Zajęcia dokształcające z języka angielskiego w chemii nr. 3

(opracował - P. Przybylski)

Zajęcia mają na celu przyswojenie bazy słownictwa dotyczącego bezpiecznej pracy w

laboratorium /poniżej zostały przedstawione przykładowe teksty do wyboru /:

EXPLOSION AND FIRE HAZARDS GENERAL ASPECTS

HAZARDS DUE TO TOXIC CHEMICALS

ELECTRICAL SAFETY

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION

LABORATORY SAFETY

EXPLOSION AND FIRE HAZARDS GENERAL ASPECTS (Vogel’s Textbook of

practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p. 35)

Explosive and highly flammable substances or mixtures of substances quite commonly have

to be used in organic chemistry laboratories. Ignorance of the hazards which are likely to be

encountered all too frequently leads to explosions and fires, but these may usually be avoided

and the experiment conducted with a reasonable measure of safety if, in addition to the

general rules for laboratory practice mentioned under Sections 2.1 and 2.2, the following

guidelines are followed.

1. The use of a substance known to be explosive should be avoided if a safer alternative can

be used.

2. If an explosive or dangerously reactive substance has to be used, then it should be used in

the smallest possible quantity and with all the appropriate precautions which are indicated

below.

3. Workers should try to foresee and avoid the situation where a dangerously reactive

chemical is likely to come into contact with combustible material, or where an explosive

substance is likely to be subjected to the stimulus of shock or excess heat.

4. Reactions known or likely to involve explosion or fire hazards should always be tried out

on a small scale first, and only then carefully scaled up in stages if no warning signs of

danger are apparent (e.g. no undue rise in temperature or evolution of gas, etc.). Since for a

reaction vessel the surface area per unit volume decreases with increasing volume, scaled-up

reactions may exhibit unexpectedly large and possibly dangerous temperature rises. If a

small-scale reaction procedure is known to be safe, it is better to repeat it several times to

acquire the required stock of product, rather than to attempt to scale-up the process to

achieve this in one step.

5. For notably exothermic reactions involving dangerously active reagents, the safest

procedure is to add the reagent dropwise, with rapid stirring, at the same rate as it is used

up. Overcooling must be avoided since this may inhibit the reaction sufficiently to allow a

dangerous accumulation of the reagents; if the temperature is then allowed to rise, a violent

reaction may occur. It may actually be safer to heat such a reaction to ensure complete

consumption of each drop of reagent as it is being added.

EXPLOSIVE COMPOUNDS

The following compounds or groups of compounds are likely to be dangerously explosive in

their own right. They may explode under the stimulus of heat, impact or friction, or

apparently spontaneously.

1. Acetylene gas and the acetylide salts of heavy metals; silver and copper acetylides are

extremely shock-sensitive. Polyacetylenes and some halogenated acetylenes.

2. Hydrazoic acid and all azides, both organic and inorganic (only sodium azide is-safe); aryl

azides and silver azide may be inadvertently formed during some reactions (see below, p. 37).

3. Diazonium salts (when solid) and diazo compounds.

4. Inorganic nitrates, especially ammonium nitrate. The nitrate esters of polyhydric

alcohols.

5. Polynitro compounds, e.g. picric acid (and heavy metal picrates), trinitrobenzene (TNB),

trinitrotoluene (TNT); all these substances are safe when damp with water.

6. Metal salts of nitrophenols.

7. Peroxides; these are a common cause of explosions due to their formation in ether

solvents (see below, p. 404). Concentrated aqueous hydrogen peroxide solution, see

Section 4.2.41, p. 439.

8. Nitrogen tribromide, trichloride and triiodide; these are all highly sensitive and violently

explosive, and should never be prepared or used unless absolutely necessary.

POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS MIXTURES

Powerful oxidants are particularly dangerous when mixed with easily oxidised organic

substances such as simple alcohols, polyhydric alcohols, carbohydrates and cellulose-

containing materials such as paper, cloth or wood. They are also dangerous when mixed with

elements such as sulphur and phosphorus, and with finely divided metals such as

magnesium powder. The following are common examples:

1. Perchloric acid, chlorates and perchlorates.

2. Chromium trioxide ('chromic anhydride'), chromates and dichromates. Concentrated

nitric acid and nitrates.

