Zajęcia dokształcające z języka angielskiego w chemii nr. 3
(opracował - P. Przybylski)
Zajęcia mają na celu przyswojenie bazy słownictwa dotyczącego bezpiecznej pracy w
laboratorium /poniżej zostały przedstawione przykładowe teksty do wyboru /:
EXPLOSION AND FIRE HAZARDS GENERAL ASPECTS
HAZARDS DUE TO TOXIC CHEMICALS
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION
LABORATORY SAFETY
EXPLOSION AND FIRE HAZARDS GENERAL ASPECTS (Vogel’s Textbook of
practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p. 35)
Explosive and highly flammable substances or mixtures of substances quite commonly have
to be used in organic chemistry laboratories. Ignorance of the hazards which are likely to be
encountered all too frequently leads to explosions and fires, but these may usually be avoided
and the experiment conducted with a reasonable measure of safety if, in addition to the
general rules for laboratory practice mentioned under Sections 2.1 and 2.2, the following
guidelines are followed.
1. The use of a substance known to be explosive should be avoided if a safer alternative can
be used.
2. If an explosive or dangerously reactive substance has to be used, then it should be used in
the smallest possible quantity and with all the appropriate precautions which are indicated
below.
3. Workers should try to foresee and avoid the situation where a dangerously reactive
chemical is likely to come into contact with combustible material, or where an explosive
substance is likely to be subjected to the stimulus of shock or excess heat.
4. Reactions known or likely to involve explosion or fire hazards should always be tried out
on a small scale first, and only then carefully scaled up in stages if no warning signs of
danger are apparent (e.g. no undue rise in temperature or evolution of gas, etc.). Since for a
reaction vessel the surface area per unit volume decreases with increasing volume, scaled-up
reactions may exhibit unexpectedly large and possibly dangerous temperature rises. If a
small-scale reaction procedure is known to be safe, it is better to repeat it several times to
acquire the required stock of product, rather than to attempt to scale-up the process to
achieve this in one step.
5. For notably exothermic reactions involving dangerously active reagents, the safest
procedure is to add the reagent dropwise, with rapid stirring, at the same rate as it is used
up. Overcooling must be avoided since this may inhibit the reaction sufficiently to allow a
dangerous accumulation of the reagents; if the temperature is then allowed to rise, a violent
reaction may occur. It may actually be safer to heat such a reaction to ensure complete
consumption of each drop of reagent as it is being added.
EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS
The following compounds or groups of compounds are likely to be dangerously explosive in
their own right. They may explode under the stimulus of heat, impact or friction, or
apparently spontaneously.
1. Acetylene gas and the acetylide salts of heavy metals; silver and copper acetylides are
extremely shock-sensitive. Polyacetylenes and some halogenated acetylenes.
2. Hydrazoic acid and all azides, both organic and inorganic (only sodium azide is-safe); aryl
azides and silver azide may be inadvertently formed during some reactions (see below, p. 37).
3. Diazonium salts (when solid) and diazo compounds.
4. Inorganic nitrates, especially ammonium nitrate. The nitrate esters of polyhydric
alcohols.
5. Polynitro compounds, e.g. picric acid (and heavy metal picrates), trinitrobenzene (TNB),
trinitrotoluene (TNT); all these substances are safe when damp with water.
6. Metal salts of nitrophenols.
7. Peroxides; these are a common cause of explosions due to their formation in ether
solvents (see below, p. 404). Concentrated aqueous hydrogen peroxide solution, see
Section 4.2.41, p. 439.
8. Nitrogen tribromide, trichloride and triiodide; these are all highly sensitive and violently
explosive, and should never be prepared or used unless absolutely necessary.
POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS MIXTURES
Powerful oxidants are particularly dangerous when mixed with easily oxidised organic
substances such as simple alcohols, polyhydric alcohols, carbohydrates and cellulose-
containing materials such as paper, cloth or wood. They are also dangerous when mixed with
elements such as sulphur and phosphorus, and with finely divided metals such as
magnesium powder. The following are common examples:
1. Perchloric acid, chlorates and perchlorates.
2. Chromium trioxide ('chromic anhydride'), chromates and dichromates. Concentrated
nitric acid and nitrates.
3. Permanganates.
4. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide.
