estudios en lenguas modernas: docencia,...
TRANSCRIPT
Estudios en lenguas modernas: docencia, investigación,
traducción
Universidad de Quintana Roo
Dr. Angel Ezequiel Rivero Palomo, Rector
División de Ciencias Políticas y Humanidades
Dr. Alfredo Marín Marín, Director
Dirección General de Investigación y Posgrado
Dra. Lucelly Marianela Roldán Carrillo, Directora General
Departamento de Lengua y Educación
Mtra. Sonia Teresita Sansores Valencia, Jefa de Departamento
Coordinadores de la obra:
Dr. Moisés Damián Perales Escudero, Universidad de Quintana Roo
Dra. Floricely Dzay Chulim, Universidad de Quintana Roo
© Universidad de Quintana Roo, 2018.
Primera edición: diciembre de 2018.
ISBN: 978-607-9448-58-5
Todos los capítulos fueron arbitrados por pares académicos expertos en las áreas
correspondientes siguiendo el procedimiento doble ciego.
Esta es una obra de carácter educativo. Su circulación es gratuita, por lo que se
autoriza la reproducción y la difusión parcial o total sin fines de lucro por medios
físicos y electrónicos siempre y cuando se cite y reconozca a los autores
individuales y a la institución que posee los derechos de autor.
Comité de Arbitraje
Antonio Saldaña Salazar, Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit* Caridad Macola Rojo, Universidad de Quintana Roo Daniel Rodríguez Vergara, CELE-UNAM * Diana Guadalupe de la Luz Castillo, Universidad de Guadalajara Rosalina Domínguez del Ángel, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala * Edgar Emmanuell García Ponce, Universidad de Guanajuato * Elizabeth Alvarado Martínez, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León Elizabeth Ruiz Esparza Barajas, Universidad de Sonora Evangelina Flores Hernández, Universidad de Colima Griselda Murrieta Loyo, Universidad de Quintana Roo * Irasema Mora Pablo, Universidad de Guanajuato * Jitka Crhová, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California * Laura Aurora Hernández Ramírez, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala María de Lourdes Gutiérrez Aceves, Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas María del Rosario Reyes Cruz, Universidad de Quintana Roo * María del Rocío Domínguez Gaona, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California * María Elena Llaven Nucamendi, Universidad de Quintana Roo * Mariza Méndez López, Universidad Veracruzana * Martha Lengeling, Universidad de Guanajuato * Natalia Ignatieva Kosminina, CELE-UNAM * Norma Alicia Vega López, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas * Patricia Guillén Cuamatzi, Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala Roxana Rivera Ochoa, Universidad Veracruzana Rubén Zapata Díaz, Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco Victoria Zamudio Jasso, CELE-UNAM
*Miembro vigente o pasado del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores
i
ÍNDICE
PRÓLOGO ………………………………………………………………………….….. iv
SECCIÓN I: ENSEÑANZA-APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS
INTRODUCING THEMATIC PROGRESSION ANALYSIS IN THE EFL
ACADEMIC WRITING CLASS …………………..………………………………..…….2
Reyna Isidra López Blé
APROPIACIÓN DE LA TEXTUALIDAD EN LA UNIVERSIDAD ..………...……... 19
María Teresa Calderón Rosas
María Teresa Flores Revilla
Juan Manuel Hernández Bárcenas
Armando Ortiz Tepale
PROPOSAL FOR INTEGRATING PROJECT WORK IN A COLLEGE-
LEVEL ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS ………….……………… 34
Gisela Domínguez Barrera
Andrés Arias de la Cruz
Eleazar Morales Vázquez
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS TO LEARN ENGLISH .…..……………………………………………. 50
Cliserio Antonio Cruz Martínez
Jairo Gabriel Guerrero Hernández
ATTITUDES: ENGLISH VS. OTHER SUBJECTS. AN EXPLORATORY
CASE STUDY …………………..……………………………………………….……. 70
Liliana Edith Campos Montero
Olga Lidia Sánchez Cruz
Gloria Ofelia de la Soledad Reyes Méndez
¿ENSEÑANDO CON IMÁGENES UN VOCABULARIO EFICAZ? ………………… 94
Alicia Marcela Rendón Castro
Elia Cristina Rosales Galindo
Mabel Jiménez González
EL ENFOQUE BASADO EN TAREAS Y EL PNIEB ……………………..……….. 109
Esteban Juan Bautista Zárate Mejía
ii
¿CÓMO LLEGAR A SER MAESTROS CREATIVOS? UNA AUTO-REFLEXIÓN… 128
Claudia Andrea Durán Montenegro
Adriana Araceli Padilla Zamudio
Alicia Marcela Rendón Castro
ESTUDIANTES NO ESPECIALISTAS DE FRANCÉS, SU SENTIDO DE
AUTOEFICACIA PARA APRENDER EL IDIOMA .…………..…………………..…. 143
María del Rosario Reyes Cruz
Nelly Paulina García Poot
SECCIÓN II: EVALUACIÓN DEL APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS
EXPLORING ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION METHODS
FOR ENHANCING EFL STUDENTS’ LEARNING ……….……………………......... 163
Cecilio Luis de Jesús López Martínez
Luz Edith Herrera Díaz
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE ENGLISH STANDARDIZED TESTS
USED AT THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE BA …………...…………………...……..… 167
Olga Lidia Sánchez Cruz
Daniela Jerónimo García
SECCIÓN III: FORMACIÓN DE PROFESORES DE LENGUAS
ANALYZING THE EFFECTS OF EFL TEACHERS’ CONTINUING
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON THEIR PRACTICE ...................................... 203
Cecilio Luis de Jesús López Martínez
Claudia Estela Buenfil Rodríguez
FORMER IMMIGRANT STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES VS THEIR SUBSEQUENT
EXPERIENCE AT THE BA IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE …………….……………… 221
Enrique Vez López
Andrea Velázquez Gutiérrez
UNA MIRADA A LA PRÁCTICA DOCENTE: EXPERIENCIAS DE UN
PLAN DE ESTUDIOS …………………………………………………..………..…..... 243
Hiroe Minami Doi
María Guadalupe Garza Pulido
Eleazar Morales Vázquez
iii
CHALLENGES FACED BY NON-NATIVE EFL STUDENT TEACHERS
FROM THE UV ENGLISH BA PROGRAMME DURING THEIR PRACTICUM ….. 262
Stephany Cortés Rogel
Luz Edith Herrera Díaz
STUDENT- TEACHERS EXPERIENCES ON PROJECT BASED LEARNING
IN A SYLLABUS DESIGN COURSE ........................................................................... 283
Leticia Estudillo León
Sara Merino Munive
ANÁLISIS DEL DISPOSITIVO DE FORMACIÓN DEL DOCENTE DE
INGLÉS EN LA UAEMéx …………............................................................................. 299
María Estela Estrada Cortés
COLLECTIVE ACCOMPANIMENT FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE WITH
TESOL TEACHERS IN MEXICO ................................................................................. 315
Patricia Marie Anne Houde
Kenneth Geoffrey Richter
SECCIÓN IV: TRADUCCIÓN
LA IMPORTANCIA DE LAS TICS EN LA ENSEÑANZA DE LA TRADUCCION... 334
José Cortez Godinez
Noriko Estefania Santos Sigala
PERCEPCIÓN PÚBLICA DE LA IDENTIDAD SORDA EN GUANAJUATO
EN LAS PALABRAS DE INTÉRPRETES DE LSM …………………........................ 356
Rodrigo Sauceda Navarrete
Krisztina Zimányi
iv
PRÓLOGO
El campo de las lenguas adicionales a la materna es, en nuestro país, un área cuya
profesionalización es relativamente reciente. Sin embargo, también es un área de creciente
consolidación tanto en la docencia como en la investigación. Sea que se trabaja desde
perspectivas lingüísticas, educativas o mixtas, las experiencias pedagógicas y de pesquisa
continúan avanzando en profundidad y complejidad. Los coordinadores de la presente obra,
Estudios en Lenguas Modernas: Docencia, Investigación, Traducción, nos congratulamos
en presentar una cuidadosa selección de ___ trabajos por autores de ___ universidades
distintas. Todos ellos fueron arbitrados por pares externos a las universidades de
adscripción de los autores siguiendo procedimientos rigurosos, y representan el estado de la
investigación actual en las diversas subáreas de nuestro campo disciplinar.