3. Permanganates.

4. Concentrated hydrogen peroxide.

5. Liquid oxygen and liquid air.

Glossary:

highly flammable – wysoce łatwopalny

explosions – wybuchy, eksplozje

fires - pożary

safer - bezpieczniejszy

in the smallest possible quantity – w jak najmniejszej możliwej ilości

foresee - przewidywać

avoid the situation – uniknąć sytuacji

reactive - reaktywny

excess heat – nadmierne ciepło

on a small scale – na małą skalę (reakcja)

reaction vessel – naczynie reakcyjne

dangerous temperature rises – niebezpieczne wzrosty temperatury

to acquire the required stock of product – uzyskać odpowiedni (wymagany) zapas

produktu

exothermic reactions – reakcje egzotermiczne

reagents –reagenty

is to add the reagent dropwise – jest dodać reagent kroplami

rapid stirring – bardzo szybkie mieszanie

Overcooling – przechłodzenie

inhibit the reaction – wstrzymać (spowolnić) reakcję

violent – gwałtowny

impact or friction – wpływ tarcia

Acetylene - acetylen

acetylide salts of heavy metals – acetylenki metali ciężkich

silver and copper acetylides – acetylenki srebra i miedzi

extremely shock-sensitive – ekstremalnie wrażliwe na wstrząs

Hydrazoic acid – kwas azotowodorowy

azides - azydki

silver azide – azydek srebra

Diazonium salts – sole diazoniowe

Inorganic nitrates – nieorganiczne azotany

ammonium nitrate – azotan amonu

nitrate esters – estry azotanów

alcohols - alkohole

picric acid – kwas pikrynowy

trinitrobenzene – trinitrobenzen

Metal salts of nitrophenols – metaliczne sole nitrofenoli

Peroxides – nadtlenki

ether solvents - rozpuszczalniki eterowe

Concentrated – stężony

hydrogen peroxide – nadtlenek wodoru

Nitrogen tribromide – trójbromek azotu

Nitrogen trichloride – trójchlorek azotu

Nitrogen triiodide – trójjodek azotu

oxidants - utleniacze

carbohydrates – cukry

sulphur – siarka

phosphorus – fosfor

magnesium powder – pył magnezowy

Perchloric acid – kwas nadchlorowy

Chromium trioxide – trójtlenek chromu

chro- dichromates – chromiany i dwuchromiany

nitric acid - kwas azotowy

Permanganates – nadmanganiany

Liquid oxygen – ciekły tlen

HAZARDS DUE TO TOXIC CHEMICALS (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic

Chemistry” 5th edition p. 44)

A very large number of compounds encountered in organic chemistry laboratories are

poisonous, i.e. 'toxic'. Indeed, nearly all substances are toxic to some extent and the adoption

of safe and careful working procedures which prevent the entry of foreign substances into the

body is therefore of paramount importance, and should become second nature to all

laboratory workers. Toxic substances can enter the body by the following routes:

Ingestion (through the mouth). This is fortunately not common in laboratories, but can occur

through the accidental contamination of food, drink or tobacco, and by misuse of mouth

pipettes. It is strongly recommended that no one should ever eat, drink or smoke in a

laboratory. The practice of storing bottles of milk or beer in laboratory refrigerators is to be

strongly condemned. Workers should always wash their hands thoroughly on leaving a

laboratory and before eating, All pipetting by mouth should be avoided since there are

excellent rubber bulb and piston-type pipette fillers available commercially. In addition to

the ingestion hazard associated with smoking, the vapours of many volatile compounds yield

toxic products on pyrolysis when drawn through a lighted cigarette or pipe (e.g. carbon

tetrachloride yields phosgene). Inhalation (into the lungs). This is a more common pathway

for the absorption of toxic chemicals; these may be in the form of gases, vapours, dusts or

mists. All toxic powders, volatile liquids and gases should only be handled in efficient fume

cupboards. The practice of sniffing the vapours of unknown compounds for identification

purposes should be conducted with caution.

Direct absorption (through the skin into the bloodstream). This is also a common route for

the absorption of a toxic substance whether liquid, solid or gaseous. The danger may be

reduced by wearing rubber or plastic gloves, in addition to the usual laboratory white coat.

However, clean and careful working procedures are still necessary despite these precautions.

