. Here the coaches were asked to
identify and explain the psychological preparation strategies that they employed
in training, competition and outside these two locations. In this section the
coaches were also asked about the intended outcomes with the application of
each mentioned strategy. The third and final section of the interview provided
the opportunity for any final comments and summary questions from both the
interviewer and interviewee.
The interview guide (available from the first author) was used to
standardize the interviews and to minimize bias.
Procedures
All of the participants took part in a semi-structured interview lasting
between 60 to 90 minutes. Each interview was conducted face to face by the
first author who had previous experience as an assistant soccer coach in the
Portuguese premier league and was therefore familiar with the experiences and
terminology used by the participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) this
was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data collection. The data
were compiled in an environment comfortable for the participant. Nine of the 13
interviews took place in the coaches’ offices before or after a training session.
Of the remaining interviews, three were conducted in the coach’s home, and
one in a hotel room.
Data analysis
Interviews were analyzed in a process of inductive-deductive content
analysis (Patton, 2002), which consisted of several steps. First, interviews were
transcribed, read and reread by the first author in order to become completely
familiar with the content. Second, raw data were identified and coded. Different
79
levels of coding were developed to refine categories until saturation of data was
reached. First-order subthemes, second-order subthemes and general
dimensions were established according to a progressive level of higher
abstraction. Next, in order to establish trustworthiness, all findings were
presented and discussed with another author to serve as the “devil advocate”
(Marshall & Rossman, 1995). After discussion, different suggestions were
presented, changes were made as appropriate and a final consensus was
reached. Finally, the first author checked all the findings again in depth to
provide a validity check.
Results
The inductive-deductive analysis highlighted two general dimensions
emerging from 65 raw data themes mentioned by the elite coaches. The
dimensions were abstracted from five second-order subthemes and these from
14 first-order subthemes. The general dimensions are represented in figures 1-
2. Frequency analysis and representative quotations from the transcripts are
interspersed amid the results to clarify the emergent themes
Activities, exercises, and strategies used by the coaches with their
players and teams
The first dimension was related with a group of activities, exercises and
strategies designed and applied by the coaches to have psychological effects in
their players and teams. Forty-two raw data themes comprised this dimension
and three second order themes were used to define it (Figure 1).
Participants revealed using several exercises and strategies with
psychological effects in a training setting. Of these, coaches’ speech with the
team (n=13) and players (n=12) were clearly the strategies most often
mentioned by the participants. For example one coach said:
For me, the speech with the players during the week (in training
sessions) is the best form to prepare the players for the competition. My
vast experience lets me identify the psychological state of my team and
80
my players. Based on this information I talk individually with my players in
order to regulate their psychological state.
All of the participants considered the coaches’ speech during the training
sessions, as a great way to enhance the psychological skills of their players and
teams. For example, some coaches revealed using this specific strategy in
training to increase the confidence and the motivation of their players.
In the first session training after a game I always speak to my players,
not just about the game but also in order to prepare then psychologically
for the next game…for example, when we’ve lost two or three games
consecutively, I have a positive speech that increases the players
confidence and motivation…I tell them they won’t forget how to play one
day to another…we should say that sometimes not training in the field is
the best training. If the players are not prepared psychologically, they
won’t be able to train hard in the field.
Other exercises and strategies employed in training from which coaches
derive psychological effects included, tactical exercises, feedback, competitive
games/exercises, press conference (after the last training before the game), fun
games, open exercises, hard physical work, evidence of cheerfulness at training
sessions, respect for the players, training at different locations, free period at
the end of the session and open leadership.
These set of exercises and strategies were applied in training by the
majority of the coaches, in order to enhance several psychological skills (e.g.,
increase confidence and motivation, improve focus and promoting team
cohesion) of their players and teams.
For example, one coach reported creating scenarios of game
environments to improve the focus of their players, as illustrated in the following
quote:
And when we take the players to the beach, we are also training their
concentration. Usually, in the summer the beach is full of people, and as
people have the possibility of being close to our team, they take pictures,
81
make noise, call the players, etc…; and this is a good way of improve
athletes focus . In a scenario where several factors disturb their attention,
they must have the ability to focus on the task and to ignore all of these
outside factors.
The thirteen participants of this study also point out the use of a
considerable set of strategies in competition to influence their players and
teams psychologically. As with the training environment, the coaches’ speech
with the team (n=13) and with the players (n=19) were again the strategies most
mentioned by the coaches. The next comment shows the former strategy in
competition setting: “A frequent psychological preparation strategy that I use in
competition is the pep talk, a speech with the team…for me this is the best
strategy to prepare the team for the game”.
Also in this location (competition), the participants elicited a diversity of
other strategies used to have psychological effects in their players and teams
(e.g., feedbacks during the game, slogans in the hall, flash interview,
motivational videos/slides, and projection of a calm image). When the coaches
talked about the desired outcomes in competition, they mentioned the used of
the previous strategies to enhance several psychological skills of their players /
teams (e.g., reduce anxiety, to facilitate appropriate focus, and to increase
confidence and motivation levels). For example, one of the coaches revealed
using the speech with the team in competition to optimize their confidence
levels, as illustrated in the following quote:
Before the game, in the pep-talk I promote a speech that affects the team
confidence. Sometimes, when I feel the team’s confidence levels are low,
I try to convey a message that increases those levels; other times, when I
feel the team has too much confidence, I do the opposite…so, depending
on how I think the team are feeling, I promote a speech that optimizes
the team’s confidence levels.
Similarly, three coaches referred the use of the flash interview to
increase the team confidence. Other participants mentioned that they
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sometimes used antagonistic comments of opponent published in the media
(n=1) and put slogans on the walls of dressing room (n=1) with the aim of
increasing motivational levels of their players, specifically before the beginning
of game. These perspectives are well demonstrated in the next comments: “I
begin the psychological preparation for the next game in the flash interview…
For example, when things went wrong in the game, I give a speech aimed at
increasing the confidence levels for the next game”; “Putting some motivational
slogans on dressing room walls before the game is a strategy that I use to
increase the motivational levels of my players…I usually put these slogans up
before the biggest games”; “Sometimes, before the game, we quote some
antagonistic comments of the opponent published in the media, in order to
provoke the athletes and thereby promote an extra motivation for the action”.
Finally, five coaches stressed the use of some activities and strategies
outside both training and competition (e.g., team dinners, game model selected
and pre-season training camps) with the sole purpose of enhancing team
cohesion, as showed in the following quotations: “We organize many group
dinners as a way to promote cohesion; it is a way to bring a group closer
together”; “The election of the zone as a defensive method is in itself a way to
promote team building ... the zone requires solidarity and mutual assistance in
the task, and, therefore, requires good teamwork”.
83
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
• Coaches’ speech with team (n=13)
• Coaches’ speech with the player (n=12)
• Tactical exercises (n=6)
• Feedbacks (n=5)
• Competitive games/exercises (n=5)
• Press conference (after the last training before the game) (n=4)
• Fun games (n=3)
• Open exercises (n=2)
• Hard physical work (n=2)
• Evidence of cheerfulness at sessions (n=2)
• Respect all the players (n=1)
• Training at different locations (n=1)
•Free period at the end of session (n=1)
• Open leadership (players involved on the decisions) (n=1)
Exercises and
strategies used (n=13)
Application in
practice (n=13)
Application in
competition (n=13)
Outside practice and competition
(n=6)
Activities, exercises
and strategies
used by the
coaches and from which they derive
psychological effects
• Increase players motivation (n=13)
• Increase players confidence (n=10)
• Improve players focus (n=9)
• Team cohesion (n=4)
• Cope with difficulties (n=2)
• Developed players dec. making (n=2)
•Optimize team confidence (n=1)
• Develop players ability to sacrifice (n=1)
Desired outcomes
(n=13)
• Coaches’ speech with team (n=13)
• Coaches’ speech with the player (n=10)
• Feedbacks during the game (n=4)
• Flash interview (n=3)
• Motivational Videos /slides (power point) after the game (n=4)
• Antagonistic comments of opponent published in media (n=1)
• Showing video highlights of individual and teams good performance (n=1)
• Videos showing the weaknesses of the opponent (n=1)
• Slogans in the hall (n=1)
Activities and
strategies used (n=13)
• Increase players motivation(n=13)
• Increase team confidence (n=6)
• Reduce players anxiety (n=4)
• Improve players self-confidence (n=3)
• Facilitate appropriate focus (n=3)
• Promote team cohesion (n=3)
•Optimize team confidence (n=1)
Desired outcomes
(n=13)
• Team dinners (n=6)
• Game Model selected (n=2)
• Pre-season training camps (n=1)
Activities and stra. used (n=6)
• Enhance team cohesion (n=6) Desired out.(n=6)
Figure 1. Activities, exercises and strategies used by coaches with their players/ teams
Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them
84
Psychological techniques used by the coaches with their players and
teams
The second dimension, psychological techniques, shows the coaches’
perspectives on the application of psychological techniques with their players,
and included twenty-three raw data themes that emerged into two second-order
subthemes (Figure 2).
Only six of the participants mentioned the application of psychological
techniques in their coaching routines, and of these only two cited their use in
both training and competition. Thus, a considerable lack of use of psychological
techniques was exhibited by the majority of these coaches.
Goal setting (n=2) and imagery (n=1) were the only two psychological
techniques mentioned for the practice setting. When the two coaches were
asked about their use of goal setting in a practice setting, they mentioned
setting goals related with technical and tactical aspects. Additionally they
reported employing this specific technique to facilitate appropriate focus, as well
as to increase players’ motivational levels. For example, one of the coaches
stated that in all of the training sessions the tactical goals of each part of the
session were clearly established in order to facilitate appropriate focus of their
players, as in the next comment: “Before each exercise I inform my players
about the tactical goals of the exercise. I do this to stimulate their focus during
the training sessions”.
With respect to the use of imagery, the same coach reported that during
the training session he constantly asked the players about their tactical
decisions:
When I’ve seen a player make a bad decision, or be in a wrong position, I
immediately stop the training and demand that everyone stays in place.
Next I ask the players to visualize the situation and ask him what he did
wrong and what he should do…if the situation stops, the players can
analyze the different options and select the best…if the player is
conscious of this he will be more effective in identical future situations.
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Finally, in the competition setting, participants mentioned the use of goal-
setting (n=6), imagery (n=2), self-talk (n=1) and thought stopping (n=1) in their
coaching routines.
In relation to the use of goal-setting, coaches employed team and
individual outcome goals to enhance the motivation of their players and teams.
The following expression is quite representative of that:
I set goals with the players and the team. I did it because I think this of a
way of motivating them. How does that happen? For example, I would
propose that a player scored 5 goals in three games or that the team
scored more than 35 goals until the end of the first lap.
From the three coaches that reported the use of imagery, two of them
stated that they encouraged the players to focus on success by recalling past
games where the player/team was successful. Specifically, these two coaches
applied this specific strategy to increase players’ motivation and confidence
levels. With regard to the last purpose, a coach said: “Sometimes during the
pep-talks before the game, I tell my players to remember previous situations
that our team has had success…I do this with the intention of boosting their
confidence levels for the game”.
Lastly, two different coaches stated using the dialogue with the players in
order to stimulate their positive self-talk as well as thought stopping technique.
These same coaches mentioned using these two psychological techniques to
improve the player’s self-confidence and concentration levels.
86
Discussion
The main purpose of the present study was to identify the strategies
often used by Portuguese elite soccer coaches to prepare their players and
teams psychologically. Additionally we intended to gain an insight to where and
why they used them.
Results from this study showed that elite Portuguese soccer coaches
employed a considerable number of strategies and activities in training,
competition and outside both environments to influence their players and teams
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
• Tactical goals (n=2)
• Technical goals (n=1)
• Performance goals (n=1)
Goal-setting
(n=2)
Application in
practice (n=2)
Application
in competition
(n=6)
Psychological techniques
used by the
coaches (n=6)
• Questioning players about tactical decisions (n=1)
Imagery (n=1)
• Increase players motivational levels (n=2)
• Facilitate appropriate focus (n=1)
• Develop players decision making (n=1)
• Improve technical and tactical (n=1) performance (n=1)
Desired
Outcomes (n=2)
• Team Goals (n=5)
• Individual Goals (n=3)
• Long goals (n=2)
• Short goals (n=2)
• Outcome goals (n=4)
Goal Setting
(n=6)
• Recall of successful performances of players (n=2)
• Recall of successful performances of teams (n=1)
• Stimulate the players to image positive outcomes (n=1)
Imagery
(n=3)
• Encourage players to use positive self-talk (n=1)
Self-talk (n=1)
• Encourage players to use thought stopping (n=1)
Thought stopping (n=1)
• Increase players motivation (n=6)
• Increase players self-confidence (n=4)
• Enhance players focus (n=3)
• Enhance team motivation (n=2)
• Increase team confidence (n=2)
Desired
Outcomes (n=6)
Figure 2. Psychological techniques employed by coaches with their players and teams
87
psychologically. In effect, when analyzing the results, one could argue that the
coaches’ speech with the team and the player, were the strategies employed
most frequently by the soccer coaches in both practice and competition setting.
This data are not surprising, in view of the fact that both strategies are usually
used by soccer coaches (as is often illustrated in the three national sport
newspapers), and may be applied even without a profound knowledge of the
field of sport psychology. The results also revealed that most of the activities,
exercises, and strategies with psychological effects employed by the
participants were consistent with several studies on coaching (e.g., Bloom et al.,
2003; Côté & Sedgwick, 2003; Sedgwick, et al., 1997). For example, despite the
obvious differences in the key aims of the current study, compared with Bloom
et al. (2003) investigation, some strategies, such as training camps and team
dinners, emerged in both studies. Similarly, strategies such as giving positive
and corrective feedbacks, creating a motivational environment, and projecting a
calm image coincide with Sedgwick et al. (1997), and Côté and Sedgwick
(2003) studies. The data of the aforementioned studies converges with the
strategies identified by the coaches in the present study. However it is important
to note that these strategies and activities form which derive psychological
effects are not psychological techniques (there is a substantial difference
between both).
Surprisingly, participants also mentioned some strategies (to influence
their players and teams psychologically) usually absent in the coaching
literature, such as the use of press conferences and flash interviews to convey
specific messages to the players. These strategies may be intimately related to
the soccer context in which this investigation was conducted. In fact, the media
attention that this sport has may lead the coaches to use these strategies as a
way to influence the psychological performance of their players and teams.
These strategies probably would not have the same impact in sports with less
media attention.
The activities, exercises, and strategies (from which derive psychological
effects) mentioned previously may have been learned through ‘trial and error’
88
and/ or passed from generation to generation, thereby allowing the coaches to
gain sufficient knowledge so as to master and maximize their use.
In general, these results appear to be evidence that elite Portuguese
coaches give considerable attention to the psychological preparation of their
players and teams. However, this does not mean that they conduct this process
in the best or more effective way.
In fact, when we analyze in detail the coaches’ intervention at this level, it
was evident that it is mostly based in the application of a set of exercises,
activities and strategies with psychological effects over their players. Although
we do not doubt the quality and importance of this coaches’ intervention, it
should be noted that it is not the same as a systematic PST intervention. For
example, despite recognizing the importance that the coaches’ speech with
players assumes in their relationship, it appears to consensual that this type of
intervention is not enough to answer all of the players’ psychological demands.