5. Liquid oxygen and liquid air.
Glossary:
highly flammable – wysoce łatwopalny
explosions – wybuchy, eksplozje
fires - pożary
safer - bezpieczniejszy
in the smallest possible quantity – w jak najmniejszej możliwej ilości
foresee - przewidywać
avoid the situation – uniknąć sytuacji
reactive - reaktywny
excess heat – nadmierne ciepło
on a small scale – na małą skalę (reakcja)
reaction vessel – naczynie reakcyjne
dangerous temperature rises – niebezpieczne wzrosty temperatury
to acquire the required stock of product – uzyskać odpowiedni (wymagany) zapas
produktu
exothermic reactions – reakcje egzotermiczne
reagents –reagenty
is to add the reagent dropwise – jest dodać reagent kroplami
rapid stirring – bardzo szybkie mieszanie
Overcooling – przechłodzenie
inhibit the reaction – wstrzymać (spowolnić) reakcję
violent – gwałtowny
impact or friction – wpływ tarcia
Acetylene - acetylen
acetylide salts of heavy metals – acetylenki metali ciężkich
silver and copper acetylides – acetylenki srebra i miedzi
extremely shock-sensitive – ekstremalnie wrażliwe na wstrząs
Hydrazoic acid – kwas azotowodorowy
azides - azydki
silver azide – azydek srebra
Diazonium salts – sole diazoniowe
Inorganic nitrates – nieorganiczne azotany
ammonium nitrate – azotan amonu
nitrate esters – estry azotanów
alcohols - alkohole
picric acid – kwas pikrynowy
trinitrobenzene – trinitrobenzen
Metal salts of nitrophenols – metaliczne sole nitrofenoli
Peroxides – nadtlenki
ether solvents - rozpuszczalniki eterowe
Concentrated – stężony
hydrogen peroxide – nadtlenek wodoru
Nitrogen tribromide – trójbromek azotu
Nitrogen trichloride – trójchlorek azotu
Nitrogen triiodide – trójjodek azotu
oxidants - utleniacze
carbohydrates – cukry
sulphur – siarka
phosphorus – fosfor
magnesium powder – pył magnezowy
Perchloric acid – kwas nadchlorowy
Chromium trioxide – trójtlenek chromu
chro- dichromates – chromiany i dwuchromiany
nitric acid - kwas azotowy
Permanganates – nadmanganiany
Liquid oxygen – ciekły tlen
HAZARDS DUE TO TOXIC CHEMICALS (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic
Chemistry” 5th edition p. 44)
A very large number of compounds encountered in organic chemistry laboratories are
poisonous, i.e. 'toxic'. Indeed, nearly all substances are toxic to some extent and the adoption
of safe and careful working procedures which prevent the entry of foreign substances into the
body is therefore of paramount importance, and should become second nature to all
laboratory workers. Toxic substances can enter the body by the following routes:
Ingestion (through the mouth). This is fortunately not common in laboratories, but can occur
through the accidental contamination of food, drink or tobacco, and by misuse of mouth
pipettes. It is strongly recommended that no one should ever eat, drink or smoke in a
laboratory. The practice of storing bottles of milk or beer in laboratory refrigerators is to be
strongly condemned. Workers should always wash their hands thoroughly on leaving a
laboratory and before eating, All pipetting by mouth should be avoided since there are
excellent rubber bulb and piston-type pipette fillers available commercially. In addition to
the ingestion hazard associated with smoking, the vapours of many volatile compounds yield
toxic products on pyrolysis when drawn through a lighted cigarette or pipe (e.g. carbon
tetrachloride yields phosgene). Inhalation (into the lungs). This is a more common pathway
for the absorption of toxic chemicals; these may be in the form of gases, vapours, dusts or
mists. All toxic powders, volatile liquids and gases should only be handled in efficient fume
cupboards. The practice of sniffing the vapours of unknown compounds for identification
purposes should be conducted with caution.
Direct absorption (through the skin into the bloodstream). This is also a common route for
the absorption of a toxic substance whether liquid, solid or gaseous. The danger may be
reduced by wearing rubber or plastic gloves, in addition to the usual laboratory white coat.
However, clean and careful working procedures are still necessary despite these precautions.