Protective gloves are often per meable to organic solvents and are easily punctured; they

should therefore be frequently inspected and replaced when necessary. If a toxic substance is

accidentally spilled on the skin, it should be washed off with copious quantities of cold

water with the aid of a little soap where necessary. The use of solvents for washing spilled

chemicals off the skin is best avoided since this may hasten the process of absorption through

the skin. Repeated contact of solvents and many other chemicals with the skin may lead to

dermatitis, an unsightly and irritating skin disease which is often very hard to cure. In

addition, sensitisation to further contact or exposure may occur. The toxic effects of chemical

compounds can be classified as either 'acute' (short term) or 'chronic' (long term). Acute

effects, as exemplified by powerful and well-known poisons such as hydrogen cyanide and

chlorine, are immediately obvious, well appreciated by most laboratory workers, and are

therefore fairly easily avoided. However, many chemicals exhibit chronic toxic effects which

may only come to light after long-term exposure to small quantities. This type of insidious

poisoning is harder to detect (and therefore prevent) since the results may only manifest

themselves after months or even years of exposure (or even long after exposure has ceased).

Chronic poisoning may also cause symptoms which are not easily recognisable as such, e.g.

sleeplessness, irritability, memory lapses and minor personality changes. It must be stressed,

however, that the final results of chronic poisoning may be very serious and can lead to

premature death. Every effort should be made by the laboratory worker to guard against

these possibilities by adopting a rigorous approach to the avoidance of breathing all vapours

and dusts, and of any contact between the skin and liquids or powders.

Glossary: compounds – związki (chemiczne)

organic chemistry laboratories – laboratoria chemii organicznej

poisonous – trujący

toxic - toksyczny

paramount importance – najwyższej wagi

laboratory workers - pracownicy laboratoryjni

route - droga

ingestion – spożycie, wchłonięcie

contamination - zanieczyszczenie

condemned - potępiony

pipetting by mouth- pipetowanie ustami

rubber bulb – naciągacz gruszkowy cieczy do pipet

piston-type pipette fillers – naciągacze automatyczne do pipet

carbon tetrachloride – czterochlorek węgla

phosgene - fosgen

inhalation – wdychanie, inhalacja

gas – gaz

vapours - opary

dust –pył, kurz

mist - mgła

powder – proszek

volatile liquids – łatwolotne ciecze

fume cupboard /or fume hood/ - wyciąg laboratoryjny

caution – uwaga

through the skin into the bloodstream – przez skórę do układu krwionośnego

rubber or plastic gloves – gumowe lub plastikowe rękawiczki ochronne

white coat – fartuch ochronny

spilled on the skin – rozlany na skórze

washed off - zmyty

copious quantities of cold water – obfite ilości zimnej wody

hasten - przyspieszać

dermatitis is an unsightly and irritating skin disease – zapalenie skóry jest szpecącą i

podrażniającą skórę chorobą

hard to cure – trudne do wyleczenia

sensitisation – uwrażliwienie

acute – ostry, przenikliwy, silny

chronic – chroniczny, notoryczny

hydrogen cyanide - cyjanowodór

chlorine – chlor

long-term exposure – długoterminowe wyeksponowanie, wystawienie

insidious – zdradziecki, podstępny

ceased – zaprzestawać, przerywać

recognisable - rozpoznawalny

sleeplessness – senność

irritability – drażliwość

premature death – przedwczesna śmierć

ELECTRICAL SAFETY (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p.

51)

Concern with the hazards associated with the use of flammable and toxic chemicals in the

laboratory often causes the dangers from electrical equipment to be overlooked. However,

many accidents are caused by the malfunctioning of electric appliances and by thoughtless

handling. New equipment should be carefully inspected to check that the plug has been

correctly fitted, otherwise a 'live' chassis will result. International standards for Great Britain

and Europe stipulate the following colours for electric cables: Live, Brown; Neutral, Blue;

Earth, Green/yellow. In the USA (and for equipment imported from the USA) the colours are:

Live, White; Neutral, Black; Earth, Green.

Before any electric appliance is used, it should be inspected to ensure that: (a) it is in

good condition with no loose wires or connections; (b) it is properly earthed; (c) it is

connected to the correct type of plug by good quality cable with sound insulation; and (d)

that it is protected by a fuse of the correct rating. Loose or trailing electric cables should be

avoided and if the appliance has to be sited some way from the power source, the cable

should run neatly along the side of a bench and preferably be secured with adhesive tape.