It is not enough for the coach say to the players that «it is necessary to
concentrate for the full 90 minutes»; «that they have to have confidence to be
able to win»; or that «they have to have a strong team spirit to overcome all of
the difficulties».
Although PST was recognized as an invaluable training tool by coaches
of various contexts (Sullivan & Hodge, 1991), it is often excluded from coaching
practices (Barreiros, Silva, Freitas, Duarte, & Fonseca, 2011; Gould et al., 1999;
Grobbelaar, 2007). In this context, it should be noted that only six of the
participants of the current study mentioned employing psychological techniques
with their players and teams. Of these coaches, two used psychological
techniques in both training and competition, while the other four only employed
it in the competition setting. Coaches must be aware of the relationship
between psychological techniques in practice and success in competition in
order to positively influence their athletes to give equal importance to both
competition and practice settings for psychological training (Frey et al., 2003).
Overall, even these six coaches revealed through their comments, that they did
not utilize all of the functions and principles of the psychological techniques
cited, namely goal setting, imagery and self-talk (see Hardy, Gammage, & Hall,
89
2001; Munroe-Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000; Munroe-Chandler,
Hall, & Weinberg, 2004).
Therefore the findings of the current study seem to suggest that the
participants do not contemplate a regular and systematic use of psychological
techniques in their coaching process. This is in agreement with several
researchers (Almeida, 2004; Barreiros et al., 2011; Fonseca, 2004) that pointed
out the limited use of systematic PST in professional Portuguese soccer.
A range of possible explanations for the findings of the present study can
be suggested. The first relates to the lack of sport psychologists working in
Portuguese premier league soccer clubs (Barreiros et al., 2011; Fonseca,
2004). The existence of these experts in Portuguese professional soccer teams
is the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004).
A further possible explanation could relate to the lack of PST knowledge
by the participants. According to several studies (e.g., Malete & Feltz, 2000;
Vealey, 1988) the lack of PST coaches’ knowledge is one of the biggest
reasons that PST is neglected. This study did not attempt to examine the
reasons why the majority of the soccer coaches did not contemplate a regular
and systematic use of psychological techniques into their coaching process.
However, future research could and should explore this issue.
In recent years the applied sport psychology literature has seen an
increase in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence
of PST on performance of athletes of several sports (e.g., Blakeslee & Goff,
2007; Cohen, Tenenbaum, & English, 2006; Mamassis & Doganis, 2004;
Sheard & Golby, 2006; Thelwell & Greenlees, 2001; Thelwell & Maynard, 2003),
and in particular on performance of soccer players (Thelwell, et al., 2006, 2010).
Hence, it could be advantageous for the participants to enhance their PST
knowledge and collaborate with sport psychologists in order to boost the
psychological preparation of their players and teams. For Weinberg and Gould
(2011), a PST programme should be planned, implemented, and supervised by
a qualified sport psychologist consultant. On the other hand, some of the sport
psychologists’ work is not in the reach of the soccer coach, because of the time
it takes, and because of the different relationship between the coach/players,
90
and sport psychologists/players. For example, soccer players may be more
open in discussing their difficulties concerning psychological aspects with the
sport psychologist, because he does not sit in judgment regarding who stays on
the team and who gets to play. Thus, the collaboration between Portuguese
soccer coaches and sport psychologists seems to be extremely beneficial to
improve the psychological preparation of soccer players and teams. For
Thomas (2001), the psychological interventions are usually more effective when
the psychologist and coach work together.
The soccer coaches have a great influence on their players and
consequently they should be fully involved in the PST process (oriented by the
sport psychologist).They should always point out the importance of PST in both
training and competition settings. The coaches spend a great amount of time
with their players and have the opportunity to remind them to use psychological
techniques (Frey et al., 2003). For example, the coaches should highlight that
the warm-up period is an optimum moment, not just for players to prepare
physically, but also psychologically in training and competition, utilizing specific
psychological techniques such as imagery, self- talk and others.
Therefore, the ideal situation seems to be, that the soccer coach works
closely with these experts, but also has a general understanding of PST
principles. The soccer coaching courses promoted by the Portuguese soccer
Federation are the only source of formal psychological education for the
majority of the soccer coaches in Portugal consequently these courses should
deliver the appropriate psychological education to the coaches. However,
doubts can be raised regarding soccer coaches psychological education in
these courses. In fact these courses seem to give little importance to the sport
psychology factors, which can be proved by the content and reduced number of
hours, attributed to the sport psychology module. Consequently, a suggestion
would be to enhance the quantity and the quality of the sport psychology
education in these courses in order to better educate coaches in the PST
concepts and, importantly to stimulate their collaboration with sport
psychologists.
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Conclusion
The present study has revealed that the coaches from the Portuguese
premier league clubs employed a considerable set of strategies, activities and
exercises in training, competition, and outside both locations, to prepare their
players and teams psychologically. However, when we analyzed the use of
psychological techniques in their coaching routines, our findings revealed that
their use was limited, specifically in the practice setting.
We do not intend to undervalue the psychological intervention of our
coaches. However, it is important to highlight that their intervention was mostly
based on their vast experience (as coaches as well as during their playing
careers), which is not the same as a systematic PST intervention. We believe
that if the Portuguese soccer coaches enhance their PST knowledge and if they
work more closely with the sport psychologists, the psychological preparation of
the soccer players and teams could be improved.
The physical, technical, and tactical training of the elite Portuguese
soccer players and teams is actually very similar and consequently the
psychological preparation could make an important contribution to achievement
success. In this sense, the present study raises a number of significant issues
for soccer coaches that could enhance the psychological preparation of their
players and teams.
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Paper IV
Elite soccer coaches use of psychological techniques 4
____________________
4 Freitas, S., Dias, C., & Fonseca A. (2013).Elite soccer coaches use of psychological
techniques. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 5(3), 56-70. doi:
10.5539/ijps.v5n3p56
95
Abstract
The purpose of the current study was to investigate soccer coaches’ use of
psychological techniques for their own performance. In depth semi-structured
interviews were conducted with 13 elite coaches, from Portuguese premier
league clubs, to examine and describe their use of imagery, goal-setting, self-
talk and relaxation. Participants mentioned employing psychological techniques
more in conjunction with competition than training. Self-talk and imagery tended
to be cited more frequently than goal setting and relaxation. Furthermore,
results of this study provided information about the content and functions of
each psychological technique. Implications of the results are discussed and
future research and practical recommendations are made.
Key-words: qualitative study, coaches’ perceptions, self-talk, imagery, goal
setting, relaxation
.
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Introduction
It is widely accepted that coaches recognize the importance of
psychological preparation of their athletes and teams (Gould, Flett, & Bean,
2009; Leffingwell, Durand-Bush, Wurzberger, & Cada, 2005; Martin, 2005).
Nevertheless, sometimes they forget to prepare themselves (Bloom, Durand-
Bush, & Salmela, 1997). According to Bloom et al., in the earlier stages of
coaches’ careers, the primary concern is preparing athletes for competition.
However, as they gain experience they recognize the importance of spending
as much time, if not more, preparing themselves.
The social and economic framework of elite soccer exposes the coaches
to high psychological pressure. Elite soccer coaches are usually subjected to
constant public exposure of their decisions, permanent demand of sports
outcomes and unpredictability of the competition, among other factors.
According to Gould, Greenleaf, Guinan, and Chung (2002), coaches are often
required to deal with difficult situations (e.g., selection, tactics, team and athlete
performance – related issues, decision making) while also ensuring that their
own psychological and emotional states remain optimal. Regarding
psychological skills training (PST), Buceta (1998), revealed that the coach has a
double function, stimulating interpersonal skills that positively influence the
psychological preparation of their athletes, and regulating personal skills to
optimize their own psychological state. According to Thelwell, Weston,
Greenlees, and Hutchings (2008a), the coach could well be labeled a
performer, however what is not known is the degree to which coaches uses
PST to enable them to perform.
The objective of PST is to assist sport participants to achieve
performance success and personal well-being (Vealey, 2007). In PST it is
possible to distinguish between psychological skills and psychological
techniques (Vealey, 1988, 2007). PST consists of a systematic use of
psychological techniques (e.g., goal setting, self-talk, imagery, and relaxation) in
order to develop and enhance psychological skills (e.g., stress management,
self-confidence, and concentration) (Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Vealey, 2007).
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Goal setting, relaxation, imagery, and self-talk are the psychological
techniques most referred to in literature as powerful tools to enhance the
development of psychological skills and are usually developed in a combined
process during PST programs (Andersen, 2000; McCarthy, Jones, Harwood, &
Olivier, 2010; Vealey, 2007).
Imagery, or the mental creation or re-creation of sensory experiences in
the mind, is the most widely studied technique in the mental training literature
(Morris, Spittle, & Watt, 2005; Vealey, 2007). Researchers have found positive
effects of imagery on performance enhancement (Evans, Jones, & Mullen,
2004; Kossert, & Munroe-Chandler, 2007) and other psychological variables
such as confidence (Callow, Hardy, & Hall, 2001; Hale & Whitehouse, 1998),
motivation (Martin & Hall, 1995), attentional control (Calmels, Berthoumieux, &
d’Arripe-Longueville, 2004), and coping with anxiety (Evans et al., 2004).
Another technique popularly used in PST interventions is goal setting. In
goal setting, individuals try to achieve a group of behavioural targets previously
defined (Brewer, 2009). Goal setting is an extremely powerful technique for
enhancing performance (Weinberg, & Gould, 2011). Physical activity goal
research (Burton & Naylor, 2002; Burton, Naylor, & Holliday, 2001; Gould, 2006;
Hall & Kerr, 2001) supported the effectiveness of goals in the sport domain. In a
meta-analysis of sport goal research, Kyllo and Landers (1995) examined 36
studies and found that goal setting have a substantial influence on performance.
Burton and Weiss (2008) recent sport goal setting review presented a similar
conclusion.
A third mental training technique studied in sport psychology is self-talk.
According to Hardy (2006), self-talk should be defined as: “a) verbalizations or
statements addressed to the self; b) multidimensional in nature; c) having
interpretive elements association with the content of statements employed; d) is
somewhat dynamic; and e) serving at least two functions; instructional and
motivational” (p. 84). A number of intervention studies reflect the potential
benefits of self-talk on sport performance (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos, Galanis,
& Theodorakis, 2011; Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Perkos,
Theodorakis, & Chroni, 2002).
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Finally, relaxation techniques require the ability to voluntarily decrease
the amount of tension in muscles, calm the mind by keeping it productively
occupied and decrease autonomic responses (e.g., heart rate, blood pressure)
(Brewer, 2009). An extensive review by Greenspan and Feltz (1989) concluded
that relaxation is effective in improving performance. Therefore, it is not
surprising that many successful athletes use this specific technique to improve
performance
Although the previous four key psychological techniques have been
extensively examined in athletes, as yet, little is known regarding the extent to
which they are used by coaches for their own performance. To our knowledge,
we could only identify one study focusing on this specific research topic.
Thelwell et al. (2008a) conducted an exploratory investigation with 13 elite-level
coaches to examine their use of self-talk, imagery, relaxation, and goal setting.
Results indicated a more frequent use and greater number of purposes for
using self-talk and imagery than relaxation and goal setting. While the
aforementioned study offered a valuable insight into the psychological
techniques used by coaches, a more detailed understanding in this area of
research is necessary. In particular, on the imagery and self-talk content (what
coaches say to themselves and what they imagine), as well as on the type of
goals and relaxation strategies that they employed.
Furthermore, the Thelwell et al. (2008a) study employed an elite mixed
coach population (e.g., golf, sailing, cricket, gymnastics, rugby, athletics,
soccer, and field hockey). With Thelwell et al. (2008a) suggesting that
psychological techniques used might depend on the type of sport in question,
research is necessary within a single-sport population. Elite soccer coaches
were chosen for the focus of the study for several reasons. First, elite soccer
coaches are the subject of much public interest and media attention in the
world. Second, there is a certain degree of “mystique” surrounding the top level
soccer coaches and the methods that they utilize in their coaching routines
(Potrac, Jones, & Cushion, 2007).
Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to examine and describe
the Portuguese elite soccer coaches’ use (where, when, what, and why) of a
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group of psychological techniques (self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and
relaxation) for their performance.
Method
Participants
A sample of 13 male professional “elite soccer” coaches composed this
study. The coaches’ age ranged from 43 to 63 years (50.6 ± 5.8 years; mean ±
SD) and their coaching experience ranged from 10 to 29 years. In accord with
the recommendations of Patton (2002), purposive criteria sampling was
employed to enhance the potential of “information rich” participants being
included. The selection criteria required the coaches that currently work with
elite-level athletes’ (Hanton, Fletcher, & Coughlan, 2005), to be employed by
their respective governing bodies of sport (national squads) or by professional
clubs (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008b), and have a minimum
of ten years of soccer coaching experience (Bloom et al., 1997; Sedgwick,
Côté, & Dowd, 1997).
At the time of the interview, all the participants occupied head coach
positions in Portuguese soccer league clubs. Furthermore, all of them had the
license required by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA Pro
License) to manage a soccer club in the top level of the nation’s league, as well
as, in the UEFA Champions league or UEFA European league.
The interview and procedures
The participants were all initially contacted by telephone, informed of the
nature of the investigation, and asked about if they would be willing to
participate (all 13 coaches who were contacted agreed to participate). A time
was arranged to meet each participant at a venue of his choosing. Nine of the
interviews took place in the coaches’ offices before or after a training session
and the remaining interviews were conducted in a hotel room (n=1) and
coaches’ homes (n=3). The interviews were conducted face-to-face with all of
the participants by the first author who had previous experience of working as a
professional assistant coach in Portuguese premier league clubs and was
100
therefore familiar with the experiences and terminology used by the participants.
Interviews were digitally recorded and lasted between 60 to 90 minutes.
An interview-guide approach ensured that the same questions were
asked of all participants while still allowing the interview to use probes as
necessary (Patton, 2002). The guide was based on previous studies that have
investigated psychological techniques used by athletes (Hardy, Gammage, &
Hall, 2001; Munroe-Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, & Weinberg, 2000; Munroe-
Chandler, Hall, & Weinberg, 2004) and developed in accordance with the
specific purposes of the current investigation. The interview guide consisted of
six sections. The first section contained demographic information and other
introductory comments. The second until the fifth section followed similar
procedures but were focused on each psychological technique (i.e. section 2-
self-talk; section 3- imagery; section 4- goal setting; and section 5- relaxation).
Prior to each of these sections, participants were briefly clarified about the
meaning of each psychological technique. Then, coaches were asked about the
importance assigned to each psychological technique and its use. Areas of
questioning were generated around topics such as, “where” (e.g., “Where do
you use [psychological technique]?”), “when” (e.g., “In training, when do you
use [psychological technique]?“), “what” (e.g., “Provide a description of your
images (e.g., what are you seeing, hearing, feeling)?”; “Provide a description of
your self-talk) and “why” (e.g., “What are the reasons for your use
[psychological technique]?) each psychological technique was employed.
The interview guide was pilot-tested with three professional Portuguese
soccer assistant coaches, following which minor refinements to the guide were
made. This process also served to improve the interviewer’s familiarity with the
interview guide and the technical procedures of the interview, as well as to
enhance interview skills (Nordin & Cumming, 2005).
Data analysis
The data were analysed using hierarchical content data analysis
procedures recommended by Patton (2002). The specific procedure adopted in
the current study comprised the following steps:
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1. The tapes were initially listened to and then the transcripts were read
and reread by the first author until he was fully familiar with the content.