Protective gloves are often per meable to organic solvents and are easily punctured; they
should therefore be frequently inspected and replaced when necessary. If a toxic substance is
accidentally spilled on the skin, it should be washed off with copious quantities of cold
water with the aid of a little soap where necessary. The use of solvents for washing spilled
chemicals off the skin is best avoided since this may hasten the process of absorption through
the skin. Repeated contact of solvents and many other chemicals with the skin may lead to
dermatitis, an unsightly and irritating skin disease which is often very hard to cure. In
addition, sensitisation to further contact or exposure may occur. The toxic effects of chemical
compounds can be classified as either 'acute' (short term) or 'chronic' (long term). Acute
effects, as exemplified by powerful and well-known poisons such as hydrogen cyanide and
chlorine, are immediately obvious, well appreciated by most laboratory workers, and are
therefore fairly easily avoided. However, many chemicals exhibit chronic toxic effects which
may only come to light after long-term exposure to small quantities. This type of insidious
poisoning is harder to detect (and therefore prevent) since the results may only manifest
themselves after months or even years of exposure (or even long after exposure has ceased).
Chronic poisoning may also cause symptoms which are not easily recognisable as such, e.g.
sleeplessness, irritability, memory lapses and minor personality changes. It must be stressed,
however, that the final results of chronic poisoning may be very serious and can lead to
premature death. Every effort should be made by the laboratory worker to guard against
these possibilities by adopting a rigorous approach to the avoidance of breathing all vapours
and dusts, and of any contact between the skin and liquids or powders.
Glossary: compounds – związki (chemiczne)
organic chemistry laboratories – laboratoria chemii organicznej
poisonous – trujący
toxic - toksyczny
paramount importance – najwyższej wagi
laboratory workers - pracownicy laboratoryjni
route - droga
ingestion – spożycie, wchłonięcie
contamination - zanieczyszczenie
condemned - potępiony
pipetting by mouth- pipetowanie ustami
rubber bulb – naciągacz gruszkowy cieczy do pipet
piston-type pipette fillers – naciągacze automatyczne do pipet
carbon tetrachloride – czterochlorek węgla
phosgene - fosgen
inhalation – wdychanie, inhalacja
gas – gaz
vapours - opary
dust –pył, kurz
mist - mgła
powder – proszek
volatile liquids – łatwolotne ciecze
fume cupboard /or fume hood/ - wyciąg laboratoryjny
caution – uwaga
through the skin into the bloodstream – przez skórę do układu krwionośnego
rubber or plastic gloves – gumowe lub plastikowe rękawiczki ochronne
white coat – fartuch ochronny
spilled on the skin – rozlany na skórze
washed off - zmyty
copious quantities of cold water – obfite ilości zimnej wody
hasten - przyspieszać
dermatitis is an unsightly and irritating skin disease – zapalenie skóry jest szpecącą i
podrażniającą skórę chorobą
hard to cure – trudne do wyleczenia
sensitisation – uwrażliwienie
acute – ostry, przenikliwy, silny
chronic – chroniczny, notoryczny
hydrogen cyanide - cyjanowodór
chlorine – chlor
long-term exposure – długoterminowe wyeksponowanie, wystawienie
insidious – zdradziecki, podstępny
ceased – zaprzestawać, przerywać
recognisable - rozpoznawalny
sleeplessness – senność
irritability – drażliwość
premature death – przedwczesna śmierć
ELECTRICAL SAFETY (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p.
51)
Concern with the hazards associated with the use of flammable and toxic chemicals in the
laboratory often causes the dangers from electrical equipment to be overlooked. However,
many accidents are caused by the malfunctioning of electric appliances and by thoughtless
handling. New equipment should be carefully inspected to check that the plug has been
correctly fitted, otherwise a 'live' chassis will result. International standards for Great Britain
and Europe stipulate the following colours for electric cables: Live, Brown; Neutral, Blue;
Earth, Green/yellow. In the USA (and for equipment imported from the USA) the colours are:
Live, White; Neutral, Black; Earth, Green.
Before any electric appliance is used, it should be inspected to ensure that: (a) it is in
good condition with no loose wires or connections; (b) it is properly earthed; (c) it is
connected to the correct type of plug by good quality cable with sound insulation; and (d)
that it is protected by a fuse of the correct rating. Loose or trailing electric cables should be
avoided and if the appliance has to be sited some way from the power source, the cable
should run neatly along the side of a bench and preferably be secured with adhesive tape.