La primera sección de esta obra, Enseñanza-aprendizaje de lenguas, recoge nueve
trabajos articulados en torno a los fenómenos de la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de idiomas.
Sus temáticas son variadas, pero algunos ejes comunes incluyen la alfabetización
académica y el aprendizaje basado en tareas (Task-Based Learning). En su conjunto,
ofrecen una panorámica del trabajo actual en las temáticas por excelencia del campo de la
enseñanza de lenguas.
El trabajo que abre la sección es Introducing thematic progression analysis in the
EFL academic writing class, de la autoría de Reyna López Blé. Constituye un ejemplo de
una aplicación innovadora de la lingüística a la enseñanza de la redacción académica en
lengua inglesa. Esta temática, enmarcada en los estudios de alfabetización académica, cobra
cada vez mayor interés entre docentes e investigadores. La autora reporta los resultados de
una intervención didáctica basada en una herramienta de análisis de discurso de la
Lingüística Sistémico-Funcional (LSF), el análisis de progresión temática, la cual le
permitió elevar la calidad de las redacciones en inglés de un grupo de estudiantes
universitarios. Otro aspecto innovador de esta intervención es el uso combinado de análisis
lingüísticos, entrevistas, protocolos de pensamiento en voz alta y observaciones de clase
para documentar la intervención y sus efectos. Estamos seguros de que será de mucho
provecho para los docentes alumnos interesados en la alfabetización académica y el análisis
del discurso.
Otro trabajo enfocado en la alfabetización académica es Apropiación de la
textualidad en la universidad: una aproximación desde la literacidad académica. En él,
María Teresa Calderón, María Teresa Flores, Juan Manuel Hernández y Armando Ortiz
elucidan de manera coherente y clara la problemática de la apropiación de los modos de
leer y escribir propios de las comunidades científicas, así como las distintas alternativas
teórico-pedagógicas que se han propuesto para atenderla. Este artículo constituye una
excelente introducción a la temática y es altamente recomendable para quienes se inician en
ella.
Gisela Domínguez, Andrés Arias y Eleazar Morales presentan una sólida propuesta
pedagógica en el trabajo titulado Proposal for integrating project work in a college-level
English as a Foreign Language class. Fundamentan su propuesta en el aprendizaje basado
en tareas (TBL por sus siglas en inglés), un abordaje para la enseñanza de lenguas que fue
ampliamente popular en la última década del siglo pasado. Como bien apuntan los autores,
v
resurge el interés en el TBL como herramienta didáctica y como filosofía de enseñanza. El
capítulo resultará enriquecedor para todos los interesados en este enfoque pedagógico.
El capítulo Language learning strategies employed by university students to learn
English de los autores Cliserio Cruz y Jairo Guerrero examina una temática ampliamente
estudiada: las estrategias de aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Haciendo uso de métodos
cualitativos y de la conocida taxonomía de Rebecca Oxford, los autores identificaron y
clasificaron las estrategias usadas por un grupo de estudiantes universitarios de inglés. El
capítulo será útil para investigadores noveles que se interesen por la investigación de
estrategias y por acercarse a los métodos cualitativos usados para abordarlas.
Attitudes: English vs. other subjects. An exploratory case study in Telesecundaria es
un valioso e innovador capítulo de la autoría de Liliana Campos, Olga Lidia Sánchez y
Gloria Reyes. Las autoras apuntan, correctamente, que la investigación sobre la enseñanza
del inglés en la telesecundarias mexicanas es prácticamente inexistente. Al mismo tiempo,
señalan con claridad la problemática de la falta de preparación didáctica y de domino del
inglés por parte de los profesores encargados de enseñar esta materia. Haciendo uso de
métodos cualitativos cuasi-etnográficos, las autoras detectan actitudes tanto favorables
como desfavorables hacia el inglés, su enseñanza y su aprendizaje. Por todo ello, el capítulo
constituye un esfuerzo loable que inaugura una línea de investigación prometedora respecto
del inglés en este contexto.
En ¿Enseñando con imágenes, un vocabulario eficaz? Alicia Rendón, Elia
González y Mabel Jiménez presentan resultados preliminares de una investigación
encaminada a determinar la eficacia de la enseñanza de vocabulario basada en imágenes.
Los hallazgos preliminares indican que los estudiantes prefieren el uso de imágenes para la
enseñanza por sobre la mera presentación auditiva de la palabra. La presentación de este
resultado viene precedida por una ilustrativa discusión de los pormenores metodológicos y
algunos hallazgos empíricos relativos al uso de imágenes en la enseñanza de vocabulario.
Esteban Zárate articula un interesante ensayo en El enfoque basado en tareas y el
PNIEB. En él, el autor discute con claridad y precisión los fundamentos epistémicos y
metodológicos de los documentos de política lingüística que norman la enseñanza del
inglés en la educación básica en nuestro país. A partir de la determinación de los conceptos
“prácticas sociales del lenguaje” y “competencias específicas” como ejes rectores de tal
enseñanza, Esteban Zárate propone el uso del enfoque de aprendizaje basado en tareas
(TBL por sus siglas en inglés, de gran tradición en nuestra área a partir de los trabajos de
Prabhu y Willis) como metodología adecuada para aterrizar en el aula las directrices del
PNIEB. Este capítulo resulta provechoso para investigadores, docentes y estudiantes
interesados en conocer mejor los fundamentos pedagógicos y didácticos del PNIEB.
El capítulo ¿Cómo llegar a ser maestros creativos?, de la autoría de Claudia Durán,
Adriana Padilla y Alicia Rendón, es un ensayo sobre la creatividad y los factores que, en
principio, podrían definir a un profesor de lenguas como poseedor de tal característica.
Felizmente, las autoras toman una distancia clara del uso no fundamentado de juegos
didácticos, que suele tomarse equivocadamente como señal inequívoca de la creatividad del
docente de idiomas. A partir de un marco teórico bien construido, las autoras desarrollan
una propuesta interesante y digna de ser considerada por todos los docentes de lenguas.
Estudiantes no especialistas de francés, su sentido de autoeficacia para aprender el
idioma es un interesante y valioso reporte de investigación empírica de la autoría de
Rosario Reyes y Nelly García. Los estudios de autoeficacia para el aprendizaje de lenguas
constituyen una línea de investigación aún incipiente pero con una creciente producción en
vi
México. Como resultado de este estudio bien diseñado y riguroso, las autoras encuentran
diferencias en el sentido y las fuentes de autoeficacia de los estudiantes de su muestra
(aprendientes universitarios de francés) en función de su nivel y de la habilidad lingüística
focalizada. La lectura se destaca como la habilidad para la cual los estudiantes se sienten
más eficaces y que les ocasiona menos estrés. Ello probablemente se deba a las semejanzas
entre el español y el francés, más evidentes en la lengua escrita que en la oral.