2. Raw data themes were identified from quotes, characterizing each
participant’s responses within each area of the interview.
3. Data were appropriately coded
4. Both inductive and deductive content analysis was conducted to
identify common themes from the lists of raw data obtained. Deductive analysis
ensured that answers discussing specific content were related to the question
being asked. Once content responses were matched to “appropriate questions”,
inductive analysis was conducted. First, second and third-order subthemes
established were labeled “higher order themes”, with the highest themes giving
a general description of the experience labeled as “general dimensions”.
5. In order to control individual bias and ensure verifiability of the findings
all the data were presented and discussed with another author to act as “devil´s
advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995).
6. To provide an ultimate validity check, the first author checked once
more all the findings.
7. Frequency analysis was conducted to represent the number of each
raw data themes citations and the number of coaches that referred each higher-
order themes.
Results
The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions (self-
talk, imagery, self-talk and relaxation) emerging from 161 raw data themes
mentioned by the elite soccer coaches.
Self-talk
The results of the current study showed that all of the participants employ
some form of self-talk in their coaching roles. The self-talk dimension shows the
coaches’ perspective on their use of self-talk, and included 63 raw data themes
that emerged into three third-order subthemes: locations and time frame (where
and when), content (what), and functions of self-talk (why) (Figure 1).
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The first third-order subtheme provides information about the locations
and time frame of soccer coaches self-talk. The interviews revealed that soccer
coaches employed self-talk at soccer related venues (e.g., “in the field”; “in
dressing room”), as well as at non-soccer related venues (e.g. “home”; “car”).
Participants also reported using self-talk before, during, and after both training
and competition environments. In this context, it should be noted that the use of
self-talk was predominant before and during the competition setting.
With respect to the second third-order subtheme, content of self-talk, four
second-order subthemes emerged: valence, structure, overtness and person.
The first second-order subtheme referred to the valence of self-talk that is
anchored with the bi-polar descriptors of positive and negative self-talk. The
positive self-talk referred to encouragement or talk that one could be successful
and was used by six of the participants. The following quotes provide some
examples of positive self-talk used by some of the participants: “I believe we
can do it”; “I know who I am and I am one of the best”. On the other hand,
negative self-talk was self-critical or represented an inability to succeed and
was cited by three participants. Negative self-talk used by the soccer coaches is
exemplified in the next quotes: “why did I do that” or “this is too hard”. Four of
the participants also stated that they used both positive and negative self-talk.
The following quote shows this perspective: “I usually use positive self-talk, but
sometimes I also use negative…it depends on the situation and the context, but
generally I use the positive”.
The second second-order subtheme, structure of self-talk, represented
the manner in which expert soccer coaches talk to themselves. In this second
order-subtheme, participants mentioned employing single cue words (e.g.
“calm”, “focus” or “breathe”), phrases (e.g., we “can do it”, “let’s go” or “chance
now”) and full sentences (e.g., “do not give up, maintain focused on the game”).
The overtness second-order subtheme is concerned with how coaches’
self-statements are verbalized. Specifically, the overtness dimension related to
whether the self-talk was overt (external) or covert (internal). According to three
of the participants, self-talk was spoken out loud in a manner that allows
another individual to hear what was said (overt). The following expression is
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quite representative of this overt perspective: “Usually I talk to myself out loud it
is something that comes out naturally of me”. On the other hand, six participants
employed self-talk using a small voice inside one’s head, and so cannot be
heard by another individual (covert). Also in this context it should be noted that
three of the participants cited used both overt and covert perspectives.
Finally, the last second-order subtheme is referred to the ‘person’ that
soccer coaches talk to themselves. Participants reported talking to themselves
in the first-person singular (i.e. I or me), in the second- person (i.e. you), as well
as in the first-person plural (i.e. we).
The final third-order subtheme, functions of self-talk, was comprised by
the cognitive motivational function of self-talk.
The cognitive function of self-talk, related the use of self-talk to enhance
several coaching skills. For example, one of the most frequently cited use of
cognitive function of self-talk was to provide effective feedback for the players
and team, as illustrated in the following quote: “Many times I use this (self-talk)
in order to improve the quality of the feedback that I send to my players and
teams. So I use this to provide feedback more effectively”.
Several participants also highlighted the use of self-talk in order to
optimize their psychological state (motivational function), (e.g., reduce anxiety
levels, enhance self-confidence, and motivation, to remain focused, to psych
up, and coping with difficulties). The next quotation is quite representative of
this last purpose: “I often talk to myself to overcome some difficulties that I face
in my job”.
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Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Competition (n=13) • Training (n=11) • On the field (n=3) • In dressing room (n=1) • In the (coaches) office (n=2) • In substitutes bench (n=2)
Soccer related venues (n=13)
Locations (where) (n=13)
Locations and times
frame (where
and when)
Self-ta
lk
• At home (n=4) • In the car (n=2) • Hotel room (n=1) • Airplane (n=1) • Team bus (n=1)
Non soccer
related venues (n=6)
• Before practice (n=4) • During practice (n=9) • In half-time (n=2) • After practice (n=6)
Training (n=11)
Times frame
(when) (n=13)
• Before the game (n=12) • During the game (n=10) • After competition (n=2)
Competition
(n=13)
• Used positive self-talk (n=6) (e.g., ”I believe we can do it”; ”Good job man!”;”I have to continue like this”) • Used negative self-talk (n=3) (e.g.,”Why did I do that”; ”Stupid mistake”; ”Why I did not substitute that player) • Both positive and negative self-talk (n=4)
Valence (n=13)
Content of
self-talk (what)
• Used single cue words (n=4) (e.g., ”Calm”; ”Focus”; ”Breath”; ”Relax”) • Used phrases (n=8) (e.g.,“We can do it”; ”Let’s go”; “Change now”) • Used full sentences (n=9) (e.g., ”Relax, I need stay calm at the end of the game”; ”Not give up, maintain focused”)
Structure (n=13)
• It’s certainly internal (n=3) • I talk only for me no one can hear me (n=1) • I do not share it with anyone (n=1) • It is not pleasant talk to myself in out loud (n=1)
Covert self-talk (n=6)
Overtness (n=13)
• Sometimes it is external (n=1) • Talk to my-self in out loud (n=1) • Sometimes those who are closed to me can hear my self-talk (n=1)
Overt self-talk (n=3)
• Switching internal and external perspectives (n=2) • It’s usually internal but in some moments unconsciously I talk in out loud (n=1)
Both covert and overt
(n=3)
• First singular person (“I”; “me”) (n=7) • Second singular person (“you”) (n=5) • First plural person (“we”) (n=3)
Person (n=13)
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Figure1. continued
Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Provide demonstrations (n=2) • Provided better instructions and explanations (n=4) • Provided effective feedbacks (n=1) • Analysed the competition and training sessions (n=1) • Conducted effective observation (n=1) • Help to plan the training session (n=1)
Execute and
improve tecnhical
skills (n=6)
Enhance several
coaching skills
(cognitive function) (n=11)
Functions of
self-talk (why)
• Elaborated team talk (n=3) • Help pre pared media speech (n=2)
Develop communuca-
tion skills (n=4)
• Improve the team offensive process (n=1) • Improve the team defensive process (n=1) • Improve game model (n=1)
Improve team tactical factors (n=2)
Self-T
alk
• To make substitutions in the game (n=2) • To make tactical changes in the game (n=1) • To “attack” the weakness of the opponent in game (n=1)
Execute tactical game
decisions (n=2)
• To Reduce stress and anxiety (n=5) • To calm my nerves (n=1)
Stress management
(n=6)
Regulate personal
psychologi-cal skills
(motivational function)
(n=9)
• To maintain motivation (n=1) • To increase motivation (n=3)
Enhance motivation
(n=3)
• To increase self-confidence (n=2) • To maintain self-confidence (n=1) • To feel prepared (n=1)
Enhance self-
confidence (n=3)
• Stay focus on tasks (n=2) • To clear my mind and concentrate in team performance (n=1)
Focus (n=2)
• To work through difficult situations (n=1) • To dealing with adversity (n=1)
Cope with difficulties
(n=2)
• To get myself excited for the game (n=1) • To psych myself up (n=1)
Psyched up (n=2)
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension
Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them
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Imagery
The interviews revealed that ten of the coaches highlighted employing
imagery to improve their own performance. When these participants were asked
about their use of imagery, 58 raw data themes were identified. This dimension
emerged from three third-order subthemes: locations (where and when),
content of imagery (what), and functions of imagery (why) (Figure 2).
Participants of the current study indicated employing imagery in several
soccer and non-soccer related venues. Soccer coaches also indicated using
imagery more in conjunction with competition than training and more before
competition than any other time frame.
The content of soccer coaches’ imagery was categorized into the nature
of imagery and types of imagery, second order-subthemes.
The nature of imagery consisted of responses concerning positive and
negative imagery. Several participants constantly offered descriptions of
positive imagery. For example, one coach said:
Normally before the games I visualize my team having a good
performance, to perform tactical movements that we trained, to make
great plays and goals…Indeed I imagine a set of great team moments in
order to boost my self-confidence to the game.
However, four coaches also expressed using negative imagery. One of
them reported that it occurred unintentionally. The following quotation is quite
representative of that:
I don´t use this (negative imagery) consciously, it isn’t something that I
want to visualize, but sometimes I visualize negative pictures about my
tactical decisions. For example, sometimes I imagine that my tactical
decisions don’t run like I expected during the game
In this context, one of the interviewed coaches raised an interesting
perspective regarding their use of negative images. This coach described using
negative imagery in their coaching routines to help prevent possible tactical
errors. The next comment expresses this perspective:
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The negative images help me to anticipate the action and prevent some
tactical errors during the game. For example, after an opponent’s corner I
imagine that they put the ball on the second post and these images serve
to rectify some of my players positions in our defensive zone. Evidently
the opposing team is thoroughly studied and most of the possible
situations are trained in the week. However the game is unpredictable
and sometimes small details of opposing players lead me to place
negative images in my head, and like I said, it helps me to reposition
some of my players.
Regarding the second-order subtheme, types of imagery, the coaches’
images tended to be multisensory, incorporating mainly visual but also
kinesthetic and auditory senses. The following quotation is quite representative
of the visual imagery: “For me the imagery translates into an internal vision of
certain situations…it is like a film that runs inside my head”.
The third-order subtheme, function of imagery, refers to why soccer
coaches used imagery in their coaching routines. As in the case of self-talk,
participants reported using imagery to enhance the performance of several
coaching skills (cognitive function) and to optimize their psychological skills
(motivational function).
With reference to cognitive function, participants reported using imagery
to execute and improve several technical skills, to improve team tactical factors,
and to execute tactical game decisions.
Regarding motivational functions, the interviews revealed that imagery
was employed by the soccer coaches to manage stress, enhance motivation,
self-confidence, to remain focused, to psych up and cope with difficulties.
108
Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Competition (n=10) • Training (n=5) • On the field (n=4) • In dressing room (n=3) • In the (coaches) office (n=1) • In substitutes bench (n=1)
Soccer related venues (n=10)
Locations (where) (n=10)
Locations and times
frame (where
and when)
Imag
ery
• At home (n=3) • In the car (n=3) • Airplane (n=1) • Team bus (n=1)
Non soccer related
venues (n=5)
• Before practice (n=3) • During practice (n=1) • After practice (n=1)
Training
(n=5)
Times frame (when) (n=10)
• Before the game (n=9) • During the game (n=5) • After competition (n=2)
Competition (n=10)
• Visualize myself performing well (n=2) • Imagine that everything will be fine (n=2) • Picture nice places before the game (n=1) • Imagine myself given the correct feedbacks to the players (n=1) • Visualize nice things before the game (n=1) • Imagine team positive outcomes (n=1) • Imagine my team playing very well and making amazing tactical movements (n=1)
Positive images (n=9)
Nature (n=10)
Content of imagery (what)
• Visualize that tactical movements not occurred as we would like (n=2) • It is not conscious but sometimes I picture negative team outcomes (n=1) • Sometimes I picture negative images to prevent possible tactical errors (n=1)
Negative images (n=4)
• Visual (n=6) • I see myself performing during the game (n=1) • It is like a movie into my mind (n=1) • It is like a screen TV (n=1) • Seeing several pictures in my mind (n=1)
Visual (n=9)
Type (n=10)
• A feel or a sensation of calm during some difficult situations (n=1) • Sometimes I also feel my movements during the training session(n=1)
Kinesthetic (n=2)
•Hearing the crowd (n=1) Auditory
(n=1)
• Provided effective feedbacks (n=4) • Execute demonstrations (n=2) • Provided instructions and explanations (n=1) • Help to plan the training session (n=1) • Detect personal technical errors (n=1) • Analysed personal performance in training and competition (n=1)
Execute and
improve tecnhical
skills (n=5)
´ Enhance several
coaching skills
(cognitive function)
Functions of imagery
(why)
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Figure.2 continued
Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Improve the team offensive process (n=2) • Improve the team defensive process (n=2) • Developed new offensive and defensive strategies (e.g. corners , free kicks) (n=1) • Improve team’s tactical weakness (n=1)
Improve team tactical
factors (n=4)
Enhance several
coaching skills
(cognitive function)
(n=9)
• To explore the opposing team weakness (n=1) • Make tactical critical decisions (n=2) • Adapt to different game situations (n=1)
Execute tactical game
decisions (n=3)
Im
ag
ery
• Reduce stress and anxiety (n=3) • To help control the anxiety (n=1)
Stress management
(n=4)
Regulate personal
psych. skills (motivational
function) (n=7)
Functions of
imagery (why)
• Maintain motivation (n=1) • To motivated (n=2)
Enhance motivation
(n=3)
• To gain self-confidence (n=1 • To elicit feelings of self-confidence (n=1)
Enhance self-
confidence (n=2)
• To remain focussed (n=1) • To help maintain focus (n=1)
Focus (n=2)
• To help through difficult circumstances (n=1) • To overcome difficult situations (n=1)
Cope with difficulties
(n=2)
• To psyched myself up (n=1) Psyched up (n=1)
Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the imagery general dimension
Goal-setting
When the coaches were asked to discuss the goals they set for
themselves, only six of the participants cited its use. The goal setting
dimension, included 33 raw data themes that emerged into the following third-
order subthemes: locations and time frames (where and when), types of goals
(what), and purposes for setting goals (why) (Figure 3).
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Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Competition (n=6) • Training (n=4) • In the (coaches) office (n=3) • In dressing room (n=1)
Soccer related venues (n=6)
Locations (where) (n=6)
Locations and times
frame (where
and when)
Go
al s
ettin
g
• At home (n=3) • In the car (n=1)
Non soccer related venues
(n=3)
• Before practice (n=4) • During practice (n=1) • After practice (n=3)
Training (n=4)
Times frame
(when) (n=6)
• Before the competition (n=6) • During the game (n=4) • After competition (n=2)
Competition (n=6)
• Outcome (team/ personal) goals (n=4) (e.g., ”win the league”; ”be the best coach in the league”) • Performance (team/ personal) goals (n=6) • Process goals (n=2)
Goal types
(n=6)
Types of Goals (what)
• Long –term goals (n=4) • Medium term goals (n=2) • Short-term goals (n=6)
Goal proximity
(n=6)
• Improve technical skills (n=1) • Benefitting communication (n=1)
Improve coaching tecnhical
skills (n=2)
´
Personal development
(n=4)
Purposes (why)
• Ensure personal motivation (n=4) • To stay focused (n=1)
Enhance personal p. skills (n=4)
• Improve themselves as coaches (n=1) • Improve my overall performance (n=1)
Improve overall
performance (n=2)
• Increase team motivation (n=3) • Maintain team motivation (n=1)
Enhance team/players p.skills (n=3)
Team / players
development (n=4)
• Improve the offensive process (n=1) • Improve the defensive process (n=1) • Improve team tactical performance (n=1)
Improve team tactical performance
(n=2)
• Provide direction for team (n=2) • Provide direction for themselves (n=2)
Provide direction
(n=3)
• Helping the players became successful (n=2) • Achieve personal success (n=1)
Achieve success
(n=2)
Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of the goal setting general dimension
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The interviews showed that the coaches set more competition than
practice goals. In addition the participants expressed setting goals more before
the competition than any other time frame.