Cable hanging across the aisle between two benches should never be permitted. Any items of

equipment (e.g. stirrer motors or heating mantles) which have had any chemicals spilled on

them should not be used until they have been thoroughly cleaned and dried. In the handling

and setting up of electrical equipment, the operator must ensure that the apparatus is set up on

a dry bench. It is essential to assemble the apparatus first, and only then to plug into the

mains and switch on. The apparatus should be switched off before any attempts are made to

move or adjust it. High voltage equipment (e.g. for use in electrophoresis, or in the

generation of ozone) requires special precautions. Ideally, such apparatus should be isolated

within an enclosure equipped with an interlocking device so that access is possible only

when the current is switched off.

Glossary: hazard – niebezpieczeństwo, zagrożenie

flammable – łatwopalny

toxic chemicals – toksyczne chemikalia (odczynniki chemiczne)

electrical equipment – sprzęt, wyposażenie elektryczne

accident – wypadek

malfunctioning of electric appliances – niesprawność urządzeń elektrycznych

plug - wtyczka

stipulate – ustalić, określić

electric cables- elektryczne przewody

electric appliance – urządzenie elektryczne

wire – przewód

earthed - uziemniony

insulation - izolacja

fuse – bezpiecznik

the power source – źródło zasilania

secured - zapezpieczony

adhesive tape – taśma klejąca

aisle- przejście

stirrer motors - mieszadła

heating mantles – płaszcze grzejne

dry bench - suchy stół

electrophoresis - elektroforeza

precautions - zabezpieczenia

interlocking device – urządzenie - przełącznik

current – prąd

ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th

edition p. 52)

Ultraviolet (u.v.) lamps, arcs and other high intensity light sources which emit U.V.

radiation should never be viewed directly or eye damage will result. Special close-fitting

goggles which are opaque to U.V. radiation should be worn, and protective screens placed

around the apparatus assembly (e.g. in a photochemical reaction) which incorporates the

U.V. source; the need to avoid the inadvertent viewing of reflected U.V. light should also

be borne in mind and the viewing of chromatographic columns or plates may be

hazardous. Exposure of the skin to intense U.V. radiation gives rise to burns (cf. sunburn)

and prolonged exposure may give rise to more extensive tissue damage. Protective gloves

should therefore be worn during work involving such exposure risks. Adequate ventilation

must also be provided to prevent possible build-up of the highly irritant and toxic ozone

which is produced when oxygen is irradiated with U.V. light in the 185 nm region.

Glossary: U.V. lamp – lampa U.V.

arc - łuk

U.V. radiation – promieniowanie UV

eye damage – uszkodzenie oczu

close-fitting goggles – dobrze dopasowane gogle

opaque to U.V. radiation – nieprzeźroczysty dla promieniowania UV

protective screens – ekrany ochronne

apparatus assembly – zestaw aparaturowy

photochemical reaction – reakcja fotochemiczna

U.V. source – źródło promieniowania UV

inadvertent – nieuważny, nieumyślny

reflected U.V. light – odbite promieniowanie UV

chromatographic columns – kolumny chromatograficzne

chromatographic plates – płytki chromatograficzne

hazardous – niebezpieczny

burns – poparzenia

extensive tissue damage – rozległe uszkodzenie tkanek

protective gloves – rękawice ochronne

ventilation – wentylacja

to prevent – zapobiegać

to build-up – wytwarzać, gromadzić

highly irritant – wysoce drażniący

toxic - toksyczny

irradiated with U.V. light – napromieniowany światłem U.V.

Zajęcia mają na celu pracę z tekstami dotyczącego nazewnictwa aparatury szklanej -

LABORATORY GLASSWARE (przykładowe teksty poniżej).

GLASSWARE

APPARATUS WITH INTERCHANGEABLE GROUND GLASS

JOINTS

LABORATORY GLASSWARE – basic glossary (on pictures):

GLASSWARE (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p. 30)

Glass apparatus should be carefully examined before use and any which is cracked,

chipped, flawed or dirty should be rejected. Minute cracks in glassware for use in

evacuated systems are particularly dangerous. Many apparently simple manipulations such as

the cutting of glass tubing or rod, the insertion of glass tubing or thermometers into rubber

bungs or bark corks, or the removal of tight stoppers from bottles, can lead to serious cuts.