La siguiente sección, Evaluación del aprendizaje de lenguas, recoge dos aportes
sobre esta siempre interesante, actual y controversial temática. Ambos tienen en común el
ser exploraciones empíricas de perspectivas alternativas y el hacer oír las voces de los
docentes como interlocutores válidos en la conversación sobre la evaluación. El primero de
ellos es Exploring alternative assessment and evaluation methods for enhancing EFL
students’ learning, escrito por Cecilio López y Luz Edith Herrera. Los autores utilizaron
entrevistas y análisis cualitativos para indagar las percepciones de profesores en servicio
sobre la evaluación. Encuentran que los profesores realizan algunas prácticas de evaluación
alternativa, pero necesitan profundizar sus conocimientos al respecto.
La segunda contribución de esta sección se titula Teachers’ perceptions about the
English standardized tests used at a BA in English, por Daniela Jerónimo y Olga Lidia
Sánchez. De manera similar al trabajo anterior, las autoras utilizaron métodos cualitativos
para indagar las percepciones de profesores en servicio, solo que su trabajo se enfoca en
una forma tradicional de evaluación: los exámenes estandarizados. Los hallazgos arrojan
puntos de vista encontrados, ya que algunos profesores creen en la utilidad de los exámenes
estandarizados en tanto que otros la niegan. El trabajo recoge las sugerencias de algunos
profesores para llevar a cabo evaluaciones alternativas.
La tercera sección, Formación de profesores de lenguas, compila siete capítulos
que exponen investigaciones basadas en experiencias con planes o programas de estudios,
con la formación o el desarrollo profesional de profesores de lenguas, y con estudiantes
nativos y no nativos en formación docente. El primero de los capítulos que componen esta
sección, Analyzing the effects of EFL teachers’ continuing professional development on
their practice, por Cecilio López y Claudia Buenfil, muestra, desde un enfoque cualitativo
y dando voz a los profesores en servicio participantes, la efectividad de cursos de
entrenamiento como una forma de desarrollo profesional, tema que va adquiriendo más
relevancia con el paso de los años. Basados en los resultados de este estudio, los autores
dan algunas sugerencias para garantizar la satisfacción de quienes deseen continuar su
desarrollo profesional a través de cursos de capacitación o actualización.
Enrique Vez y Andrea Velázquez presentan en el segundo capítulo, Former
immigrant students’ perspectives vs their subsequent experience at the BA in English
language, los resultados de una investigación realizada con estudiantes que han recibido
educación inicial en Estados Unidos de Norteamérica y que en la actualidad se encuentran
en formación como futuros profesores del inglés en una universidad mexicana. Los
resultados de este estudio comparan las expectativas y la experiencia de estos estudiantes
en un programa de licenciatura. De igual manera, muestran las fortalezas que tienen los
estudiantes desde su propia perspectiva (i.e. nivel de inglés), así como los problemas que
enfrentan como inmigrantes durante su preparación (i.e. choque cultural). Vez y Velázquez
nos permiten ver la realidad que vivieron los participantes en esta experiencia, lo cual
puede ser de gran interés y utilidad para profesores y académicos de un programa de
licenciatura en lengua inglesa, en un contexto similar.
vii
El capítulo Una mirada a la práctica docente: experiencias de un plan de estudios,
presenta una investigación descriptiva-mixta elaborada por Hiroe Minami Doi, María
Guadalupe Garza y Eleazar Morales. Los autores realizaron un análisis para determinar la
congruencia o alineación curricular entre lo estipulado en el plan de estudios y lo realizado
dentro del aula. El objetivo era observar algunas posturas teóricas y la implementación de
éstas en el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa. Esta experiencia compartida por los
autores será de interés para las instituciones, autoridades y profesores en proceso de
implementación y/o evaluación de (nuevos) programas de estudios en el área de lenguas.
El siguiente capítulo de esta sección, Challenges faced by non-native EFL student
teachers from the UV English BA programme during their practicum, de la autoría de
Stephany Cortés y Luz Edith Herrera, invita a la reflexión sobre los retos que enfrentan los
estudiantes al realizar sus prácticas docentes, como parte de su programa de estudios. El
capítulo presenta resultados preliminares de un estudio que está en proceso; sin embargo, a
través de la lectura, se pueden visualizar algunos de los problemas que se les presentan a
los participantes y las razones que ellos atribuyen a dichos problemas, principalmente en
relación con la organización y manejo de clase, así como con su nivel de inglés y como éste
afecta su enseñanza. Esta información será de provecho para estudiantes y profesores de
programas de docencia del inglés, quienes enfrentan problemas similares.
El quinto capítulo corresponde a la investigación presentada por Leticia Estudillo y
Sara Merino: Student- teachers experiences on project based learning in a syllabus design
course. En este estudio, a través de reflexiones escritas, los participantes externaron su
experiencia en el proceso de generación de programas enfocados en el Aprendizaje basado
en proyectos (PBL por sus siglas en inglés) y en el proceso de construcción de su identidad
como maestros de inglés durante la implementación de sus programas. De acuerdo con los
autores, el estudio prueba que PBL es un método efectivo que, además, permite reducir los
niveles de frustración de los participantes, ya que el método se puede aplicar en un contexto
real. Este trabajo representa un buen referente sobre el uso del método para los profesores
en servicio y para quienes están inmersos en la preparación de futuros profesores,
principalmente en nuestro contexto mexicano.
Análisis del dispositivo de formación del docente de inglés en la UAEMéx es un
trabajo cuyo objetivo fue generar e implementar un plan de estudios en una universidad
mexicana. Se presentan los hallazgos centrales de una primera parte de la investigación
doctoral realizada por María Estela Estrada. La autora expone, con una visión holística,
elementos curriculares centrales, así como un sustento teórico-metodológico del proceso
educativo y del modelo reflexivo, basados en competencias, que corresponden al plan de
estudios de la licenciatura: temas esenciales para la comprensión de la investigación. Los
resultados que se presentan en este capítulo invitan a la reflexión respecto a los aspectos
que deben ser considerados en la implementación y evaluación de planes de estudios.
En el último capítulo de esta sección, Collective accompaniment for reflective
practice with TESOL teachers in Mexico, Patricia Marie Houde y Kenneth Geoffrey
Richter discuten los resultados de una investigación novedosa e interesante que enfatiza la
importancia y utilidad de la reflexión colaborativa para profesores principiantes, con el
apoyo de un modelo de acompañamiento colectivo (CAM por sus siglas en inglés).
Basados en los resultados de la investigación, los autores declaran que el uso del modelo
que proponen da pie y favorece el proceso de reflexión que los profesores hacen respecto a
su quehacer docente, permitiéndoles estar más conscientes de su práctica en el salón de
clase. Este capítulo es de utilidad tanto para profesores en formación como en servicio que
viii
deseen iniciarse en la tarea reflexiva o implementar otro método práctico de reflexión
colaborativa con fines de mejora de su profesión docente.
Esta obra cierra con la sección de Traducción que se conforma de dos capítulos
sobre la temática. En el primero, La Importancia de las Tic´s en la enseñanza de la
traducción, los autores José Cortez y Noriko Estefania Santos ponen especial énfasis en el
uso de las memorias de traducción como una herramienta de gran utilidad para estudiantes
de una licenciatura en traducción. En el estudio, los autores realizan una exploración sobre
softwares de traducción que los estudiantes utilizan y los beneficios de éstos en el proceso
de traducción. Los resultados indican que un porcentaje muy bajo de los participantes hace
uso de alguna herramienta de apoyo para la traducción; además, tienen poca oportunidad de
utilizarlas. Los participantes y los autores sugieren que se considere en su plan de estudios
un mayor número y variedad de materias en las que se utilicen estas herramienta
tecnológicas durante la licenciatura.