Although the soccer coaches of the current study employed outcome,
performance and process goals in relation to their own coaching goals, the
focus was most definitely on performance goals. However, one of the coaches
noted that outcome goals are basically out of their control, so their focus was
more on what they could control. The following quote depicts this perspective:
I use outcome goals and performance goals, but I prefer the last rather
than the former…and why? Because the performance goals are more
dependent on our own effort and work…I like to set goals related to my
own performance as coach and goals related with the performance of my
team.
With regard to the goal proximity second-order subtheme, coaches
reported setting long-, medium-, and short–term goals, although the emphasis
was clearly on the short-term goals. The focus on short-term goals tended to be
practice to practice and competition to competition, depending on the specific
needs of the team, as well as the different moments of the season. The next
sentence expresses this perspective:
Usually, I set long and short goals, but no doubt that the emphasis goes
to the short goals. As you know our profession is very unstable and
consequently it is not easy to achieve long goals. So, I prefer to set short
goals. I like to set goals constantly. Session by session and game by
game I set and reformulate personal goals.
The third-order subtheme, goal purpose, describes the reasons for
soccer coaches setting personal goals and was abstracted into four second-
order subthemes: personal development, team/players development, provide
direction and achieve success.
Regarding the first second-order subtheme, personal development,
coaches revealed setting goals to improve their technical skills, to enhance
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several personal psychological skills and to improve their overall performance.
With reference to the enhancement of several personal psychological skills,
first-order subtheme, four coaches mentioned employing goal-setting to ensure
personal motivation, as illustrated in the next sentence.
The goals that I establish for myself serve to keep me constantly
motivated…the goals serve to remind me where I want to be and what
I’ve done to get here and this gives me the motivation to continue my
work
Goal setting was also employed by some coaches to develop their
players and teams. In this context, some coaches revealed using setting goals
to increase the players and team motivation, and to improve tactical team
performance (e.g., improve offensive and defensive process).
Additional purposes for soccer coaches setting personal goals were to
provide direction for themselves and their teams, as well as to achieve personal
success and help their players to succeed. The latter reason is explained in
more detail in the following quote: “I also set personal goals to help my players
succeed...help them to go to the national team, to win individual titles, to go to
big clubs, because when that happens you are doing good work”.
Relaxation
Relaxation was the least employed technique with only two soccer
coaches citing its use. This dimension only contained seven raw data themes
abstracted into the following three third-order subthemes: locations and time
frame (where and when), types of relaxation strategies, and purposes for using
relaxation. Unlike the previous psychological techniques, relaxation was only
employed before (n=2) the competition. In addition, the two coaches used
relaxation only in the form of breathing exercises (n=2). Results also revealed
that relaxation was used by the coaches to stay focused (n=1) and to reduce
anxiety levels (n=2). With reference to this last purpose, the following quotation
suggests why relaxation is beneficial: “I used exercises for breathing control, to
help me to reduce the stress and tension before the game because as you
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know during the competition period a leader must have a calm and serene
image”.
Discussion
The purpose of the current study was to examine the use of four
psychological techniques (i.e. self-talk, imagery, goal-setting, and relaxation) by
elite soccer coaches for their performance. Globally, participants reported a
more frequent use of self-talk and imagery than goal-setting and relaxation.
These findings are not surprising because both techniques (self-talk and
imagery) “enable individuals to interpret feelings and perceptions, regulate and
change their evaluations, and give themselves instructions and reinforcement”
(Thelwell et al., 2008a, p. 49).
An interesting finding revealed by the interviews was that the majority of
the coaches mentioned using psychological techniques more frequently before
the competition and, in general, more in conjunction with competition than
practice. This finding can explain how crucial the time prior to competition is for
coach performance preparation. Moreover, it should be noted that before the
game, and in particular during the warm up of the team, the soccer head coach
is not directly involved in any activity and, consequently, he has more
opportunities to use psychological techniques to prepare himself for the
competition. This is a possible explanation. However it is also very likely that
coaches remember more the use of these techniques in crucial situations, as
compared to, emotionally speaking, irrelevant situations. For example, it could
be possible that coaches often use psychological techniques sitting alone in
their office preparing for practice or competition. In regard to this issue, it should
be kept in mind that not the actual use of psychological techniques was studied
in the current study, but the coaches’ perceptions of its use.
During the interviews the participants provided extensive information
about their use of self-talk and it was clear that they believed that this
psychological technique served valuable roles in their coaching routines.
With regard to the content (what coaches said to themselves), the
findings of the present study suggested some potential dimensions for soccer
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coaches self-talk. They also support previous findings in the athlete self-talk
literature. Most of the soccer coaches self-talk was positive and covert, that
lends support to Hardy, Hall, and Hardy (2005, Study 2) quantitative study with
recreational volleyball players, as well as to Van Raalte et al., (1994) proposal.
These last authors suggested that positive self-talk might be more likely to be
internalized by the individual than the negative self-talk. Although most of
soccer coaches’ self-talk is positive and covert it seems clear that in certain
circumstances their self-talk were also negative and covert. In line with this
finding, several researchers suggested that negative (Hardy et al., 2001) and
covert (Vygotsky, 1986) occurs more in demanding and challenging situations
(e.g., highly stressful situations or when under pressure).
Another aspect of the content of soccer coaches’ self-talk that emerged
in the present study was the structure dimension. Participants reported that they
talked to themselves using short phrases and complete sentences with
approximately the same frequency. This finding seems to make some intuitive
sense. For example, when soccer coaches are providing demonstration,
instruction or feedback it may be more efficient to use short phrases. On the
other hand, when they are planning or conduct analyzes and observation it may
be more useful to use complete sentences.
Finally the present study extends previous findings regarding the person
dimension of the self-talk content. In contrast to the athletes (Hardy et al., 2001)
and exercisers (Gammage, Hardy, & Hall, 2001), participants of the current
study tended to talk to themselves not only in the first and second-person
singular but also in the first-person plural. One possible explanation for this
finding may have been due to the coaches’ performance is directly linked to
their team performance.
Regarding to the functions of self-talk (why), results revealed that soccer
coaches used both motivational and cognitive functions which is consistent with
the previous findings in the athletes’ self-talk literature (Hardy et al., 2001). It
must be noted that soccer coaches reported using cognitive functions slightly
more than motivational ones. By contrast, athletes’ self-talk (Hardy et al., 2001)
has been shown to be used most frequently for motivational purposes. One
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possible explanation for these differences is that athletes usually have already
acquired most of the skills and strategies of their sport and consequently they
make greater use of motivational self-talk functions. On the other hand, soccer
coaches used self-talk not only to maximize their psychological state
(motivational functions) but mainly to enhance the performance of several
coaching skills (which in turn improve their interventions with players and
teams). This finding is not surprising because “the most obvious task of the
coach is to help athletes and teams to perform their full potential” (Côté,
Salmela, & Russell, 1995, p. 76).
The present study indicated that self-talk was used by the coaches for
the development and execution of several coaching skills. Future research
should explore both functions in more depth, as well as examine more fully their
effectiveness of coach’s performance. Data also showed that the motivational
function was mentioned less frequently than the cognitive one. However it is
important to highlight that the motivational function seems to be relevant for the
coach performance and also deserves further investigation.
An additional finding for the motivational function was the larger number
of coaches that reported using self-talk to reduce stress and anxiety. The high
psychological pressure that the soccer coach is constantly subject (by the
media, fans, directors…) may be the basis of this result.
Results of the current study clearly indicate that participants used self-
talk in their coaching process. However, what is not known is whether they use
self-talk as effectively as possible and this warrants further examination.
Therefore, future research should examine the effectiveness of the content,
cognitive and motivational self-talk functions on soccer coach performance.
Quantitative and experimental studies will certainly provide valuable information
for sport psychologists to develop more effective and specific self-talk
interventions among soccer coaches.
The current study also provided insight into the content of coaches’
images in their coaching routines. Results of our study showed that the
coaches’ images tend to be more positive rather than negative. Several
researches (Powell, 1973; Woolfolk, Parrish, & Murphy, 1985), showed that the
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use of positive imagery enhances athletes’ sport performance. Presumably, the
use of positive imagery by soccer coaches can provide a similar benefit (i.e.
enhance the performance of the coach / enhance coaching effectiveness).
Future research should be conducted to confirm this hypothesis. Although the
majority of imagery described by the soccer coaches was positive, it should be
noted that the use of negative imagery was also reported by some of the
participants. At this context, one coach mentioned that the negative images
during the competition can serve to prevent possible bad tactical decisions.
Although the athletes’ imagery literature revealed that negative imagery can
have a damaging influence on performance (Woolfolk et al., 1985), our results
suggested that this type of imagery might play an important role in competition
coaching routines.
Another interesting aspect of imagery content that emerged in the
present study was that the majority of the participants reported using visual
imagery more than any other type (e.g., kinesthetic, auditory). This finding was
not surprising, since as Jedlic, Hall, Munroe-Chandler, and Hall (2007) stated,
vision is the dominant sense in imagery. Several researches, however have
noted the potential importance of kinesthetic imagery (Hall & Erffmeyer, 1983;
Mumford & Hall, 1985). In line with this, some of the participants of our study
highlighted the use of this type of imagery. While soccer coaches reported
making use of visual, kinesthetic and auditory imagery, there is no evidence of
its effectiveness in the performance of the coach. Future examination of how
these types of imagery might influence the performance of the soccer coach is
certainly warranted.
With respect to the functions (why) of imagery, the findings of our
analysis seem to suggest that this psychological technique was used by
coaches for many of the same (cognitive and motivational) reasons that they
use self-talk. Similarly to self-talk, most of the participants expressed using
imagery to regulate their anxiety levels. This finding may be connected with the
predominant use of both techniques after competition pointed out by
participants. Coaches may experience feelings such as anxiety, nervousness,
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and doubt immediately prior to competitions, and therefore, may benefit greatly
from this specific function of both self-talk and imagery.
In the athletes’ imagery (Munroe-Chandler et al., 2000) and self-talk
(Hardy et al., 2001) literature, it was proposed that in order to gain the greatest
benefit from their imagery or self-talk interventions, consultants should match
the function of imagery/self-talk being used with the desired outcome. For
example, if athletes want to improve their self-confidence it would be best for
them to make use of motivational mastery imagery or motivational mastery self-
talk, respectively. In addition, Hardy et al., (2001) suggested that greater
benefits may be realized if the athlete were to use motivational mastery imagery
in combination with motivational mastery self-talk. We believe the same is true
for the interventions with soccer coaches. Thus, encouraging soccer coaches to
use imagery and self-talk in combination would seem to be a logical approach.
The findings relating to goal setting showed that less than half of the
sample to cited its use. A marked reduction was also seen in the number of
purposes for which coaches use goal setting compared with self-talk and
imagery. Our findings need to be carefully analyzed because the coaches of the
current study were only required to discuss the goals that they set for
themselves, which meant that there was a limit on the focus on teams and
athlete-related goals. Results of our analysis also revealed that the most
frequent reasons given for coaches setting personal coaching goals was to
provide direction and to increase/maintain personal motivation. Burton and
Raedeke (2008) considered these purposes as some of the major mechanisms
by which goals operate.
Regarding the type of goals, results revealed that coaches used
outcome, performance and process goals. Although cases can be made to
focus on one type of goal or another, all three types of goals can be effective in
enhancing performance and have a positive effect on behavior (Weinberg &
Butt, 2011). Along these lines, Weinberg, Harmison, Rosenkranz, and Hookom
(2005) stated that process and performance goals require the development of
skills and strategies necessary to achieve outcome measures.
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Also in this context, Kingston and Hardy (1997) found that focusing on
process goals not only led to enhanced performance, but also improved
psychological factors such as concentration, cognitive anxiety control and self-
efficacy. It is encouraging to see that soccer coaches are including the three
types of goals; however, Kingston and Hardy (1997) noted the best mix of
process, performance and outcome goals for maximum effectiveness needs to
be determined.
The findings relating to goal setting also revealed that coaches set long-,
medium-, and short-term goals. This is a very important procedure because
having specific goals through the sports season is one of the most powerful to
increase performance (Porter, 2003).
Finally, our findings showed a clear underuse of relaxation techniques.
This may be considered a fact for concern, since the literature reported several
benefits from relaxation, such as the ability to cope with the pressure of
competition, particularly at the highest levels (Hanton, Thomas, & Mellalieu,
2009). A possible explanation for this fact can be assumed by the lack of
knowledge of the full range of relaxation-based strategies, as well as by the lack
of collaboration with sport psychologists. Although there are a variety of
strategies to help subjects to relax (e.g., diaphragmic breathing, progressive
muscular relaxation and self-directed relaxation) (Burton & Raedeke, 2008),
controlled breathing for relaxation was the only method mentioned by the two
coaches that employed relaxation in their routines. This finding was not
surprising, because controlled breathing for relaxation is partially a natural
innate technique (Caruso, 2004).
Nevertheless, it should be noted that the present study examined the
coaches’ perceptions and not the actual use of psychological techniques. In this
sense, it is possible that coaches use relaxation in some way even they did not
report its use consciously.
Conclusion
The present study revealed that elite Portuguese soccer coaches had a
more frequent use and greater number of reasons for using self-talk and
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imagery than goal setting. On the other hand, participants mentioned a lesser
use of relaxation. Another important finding was that the soccer coaches
reported to use the psychological techniques more in conjunction with
competition than practice. Moreover, the present study pointed out valuable
information about the content and function of self-talk and imagery used by the
coaches, as well as the type of goals that they set for themselves.
Due to the lack of studies examining the efficacy of psychological
techniques on soccer coaches’ performance, it would be inappropriate to draw
firm implications from the findings. Nevertheless, we contend that before
examining this issue (i.e. techniques-performance link in the coaches) it is
necessary to examine whether psychological techniques use is evident, as well
as where, when, why and how these techniques are used. In this sense, the
data of the current study provides an important step. Future research should
now examine the efficacy of the psychological techniques on soccer coaches’
performance.
For practitioners the data of this study may serve as a useful tool for
developing more specific and effective psychological interventions. For
example, knowing the psychological techniques used by the Portuguese soccer
coaches, the sport psychologist might be able to develop more specific
interventions for the coaches with whom they work.