Care should be taken to adopt the correct procedures (Sections 2.9 and 2.10). All apparatus

and clean glassware not in use should be stored away and not allowed to accumulate on

benches.

Glossary: Glass apparatus – aparatura szklana

cracked – stuknięty, zbity, pęknięty

chipped - wyszczerbiony

flawed – wadliwy, ze skazą

minute cracks – minimalne, drobne zarysowania

in evacuated systems – w układach, zestawach pod próżnią

cutting of glass – cięcie szkła

thermometer – termometr

rubber – guma

bark – kora

cork – korek

tight stoppers from bottles – dopasowany korek, zatyczka fabryczny np. na butelce.

benches – stoły laboratoryjne

APPARATUS WITH INTERCHANGEABLE GROUND GLASS JOINTS (Vogel’s Textbook of practical Organic Chemistry” 5th edition p. 30)

In considering the following typical standard units of equipment fitted with ground glass

joints, it must be borne in mind that while a particular piece of glass equipment of certain

capacity or dimensions may be fitted with alternative joint sizes, the range is usually

restricted in relation to their relative proportions. When equipping a laboratory, it is usually

convenient to limit the range of socket sizes thus permitting interchangeability with the

minimum number of adapters. For example, with Quickfit, 14/23, 19/26, 24/29 and 34/35

joints are suitable for macro scale experiments, and 10/19 and 14/23 for semimicro scale

experiments; a similar selection would be appropriate from the USA coded sizes. In Fig.

2.8(a)-(d), the various designs of flasks are collected. Type (a) is a pearshaped flask, the

capacity range being usually 5 m1 to 100ml, the joint sizes are in the range 10/19 to 24/29.

Type (b) is a round-bottomed flask (short-necked), the capacity range being 5ml to 10

litres, joint sizes being in proportion; medium- and long-necked designs are also available.

Type (c) illustrates a range of wide-necked reaction flasks which are useful in semimicro

and in pilot scale experiments and which are fitted with large diameter flat-flange joints, the

capacities range from 250 ml to 20 litres, the flange bore being 75 mm to 100mm

respectively; the multi-socket lids are illustrated in Fig. 2.18(a) and (b). The advantages of

this type of reaction vessel are that (i) the lids are easily detachable, (ii) large stirrers are

readily accommodated, (iii) the vessels are cleaned readily and (iv) the removal or addition

of solids and viscous fluids is facilitated; the ground flange joints are fully interchangeable.

Special clamps are available for the support of such flasks. Type (d) of Fig. 2.8 is a jacketed

flange flask which is ideally suited for reactions requiring accurate temperature control.

Various types of multi-necked round-bottomed flasks are illustrated in Fig. 2.9(a)-(d);

designs with pear-shaped flasks are available. The centre socket is usually the larger and the

side sockets are generally smaller; type (d) shows the side socket being employed for the

insertion of a capillary tube necessary in a vacuum distillation assembly (see Section 2.27).

Ground glass stoppers of all standard sizes are available and may be of the design shown in

Fig. 2.10; the flat head is preferred since the stopper may be stood on end when not in use,

thus avoiding contamination of the ground surface; an additional refinement is the provision

of a finger grip.

Often in the assembly of apparatus, joint adapters are required if the joint sizes of the

various parts are not compatible. A reduction adapter is illustrated in Fig. 2.1 1 and an

expansion adapter in Fig. 2.12; numerous combinations are of course possible, but it must be

emphasised, however, that in a well-designed assembly of apparatus the number of adapters

should be reduced to a minimum and, best of all, completely eliminated. Distillation heads

(or still-heads) are shown in Fig. 2.13 (a)-(c). Type (a) is a bend ('knee-tube') which is

frequently employed for those distillations which merely require the removal of solvent. Type

(b) is a simple distillation head; when fitted into a flask with a ground glass socket, the

assembly is virtually a distillation flask. For some purposes, a thermometer may be fitted

into a one hole rubber stopper of correct taper and then inserted into the socket; the area of

rubber which is exposed to the organic vapour is relatively so small that the amount of

contamination thus introduced is negligible. If, however, all rubber stoppers must be absent

because of the highly corrosive nature of the vapour, a thermometer fitted with an appropriate

size cone is employed. Alternatively the socket of a distillation head may be fitted with a

screw-capped adapter (see Fig. 2.32) through which a thermometer may be inserted. Type

(c) is a Claisen distillation head; the left-hand socket accommodates the capillary tube for use

in distillations under vacuum (see Section 2.27) and the right-hand socket a suitable

thermometer. Frequently for semimicro and micro work it is more convenient to use the pear-

shaped flask designs which incorporate the distillation heads (e.g. Fig. 2.14(a) and (b).