El segundo y último capítulo de esta sección tiene un enfoque en la interpretación
del lenguaje de señas mexicano. En su investigación, Percepción pública de la identidad
sorda en Guanajuato en las palabras de intérpretes de LMS, Rodrigo Sauceda y Krisztina
Zimányi realizaron entrevistas semi-estructuradas con intérpretes del lenguaje de señas en
el estado de Guanajuato, con el fin de conocer la percepción que éstos tienen de su trabajo
en la sociedad. La importancia de este estudio estriba en la necesidad de favorecer a la
comunidad sorda del estado, y que se amplíe a todo el país, ya que, en palabras de los
autores, existen carencias en el conocimiento de la comunidad sorda que no permiten una
comunicación efectiva entre dicha comunidad y las personas que no tienen esta
discapacidad.
Nos congratulamos en entregar esta obra, producto del trabajo colectivo de más de
una docena de investigadores en las distintas áreas de nuestro campo disciplinar. Estamos
seguro de que resultará provechosa a toda la comunidad
Los Coordinadores
Dr. Moisés Damián Perales Escudero
Dra. Floricely Dzay Chulím
1
SECCIÓN I: ENSEÑANZA-APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS
2
INTRODUCING THEMATIC PROGRESSION ANALYSIS IN THE EFL ACADEMIC WRITING CLASS
Reyna Isidra López Blé
Universidad Veracruzana [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Writing an academic text such as a research report is one of the most problematic tasks
students face at university level. Furthermore, the complexity of this endeavor is increased
when students have to produce this genre in English as a second/foreign language. In fact,
learning how to write in a second language is one of the most challenging aspects of
second language learning (Hyland, 2003). Hence, non-native speaking students
experience a number of difficulties even if they have studied English and academic writing
in English in their native countries (Hinkel, 2004). The present study explored the
difficulties encountered by a group of 15 BA in English students when writing research
reports. Most importantly, the purpose of this research was to design and implement a
pedagogical proposal to tackle these academic writing difficulties. A Qualitative Research
approach was adopted for this study. From the variety of qualitative methodologies, Action
Research (AR) was selected. At the initial stage, student text analysis, think-aloud
protocols and field notes were employed to inform the action plan. For the evaluation of
the pedagogical implementation, class observations, student text analysis and semi-
structured interviews were used. The data gathered at the initial stage showed that
students lacked knowledge and practice on how to connect their ideas and to organize
them in a logical sequence. Based on these preliminary findings, a Functional Grammar
approach was adopted and the action plan incorporated notions such as given-new,
information structure, theme-rheme and thematic progression. The findings of this study
suggest that Thematic Progression analysis can be a valuable tool to help students
compose and edit more effectively and improve their academic writing skills. Moreover, the
innovation of the pedagogical implementation seemed to have had a positive impact on
students’ motivation and sense of preparedness for further academic writing experiences.
Keywords: academic writing, higher education, thematic progression analysis
INTRODUCTION
In Mexico, every year, thousands of undergraduate students are faced with the imminent
and overwhelming task of writing a research report in order to obtain their BA degree.
Unfortunately, many of these students possess limited previous experience in producing
this kind of text. Furthermore, previous research has shown that academic writing
instruction is highly neglected in our country and, as a consequence, students’ academic
writing when they reach higher education is very problematic. The situation is even more
complicated when students are required to write their research report in a foreign language
such as English. This scenario poses a number of challenges not only for the student, but
3
also for the academic writing instructor, who normally has to deal with a group of students
with almost no experience in producing a text of this length and nature and who are, at the
same time, in the process of learning a foreign language. In fact, “learning how to write in a
second language is one of the most challenging aspects of second language learning”
(Richards, 2003, p. 13, in Hyland, 2003), and complying with the specific conventions of
academic texts in English doubles the possibilities for a troublesome writing class.
In light of this panorama, the present action research (AR) explored a group of 15
Mexican undergraduate students writing their research reports in English. For this, it was
necessary to look into students’ writing context, products and needs in order to identify
their most notable problems. The data gathered from the initial stage of this research
showed that students lacked knowledge and practice on how to connect their ideas and to
organize them in a logical sequence or progression. The most common signs of such
problems were lack of given-new organization of ideas and problematic theme-rheme
progressions. Based on these first findings and on a revision of the literature dealing with
similar situations, a Functional Grammar approach was adopted to design an action plan
that offered a suitable solution for the identified academic writing hurdles students were
facing, and thus help them improve their academic writing skills. The function of writing in
this context was considered a key factor, since “functions are the means for achieving the
ends (or purpose) of writing” (Hyland, 2003, p. 6) and this view, known as current-
traditional rhetoric or a functional approach, “is influential where L2 students are being
prepared for academic writing or college or university” (Idem).
The study was carried out at a public university in the state of Veracruz, Mexico.
This university offers a BA in English Language whose students are required to carry out
research and to write a report paper on it in order to obtain their degree. For this reason,
the terminal area of this program includes two core subjects that are aimed at carrying out
the research itself and writing the research report: “Experiencia recepcional” and
“Seminario de redacción para el trabajo recepcional”, respectively. In the latter, students
with different research interests receive guidance and start writing their final paper in
English. Students are expected to have produced at least 75% of their final paper by the
end of the semester and they lose all opportunities to graduate from the BA if they fail to
complete their report papers satisfactorily, no matter if they have passed all the other
subjects on the syllabus. For this reason, these subjects are crucial and decisive for
students’ academic success. In particular, “Seminario de redacción para el trabajo
recepcional” plays a very important role as it is a workshop where students’ final product is
the written evidence of their research work. It is within the framework of this course that
the study was carried out.
As stated previously, 15 students who were beginning to write their final papers in
the context of this class were the main participants of this study. All of them had previous
knowledge and practice of academic writing in English since the curriculum of this BA
includes a course called “Lectura y redacción de textos académicos en inglés”, which is
4
taught prior to “Seminario” as part of the disciplinary area. A co-teacher and an external
teacher also enriched this research with their participation as observers.
RATIONALE
Writing stands as one of the most basic learnt abilities and plays a wide array of key roles
in our daily performances. The contexts in which writing takes place are varied and
increasingly complex and “the diverse backgrounds and needs of those wishing to learn it,
all push the study of writing into wider frameworks of analysis and understanding” (Hyland,
2002, p. 1). This way, writing has become a vast field, approached from different
perspectives, and its study has led to the proliferation of research on different types of
writers, different writing processes, products, purposes, etc. For instance, “writing has
been a central topic in applied linguistics for over half a century and remains an area of
lively intellectual research and debate” (Hyland, 2002, p.1). Nevertheless, the task of
researching writing is a complex, inexhaustible enterprise since
…its complex, multifaceted nature seems constantly to evade adequate
description and explanation, and many forms of enquiry have been
summoned to help clarify both how writing works and how it should best
be taught. (Hyland, 2002, p. 1).
Writing in the educational context, for example, has gained more and more
attention in recent years, especially in the higher education context (Kroll, 1990; Lillis,
2001). What is more, with a growing ESL population getting access to college, ESL writing
workshops, courses, teacher-training programs and materials have also been developed
and have promoted research on the nature of ESL written products and ESL writing
pedagogy (Atkinson & Ramanathan, 1995; Carson & Nelson, 1994, 1996; Connor &
Asenavage, 1994; Nelson & Carson, 1998; Hyland, 2002; Hinkel, 2004). As a result of this
interest in the field of ESL writing instruction in higher education, a number of studies have
emerged, pointing out that non-native speaking students experience a great number of
difficulties in their studies at the university level, in spite of having studied English and
academic writing in English in their native countries (Hinkel, 2004, p. 4).