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Paper V
Psychological skills training in Portuguese premier soccer league:
Players’ perspectives and experiences 5
____________________
5 Submitted
123
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine soccer players’ perspectives and
experiences regarding psychological skills training (PST). Semi structured, in-
depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 players from elite
Portuguese premier league soccer teams that played regularly in UEFA
champions and Europe Leagues. Results indicated that participants highlighted
the importance of PST (n=16) and showed receptivity to PST interventions
(n=13). Nevertheless more than half of the sample (n=12) mentioned a
complete lack of PST interventions. A list of barriers to PST was elicited in the
present study and included the lack of sport psychologists available in soccer,
the mentality and culture of some soccer administrators and coaches, the lack
of PST knowledge of players and coaches, the lack of soccer knowledge on the
part of the psychologists, and negative players’ perceptions of PST. Potential
practical implications and suggestions for future PST research applied to soccer
are provided.
Key-words: psychological skills training, soccer, elite, players, interviews,
qualitative
.
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Introduction
Currently the importance of psychological skills training (PST) in the
development of sport performance is widely recognized (Birrer & Morgan, 2010;
Côté, Salmela, & Russell, 1995; Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, &
Peterson, 1999; Gould, Medbery, Damarjian, & Lauer, 1999; Thiese &
Hudleston, 1999). To be able to perform well in sports, not only intense physical
training but also PST is required (Gould, Damarjian, & Medbery, 1999).
Therefore it is not surprising that recently, the PST research applied to
soccer has received considerable attention. Several scientific articles have been
published supporting the positive influence of PST on soccer-based
performance (e.g., Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004; Munroe-
Chandler, Hall, Fishburne, Murphy, & Hall, 2012; Thelwell, Greenlees, &
Weston, 2006, 2010). For example, Thelwell et al., (2010) examined the effects
of a PST intervention comprising self-talk, relaxation and imagery, on three
performance subcomponents (passing, first touch and tackling) during different
stages of competition. The results showed the intervention to be effective in
enhancing performance in the second half of the performance for all participants
in at least two of the performance subcomponents. Consequently, some
evidence suggesting that PST intervention affects performance in differing ways
throughout competition was highlighted.
Despite the steady growth of PST research applied to soccer, it is
important to point out that the majority of the studies have been primarily limited
to experimental methods (that examined the efficacy of PST on performance).
To date, relatively little is known about soccer players’ perspectives concerning
the PST process. This gap in research was also emphasized by Pain and
Harwood (2004) that reported the need to examine the soccer players’
knowledge and perspectives of applied PST interventions. Understanding the
soccer players’ perspectives on this issue will provide useful insight into the
current state of PST in soccer, as well as valuable information for practitioners
(i.e., sport psychologists and coaches). According to the soccer players’
attitudes toward PST intervention the practitioners can select the most effective
way to conduct this kind of intervention. Leffingwell, Durand-Bush, Wurzberger,
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and Cada (2005) highlighted the importance of being aware of an athletes’
openness to PST interventions in order to help practitioners decide the best
direction for intervention. In line with this, Bull (1991) suggested that athletes’
motivations, beliefs and behaviors regarding PST must be addressed in order to
increase the number of athletes who adhere to PST programs.
An important direction for PST evaluation pointed out by Vealey (1988)
was the utilization of qualitative methods as an alternative to the traditional
quantitative methods. The use of interviews, for example, provides the
researcher with more holistic and contextualized knowledge about the problem
and producing relevant information which is not always provided by other
assessment methods (Valles, 1999). As Vealey (1988) noted, “information such
as this can facilitate the development of salient and appropriate PST
approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332).
Given the above, the general purpose of the current study was to explore
the perspectives and experiences of elite Portuguese soccer players regarding
PST process. More specifically, we aimed to examine the players’ perspectives
about the importance assigned to PST, as well as their receptiveness and
personal experiences with PST interventions.
Method
Participants
Sixteen professional Portuguese elite soccer players participated in this
study. At the time of the interview all of them were playing for Portuguese
premier league teams that competed in UEFA champions or Europe League.
Six of the participants were also playing for the Portuguese national soccer
team, which were among the strongest in the world (ranked in the top ten on the
official FIFA list). The sample included two goalkeepers, four defenders, five
midfielders and five attackers. All the participants were male, ranging in age
from 23 to 34 years.
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Instrument
The data were collected from a semi-structured interview with open-
ended questions developed in accordance with the purposes of the current
study.
The interview guide consisted of three sections: (i) introduction, (ii) PST
questions (main body of the interview), and (iii) final considerations. Within the
introduction, the research explained the purpose of the study and the structure
of the interview. This section also aimed to establish rapport with the
participants. The questions of the second section explore the importance
assigned to psychological skills on soccer players performance (e.g., What is
your opinion about the importance of PST for soccer players?; Which
psychological skills do you considered most important for soccer players?) and
the perceptions and experience with PST intervention (e.g., Have you ever
received an PST intervention?; Are you receptive to this type of intervention?).
Finally, participants were invited to complete or add information to their
responses to the interview questions or to other conversation topics that they
considered relevant to the purposes to this study. Three pilot interviews with
three male non-professional soccer players were used to refine the interview
guide.
Procedures
The first author conducted all of the interviews face-to-face. This author
had previous experience as assistant coach in Portuguese premier league
soccer teams and was therefore familiar with the history, experiences, and
terminology used by participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985) this
was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data collection. The
interviews were conducted in the clubs’ facilities (after and before the training
sessiona; n=10), in players’ homes (n=4), and at hotel rooms (n=2). Each
participant gave their consent to have the interview recorded and confidentiality
was assured. The interviews lasted 45 to 75 minutes.
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Data analysis
Soccer players’ interviews were tape-recorded, transcribed and content
analysed using the procedures recommended by Patton (2002) for inductive-
deductive content analysis. The process involves organizing raw data into
meaningful themes and categories that emerged from the quotations. In the
current study, the first author achieved this by clustering quotes around
underlying uniformities from which first-order subthemes then emerged.
Common second-order subthemes were then identified and the hierarchical
induction continued until it was no longer possible to create a new level of
thematic representation (Patton, 2002). The highest level of themes was
labelled as general dimensions. In order to control individual bias and ensure
verifiability of the findings, all the data were presented and discussed with
another author (trained in qualitative research) that acted as “devil’s advocate”
(Marshall & Rossman, 1995). The findings were analysed and questions were
raised about the researchers’ interpretations. After discussion, all the comments
were clarified, changes were made as appropriate, and a final consensus was
reached. Finally, the first author re-read again the interview transcripts while
comparing them and validating them against the first-order, second-order
subthemes and general dimensions, ensuring that research questions were
being answered and no relevant data had been inadvertently excluded or
irrelevant data included.
Results
The inductive-deductive analysis pointed out two general dimensions
emerging from 38 raw data themes mentioned by the elite soccer players. The
dimensions were abstracted from six second-order subthemes and these from
nine first-order subthemes. The general dimensions are represented in Figures
1-2.
Importance of PST for soccer players
This dimension concerned the participants’ perspectives about the
importance assigned to PST in soccer. Twenty-three raw data themes
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comprised this first dimension and three second-order subthemes were used to
define it (Figure 1).
The first second-order subtheme, importance of PST, enumerated the
reasons why participants considered PST important for soccer players. All the
participants were unanimous in recognizing the important role of PST,
specifically as one of the most important factors of performance and crucial for
elite soccer players. The next comment expressed this specific view:
In my opinion the training of psychological skills is crucial for any elite
soccer player. Evidently the physical, technical, and tactical preparation
is also relevant, but for me the psychological factor is undoubtedly the
one that makes the difference at the highest level.
With respect to the second-order subtheme, five of the soccer players
considered that PST has a positive impact on soccer performance. Two
participants also revealed that a lack of psychological preparation has a
negative impact on soccer players’ performance, decreasing the expected
outcome. The following quote clearly show this perspective:
If you are not well prepared psychologically you cannot have a good
performance, it is impossible. Even if you are a player of excellence, if
you are bad psychologically you will fail. At this level we can never fail
and consequently we always need to be well prepared psychologically.
The last second-order subtheme, enumerated the psychological skills
that participants considered most important for soccer players performance
such as concentration, self-confidence, motivation, stress management, and
emotions management. Also in this second-order subtheme, some participants
mentioned a range of psychological attributes (e.g., responsibility, spirit of
sacrifice). It should be noted, however that only three of the soccer players
mentioned the importance of some psychological techniques (e.g., self-talk,
goal setting).
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PST Interventions
Fifteen raw data themes were included in the second dimension, which
highlighted the participants’ perspectives and experiences regarding the PST
interventions. This dimension was comprised of three second-order subthemes:
personal experiences with PST intervention, receptiveness to PST intervention
and barriers to PST intervention (Figure 2).
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
• Very important (n=8)
•One of the multi-factors of performance (n=4)
•Crucial to elite soccer players (n=4)
•Permit get to the top (n=1)
•Helps stay at the top (n=1)
•Distinguish the best players (n=1)
Importance of PST (n=16)
Importance of PST
for soccer players
•Usually had a positive influence (n=1)
•Improve performance (n=1)
•Helps to achieve high level results (n=2)
•Permit beat better opponents (n=1)
Positive impact
(n=5)
Impact on Performance
(n=6)
•A lack of psychological preparation have a negative impact on performance (n=1)
• When I’m not psychological prepared all things go bad (n=1)
Negative impact (n=2)
•Concentration (n=7)
•Self-confidence (n=6)
•Motivation (n=3)
•Stress management (n=3)
•Emotions management (n=1)
Psychological
skills (n=11)
Curcial psychological
skills/ tecnhiques
(n=16)
•Responsibility (n=2)
•Spirit of sacrifice (n=1)
•Manage to success (n=1)
•Passion (n=1)
Psychological attributes
(n=5)
•Self-talk (n=2)
•Goal setting (n=1)
P. techniques (n=3)
Figure 1. Soccer players’ perspectives about the importance of PST
Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them
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Regarding the previous experiences with PST intervention the majority of
the participants had never experienced any kind of intervention. Four players
mentioned to having some previous experience with PST intervention, however
they considered it not appropriate or not systematic. One of these participants
explained that he had previous contact with a sport psychologist who applied
some psychological techniques to assist him. However, this participant
considered the intervention unhelpful because he only had access to this in the
pre-season. The following quote depict this perspective:
Raw Data Themes First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
General Dimension
•Sporadic intervention (n=1)
•Not appropriate intervention (n=2)
•Application of some psychological techniques (n=1)
Contact (n=4)
Previous experience with PST
interventions (n=16)
PST interventions
•Never had psychological intervention (n=12)
• Never worked with SPs (n=2)
No contact
(n=12)
•Receptive to PST interventions (n=13)
Receptive (n=13)
Receptiveness to PST
interventions (n=16)
•Not receptive to PST interventions (n=3)
Not receptive (n=3)
•Lack of SPs available in soccer (n=7)
•Mentality / culture of soccer administers and coaches (n=4)
•Coaches’ lack of PST knowledge (n=4)
•Players’ lack of PST Knowledge (n=3)
•Lack of specific-sport knowledge by the SPs (n=3)
• Don’t have psychological weakness (n=1)
• Successful psychological characteristics (n=1)
•To old to change routines (n=1)
Barriers to PST
Interventions (n=16)
Figure 2. Soccer players’ perspectives and experiences regarding PST interventions
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In one of the several clubs that I played I had a PST intervention during
the pre-season. The psychologist gave me a personal interview and
some questionnaires to fill out. He also taught me some techniques to
reduce stress, anxiety and to maintain focus. However, we only had two
or three sessions in the pre-season. Honestly I think that this type of
intervention was not very effective.
When the soccer players were asked about their receptiveness to PST
interventions, 13 participants showed receptiveness to this type of intervention.
On the other hand, three participants were not receptive to PST interventions
and expressed some ideas that can be considered barriers to this intervention.
Two participants believed that they did not have psychological weakness.
Another participant mentioned that he is too old to change his routine. The next
quote summarizes this idea:
I’m not very receptive to this (PST intervention). I’m nearly finishing my
career and so I’m not very receptive to changing my old routines. I have
my own strategies that allow me to prepare psychologically for the
competition. I have used these strategies for a long time and I feel very
comfortable with them. Honestly I’m not receptive to this or other type of
psychological intervention because I do not need it … maybe when I
began my career, but not now.
Finally, the participants who are receptive to PST interventions also
identified some barriers to this kind of intervention in soccer. According to these
participants the lack of sport psychologists available in soccer clubs and
technical staff, the lack of PST knowledge of soccer players and coaches, and
the mentality of some soccer administrators and coaches were some of the
most significant barriers. Three soccer players also identified the lack of
specific-sport knowledge by the sport psychologists as a barrier to PST
interventions. For example, one soccer player said:
In my opinion the lack of specific soccer knowledge by the psychologists
is one of the most important reasons why they are not working in soccer.
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I think that the psychologists can only help us if they understand soccer.
It's like the physical trainer, if he does not understand anything about
soccer he can’t prepare us because the players need to be prepared to
play soccer and not only running. So for me this argument is also valid
for the psychologists.
Discussion
The purpose of the current study was to examine the PST perspectives
and experiences of players from elite Portuguese soccer teams. The sample
was unanimous in recognizing the important role of PST in soccer. This
perspective could be valuable because literature revealed that success in
professional sports requires not only physical and tactical preparation but also
PST (Cox & Yoo, 1995). Similarly, Gardner and Moore (2006) mentioned that
the systematic and purposeful application of PST can make an important
contribution in elite sport. In addition some of our participants stressed the idea
that PST had a positive impact on their performance, that is consistent with
several PST researches applied to soccer (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe-
Chandler et al., 2012; Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010).
When asked about the most crucial specific psychological skills for
soccer players’ performance, our sample pointed toward dominance of self-
confidence and concentration skills. This finding is not totally surprising because
both psychological skills are often addressed in sport psychology literature.
Several studies supported that the optimization of self-confidence and the ability
to concentrate are key psychological skills to successful performance in elite
sport (Durand-Bush & Salmela, 2002; Kitsantas & Zimmerman, 2002). At this
level it is important to note that both these skills were often elicited in soccer
media by some of the best soccer players in the world. For example, in a media
interview after an important game, Lionel Messi stated the following: “I’m very
confident. I think that the goals are linked with confidence. Now it seems that all
the balls get in and that makes it easier to score goals” (“Marca”, 2007, para.1).
In a similar pre-game media interview, Cristiano Ronaldo reported that “this is a
very important game for us and I will certainly be focusing and I will help the
team” (“Marca”, 2013, para.2). Despite the recognized importance of these
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skills, few studies investigated the specific strategies that soccer players used
to enhance the both skills (i.e. concentration and self-confidence). Thus, future
research can and should explore these issues.
According to Vealey (2007) it seems important to identify key
psychological skills that are related to the performance success to guide the
development of PST interventions. Therefore the set of psychological skills
highlighted in the current study can and should be considered as a relevant
indicator for the development of more effective and specific PST interventions
among elite soccer players. However, in order for this support to be as effective
and specific as possible, future research should explore the key psychological
skills according to the soccer players’ gender, age and position in the field (e.g.,
goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders and attackers).
Recent advances in the PST literature applied to soccer has seen an
increase in the number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence
of PST on soccer player’s performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe-
Chandler et al., 2012; Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010). However most of the
participants (n=12) revealed a complete lack of PST interventions during their
careers and even the four players who reported previous PST interventions
experiences did not considerate it as appropriate. Since the sport psychology
literature has supported that optimal athletes’ performance requires a
systematic, appropriate and effective PST intervention (Morris, Spittle, & Watt,
2005; Vealey, 2007), it seems to be important to increase the adherence of elite
soccer players to this type of intervention. If Portuguese elite soccer players
have more opportunities to engage in formal PST their performance may be
improved.