Cable hanging across the aisle between two benches should never be permitted. Any items of
equipment (e.g. stirrer motors or heating mantles) which have had any chemicals spilled on
them should not be used until they have been thoroughly cleaned and dried. In the handling
and setting up of electrical equipment, the operator must ensure that the apparatus is set up on
a dry bench. It is essential to assemble the apparatus first, and only then to plug into the
mains and switch on. The apparatus should be switched off before any attempts are made to
move or adjust it. High voltage equipment (e.g. for use in electrophoresis, or in the
generation of ozone) requires special precautions. Ideally, such apparatus should be isolated
within an enclosure equipped with an interlocking device so that access is possible only
when the current is switched off.
Glossary: hazard – niebezpieczeństwo, zagrożenie
flammable – łatwopalny
toxic chemicals – toksyczne chemikalia (odczynniki chemiczne)
electrical equipment – sprzęt, wyposażenie elektryczne
accident – wypadek
malfunctioning of electric appliances – niesprawność urządzeń elektrycznych
plug - wtyczka
stipulate – ustalić, określić
electric cables- elektryczne przewody
electric appliance – urządzenie elektryczne
wire – przewód
earthed - uziemniony
insulation - izolacja
fuse – bezpiecznik
the power source – źródło zasilania
secured - zapezpieczony
adhesive tape – taśma klejąca
aisle- przejście
stirrer motors - mieszadła
heating mantles – płaszcze grzejne
dry bench - suchy stół
electrophoresis - elektroforeza
precautions - zabezpieczenia
interlocking device – urządzenie - przełącznik
current – prąd
ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th
edition p. 52)
Ultraviolet (u.v.) lamps, arcs and other high intensity light sources which emit U.V.
radiation should never be viewed directly or eye damage will result. Special close-fitting
goggles which are opaque to U.V. radiation should be worn, and protective screens placed
around the apparatus assembly (e.g. in a photochemical reaction) which incorporates the
U.V. source; the need to avoid the inadvertent viewing of reflected U.V. light should also
be borne in mind and the viewing of chromatographic columns or plates may be
hazardous. Exposure of the skin to intense U.V. radiation gives rise to burns (cf. sunburn)
and prolonged exposure may give rise to more extensive tissue damage. Protective gloves
should therefore be worn during work involving such exposure risks. Adequate ventilation
must also be provided to prevent possible build-up of the highly irritant and toxic ozone
which is produced when oxygen is irradiated with U.V. light in the 185 nm region.
Glossary: U.V. lamp – lampa U.V.
arc - łuk
U.V. radiation – promieniowanie UV
eye damage – uszkodzenie oczu
close-fitting goggles – dobrze dopasowane gogle
opaque to U.V. radiation – nieprzeźroczysty dla promieniowania UV
protective screens – ekrany ochronne
apparatus assembly – zestaw aparaturowy
photochemical reaction – reakcja fotochemiczna
U.V. source – źródło promieniowania UV
inadvertent – nieuważny, nieumyślny
reflected U.V. light – odbite promieniowanie UV
chromatographic columns – kolumny chromatograficzne
chromatographic plates – płytki chromatograficzne
hazardous – niebezpieczny
burns – poparzenia
extensive tissue damage – rozległe uszkodzenie tkanek
protective gloves – rękawice ochronne
ventilation – wentylacja
to prevent – zapobiegać
to build-up – wytwarzać, gromadzić
highly irritant – wysoce drażniący
toxic - toksyczny
irradiated with U.V. light – napromieniowany światłem U.V.
Zajęcia mają na celu pracę z tekstami dotyczącego nazewnictwa aparatury szklanej -
LABORATORY GLASSWARE (przykładowe teksty poniżej).
GLASSWARE
APPARATUS WITH INTERCHANGEABLE GROUND GLASS
JOINTS
LABORATORY GLASSWARE – basic glossary (on pictures):
GLASSWARE (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p. 30)
Glass apparatus should be carefully examined before use and any which is cracked,
chipped, flawed or dirty should be rejected. Minute cracks in glassware for use in
evacuated systems are particularly dangerous. Many apparently simple manipulations such as
the cutting of glass tubing or rod, the insertion of glass tubing or thermometers into rubber
bungs or bark corks, or the removal of tight stoppers from bottles, can lead to serious cuts.