At the public university where this study was carried out, students’ initial drafts of
their final papers were considerably short texts (since students were at the outset of their
paper production), language errors were scarce, and register was formal to a certain
degree, though vocabulary related to their specific research topic was sometimes
imprecise and some ideas were inaccurate. These last two features made it evident that
students’ topic knowledge was limited and that they had probably consulted very few, if
any, bibliographical resources on their research area. However, even though information in
the texts was not substantial, it was possible to perform further analysis of the organization
and the sequence of ideas, as well as the connectedness between them. In this respect,
the organization of ideas within paragraphs did not allow for an adequate flow of
information. In general, these texts included ideas that were not interrelated, a very limited
5
number of connectors and sequence markers, as well as omission of important information
that could have provided a bridge between unrelated or poorly related ideas. As students’
compositions were increasingly lengthier, they continued to struggle with establishing
relationships between ideas and building a coherent text. Students did not achieve to
connect their ideas, nor produce a logical sequence or progression. The lack of
connectedness was also present between paragraphs, which compromised unity and
coherence of the overall text. This proved that students’ writing problems were of a
different nature than simply a lack of information of their research topics. Hence, students’
most important difficulties in EFL academic writing were identified as being related to
coherence and the structural component of texts.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Becoming a writer is a process full of complexities and challenges, but it is also important
to recognize that “becoming a writing teacher is not less complex” (Kroll, 1990, p. 1).
However, being a second language writing teacher is even a more complicated endeavor
since a wider range of factors is encountered, and the competencies required from the
teacher and her choice of pedagogical methodology might be more complex, too. In this
respect, Kroll (1990) posits that:
For those engaged in teaching writing to second language learners, what is
needed is both a firm grounding in the theoretical issues of L1 and L2 writing
and an understanding of a broad range of pedagogical issues that shape
classroom writing instruction.
(Kroll, 1990, p. 2)
For the present research, it was important to consider that these students were not
only dealing with academic writing, but also with learning English as a foreign language.
That is why, a revision of the existing literature was performed based on a consideration of
the varied factors interacting in this context.
The Systemic Functional Perspective
The literature dealing with problems similar to the ones found in this context (according to
the initial research findings) included notions and concepts from Systemic Functional
Linguistics, which treats texts as discourse, mainly from the subfield of Functional
Grammar. These same concepts were incorporated in the present research as the basis
for the design of the action plan, not only because they have been used in a variety of
research, both empirical and theoretical, dealing with student writing (Connor & Farmer,
1991; Lovejoy, 1998; Alonso & McCabe, 1998; Downing, 2001; Mojica, 2006; Wang, 2007;
Abid & Ridha, 2008; Ahmed, 2010; Shieh & Lin, 2011; Ghasemi, 2013; Fatimah & Yunus,
2014, to name a few), but most importantly, because they allow approaching texts beyond
their surface errors, and they focus on their deep structure, that is, “features of texts that
6
extend across sentence boundaries” (Witte & Faigley, 1981, p. 189), which is the area of
concern in this study.
Another reason why the discourse theory was chosen to approach student writing
in this research is that, according to Witte and Faigley (1981), “empirical research at the
college level has for the most part taken two approaches: examining errors and syntactic
features”; however, “neither the error approach nor the syntactic approach has been
entirely satisfactory” (Witte & Faigley, 1981, p. 189). What is more, according to Hyland
(2009) “there is little evidence that syntactic complexity or grammatical accuracy are the
principal features of writing development or the best measures of good writing” (Hyland,
2009, p. 192). That is why the implementation of this action plan incorporated notions of
these theories, namely theme-rheme, given-new organisation of discourse and thematic
progression.
Information structure: given-new
One of the basic contributions by the Prague school deals with the ways in which clauses
are structured to represent the writer’s assumptions about what is known (given) or new to
the reader (e.g. Firbas, 1968). Theoretical and empirical works on student writing analysis
and writing instruction have made use of this given-new relationship in order to describe
the organization of information in a logical, sequential manner, allowing a text to build
meaning across sentences, paragraphs, etc. (Bruce, 1988; Connor & Farmer, 1991;
Lovejoy, 1998; Hinkel, 2004; Wang, 2007; Abid & Ridha, 2008; Goodson, 2013). The
notion of the given-new information structure of a text is one of the fundamental topics of
Systemic Functional Linguistics, mainly the Functional Grammar approach, and is the
basis for the construction of coherence and cohesion in a text. In this sense, we generally
expect writers to present old information first as a context for new. In his study, Lovejoy
(1998) discovered that “inexperienced writers place information new to their readers in
themic position where readers do not expect it” (Lovejoy, 1998, p. 3), which avoids efficient
communication of ideas. Also, their readers do not easily understand the progression of
ideas because the flow of given and new information in their sentences is not adequately
controlled. For this reason, the writer needs to make sure that the reader knows the
information being introduced, either from experience, or from the same text, so that ideas
are communicated effectively and the purpose of the text is achieved. According to Wang
(2007, p. 167), “the problem of a brand new Theme is extremely common in the work of
inexperienced writers, who put new information in Theme position”, that is, at the
beginning of a clause. Given and new information in a text are intricately related and
sometimes equivalent to Theme and Rheme.
Theme and Rheme
Theme, for Halliday (1994), is the “point of departure; it is that with which the clause is
concerned” (1994, p. 37). He describes Theme as a function where a special status is
assigned to one part of the clause” (Halliday, 1994). In English, Theme is realised by what
7
is placed in initial position within the clause and this initial position gives the Theme a
‘special status’ within the clause. Lovejoy (1998) provides a useful definition of the term.
The Theme “typically occurs at the beginning of a clause; it is therefore the point of
departure in the verbal exchange or as Halliday puts it, "what I am talking about." It
provides the setting for the remainder of the sentence: the Rheme. (p.4)
For its part, the Rheme constitutes the information the writer wants to provide
about the Theme; “it is information the writer wants the reader to attend to for the moment
as newly introduced into the argument” (Lovejoy, 1998, p. 4). Rheme is everything that is
not Theme: it is the part of the clause where the Theme is developed (Halliday, 1994, p.
37). A message structure in English is comprised of a Theme plus a Rheme. There is an
order to the structure: Theme comes first, followed by Rheme,
For Paltridge (2006), Theme and Rheme contribute to the “focus and flow of
information in a text” (p. 128); he further advises that “an understanding of this is
important, especially for the writing of successful student texts” (p.129). This is echoed by
Wang’s (2007, p. 165) statement that “students write better papers when they develop an
ability to use Theme and Rheme more effectively in their writings”.
According to, Alonso and McCabe (1998, p. 3), the notion of Theme-Rheme is
“highly useful in the comprehension and production of texts”. Consequently, it can be a
very helpful tool of instruction and evaluation at the level of discourse in student writing
(Alonso & MacCabe, 1998). Lovejoy (1998) confirms that “the distinction between given
and new corresponds essentially with the theme-rheme distinction” (p.4). Alonso and
MacCabe (1998) also noticed that in subject-verb-object (SVO) languages such as English
“formal categories such as Theme, Topic, Grammatical Subject and Given (recoverable)
information usually come together” (Alonso & MacCabe, 1998, p. 4) at the beginning of the
clause.
Thematic Progression
Thematic Progression refers to the relationship between themes and rhemes in a text,
which form particular patterns or progressions of information. For Danĕs (1974), “the
organization of information in texts is determined by the progression in the ordering of
themes and their rhemes (in Downing, 2011, p. 6). In this respect, Wang (2007) adds that
“the flow of information in a sentence from Theme to Rheme is crucial in achieving
communicative effectiveness in a message.” (p. 168).