According to Leffingwell, Rider, and Williams (2001) athletes may
perceive potential gains and losses in pursuing PST and the latter may
adversely impact athletes’ motivations and behavior regarding a PST
intervention. Although some of the participants (n=3) expressed disinterest and
reluctance to PST interventions, most of them (n=13) showed interest and
receptiveness to PST interventions.
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Therefore we are faced with a paradox. If the majority of the elite soccer
players are receptive to PST interventions, why did most of them not have
access to such interventions during their careers?
Results of our study describe a variety of roadblocks to PST highlighted
by the twelve participants that showed receptiveness to PST interventions. A
lack of sport psychologists available in soccer clubs and technical staff was
cited as the most significant barrier among this group of participants. This
finding is not totally surprising because sport psychologists in Portuguese
professional soccer are the exception and not the rule (Fonseca, 2004). In order
to increase and improve the quality of psychological services in soccer, it was
recommended that a higher number of sport psychologists should be
incorporated into the professional clubs. For Weinberg and Gould (2011) PST
should be planned, implemented, and supervised by a qualified sport
psychologist consultant. The inclusion of these experts in professional
Portuguese soccer may also serve to educate the soccer players and coaches
in the PST concepts and consequently to overcome other barriers elicited in this
study, specifically, the lack of PST knowledge of both practitioners (players and
coaches). However, some of the soccer coaches and administrators do not fully
accept the integration of these experts in soccer. According to some
participants the mentality / culture of soccer coaches’ administrators was
considered a barrier that sport psychologists face to entry in soccer. In line with
this, previous research showed that PST concepts are often not fully accepted
or understood by professional sports organizations (Ravizza, 1990). In this
sense, the investment in the psychological education of soccer coaches and
administrators on the benefits of psychological interventions can be an
important step in the changing of their “mentality / culture”. In order to increase
the awareness and application of sport psychology within professional clubs,
youth academies and national squads, the Football Association (FA) of England
has introduced its ‘Psychology for Football’ strategy. A range of courses aimed
at coaches, players and support staff has been developed to educate these
groups in the concepts of sport psychology and, importantly, to unite them with
practicing sport psychologists (see Pain & Harwood, 2004). Therefore, the FA of
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England strategy can be seen as an example of good practice of sport
psychology that Portugal should follow.
Another barrier highlighted by some of the participants was the lack of
sport-specific knowledge on the part of the sport psychologists. According to
Pain and Harwood (2004) the sport-specific knowledge was essential for
working effectively with coaches and athletes. Therefore it is important that
sport psychologists increase their knowledge of soccer and focusing more on
soccer-specific psychological skills and strategies. This is a very important issue
because poor PST interventions experienced by soccer players and coaches
may itself favor erroneous preconceptions.
The participants (n=3) that expressed disinterest and reluctance to PST
interventions, pointed out several misconceptions about PST. Specifically, one
of the participants considered himself too old to benefit from a PST intervention.
According to several authors (see Burton & Raedeke, 2008; Weinberg & Gould,
2011), this argument integrates some of the myths that can negatively interfere
in the adherence of athletes to PST programs. Indeed, Asken (1991) stated that
PST interventions can benefit all the athletes and psychological concerns
cannot be neglected based on the athletes’ age. In order to overcome this
roadblock, Burton and Raedeke (2008) highlighted the importance of
introducing PST programs in the beginning of athletes’ sports careers to
enhance personal growth and performance. Other participants reported
satisfaction with their psychological performance and consequently they did not
require PST interventions. These participants believed that the PST
interventions were only for problems and weak players, and that strong players
would not benefit. Once more these perspectives are in line with the PST
misconceptions mentioned in several studies (Orlick & Partington, 1987; Pain &
Harwood, 2004). Therefore, it seems important to inform these players about
the nature of PST process. It is relevant to highlight that PST programs are
important not only for soccer players who admitted having psychological
weakness, but also for those who consider themselves having “strong” minds.
PST interventions can be seen as a preventive tool that will act before
psychological problems appear. In addition, it can work as an advantageous
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process to empower athletes already psychologically gifted, helping them to
achieve even better results and to perform consistently.
The previous misconceptions about PST pointed out by some of the
participants show the need for an educational and constructive perspective for
these players before a PST intervention. Weinberg and Gould (2011) presented
a three-phase approach for PST programs: (i) education phase, (ii) acquisition
phase, and (iii) practice phase. The first phase of the program is fully dedicated
to educating athletes on the importance of PST interventions and to raising
awareness of the role of psychological skills in sports.
Leffingwell et al., (2001) mentioned that when applied sport psychologists
approach a team they do not have clear notions about the athletes’
receptiveness to PST interventions. Therefore the previous finding can
represent a useful tool for the practitioners’ interventions with Portuguese elite
soccer players. Using the information pointed out in the current study,
practitioners can deduce that although the majority of the elite soccer players
may be interested in integrating PST programs to enhance their performance,
some of them are still reluctant with this type of intervention. Consequently
practitioners should outline an individualized intervention according to the
adherence level of each player. For example, for the players who are open and
receptive to a PST intervention, a more behavioural approach (i.e. application of
psychological strategies and techniques) should be conducted, while a more
cognitive and educational approach is advisable for the reluctant players.
Conclusion
The present study provided relevant information regarding the level of
development of PST among elite Portuguese soccer players. The findings
highlight the need to increase the number of opportunities for elite Portuguese
soccer players to receive PST interventions. In a professional sport, where
there is not a single game or even a single move in which the psychological
factors are used to interpret the games results or the players performance it
seems necessary to provide more psychological services and professional help
to support and engage elite Portuguese soccer players in PST programs. The
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practical recommendations pointed out in this study should help to overcome
the PST barriers and misconceptions that still exist in the Portuguese premier
league.
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Paper VI
Elite Portuguese soccer players use of psychological techniques:
Where, when and why 6
____________________
6 Accepted for publication at the Journal of Human Sport and Exercise: vol.8, nº3,
September 2013
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Abstract
The purpose of the current study was to examine the use whether, where, when
and why soccer players used self-talk, imagery, goal setting, and relaxation.
Semi-structure, in-depth, qualitative interviews were conducted with 16 elite
soccer players from Portuguese premier league soccer teams that played
regularly in UEFA champions and Europe leagues. Results demonstrated that
participants employed self-talk, goal-setting, and imagery with several purposes
in their soccer routines. On the other hand, participants highlighted a lack of use
of relaxation. In addition, results showed that the use of psychological
techniques was lower in training than competition setting. Implications of the
results are discussed and future research and practical recommendations are
suggested.
Key-words: soccer players, self-talk, goal-setting, imagery, relaxation
.
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Introduction
Psychological skills training (PST) entails a “systematic and consistent
practice of mental or psychological skills for the purpose of enhancing
performance, increasing enjoyment, or achieving greater sport and physical
activity self-satisfaction” (Weinberg & Gould, 2011, p. 248). In PST it seems
useful to differentiate between skills, or target behaviors (e.g. self-confidence,
attention focus, motivation), and methods (e.g., self-talk, imagery, goal-setting,
relaxation), which are the vehicles used to attain the target behaviors (Vealey,
1988, 2007).
We focus on the present study on the psychological techniques of
imagery, self-talk, goal setting, and relaxation. Although we acknowledge the
alternative psychological techniques used in sport performance, we selected the
four skills mentioned previously, because of their frequent employment in the
psychological skill literature. According to several authors (Gould, Murphy,
Tammen, & May, 1991; Sullivan & Nashman, 1998; Vealey, 1988, 2007), these
specific techniques have been the focus of most of the PST research. They
have received widespread attention in both single-skill (e.g., Evans, Jones, &
Mullen, 2004; Johnson, Hrycaiko, Johnson, & Halas, 2004) and multiple-skill
(e.g., Hanton & Jones, 1999; Thelwell, Greenlees, & Weston, 2006, 2010)
applied studies.
In this context, it also should be noted that the use of qualitative methods
as an alternative to the traditional quantitative methods was highlighted as an
important direction for PST evaluation (Vealey, 1988). For this author,
“information such as this can facilitate the development of salient and
appropriate PST approaches that truly meet the needs of athletes” (p. 332).
Therefore it was not surprising that PST literature has seen an increase in the
number of descriptive and qualitative studies examining the use of each
aforementioned psychological technique from an athlete perspective.
One of the most insightful imagery studies was conducted by Munroe-
Chandler, Giacobbi, Hall, and Weinberg (2000), who examined the four W’s of
imagery used by athletes. Results from this study reports that although athletes
used imagery before, during and after both training and competition, they used
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it more prior to competition than at any other time. In addition athletes also
report using imagery outside of these two environments, including at work,
school and home (Hall, Rodgers, & Barr, 1990; Rodgers, Hall, & Buckolz, 1991;
Salmon, Hall, & Haslam, 1994), and during sport-injury rehabilitation (Sordoni,
Hall, & Forwell, 2000). With regard to the “Why” of imagery use, Paivio (1985)
proposed that imagery can be used for both cognitive and motivational
purposes. Similarly, Munroe-Chandler et al., (2000) found that imagery can be
used for both cognitive (specific, general) and motivational (specific, general
arousal, general mastery). Also in this context, Salmon et al., (1994), reported
athletes using imagery more for its motivation function than its cognitive
function.
Like imagery, self-talk used by athletes has also received considerable
research attention. Based on recent sport specific self-talk findings (e.g., Hardy,
Gammage, & Hall, 2001; Theodorakis, Weinberg, Natsis, Douma, & Kazakas,
2000), self- talk can be better thought of as a multidimensional phenomenon
concerned with athletes’ verbalizations that are addressed to themselves, which
can serve both instructional and motivational functions. In a descriptive study of
self-talk use in sport, Hardy et al., (2001) (following the approach used by
Munroe-Chandler et al., 2000) examined the “4 W’s” of self-talk used by
athletes. Athletes of this study reported the use of self-talk before, during and
after training and competition. Similar to the findings reported by Munroe-
Chandler et al. (2000), Hardy and colleagues (2001) found that self-talk serves
two main functions for the athlete: cognitive (specific, general) and motivational
(mastery, arousal, drive).
The third psychological skill briefly reviewed here is goal setting.
Although athletes set goals in both training and competition, they set more
competition goals than practice goals (Burton, Weinberg, Yukelson, & Weigand,
1998; Weinberg, Burton, Yukelson, & Weigand, 2000). According Munroe-
Chandler, Hall, and Weinberg (2004) athletes reported slightly more goals for
training than competition. Gould (2006) reported that goal setting to be
beneficial for changing important psychological states such as anxiety,
motivation, and confidence. Munroe-Chandler et al., (2004) found that athletes
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set goals for several purposes that include: skills improvement and execution,
strategies of game improvement and execution, controlling arousal, being
mentally tough, being focused, staying positive, and increasing self-confidence.
The final psychological technique briefly reviewed here is relaxation. This
specific technique has received most of its attention via intervention-based
studies alone (Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008a). Relaxation
techniques have been used in sport primarily to enhance recovery from training
and competition, manage anxiety, and improve performance (Weinberg &
Comar, 1994). Additionally, this technique has been suggested to increase
concentration, enhance motor skills, and improve ability to handle arousal and
stress (Layman, 1978). However it should be noted that much of the work has
focussed on the reduction of a competitive anxiety and the mechanisms to
increase the directional perceptions of the anxiety response (Maynard,
Hemmings, & Evans, 1995). Several techniques are available and can be
categorized as physical or somatic relaxation strategies and cognitive relaxation
strategies (Hardy, Jones, & Gould, 1996). It has been suggested that different
relaxation techniques may induce different relaxation responses. For example
Lehrer’s review (1996) concluded that methods with predominantly cognitive
components tend to produce specific cognitive effects (e.g., decreases in
amount of worrying, self-assessment of anxiety or pain, inability to concentrate
mentally, etc.) and methods with predominant somatic components tend to
produce greater muscular effects as measured by surface EMG (Lehrer &
Woolfolk, 1993).
The athletes’ use of the four key psychological techniques is widely
reported in the PST literature, however it should be noted that few or no studies
focus on sport-specific samples. According to several authors psychological
techniques use could be dependent upon the type of sport (Hardy, Hall, &
Hardy, 2005; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Simms, & Weinberg, 1998). For example,
individual sport athletes reported greater use of self-talk, as well as the
functions of self-talk, than their team sport counterparts, i.e. team sport athletes
(Hardy et al., 2005, study 1). To achieve a better understanding of
psychological techniques it is important to execute research in a diverse group
145
of sports (Rogerson & Hrycaiko, 2002).Therefore, there seems a need to
examine specific-sport samples in order to facility the development of more
specific psychological interventions. For that reason, the present study has
focused on Portuguese elite soccer players. This specific-sample was chosen
due to their high popularity in Europe, but also because of the complete lack of
qualitative studies that examined the issues of where, when and why these
practitioners used psychological techniques. Understanding the soccer players’
perspectives on the aforementioned issues will certainly provide useful
information for the practitioners (i.e., sport psychologists and coaches)
developing more specific and effective PST interventions.
Therefore the purpose of the present study was to conduct an
exploratory investigation to identify and describe where, when and why (for
what purposes) elite Portuguese soccer players use the skills of imagery, self-
talk, goal setting and relaxation. Even before these questions are asked, we
must consider whether or not they are even using each of these psychological
techniques. Due to the in-depth nature of the questions being asked, as well as,
the recommendations of experts in this field (Vealey, 1988) a qualitative
approach was deemed appropriate.
Method
Participants
The sample was comprised of 16 male Portuguese elite soccer players
ranged in age from 23 to 34 years old. At the time of the interview all of the
participants played in Portuguese first league teams that competed in the UEFA
Europe league or UEFA champions league. Some of them (n=6) were also
playing for the Portuguese national soccer team, which were among the
strongest in the world (ranked in top ten on the official FIFA list). The sample
represented all of the soccer field positions and included two goalkeepers, four
defenders, four midfielders and five attackers. All participants volunteered their
consent to participate in the study.
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Interview guide
The data were collected from a semi-structured interview with open-
ended questions developed in accordance with the purposes of the current
study. The interview guide used in the present study was composed by six
sections. The first section contained demographic information and other
introductory comments (about the purpose of the research and information
about the structure of the interview). The second until the fifth section followed
similar procedures but were focused on self-talk, imagery, goal-setting and
relaxation respectively. In each of these sections participants received a
definition of the psychological technique in consideration. After this, participants
were asked to indicate if they use the psychological technique in soccer. If they
responded positively, they are asked about the questions relating to where,
when, and why they use it in both training and competition setting (e.g., “When,
in a training situation, do you use self-talk?”; ”What are some of the reasons you
use imagery in training?”). The questions relating to the functions (i.e. why)
followed Paivio’s (1985) framework, which includes both cognitive and
motivational functions. The questions emanating from the framework provided
some direction for the participants (e.g., “Could you describe your use of goal
setting for working on a specific skill?”; “Could you describe your use of self-talk
to execute strategies of play?”). The final section provided the participants with
the opportunity to ask questions about the interview experience and to discuss
any issues that may have been omitted. Three pilot interviews were conducted
with three non-professional soccer players, and minor amendments to the
questions were made to the appropriateness of the probe and elaboration
questions.