Multiple adapters provide for additional entries into a single-necked flask when a multi-

necked flask is not available. Either double-necked or triplenecked adapters (Fig. 2.15 and

Fig. 2.16(a) and (b) are commonly used having a range of socket and cone sizes. The 'swan-

neck adapter' of Fig. 2.17 is useful for vacuum distillations as it permits the insertion of a

capillary tube through the screw thread joint. This joint may also be used for insertion of a

thermometer or a gas inlet in the narrow neck and a reflux condenser into the ground joint;

this device virtually converts a three-necked flask into a four-necked flask.

Multiple socket lids for fitment to the flange flasks (illustrated in Fig. 2.8(c)) are shown in

Fig. 2.18(a) and (b). These allow for the introduction of a great variety of standard equipment

for stirring, temperature measurement, the inlet of gas, etc. The sockets may be vertical or

angled at 5, 10 or 15 degrees from the vertical axis. Several types of condensers are widely

used (Figs 2.19-2.23). An improved form of Liebig's condenser, sometimes termed a West

condenser, is shown in Fig. 2.19; it has an inner tube with very thin walls and the space

between it and the heavy-walled outer tube is small, consequently there is a rapid heat

transfer to the fast-flowing cooling water leading to greater efficiency. The length of the

jacket is usually 6 to 50 cm and the design is available in a range of joint sizes. Figure 2.20

(Davies type) and Fig. 2.21 (double coil type) are examples of efficient double surface

condensers. Figure 2.22 depicts a 'screw' type of condenser (Friedrich pattern); this highly

efficient condenser is employed for both reflux and downward distillation. The ice or dry ice-

acetone condenser (Fig. 2.23) is useful for volatile liquids. The water inlet and outlet side-

arms on the condensers illustrated are of the standard olive all-glass type. Breakage can easily

occur, often resulting in serious hand injury, when attaching or detaching rubber or plastic

water hoses. A recent design (Bibby Science Products) incorporates a screw-thread at side-

arm ends on to which a plastic hose connector may be screwed to give a watertight seal.

Not only is this safer in the hands of less experienced workers, but it allows for more rapid

apparatus assembly. Various forms of receiver adapters or connectors for attachment to the

end of condensers when used in a distillation assembly are shown in Figs 2.24-2.26.

The simplest form (Fig. 2.24) carries glass hooks for securing it to the condenser by means of

a rubber band from the side tube to the hook; an improved form, incorporating two glass

joints, is shown in Fig. 2.25. A useful adapter is illustrated in Fig. 2.26; when employed at

atmospheric pressure, a drying tube may be attached to the side tube, if desired; in a

distillation under reduced pressure, the side tube is connected to a vacuum pump. Cone/

rubber tubing adapters ('take-of adapters), shown in Fig. 2.27(a) and (b), fulfil a number of

useful purposes in preparative organic operations, for example where very small volumes of

solvents need to be rapidly removed. A calcium chloride guard-tube is illustrated in Fig.

2.28 which is widely used for protecting apparatus assemblies from the ingress of moisture.

For many operations the globular form of dropping, addition or separatory funnel having a

suitable cone joint fitted to the stem is convenient, but when required on either a multiple-

necked flask or with a multiple adapter, the cylindrical design (Fig. 2.29) is preferred; this is

similarly provided with a cone on the stem and a ground socket. Figure 2.30 illustrates a

cylindrical funnel with pressure-equalising tube; this is invaluable for reactions which are

conducted in an atmosphere of inert gas. Either funnel may be fitted with an all-glass or a

Rotaflo stopcock; the latter gives excellent liquid flow control. Jacketed dropping funnels

for use with ice-water or dry ice-acetone slurry coolants are available and are useful when

reagents to be added to a reaction mixture need to be kept at low temperatures. Dropping

funnels are also available with a design of stopcock which allows infinite control of the rate of

addition. The two designs of the Dean and Stark apparatus (Fig. 2.31(a) and (b); available

from Bibby Science Products) carry a flask on the lower cone and a reflux condenser on the

upper socket. They are used for the automatic separation of two immiscible components in a

distillate and the subsequent return of the upper layer (a) or the lower layer (b) to the

reaction flask.