Bloor and Bloor (1995) offered a comprehensive typology of thematic progressions,
but also other authors have provided definitions of each pattern:
1. The Constant Theme Pattern (also called Theme reiteration). Theme 1 is picked
up and repeated at the beginning of the next clause(s), signaling that each clause will have
something to say about that theme (Paltridge, 2012, p. 131);
8
2. The Linear Theme Pattern. In this type, the rheme of one clause is taken up as
the theme of the subsequent clause (Bloor & Bloor, 1995, p. 90);
3. The Split Rheme Pattern. This pattern occurs when the rheme of a clause has
two (or more) components, each of which is taken in turn (Bloor & Bloor, 1995, p. 91);
4. Derived themes. This term is used to describe expressions in theme position
which are cohesively linked in meaning, but not necessarily in form, to a topic which has
been stated earlier in the text (Bloor & Bloor, 1995, p. 92). This type of progression is also
known as “derived hypertheme”.
The way the basic types of Thematic Progressions are selected to be used is
related to the genre that is being produced and the communicative purpose of the writer. In
this respect, Downing (2001) suggests that becoming aware of the types of thematic
progression can be important for language teaching pedagogy and that student
compositions could be improved by the choice of thematic progressions.
A very important consideration here is that the same genres of text present similar
thematic progression patterns (Zhang & Wang, 2001, in Shieh & Lin, 2011). For example,
Fries (1983) pointed out that academic texts needed extended use of Linear Theme
progression, “as the academic texts present complex arguments in which each successive
ideas is an expansion of an idea in the previous sentence” (In Wang, 2007, p. 169). This
also had a lot of significance in the present research, as participant students were dealing
with specific genres of text, all related to academic writing. Thus, it seemed suitable to
teach students how the thematic progressions typically worked in these genres.
Thematic Progression Analysis
A particularly significant study for the present AR was the one carried out by Connor and
Farmer in 1991, in which they introduced Topical Structure Analysis as a revision strategy
in the ESL writing classroom. In that study, students were taught how to perform this kind
of analysis on their own texts by means of drawing diagrams illustrating the underlying
topical structure. According to the study’s results, students’ response to the activity was
positive and improvement in their writing was noted “specifically in regard to clearer focus
and better development of subtopics” (Connor & Farmer, 1991, p. 134). Moreover, these
authors suggested that topical structure analysis (an analogous strategy to thematic
progression analysis) works as a “check for coherence in ESL writing classrooms”. This
assertion is highly relevant for the present research, since achieving text coherence is its
main aim. Although Topical Structure and Thematic Progression Analysis might share
some features, they are actually different techniques for text revision. What this AR
essentially captured from Connor & Farmer’s study is the possibility of empowering
students with a scientifically proven strategy to perform, themselves, a systematic revision
of their own texts in an attempt to improve coherence.
RESEARCH QUESTION
9
What impact might the teaching of Thematic Progression Analysis have on EFL students’
academic text coherence?
HYPOTHESIS
Teaching students how to identify thematic progressions and how to carry out Thematic
Progression Analysis could be beneficial to achieve coherence in their academic texts.
METHODOLOGY
As teacher-researchers, we find in our classrooms the most valuable source of information
for reflection, understanding and improvement of our practice. By means of observing and
getting to know students’ perceptions of the phenomena, products, environment and
interactions developed in the classroom we can obtain rich insights into the nature of the
teaching-learning processes taking place in our contexts.
For this reason, the research approach adopted in the present study was that of
Qualitative Research, since it implies the exploration and understanding of a reality from
the view of those involved in the context and since it is above all “a person-centred
enterprise, it is therefore particularly appropriate to our work in the field of language
teaching.” (Richards, 2003, p. 8). Qualitative research also studies actors in their natural
setting “rather than attempting to control contextual factors through the use of laboratories
or other artificial environments” (Mackey & Gass, 2005, p. 163). This characteristic of
qualitative research suits teacher-researchers very well since it makes it possible for them
to explore their actual classroom and school context.
From the variety of qualitative methodologies, Action Research (AR) was selected
for the present inquiry because it suited the characteristics and the practical objectives of
the study. According to Mackey and Gass (2005), Action Research is a “mode of inquiry
undertaken by teachers and is more oriented to instructor and learner development than it
is to theory building” (Mackey and Gass, 2005, p. 216). This kind of research is particularly
appropriate for the educational context, since it not only explores a problem and describes
it, but it also seeks and proposes a solution to such problem.
Action Research is a systematic process that involves specific stages or steps, one
informing the next one, but at the same time it is an open process, leading to the possibility
of carrying out successive(s) research cycle(s).
The research work here described made use of different data gathering methods
along the AR process, as “different methods address different areas, and it is a good idea
to triangulate approaches to data collection to achieve a more reliable and comprehensive
picture.” (Hyland, 2003, p. 60). At the initial research stage, student text analysis, think-
aloud protocols and field notes were employed to inform the action plan. For the evaluation
of the pedagogical plan implementation, class observations, student text analysis and
10
semi-structured interviews were used. These data generating methods are described
below.
Text analysis
For this study, the first and main source of data was the analysis of student texts. From the
point of view of EFL student writing, Connor (1994) regards text analysis as a tool to
describe and evaluate the quality of texts “both from the viewpoint of texts that learners
produce as well as the kinds of texts they need to learn to produce” (p. 682). In this sense,
the researcher can not only identify the characteristics of a writer’s product, but also
determine how far or close this is from the target text. An important feature of this
orientation is that the analysis goes “beyond the level of sentence grammar” (Connor,
1994, p. 682). These characteristics of text analysis made it a valuable resource to obtain
information on student writing in this research. This was because it is the most direct
method of assessing a student’s text and because the analysis of text can be performed at
the level that best suits the purpose of the researcher, which in this case was the
discourse level. The researcher carried out thematic progression analysis of students’
texts so as to find out whether students had built effective thematic patterns and if they
had achieved coherence.
Text analysis was carried out in two stages during this research. First, it was used
during the initial research in order to discover the nature of students’ writing and detect
possible problems. Then, it was performed after the action plan implementation to find out
whether this had had an impact on students’ writing, and if so, identify the kind of impact
(positive or negative), as well as evaluate to what extent it had helped to improve their
work.
Think-aloud protocols
This data gathering method was used at the preliminary research stage of this inquiry
because it is a well tried method of gaining valuable information about students’ cognitive
processes, how they make decisions, and what considerations they take into account
while engaged in writing. In brief, “think-aloud protocol collection and analysis can be a
remarkably illuminating research methodology” (Hyland, 2002, p. 185).
Think-aloud protocols were performed during two sessions of the Seminario course
when students were composing/editing the introduction of their final papers. Participants
were writing and they were asked to verbalize their thinking in order to obtain information
regarding their decisions, strategies and perceptions while engaged in writing. During this
process, prompting from the researcher was necessary in order to help students express
themselves.
Structured Class Observations
11
In order to assess students’ reactions towards the action plan, as well as the pertinence of
materials and teaching strategies, Structured Class Observations (Burns, 2010) were
performed by two teachers on several occasions during the implementation. Structured
class observations were selected as a data collection method given that they allow
researchers to focus on a broader range of aspects, such as themselves as teachers,
students’ responses and the suitability of contexts, etc (Hyland, 2003).
Each observer was given a class observation sheet (Appendix A) designed by the
researcher, and was asked to check and report different aspects of the class such as
teacher performance, student performance, types of interaction, perceived usefulness of
materials, etc. These structured class observations represented a very useful resource to
obtain information about the strengths and weaknesses of the action plan, as well as
suggestions how to improve it.
Semi-structured interviews
In order to triangulate the data obtained from the text analysis and the structured class
observations, semi-structured interviews with students were carried out after the action
plan implementation. This method was selected since in qualitative research interviews are
a very popular technique to collect data in order to try to understand something from the
subject’s point of view and to unveil the meaning of their experiences (Kvale, 1996, p. 1).