Procedures
The interviews were conducted by the first author of the present
investigation that had previous experience as assistant coach in Portuguese
premier league soccer teams and was therefore familiar with the history,
experiences, and terminology used by participants. According to Lincoln and
Guba (1985) this was one method of ensuring the trustworthiness of the data
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collection. The interviews were taped recorded and ranged in duration from 45
to 75 minutes and was conducted face to face in an environment comfortable
for the participants. Ten of the 16 interviews took place in the clubs’ facilities
before or after a training session. Of the remaining interviews, four were
conducted at the athlete’s home, and two in hotel rooms.
Data analysis
The data were analysed using hierarchical content data analysis
procedures recommended by Patton (2002). The first author read and reread
each of the interview transcripts to become completely familiar with the content
of each interview. Next, raw data themes were identified from quotes
characterizing each participant’s responses within each area of the interview.
Data were then appropriately coded, compared and organized into categories
using both inductive and deductive content analysis. Deductive analysis
ensured that answers discussing specific content were related to the question
being asked. Then, using a hierarchical induction, first, second and third-order
subtheme emerged through clustering raw data around underlying uniformities.
The process continued until general dimensions emerged (that represents level
with higher abstraction). Finally, in order to control individual bias and ensure
verifiability of the findings, all the data were presented and discussed with
another author to act as “devil advocate” (Marshall & Rossman, 1995). Any
comments, concerns, or queries raised by this author regarding the analysis
were then acknowledged, clarified, or changed as appropriate by the first
author. To provide an ultimate validity check, the first author reread all the
transcripts and verified that all themes and dimensions were represented
respectively and in accordance with the question being asked. The first author
chose segments of text (i.e. verbatim quotes from participants) to represent the
power of qualitative data to illustrate the themes (Patton, 2002).
Results
The inductive-deductive analysis exposed four general dimensions (self-
talk, goal-setting, imagery and relaxation) emerging from 120 raw data themes
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mentioned by the elite soccer players. The dimensions were abstracted from
eight third order subthemes, these from 18 second order-subthemes and these
form 44 first order-subthemes represented in figures 1-4.
Self-talk
Self-talk dimension shows the participants’ perspectives about their used
of self-talk (Figure 1). The interviews revealed that the 16 players of the present
study reported using self-talk in their soccer career. Furthermore ten of the
participants mentioned a systematic use of this technique in both training and
competition. On the other hand, six of the participants revealed that only
employing self-talk in competition.
With respect to the time frame, the majority of the sample stated using
this technique more during the competition than any other time frame. Four
participants highlighted the use of self-talk during half-time, whereas 15
participants employed it more frequently during the game. The following
quotation is quite representative of this last perspective:
I usually use self-talk during the game… I also use it in other moments,
but during the competition is undoubtedly when I use it more often.
During the 90 minutes of the game I’m constantly giving suggestions and
directions to myself, like I was coaching myself.
When participants were asked about the purposes for using self-talk
three second order-subthemes emerged: technical-tactical function (cognitive),
psychological function (motivational) and “extra” function.
Regarding the cognitive function of self-talk, participants mentioned using
self-talk for two main reasons: technical-tactical improvement and technical-
tactical execution. The first related to correct technical skills and learning new
tactical skills. The second and most frequently mentioned cognitive function,
related to the proper execution of technical and tactical skills in order to perform
as well as possible. This is well illustrated in the following soccer player’s quote:
“I use self-talk to execute defensive movements. Is a strategy that I use to
perform my defensive tasks as accurately as possible”.
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Additionally, the participants reported employing self-talk to enhance (or
optimize) several psychological skills, such as concentration, motivation and
self-confidence. An example of the former includes: “Usually I use it (self-talk) to
keep me focused and to not deviate from what I have to do”. The participants
also used self-talk to help them psych up for games, to overcome difficulties
and to control stress and anxiety levels. This latter reason is outlined in the
following quotation: “When things aren’t going well during the game I talk to
myself in order to keep calm and to reduce my anxiety levels”.
Finally, two soccer players raised an interesting purpose regarding the
use of self-talk. One of these players mentioned using this technique after the
game in order to elaborate their speech on flash-interview, as illustrated in the
following quote: “At the end of the game, before I go to the flash interview I used
the self-talk to prepare my speech at the flash interview”.
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Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Competition (n=16) • Training (n=10) • In dressing room (n=5) • On the pitch (n=1)
Soccer related venues (n=16)
Locations (where) (n=16)
Locations and time frames (where
and when)
Se
lf-talk
(n=
16)
• At home (n=1) • In the gym (n=1) • In the car (n=1) • Hotel room (n=1) • Team bus (n=1)
Non soccer
related venues (n=5)
• Before practice (n=6) • During practice (n=8) • After practice (n=3)
Training (n=10)
Time frames (when) (n=16)
• Before the game (n=10) • In the warm up (n=3) • During the game (n=15) • At half-time (n=2) • After competition (n=4)
Competition
(n=16)
• Improve and strengthen weaker skills (n=1) • Correct technical errors (n=2) • To learn offensive and defensive movements (n=1)
Technical- tacical skills improvement
(n=3)
Technical-
tactical function
(cognitive n=9)
Functions of self-talk
(why)
• Perform with the proper technique(n=6) • To properly execute a technical skill (n=2) • Execute offensive movements (n=1) • Execute free kicks (n=1) • To play well in the def. process (n=1)
Technical-
tactical skills execution
(n=7)
• To remain focused (n=5) • Increase concentration levels (n=3) • To stay focused in tactical tasks (n=1)
Enhance concentra.
(n=6)
Psychologi-cal
function (motivational
n=16)
• Maintain motivation levels (n=1) • Increase self-motivation (n=3)
Enhance motiva.(n=3)
• Overcoming difficult situations (n=3) • To overcome hard physical training sessions (n=2) • To help through painful circumstances (n=1) • Overcome injury rehabilitation process (n=1)
Cope with difficulties
(n=4)
• Reduce anxiety levels (n=3) • Reduce stress (n=2) • To optimize anxiety levels (n=1) • Control emotions (n=2)
Stress managment
(n=6)
• Increase self-confidence (n=2) • Maintain self-confidence (n=1) • Regulate self-confidence levels (n=1)
Enh. self-confidence
(n=3)
• To keep myself agitated for the game (n=2)
Psyched up (n=2)
• Optimize speech in flash interview (n=1) • To make a good speech in the media (n=1)
Speech in media (n=2)
“Extra” function
(n=2)
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of the self-talk general dimension Note: The number following each raw data theme first and second order subthemes indicates the number of participants who reported them
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Goal-setting
When the soccer players were asked to discuss the goals that they set
goals for themselves, 13 participants pointed out its use (Figure 2).
Nevertheless, only five of these participants expressed setting goals in both
training and competition locations. Data also showed that the majority of the
participants setting goals before the game.
Participants highlighted several purposes for employing goal setting.
Particularly, they used this technique to improve and execute technical and
tactical skills. It should be noted, that as in the case of self-talk the participants
expressed using it slightly more for the execution than for improvement. In
addition, the soccer players reported using goal-setting to regulate their
psychological state. For example, they mentioned setting goals to enhance
motivation, concentration and self-confidence, to reduce stress and anxiety and
to cope with difficulties. The purpose of using goal setting for adverse situations
in competition is summarizing in the following quotation:
I set goals to overcome obstacles and difficulties in the competition. For
example, when I have a minor injury during a game I remember my
personal goals and it gives me strength to overcome the pain and keep
playing with a high performance, because at this level we always need
perform our best.
In addition to the technical-tactical and psychological goal-setting
functions, two soccer players highlighted the use of this specific technique in
order to help them achieve personal success.
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Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Competition (n=13)
• Training (n=5)
• In dressing room (n=3)
Soccer related venues (n=13)
Locations (where) (n=13)
Locations and time frames (where
and when)
Go
al-s
ettin
g (n
=13
)
• At home (n=1)
• In the car (n=1)
Non soccer related venues
(n=2)
• Before practice (n=4)
• During practice (n=1)
• After practice (n=2)
Training (n=5)
Time frames (when) (n=13)
• Before the game (n=11)
• During the game (n=3)
• After competition (n=5)
Competition (n=13)
• To improve technical skills (n=1)
• To improve tactical movements (n=1)
Technical- tacical skills improvement
(n=2)
Technical-
tactical function
(cognitive n=5)
Functions of goal-setting (why)
• Execute techniques as well as possible (n=2)
• To perform with proper technique (n=1)
• To execute strategies more effectively (n=1)
Technical-
tactical skills execution
(n=4)
• Focus on specific tasks (n=3)
• To stay focused (n=2)
Enhance concentra.
(n=5)
Psychologi-cal function
(motivational n=13)
• To maintain motivation levels (n=3)
• Increase self-motivation (n=2)
Enhance motiv.(n=5)
• Overcoming difficult situations (n=1)
• To overcome better opponents (n=1)
• To overcome injury rehabilitation process (n=1)
Cope with difficulties
(n=3)
• Reduce anxiety levels (n=2)
• Reduce stress (n=2)
• To optimize anxiety levels (n=1)
Stress managment
(n=5)
• Increase self-confidence (n=2)
• Maintain self-confidence (n=1)
• To feel able (n=1)
Enh. self-confidence
(n=3)
• To get high levels of adrenaline (n=2) Psyched up (n=1)
• Achieve personal success (n=1)
• Hired by better teams (n=1)
Personal success
(n=2)
Achieve success
(n=2)
Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of the goal-setting general dimension
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Imagery
Thirty raw data themes were included in this dimension, which is related
to the players’ perspectives regarding their use of imagery (Figure 3). Results
showed that eleven of the participants expressed employing imagery in their
soccer routines. However, it was evident that only six of these participants
reported a systematic use of this psychological technique in both training and
competition.
As with the previous psychological technique (goal-setting), the majority
of the sample employed imagery more before the competition than any other
time frame. In this context, a participant expressed their used during the warm
up for the game, as is well illustrated in the following goalkeeper’s quotation:
“During the warm up period I usually visualize a set of specific game
situations…so before the game I use the imagery to prepare myself for a set of
possible situations that I can come across during the game”.
Participants of the current study pointed out several reasons for
employing imagery. Although imagery was employed by some participants for
the improvement and execution of technical and tactical skills, they used it more
with the latter than for the former purpose. For example, a soccer player
reported using imagery to help execute direct and indirect free kicks:
When I go to score a penalty or a free kick in a game I visualize how I
will score it. I imagine how I will put the foot on the ball, as I tilt the foot,
where I will put the ball, i.e. I visualize a set of technical content in order
to be succeeded.
Imagery was also used by the participants to maintain and increase
focus, motivation and self-confidence. With respect to this last purpose, one
soccer player said: “I use the imagery in competition to increase my self-
confidence, for example I imagine myself making a set of good dribbles and
greatest goals and this give me confidence for the game”.
Additionally, some coaches employed this specific technique to
overcome difficult situations and to optimize stress and anxiety levels. The next
sentence expresses this last perspective:
154
Normally I use internal images to control my stress and anxiety levels
before the games. I usually imagine things that make me feel good, that
give me comfort and this helps me to deal with the stress and anxiety.
Finally, one of the players mentioned using imagery to perform well in the
flash interview: “In the minutes prior to the flash interview I imagine my
performance in front of the cameras. Is a strategy that I used to look good
during the interview”.
155
Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Competition (n=11)
• Training (n=5)
• In dressing room (n=1)
• On the pitch (n=1)
Soccer related venues (n=16)
Locations (where) (n=11)
Locations and time frames (where
and when)
Ima
gery
(n=
11)
• At home (n=1)
• Hotel room (n=1)
• Team bus (n=1)
Non soccer related
venues (n=5)
• Before practice (n=3)
• During practice (n=4)
• After practice (n=3)
Training (n=10)
Time frames (when) (n=11)
• Before the game (n=8)
• In the warm up (n=2)
• During the game (n=5)
• At half-time (n=2)
• After competition (n=3)
Competition
(n=16)
• Improve and strengthen weaker skills (n=1)
• Make corrections on technique (n=1)
• To assimilate new offensive and defensive movements (n=1)
Technical- tacical skills improvement
(n=3)
Technical-
tactical function
cognitive) n=7)
Functions of
imagery (why)
• Properly execute a technical skill (n=4)
• Execute defensive and offensive movements (n=1)
• To execute free kicks and penalty kicks (n=1)
• To selected the best strategy (n=1)
Technical-
tactical skills execution
(n=5)
• To remain focused (n=2)
• Increase concentration levels (n=1)
• To stay focused in tactical tasks (n=1)
Enhance concentra.
(n=4)
Psychologi-cal function
(motivational n=9)
• Increase motivation (n=2) Enhance motiv.(n=2)
• Overcoming difficult situations (n=2)
Cope with diffic. (n=2)
• Reduce anxiety levels (n=2)
• Reduce stress (n=2)
• To optimize anxiety levels (n=1)
• Control emotions (n=1)
Stress managment
(n=5)
• Increase self-confidence (n=2)
• Maintain self-confidence (n=1)
Enh. self-confidence
(n=3)
• To keep myself frenetic (n=1)
• To give power to myself (n=1)2
Psyched up (n=2)
• To perform well in flash interview (n=1) Perform on media (n=1)
“Extra” function
(n=1)
Figure 3. Hierarchical structure of the imagery general dimension
156
Relaxation
Relaxation was the least employed technique with only three participants
reported its use (Figure 4). The soccer players mentioned employing relaxation
only before the competition. A marked reduction was seen in the number of
purposes relating to the use of relaxation compared to the previous three
psychological techniques (i.e. self-talk, goal-setting and imagery). In fact,
relaxation was only used by the participants to enhance concentration skills and
to reduce stress and anxiety. For example one player stated: “I use some
relaxation techniques to reduce the stress and anxiety levels. For example
before the game I have a routine of listening to calm music and controlling my
breathing and this conveys serenity”.
Raw Data Themes
First Order subthemes
Second Order subthemes
Third Order subthemes
General Dim.
• Competition (n=3)
• Dressing room (n=1)
Soccer related venues (n=3)
Locations (where) (n=3)
Locations and time frames (where
and when)
Re
lax
atio
n (n
=3
)
• Gym (n=1)
• Team bus (n=1)
Non soccer related
venues (n=2)
• Before competition (n=3)
Competition (n=3)
Time frames (when) (n=3)
• Increase concentration levels (n=1)
Enhance Concentra.
(n=1)
Psychologi-cal function
(motivational n=3)
Functions of
relaxation (why)
• Reduce anxiety levels (n=2)
• Reduce stress (n=1)
Stress managment
(n=3)
Figure 4 – Hierarchical structure of the relaxation general dimension
Discussion
The purpose of the current study was to explore whether, where, when
and why Portuguese elite soccer players used the techniques of imagery, self-
talk, goal setting, and relaxation. Globally, the majority of the participants
mentioned employing self-talk, imagery, and goal-setting in their soccer
routines. This can be considered an encouraging finding because PST literature
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has shown a positive influence of these techniques on soccer players’
performance (e.g., Johnson et al., 2004; Munroe-Chandler, Hall, Fishburne,
Murphy, & Hall, 2012; Thelwell, et al., 2006, 2010). By contrast, participants
highlighted a lack of use of relaxation techniques and this can be considered a
cause of concern.
Consistent with previous studies in sport (Barr & Hall, 1992; Hall et al.,
1990; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999), elite soccer players mentioned a
greater use of psychological techniques in competition setting when compared
to the training setting. This finding seems to suggest that soccer players
consider competition as more important than training and consequently reserve
psychological techniques use for that setting. It is also possible that they believe
that psychological techniques can only help them when they are competing.