Care should be taken to adopt the correct procedures (Sections 2.9 and 2.10). All apparatus
and clean glassware not in use should be stored away and not allowed to accumulate on
benches.
Glossary: Glass apparatus – aparatura szklana
cracked – stuknięty, zbity, pęknięty
chipped - wyszczerbiony
flawed – wadliwy, ze skazą
minute cracks – minimalne, drobne zarysowania
in evacuated systems – w układach, zestawach pod próżnią
cutting of glass – cięcie szkła
thermometer – termometr
rubber – guma
bark – kora
cork – korek
tight stoppers from bottles – dopasowany korek, zatyczka fabryczny np. na butelce.
benches – stoły laboratoryjne
APPARATUS WITH INTERCHANGEABLE GROUND GLASS JOINTS (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p. 30)
In considering the following typical standard units of equipment fitted with ground glass
joints, it must be borne in mind that while a particular piece of glass equipment of certain
capacity or dimensions may be fitted with alternative joint sizes, the range is usually
restricted in relation to their relative proportions. When equipping a laboratory, it is usually
convenient to limit the range of socket sizes thus permitting interchangeability with the
minimum number of adapters. For example, with Quickfit, 14/23, 19/26, 24/29 and 34/35
joints are suitable for macro scale experiments, and 10/19 and 14/23 for semimicro scale
experiments; a similar selection would be appropriate from the USA coded sizes. In Fig.
2.8(a)-(d), the various designs of flasks are collected. Type (a) is a pearshaped flask, the
capacity range being usually 5 m1 to 100ml, the joint sizes are in the range 10/19 to 24/29.
Type (b) is a round-bottomed flask (short-necked), the capacity range being 5ml to 10
litres, joint sizes being in proportion; medium- and long-necked designs are also available.
Type (c) illustrates a range of wide-necked reaction flasks which are useful in semimicro
and in pilot scale experiments and which are fitted with large diameter flat-flange joints, the
capacities range from 250 ml to 20 litres, the flange bore being 75 mm to 100mm
respectively; the multi-socket lids are illustrated in Fig. 2.18(a) and (b). The advantages of
this type of reaction vessel are that (i) the lids are easily detachable, (ii) large stirrers are
readily accommodated, (iii) the vessels are cleaned readily and (iv) the removal or addition
of solids and viscous fluids is facilitated; the ground flange joints are fully interchangeable.
Special clamps are available for the support of such flasks. Type (d) of Fig. 2.8 is a jacketed
flange flask which is ideally suited for reactions requiring accurate temperature control.
Various types of multi-necked round-bottomed flasks are illustrated in Fig. 2.9(a)-(d);
designs with pear-shaped flasks are available. The centre socket is usually the larger and the
side sockets are generally smaller; type (d) shows the side socket being employed for the
insertion of a capillary tube necessary in a vacuum distillation assembly (see Section 2.27).
Ground glass stoppers of all standard sizes are available and may be of the design shown in
Fig. 2.10; the flat head is preferred since the stopper may be stood on end when not in use,
thus avoiding contamination of the ground surface; an additional refinement is the provision
of a finger grip.
Often in the assembly of apparatus, joint adapters are required if the joint sizes of the
various parts are not compatible. A reduction adapter is illustrated in Fig. 2.1 1 and an
expansion adapter in Fig. 2.12; numerous combinations are of course possible, but it must be
emphasised, however, that in a well-designed assembly of apparatus the number of adapters
should be reduced to a minimum and, best of all, completely eliminated. Distillation heads
(or still-heads) are shown in Fig. 2.13 (a)-(c). Type (a) is a bend ('knee-tube') which is
frequently employed for those distillations which merely require the removal of solvent. Type
(b) is a simple distillation head; when fitted into a flask with a ground glass socket, the
assembly is virtually a distillation flask. For some purposes, a thermometer may be fitted
into a one hole rubber stopper of correct taper and then inserted into the socket; the area of
rubber which is exposed to the organic vapour is relatively so small that the amount of
contamination thus introduced is negligible. If, however, all rubber stoppers must be absent
because of the highly corrosive nature of the vapour, a thermometer fitted with an appropriate
size cone is employed. Alternatively the socket of a distillation head may be fitted with a
screw-capped adapter (see Fig. 2.32) through which a thermometer may be inserted. Type
(c) is a Claisen distillation head; the left-hand socket accommodates the capillary tube for use
in distillations under vacuum (see Section 2.27) and the right-hand socket a suitable
thermometer. Frequently for semimicro and micro work it is more convenient to use the pear-
shaped flask designs which incorporate the distillation heads (e.g. Fig. 2.14(a) and (b).