Glossary: ground glass joints – połączenia na szlif

glass equipment – wyposażenie szklane

capacity - przepustowość

dimensions – rozmiary

joint sizes – rozmiary szlifów (od np. korków łączników) socket sizes - rozmiary szlifów (od np. kolb)

interchangeability – zamienność, wymienność

adapters – łączniki, nasadki

flasks – kolby

pearshaped flask – kolba gruszkowa

round-bottomed flask – kolba okrągłodenna

short-necked - krótkoszyjna long-necked – z długą szyją

wide-necked reaction flasks – kolby reakcyjne z szeroką szyją

large diameter flat-flange joints – łączniki na płaski kołnierz o dużej średnicy

flange bore – średnica otworu kołnierza multi-socket lids – pokrywy z wieloma wejściami (otworami)

detachable - zdejmowalny, odłączalny

stirrer – mieszadło

accommodated – zamontowane, przystosowane

vessel – naczynie

solid – ciało stałe

viscous fluids – lepkie ciecze

clamp – łapy

accurate temperature control – dokładna, ścisła kontrola temperatury

multi-necked – wieloszyjne

centre socket – środkowe wejście, otwór

side sockets – boczne wejścia

capillary tube – kapilara

vacuum distillation – destylacja pod próżnią

ground glass stoppers – korki na szlif

design – projekt (w sensie wyglądu)

ground surface – powierzchnia szlifu

provision – zabezpieczenie

assembly of apparatus – zestaw aparaturowy reduction adapter – reduktor (z większej średnicy na mniejszą)

expansion adapter – ekspander (z mniejszej średnicy na większą)

distillation heads – nasadki destylacyjne

bend – zginać

solvent – rozpuszczalnik

distillation flask – kolba destylacyjna

thermometer – termometr

organic vapour - opary organiczne corrosive – powodujący korozję screw-capped adapter – nasadka z nagwintowaną nakrętką

swan-neck adapter – nasadka z tzw. “łabędzią szyją”

screw thread joint – nagwintowana szyja nasadki

gas inlet – wlot gazu

reflux condenser – chłodnica zwrotna

vertical or angled – pionowe lub pod kątem

inner tube – wewnętrzna rurka

heavy-walled outer tube – grubościenna rura zewnętrzna

rapid heat transfer – szybkie przekazywanie ciepła

fast-flowing cooling water - szybko-przepływająca woda chłodząca

length of the jacket - długość płaszcza chłodzącego

'screw' type of condenser – chłodnica śrubowa ice or dry ice-acetone condenser – chłodnica chłodzona lodem lub mieszaniną suchego lodu

z acetonem volatile liquids - ciecze lotne

injury – ciężkie obrażenia water hoses – węże od chłodnic

receiver adapters - nasadki odbieralnikowe

connectors – łączniki

glass hooks – szklane haczyki

atmospheric pressure – ciśnienie atmosferyczne

drying tube – rurka ze środkiem suszącym

reduced pressure – obniżone ciśnienie

vacuum pump – pompa próżniowa

cone/rubber tubing adapters - nasadki typu stożek-rurka gumowa

calcium chloride guard-tube – rurka z chlorkiem wapnia

moisture – wilgoć

dropping funnel – wkraplacz

separatory funnel – rozdzielacz

with a cone on the stem and a ground socket – posiadający na nóżce szlifowaną tulejkę

cylindrical funnel – wkraplacz cylindryczny

atmosphere of inert gas – atmosfera gazu obojętnego

all-glass or a Rotaflo stopcock – kran szklany lub typu Rotaflo

jacketed dropping funnels – wkraplacze z płaszczem

coolants – mieszaniny chłodzące

reaction mixture – mieszanina reakcyjna

Dean and Stark apparatus – aparat Dean’a -Stark’a

immiscible components - składniki niemieszalne ze sobą

upper/ lower layer – górna/dolna warstwa