A semi-structured interview was preferred over other types of interviews because it
is “still structured and organised but also more open” (Burns, 2010, p. 75). This allowed
me to prepare a set of topics I wanted to explore and use them during the interview as a
guide (Appendix B). At the same time, this type of interview provided flexibility to adapt the
sequence of questions or the use of prompting according to students’ responses. In
addition, the “conversational feel to this interview” (Burns, 2010, p. 75) allowed students to
feel more comfortable and confident to talk about their experiences and perceptions in
relation to the action plan.
FINDINGS
Since the initial stage of this project, most of the students overtly expressed that, for them,
quality writing meant that the text “can be understood” (TAP/David/12/02/15) and that their
ultimate goal was to write a coherent text. For Witte and Faigley (1981), writing quality
could be defined as “the ‘fit’ of a particular text to its context” (p. 199) which involves the
purpose of the writer, the discourse medium, and the potential audience and their
knowledge of the subject. Coincidently, this is related to the concept of coherence, as
“coherence conditions (…) allow a text to be understood in a real-world setting” (Witte &
Faigley, 1981, p. 199). Hence, in part, the quality of a text can be judged by its coherence,
that is, the extent to which a text is understood and is adequate for a particular purpose,
context and audience.
12
Unfortunately, coherence is often ignored in writing curricula. In fact, students who
participated in this project reported that this was the first time they had been presented
with Thematic progression analysis in their classes as a strategy to improve coherence in
texts. What is more, participants considered this kind of analysis as a novel practice
because, as inexperienced writers, they tend to revise at the lexical level only, often
overlooking the discourse level.
Furthermore, the notion of given and new information and how discourse flow is
developed through interactions between Themes and Rhemes was of particular interest for
the participants in this study. During the interviews after the intervention, students referred
to aspects of the structural component of texts (information and thematic structure) as one
of the most interesting and useful class contents. Other participants went further to
mention more specific features of thematic progressions and how they used this notion:
“For example, I remember a lot the split-rheme progression, how information
could split into other sentences. And as I wrote I said “no, this doesn’t match
anymore with the previous idea”; and with that progression I realized that it can
change, that it doesn’t have to be always lineal and lineal. I liked that part very
much.”
(SSI/Paulina/05/05/15)
There is a clear link between students’ desire to build coherent texts and their
preference for strategies addressing both information structure and thematic structure of
texts. This link is confirmed by the fact that “coherence conditions govern the information
structure of a text.” (Witte & Faigley, 1981, p. 202), that is to say, old and new information
relationships and their patterns of interaction are important features of coherence in a text.
Consequently, participants’ positive views of information and thematic structures to
analyse their texts after the implementation can be interpreted as an attempt to achieve
coherence.
Post-implementation analysis of student texts revealed a much more complex reality. First,
it was found that given-new information structure might have influenced the choice of
logical sequence of broader extents of texts like paragraphs and sections (in this case a
deductive organization of information that responds to the given-new structure). This
finding led the researcher to notice that two types of coherence could be identified in
students’ papers: global and local coherence. At the global level, texts seemed to follow a
logical sequence, for instance, when looking at subheadings. It was possible to verify that
the flow of information was from general to specific (given-new) and when looking at the
topic sentences in paragraphs, it was possible to see that each one provided new details
and specifications, contributing to the development of the topic. This corresponds to the
idea that the movement of one paragraph to the next must be logical and smooth.
However, this “logical” organization was sometimes not achieved or it was partially
achieved at the level of ideas within paragraphs (the local coherence). Text analysis
revealed that within their paragraphs students sometimes included information that did not
13
relate to their main theme or that belonged to a different paragraph. The following extract,
retrieved from a student’s literature review, is an example of this phenomenon:
“In general, literary translation is considered to be the most challenging form of
translation. Goethe (year) considers literary translation as “one of the most
important and dignified enterprises in the general commerce of the world” (in
Othmani 2010, p. 16). Lander (year) defines literary translation in terms of
uniqueness and creativity…”
(STA03/Julio/20/05/15)
In this extract, it is possible to observe that the idea in the first sentence is not
developed in the rest of the paragraph, so information flow is blocked. Moreover, because
of its location, this sentence is supposed to be the topic sentence of the paragraph;
however, it is not supported by any of the subsequent sentences, which means it needs to
be replaced or this idea should be developed in an independent paragraph. Using
Thematic progression analysis, the relationship between ideas in this paragraph could be
depicted as follows:
Fig. 1 Thematic progressions of Julio’s paragraph
In figure 1, we can confirm that the first sentence is totally disconnected from the
rest of the information, since neither the theme nor the rheme are linked to subsequent
themes and rhemes in the paragraph. Possibly, T2 and T3 follow a derived hypertheme
progression, in which Themes are not directly interrelated, but they belong to a higher
category that encompasses them (hypernym). However, the link developed in this
hyperthematic progression might seem weak since the ideas are not further advanced and
as a consequence they contribute very little to the topic, which is also not very clear. It
seems that the writer’s purpose here was to enumerate features of literary translation that
emphasize its importance and its degree of difficulty in comparison with other types of
translation, but the organization of ideas, the low connectedness between them and the
poorly developed rhemes do not contribute to the intended purpose.
In a second example, we can also see that the progression is weak and unbalanced
towards the end of the paragraph, since the concluding sentence makes an inference that
does not seem to be directly related to previous information, so it fails to build a coherent
progression:
14
“EFL teachers need to consider that classroom management is an essential
skill that unless you have it as an innate quality, you will need to learn it. In
addition, Harmer (2007) points out that effective teachers see classroom
management as a separate aspect of their skill. In other words, teachers will be
able to carry out procedures to make the activity successful.”
T1--------------R1
T2--------------R2
T3--------------R3
T4--------------R4 Figure 2 Thematic Progression of Gaby’s paragraph
In figure 2, we can see how the concluding sentence is actually following a
constant theme pattern, like the previous ones, which allows to build a certain degree of
flow; however, the rheme (R4) does not allow the information to be either unfolded or
confirmed, because it refers to an aspect that had not been clearly identified as an
equivalent for “classroom management”.
As seen in the previous examples form the micro level of text, students had a
tendency to omit a progression pattern or the progression they built was weak, making
their text incoherent and/or hard to follow. Regarding this, in the semi-structured
interviews, most students expressed that the intervention had provided them with
significant information and practice but that they were also conscious that they needed to
work more on this aspects. Consequently, they showed interest in pursuing more courses
related to Systemic Functional Linguistics, especially Thematic Progression Analysis.
In sum, participants appear to have gained awareness on the underlying structure
of texts and, in general, students’ texts showed a better flow of information and
connectedness at the macro level. Nevertheless, ideas inside paragraphs, the micro level,
still needed stronger and more significant interrelationships to create a constant flow of
information and finally build meaning. The most common problems were brand new
Theme (introducing a completely new element without previous reference), empty Rheme
(idea that is not developed and does not actually say anything) and isolated Theme-
Rheme pairings (a totally disconnected idea). So, it is possible to say that students who
participated in this action research might have taken the first step to constructing more
efficient texts, that is the global coherence, but they are still in the process of attaining the
second step, the local coherence.
CONCLUSIONS
15
The study here described was carried out to identify undergraduate students’ main AW
problem(s), to design and implement an action plan for instruction (based on the problems
identified) and to evaluate the effect of this implementation on students’ AW skills. As a
result of the review of literature, a text-based writing instruction was adopted to design the
action plan. This action plan included some elements of systemic functional approaches to
writing, such as Halliday’s Functional Grammar (1985) and its structural components. The
findings obtained from the data analysis show that the action plan implemented had an
impact on students’ awareness of the information structure of their written products while
they were trying to compose coherent texts. However, this was achieved mostly at the
macro level of texts, while the local coherence still needs to be improved.
Implications
The findings of this study suggest, in the first place, that the teaching of structural
elements of texts might be beneficial to the development of some student academic writing
skills, such as the logical organization of texts at the level of paragraphs and sections.