Multiple adapters provide for additional entries into a single-necked flask when a multi-
necked flask is not available. Either double-necked or triplenecked adapters (Fig. 2.15 and
Fig. 2.16(a) and (b) are commonly used having a range of socket and cone sizes. The 'swan-
neck adapter' of Fig. 2.17 is useful for vacuum distillations as it permits the insertion of a
capillary tube through the screw thread joint. This joint may also be used for insertion of a
thermometer or a gas inlet in the narrow neck and a reflux condenser into the ground joint;
this device virtually converts a three-necked flask into a four-necked flask.
Multiple socket lids for fitment to the flange flasks (illustrated in Fig. 2.8(c)) are shown in
Fig. 2.18(a) and (b). These allow for the introduction of a great variety of standard equipment
for stirring, temperature measurement, the inlet of gas, etc. The sockets may be vertical or
angled at 5, 10 or 15 degrees from the vertical axis. Several types of condensers are widely
used (Figs 2.19-2.23). An improved form of Liebig's condenser, sometimes termed a West
condenser, is shown in Fig. 2.19; it has an inner tube with very thin walls and the space
between it and the heavy-walled outer tube is small, consequently there is a rapid heat
transfer to the fast-flowing cooling water leading to greater efficiency. The length of the
jacket is usually 6 to 50 cm and the design is available in a range of joint sizes. Figure 2.20
(Davies type) and Fig. 2.21 (double coil type) are examples of efficient double surface
condensers. Figure 2.22 depicts a 'screw' type of condenser (Friedrich pattern); this highly
efficient condenser is employed for both reflux and downward distillation. The ice or dry ice-
acetone condenser (Fig. 2.23) is useful for volatile liquids. The water inlet and outlet side-
arms on the condensers illustrated are of the standard olive all-glass type. Breakage can easily
occur, often resulting in serious hand injury, when attaching or detaching rubber or plastic
water hoses. A recent design (Bibby Science Products) incorporates a screw-thread at side-
arm ends on to which a plastic hose connector may be screwed to give a watertight seal.
Not only is this safer in the hands of less experienced workers, but it allows for more rapid
apparatus assembly. Various forms of receiver adapters or connectors for attachment to the
end of condensers when used in a distillation assembly are shown in Figs 2.24-2.26.
The simplest form (Fig. 2.24) carries glass hooks for securing it to the condenser by means of
a rubber band from the side tube to the hook; an improved form, incorporating two glass
joints, is shown in Fig. 2.25. A useful adapter is illustrated in Fig. 2.26; when employed at
atmospheric pressure, a drying tube may be attached to the side tube, if desired; in a
distillation under reduced pressure, the side tube is connected to a vacuum pump. Cone/
rubber tubing adapters ('take-of adapters), shown in Fig. 2.27(a) and (b), fulfil a number of
useful purposes in preparative organic operations, for example where very small volumes of
solvents need to be rapidly removed. A calcium chloride guard-tube is illustrated in Fig.
2.28 which is widely used for protecting apparatus assemblies from the ingress of moisture.
For many operations the globular form of dropping, addition or separatory funnel having a
suitable cone joint fitted to the stem is convenient, but when required on either a multiple-
necked flask or with a multiple adapter, the cylindrical design (Fig. 2.29) is preferred; this is
similarly provided with a cone on the stem and a ground socket. Figure 2.30 illustrates a
cylindrical funnel with pressure-equalising tube; this is invaluable for reactions which are
conducted in an atmosphere of inert gas. Either funnel may be fitted with an all-glass or a
Rotaflo stopcock; the latter gives excellent liquid flow control. Jacketed dropping funnels
for use with ice-water or dry ice-acetone slurry coolants are available and are useful when
reagents to be added to a reaction mixture need to be kept at low temperatures. Dropping
funnels are also available with a design of stopcock which allows infinite control of the rate of
addition. The two designs of the Dean and Stark apparatus (Fig. 2.31(a) and (b); available
from Bibby Science Products) carry a flask on the lower cone and a reflux condenser on the
upper socket. They are used for the automatic separation of two immiscible components in a
distillate and the subsequent return of the upper layer (a) or the lower layer (b) to the
reaction flask.