The lower use of psychological techniques in training setting pointed out by
participants may raise some concerns because it compromises the
implementation of an effective and systematic PST program. This highlights the
need for sport psychologists to place a greater emphasis on quality practice
when working with elite soccer players. Their intervention should not only
stimulate the use of psychological techniques in training but also elucidate
soccer players about the benefits of their use in this environment.
According to Frey, Laguna, and Ravizza (2003) an athlete’s attitude
toward psychological technique use is partially dependent on the coach’s view
of PST. For these same authors, “if a coach is consistently emphasizing the
importance of competition over practice, the athlete may not realize the
relationship between the two environments, or that the quality of practice has an
effect on his or her performance in competition” (p. 123). Therefore sport
psychologists should inform soccer coaches about the relationship between
psychological techniques use in training and success in competition. The coach
is the manager of the team and therefore has great influence on the
psychological development of their athletes and teams. Furthermore, they
spend more time with players than the sport psychologist and consequently
they often have more opportunities to remind the players about using
psychological techniques in training setting.
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Results of the present study also showed that participants used goal-
setting and imagery just prior to competing than any other time frame. This
finding can be explained by how crucial the time prior to competing is for
performance preparation. In contrast to these psychological techniques,
participants reported using self-talk more extensively during the competition. A
possible reason for these differences may have been because self-talk requires
less time and effort to utilize than the others three psychological skills.
According to Hardy et al., (2005) self-talk is a psychological skill that may
inherently lend itself to use in time-restricted situations such as those found
during training and competition.
With respect to the purposes that soccer employed psychological
techniques, our findings highlighted two main functions, cognitive and
motivational, that are consistent with the imagery and self-talk functions
identified by Munroe-Chandler et al., (2000) and Hardy et al., (2001). Regarding
to the cognitive function, soccer players reported using self-talk, imagery and
goal setting primarily for technical and tactical execution than technical and
tactical improvement. Our sample was exclusively composed of elite soccer
players that competed at the highest level. Therefore it was not surprising that
they would be more concerned with properly executing technical and tactical
skills than further improvement. This finding may also be connected with the
fact that the players reported using the psychological techniques more in
competition than in a training environment. In this context, Burton, Naylor, and
Holliday (2001) proposed that enhanced learning and development are usually
the primary focus in practice situations, while performing optimally or
outperforming one’s opponent is the main focus in competitive situations.
The soccer players also reported the use of the motivational function of
self-talk, goal-setting and imagery. In all of the psychological techniques the
motivational function was mentioned far more frequently than the cognitive
ones. This finding highlighted the importance that the psychological preparation
(motivational function) assumes for the Portuguese elite soccer players. In line
with this Fonseca (1997) mentioned that due to the similarity of technical,
physical and tactical skills of elite players from professional Portuguese soccer
159
clubs, the psychological preparation assumes a high relevance in the
achievement of soccer outcomes.
While the soccer players indicated using the three aforementioned
psychological techniques to optimize several psychological skills, it should be
noted that the majority of them used it to regulate their anxiety levels. The social
economic framework that involves professional soccer exposes the elite players
to high psychological pressure, and therefore it is not surprising that they used
psychological techniques with this specific purpose (i.e. regulate their anxiety
levels). Moreover, this finding may be again linked with the greater use of
psychological techniques in the competition setting stressed by the participants.
Finally, results of this study highlighted a marked reduction in the number
of participants who reported employing relaxation. This finding is not surprising
because most athletes have never been taught the basic requisites of this
technique or simply do not know how to relax on command (Burton & Raedeke,
2008). Future research should be conducted to determine if relaxation was used
less often because Portuguese elite soccer players do not have the in depth
knowledge of this psychological technique. If so, the practitioners (sport
psychologists and coaches) assume an important role to teach and raise
awareness of the elite soccer players for the importance of relaxation strategies
and how to develop them. It would be useful to explain to them that relaxation
can be used in both training and competition settings and with different
purposes (Hanton, Thomas, & Mellalieu, 2009). To be effective, practitioners
have to teach soccer players to develop relaxation skills that work quickly during
training and competition (Burton & Raedeke, 2008).
An interest finding revealed in the present study was the similarity
between the functions (purposes) of self-talk, imagery, and goal setting.
Similarly, PST literature showed that self-talk and imagery were used by
athletes for many of the same reasons (Hardy et al., 2001; Munroe-Chandler et
al., 2000). Based on this assumption, Hardy et al., (2001) suggested that the
use of these both techniques in combination would seem to be a logical
approach. Therefore encouraging elite soccer players to use self-talk, imagery,
and goal setting in combination would also seem to be a logical approach. At
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this level it is also important not to forget the relaxation technique because
despite neglect by our participants, PST literature has seen an increase in the
number of experimental studies supporting the positive influence of relaxation
on soccer players performance (Thelwell et al., 2006, 2010).
Although we have presented separately the four psychological
techniques analysed in the current study, it would be advantageous to integrate
them within a single and systematic PST program. With respect to future
research, the efficacy of the combined used of self-talk, imagery, goal setting
and relaxation in elite soccer players performance should be investigated to
confirm the previous suggestions.
Conclusion
Globally this study demonstrated that Portuguese elite soccer players
employing self-talk, goal-setting, and imagery in their sport routines. On the
other hand, they highlighted a lack of use of relaxation technique. In addition,
results of the current study showed that the psychological techniques used were
lower in training than in competition setting.
The current study emphasises the need to elucidate Portuguese elite
soccer players of the importance and benefits of a regular and systematic use
of psychological techniques. Sport psychologists should help soccer players to
use the various psychological techniques, as well as, how to integrate them into
training and competition environments. Furthermore, it is also important that
those responsible for the soccer players’ preparation (e.g., head coaches,
assistant coaches) should understand the benefits of PST because it is these
practitioners who are in the best position to encourage players to use
psychological techniques in both training and competition settings.
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General discussion and conclusions
The main purpose of the present dissertation was to examine the views
(perspectives) of elite soccer coaches and players regarding the current state
and use of PST in Portuguese professional soccer.
Since the results and conclusions of each paper have been previously
documented in the present dissertation, only a summary of the main findings
and a brief critical reflection are provided here.
In general, the main findings of this dissertation showed that the
Portuguese soccer reality seems to be somehow paradoxal. Although the
majority of the participants (elite soccer coaches and players) acknowledged
the importance of PST in soccer, they mentioned they didn’t use PST programs
systematically. Indeed, there seems to be a high discrepancy between the
coaches and players’ opinions and what it is actually implemented. However, at
this level, it should be remembered that our dissertation reflected the soccer
coaches and players’ perspectives and opinions and not necessarily their actual
behaviors.
Several potential explanations for this reality have been presented in the
current dissertation and included, the scarce presence of sport psychologists in
the Portuguese soccer framework (paper II and V), the lack of PST information
available (paper II), as well as the lack of PST knowledge by the coaches
(paper II and V), and the players (paper V). At this level it may be argued that
the UEFA soccer coaching courses promoted by Portuguese soccer Federation
are very far from answering to these concerns which can be proved by the few
number of hours attributed to the sport psychological discipline, as well as by
the lack quality of contents (paper II).
It should be noted, however, that we do not intend to underestimate the
knowledge of the prestigious coaches and players that participated in this
dissertation. On the contrary, we consider that the innumerous titles (national
and international) and successes (individual and collective), that most of them
have accomplished speak for themselves. Only practitioners with a profound
knowledge of the modality and increased skills of managing psychological
164
factors could reach their detained recognition. In fact, despite the scarce contact
with sport psychologists many of the participants referred the use of some of the
most relevant psychological techniques mentioned across PST literature, such
as self-talk, imagery and goal setting (paper III, IV and VI) (even this utilization
was mainly intuitive, non-conscious and non-systematic). Thus, coaches and
players seem to detain a set of basic knowledge associated with sports
psychology and that certainly allows them to better perform their functions.
However, to our perspective, that is not the same as to say that they are
prepared to apply a PST program in an effective and systematic way. This
opinion is shared by the majority of participants in this dissertation that
unanimously recognize for their own diminished capacity to implement a PST
program (paper II).
Given the above, several practical implications and recommendations
emerged from the global findings of the current dissertation. First, there is a
clearly and urgent need to increase the awareness and application of PST
programs within professional Portuguese soccer clubs. Second, the Portuguese
Soccer Federation, should reformulate their coaching courses (e.g., enhancing
the contents and increasing the number of hours allocated to sport psychology
module) in order to better educate soccer coaches in the concepts of sport
psychology (e.g., elucidating them about all of the positive benefits of the PST
programs).
We believe that ideally, besides improving their repertoire of
psychological intervention skills, Portuguese players and coaches should be
able to count with the collaboration of expert on this matter since that this
complementary work would be a good strategy to maximize their professional
efficacy. In this sense, it would be important to have a sport psychologist
available in soccer clubs (or in the technical staffs), supporting coaches and
players’ actions, in a consistent and systematic way, both in training and in
competition settings. However, we believe that this sport psychologist should
not only to have a profound knowledge on its domain of expertise but also to
have a general knowledge about the specific modality that he is working on. We
recall that in the present dissertation, several coaches and players have
165
highlighted the lack of specific knowledge about the modality as one of the main
obstacles for the inclusion of sport psychologists in professional soccer (paper II
and V). This position is inclusively shared by some of the most rewarded
international coaches. For instance, Fábio Capello and Camacho (cit. in
Fonseca, 2004) consider that it is crucial for the soccer sports psychologist to
be deeply familiar with soccer, to have been previously involved in sports and to
be ready to understand the problems associated with this activity. If this does
not happen, their intervention might result more negative than positive. Given
the above, it seems consensual that ideally sport psychologists should master
soccer’s general knowledge (tactical, technical and physical aspects) allowing
him to respond adequately to the demands of this specific context.
Therefore, we believe that besides their academic courses, sports
psychologists that work (or intend to work) in the context of soccer, should
detain complementary education within this specific modality (e.g., soccer
coaching training). Furthermore, we believe that an eventual mingling among
coaches, players (that intend to pursue a coach career), and psychologists
during coaching training courses could help demystify some issues related with
psychological intervention and consequently create more opportunities for their
integration in soccer. Moreover, psychologists may also use the course breaks
to interact with coaches and players and highlight the benefits of psychological
intervention as well as the role of the psychologist throughout the process.
In addition, the findings of the current dissertation also put in evidence
several soccer-specific issues. For instance concentration, self-confidence and
team cohesion were considered valuable skills for soccer players and teams
(paper II and V), motivation and emotional self-control were considered crucial
psychological skills for soccer coaches (paper II), and self-talk was the
psychological technique more employed by both groups of participants (paper
IV and VI). Although these results constitute relevant indicators for future
research and psychological interventions with both coaches and players, we
should refer that the aforementioned variables do not always assume the same
amount of importance. Every single player, team and coach is characterized by
166
their specificities and these singularities should be considered at the definition
of any psychological intervention plan.
In sum, we believe that PST should be an integrant part of the daily
training of Portuguese soccer players, teams and even coaches. The efficacy of
PST will always depend, to some point, to the level of collaboration and support
between psychologists, coaches and/or players as well as on the capacity to
adjust the program to the specific individual and collective needs (of a given
coach, player or team), and on the time that is left available for its
implementation. Therefore, it seems necessary to introduce the concept of
psychological periodization since players and teams needs considering each
psychological variable are different not only from each other but also throughout
the season. However, in our opinion the psychological periodization should not
appear without a context and apart from the other dimensions of performance
(technical, tactical and physical) since that according to Edgar Morin (2002)
none of these single dimensions should resume the others.
The periodization must assure an interconnection between the different
dimensions involved in sportive performance. Otherwise, we will not be working
the whole that is the player, coach or team. In this sense, a less singular and
more general concept of interactivity is needed (interactions whole – part and
part – parts) (LeMoigne, 1994). In line with this thought, our main findings
showed that some of the participants (coaches and athletes) mentioned using
psychological techniques (e.g., self-talk, imagery and goal-setting) not only for
psychological but also for technical, tactical and physical reasons (paper IV and
VI). Given this, instead of a “reductionism-interactionism” paradigm, a
“decomposition-articulation” may be more suitable. We believe that PST should
be potentiated in soccer according this perspective. In agreement with this,
Damásio (2003) mentioned that the perspective known in philosophy as
“substance dualism” (that sets apart mind from the body and brain), has long
been abandoned both in science and in philosophy.
Finally, the decision to use a qualitative methodology in the present
dissertation was based on the need of deeper studies of this nature on the area
of PST and also on the repeated suggestions as some of the most well
167
recognized researchers in sports psychology (e.g., Edwards, Kingston, Hardy, &
Gould, 2002; Vealey, 1988). For instance, an important direction for PST
research highlighted by Vealey (2007) was the utilization of qualitative methods
as an alternative to the traditional quantitative methods. For the author, this
approach can facilitate the development of appropriate PST approaches that
truly meet the needs of athletes’ and coaches. Additionally due to the lack of
descriptive studies on this specific area of research, i.e. PST applied to soccer,
(paper I), as well as the intend to explain in detail the state of the art about the
phenomenon, i.e. PST in Portuguese soccer, descriptive studies were
preferable in the present dissertation. This kind of research allows a measure of
status, which is useful to develop the theoretical framework on which
experimental research is based. Therefore the present dissertation provided a
good basis for the development of future experimental researches in this area.
As the Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu (cit. in Freitas, 2005) mentioned «a journey
of a thousand miles begins with a single step».
At this level, it should be recalled again, that the present dissertation only
examined the perspectives and opinions and consequently further investigation
should examine and observe the actual behaviors of the Portuguese soccer
coaches and players. In addition, further research should access to sport
psychologists (in particular those who have integrated professional soccer
teams) in an attempt to explore what they have done, in practice, as well as
their personal experiences within this context (coaches and players reactions,
problems faced, solutions adopted, methods and techniques used, and so on).
Moreover, although this dissertation reports to the professional context of
soccer, we believe that PST should also be applied to youth soccer contexts. In
our opinion, that is the right place to prevent some of the problematic situations
that may later arise in higher competitive levels. Thus, further investigation
should be conducted with youth soccer players and coaches.
Before finishing we would like to advance some considerations for future
directions on the theme explored in the present dissertation. Although all the
predictions are characterized by a dose of subjectivity and reliability, we believe
this dissertation provides relatively safe indicators that explicit that the
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collaboration of sports psychologists in national professional soccer teams will
tend to increase in the next few years, resulting in clear benefits for all parts.
Indeed, the analysis of the perspectives of the participants of this dissertation
reveals not only that most coaches are receptive to collaborate with sports
psychologists (paper II), but also that a high number of players (much of which
could pursue a coach career) are receptive to psychological interventions
(paper V). In sum, the future is open but in order for that to happen without
major problems some steps has yet to be taken. The PST standardization, the
use of new teaching technologies, the elaboration of specific soccer programs,
the adjusted coordination between physical, technique, tactical and
psychological training plans, and the consideration of coaches and players
specific needs across different competitive moments are some of the aspects
that will allow the intentions of players and coaches to become a reality. On the
other hand, in such attractive and overwhelming world as the one of
professional soccer, it is crucial that psychologists will be prepared to match the
expectations of coaches, players and directors.
It would be expected that the present dissertation allows to all
intervenient of national soccer to improve their knowledge on the global reality
of PST in soccer, thus given them a chance to reflect on what can be changed.
171
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