Glossary: ground glass joints – połączenia na szlif
glass equipment – wyposażenie szklane
capacity - przepustowość
dimensions – rozmiary
joint sizes – rozmiary szlifów (od np. korków łączników) socket sizes - rozmiary szlifów (od np. kolb)
interchangeability – zamienność, wymienność
adapters – łączniki, nasadki
flasks – kolby
pearshaped flask – kolba gruszkowa
round-bottomed flask – kolba okrągłodenna
short-necked - krótkoszyjna long-necked – z długą szyją
wide-necked reaction flasks – kolby reakcyjne z szeroką szyją
large diameter flat-flange joints – łączniki na płaski kołnierz o dużej średnicy
flange bore – średnica otworu kołnierza multi-socket lids – pokrywy z wieloma wejściami (otworami)
detachable - zdejmowalny, odłączalny
stirrer – mieszadło
accommodated – zamontowane, przystosowane
vessel – naczynie
solid – ciało stałe
viscous fluids – lepkie ciecze
clamp – łapy
accurate temperature control – dokładna, ścisła kontrola temperatury
multi-necked – wieloszyjne
centre socket – środkowe wejście, otwór
side sockets – boczne wejścia
capillary tube – kapilara
vacuum distillation – destylacja pod próżnią
ground glass stoppers – korki na szlif
design – projekt (w sensie wyglądu)
ground surface – powierzchnia szlifu
provision – zabezpieczenie
assembly of apparatus – zestaw aparaturowy reduction adapter – reduktor (z większej średnicy na mniejszą)
expansion adapter – ekspander (z mniejszej średnicy na większą)
distillation heads – nasadki destylacyjne
bend – zginać
solvent – rozpuszczalnik
distillation flask – kolba destylacyjna
thermometer – termometr
organic vapour - opary organiczne corrosive – powodujący korozję screw-capped adapter – nasadka z nagwintowaną nakrętką
swan-neck adapter – nasadka z tzw. “łabędzią szyją”
screw thread joint – nagwintowana szyja nasadki
gas inlet – wlot gazu
reflux condenser – chłodnica zwrotna
vertical or angled – pionowe lub pod kątem
inner tube – wewnętrzna rurka
heavy-walled outer tube – grubościenna rura zewnętrzna
rapid heat transfer – szybkie przekazywanie ciepła
fast-flowing cooling water - szybko-przepływająca woda chłodząca
length of the jacket - długość płaszcza chłodzącego
'screw' type of condenser – chłodnica śrubowa ice or dry ice-acetone condenser – chłodnica chłodzona lodem lub mieszaniną suchego lodu
z acetonem volatile liquids - ciecze lotne
injury – ciężkie obrażenia water hoses – węże od chłodnic
receiver adapters - nasadki odbieralnikowe
connectors – łączniki
glass hooks – szklane haczyki
atmospheric pressure – ciśnienie atmosferyczne
drying tube – rurka ze środkiem suszącym
reduced pressure – obniżone ciśnienie
vacuum pump – pompa próżniowa
cone/rubber tubing adapters - nasadki typu stożek-rurka gumowa
calcium chloride guard-tube – rurka z chlorkiem wapnia
moisture – wilgoć
dropping funnel – wkraplacz
separatory funnel – rozdzielacz
with a cone on the stem and a ground socket – posiadający na nóżce szlifowaną tulejkę
cylindrical funnel – wkraplacz cylindryczny
atmosphere of inert gas – atmosfera gazu obojętnego
all-glass or a Rotaflo stopcock – kran szklany lub typu Rotaflo
jacketed dropping funnels – wkraplacze z płaszczem
coolants – mieszaniny chłodzące
reaction mixture – mieszanina reakcyjna
Dean and Stark apparatus – aparat Dean’a -Stark’a
immiscible components - składniki niemieszalne ze sobą
upper/ lower layer – górna/dolna warstwa