Nevertheless, the evidence also indicates that establishing logical relationships at the
interior of paragraphs, that is, thematic progressions built among clauses and sentences
inside paragraphs, represents a greater challenge for student writers, and hence suggests
that this aspect should be treated in more depth and most preferably along with other
features of Functional Grammar such as cohesive devices. A possible pedagogical
implication of this is that theme-rheme, given-new and thematic progressions might work
well as an initial step in writing instruction. This way, students can start practicing them
and applying them earlier and take better advantage of these concepts to improve their
AW skills, and, possibly achieve both global and local coherence.
Limitations
One of the most important limitations of the present inquiry was that, due to the nature of
the course, specific micro-genres of academic writing such as literature review or
methodology chapters could not be approached individually and their specific
characteristics and demands were treated superficially during the implementation.
Another limitation of the study is that a more in-depth exploration into students’ very
different degrees of background knowledge and previous experience in L1 and L2
academic writing could not be performed because it was out of the scope of the research.
Nevertheless, these factors greatly affected students’ composition competences in L2 and
thus represent a very interesting field of study in this area.
REFERENCES
Abdul-Settar, A., & Nada-Salih R., (2008). A study of coherence in the writings of EFL
advanced Iraqi learners. Journal of Basra researches: Humanities Series, 31(1), 51-
75. Retrieved from https://www.iasj.net/iasj?func=fulltext&aId=59428
Ahmed, A. R. (2010). Students’ problems with cohesion and coherence in EFL. Essay
writing in Egypt: different perspectives. Literacy Information and Computer
16
Education Journal (LICEJ), 1(4), 211-221. Retrieved from
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b8f7/8d637f4f3a78cfb4b652c3d23d82a3819e77.pd
f
Bloor, T., & Bloor M. (1995). The functional Analysis of English. A Hallidayan approach.
65-104. London, UK: Arnold.
Connor, U. & Asevanage, K.(1994). Peer response groups in ESL writing classes: How
much impact on revision? Journal of Second Language Writing, 3(3), 257-276. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/1060-3743(94)90019-1
Connor, U., & Farmer, M. (1990). The teaching of topical structure analysis as a revision
strategy for ESL writers. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second Language Writing (Cambridge
Applied Linguistics): Research Insights for the Classroom (pp. 126-139).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139524551.013
Connor, U. (2002). New directions in contrastive rhetoric: TESOL Quarterly, 36(4), 493-
510. doi: https://doi.org/10.2307/3588238
Crawford, T. (2010). The cultural rhetoric of second language writing in Mexico. In Santos,
S. (Ed.), EFL writing in Mexican universities: Research and experience (pp. 28-29).
Universidad Autónoma de Nayarit.
Danes, F. (1974). Functional sentence perspective and the organization of the text. In F.
Danes, (Ed.), Papers on Functional Sentence Perspective (pp. 106-128). Prague:
Academia /The Hague: Mouton.
Domínguez-Gaona, M., Chrová, J., Romero, M. (2014). El proceso de desarrollo de la
literacidad académica de profesores-investigadores del área de lenguas extranjeras
en una universidad mexicana. Universidad Autónoma de Baja California.
(unpublished, research in progress)
Downing, A. (2001). Thematic progression as a functional resource in analyzing texts.
Published in M.T. Caneda and J. Pérez (Eds.), Os estudios ingleses no contexto
das novas tendencias (pp. 23-42). Vigo; Universidad de Vigo.
Firbas, J. (1986). On the dynamics of written communication in the light of the theory of
Functional Sentence Perspective. In Cooper, C. and S. Greenbaum (Eds.), Studying
Writing: Linguistic Approaches (pp. 40-71).. Beverley Hills: Sage
Goodson, P. (2013). Becoming an Academic Writer. 50 exercises for paced, productive,
and powerful writing. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Halliday, M. A. K. (1985). Introduction to Functional Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
17
Halliday, M. A. K. & Hasan, R. (1976). Cohesion in English. London: Longman
Hinkel, E. (2004). Teaching Academic ESL Writing. Practical Techniques in Vocabulary
and Grammar. ESL and Applied Linguistics Professional Series. New York:
Routledge
Hyland, K. (2002). Teaching and researching writing. Applied Linguistics in Action series.
London: Longman.
Hyland, K. (2003). Second Language Writing. Cambridge Language Education. New York:
Cambridge University Press.
Hyland, K. (2009). Academic Discourse. London: Continuum.
Kroll, B. (1990). Second Language Writing. Research Insights for the Classroom. The
Cambridge applied linguistics series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews, an introduction to qualitative research interviewing. Thousand
Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications
Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of social issues, 2(4), 34-
46. doi: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1946.tb02295.x
Lillis, T. (2001). Student writing. Access, regulation, desire. London: Routledge.
Mackey, A. and Gass, S. (2005). Second Language Research. Methodology and design.
New Jersey: Lawrence Erbaulm Asscociates Publishers
Mojica L. A. (2006). Reiterations in ESL learners’ academic papers: Do they contribute to
lexical cohesiveness? The Asia-Pacific Education Research, 15(1), 105-125.
Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.615.4227&rep=rep1&type
Oshima, A., & Hogue A. (1998) Writing Academic English. London: Longman.
Paltridge, B. (2012). Discourse Analysis, an introduction. (2nd edition). London & New
York: Bloomsbury.
Shehadeh, A. (2011). Effect and student perceptions of collaborative writing in L2. Journal
of Second Language Writing, 20(4), 286-305. doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2011.05.010
18
Shieh, C., & Lin, K. M. (2011). Thematic progression patterns and the texts of the
department required English test US. Taipei, Taiwan: National Tsin-Hu University
Retrieved from
http://irs.lib.ksu.edu.tw/NPIC/handle/987654321/97?itemsPerPage=50&locale=en-
Vande Kopple, W. J. (1982). Functional sentence perspective, composition, and
reading. College Composition and Communication, 33(1), 50-63. doi:
10.2307/357844
Wang, L. (2007). Theme and rheme in the thematic organization of text: Implications for
teaching academic writing. Asian EFL Journal, 9(1), 164-176. Retrieved from
http://asian-efl-journal.com/March_2007_EBook.pdf#page=164
Witte, S., & Faigley, L. (1981). Coherence, Cohesion and Writing Quality. Cross-Talk in
Composition Theory. College Composition and Communication, 32(2), 189-204.
LA AUTORA
REYNA ISIDRA LÓPEZ BLÉ Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa y Licenciatura en Lengua
Francesa por la Universidad Veracruzana. Maestría en Enseñanza del Inglés como
Lengua Extranjera por la Universidad Veracruzana y aspirante a Maestría en Didáctica del
Francés por la misma universidad. Docente de tiempo completo en la Benemérita Escuela
Normal Veracruzana “Enrique C. Rébsamen” y docente interina en la Facultad de Idiomas
de la Universidad Veracruzana. [email protected]
19
APROPIACIÓN DE LA TEXTUALIDAD EN LA UNIVERSIDAD:
UNA APROXIMACIÓN DESDE LA LITERACIDAD ACADÉMICA
ar a eresa Calderón Rosas María Teresa Flores Revilla
uan anuel ern ndez rcenas Armando Ortiz Tepale
ni ersidad utónoma etropolitana [email protected]
RESUMEN
En contextos internacionales, donde el inglés es una lengua extranjera para estudiantes
que hablan otro idioma, los programas de literacidad académica se han diseñado con los
principios y conceptos enmarcados en Inglés para Propósitos Académicos (EAP por sus
siglas en inglés). Por lo anterior, resulta relevante elucidar los principios, las teorías y los
enfoques que enmarcan el desarrollo de la literacidad académica, tales como el
constructivismo social, Inglés Para Propósitos Específicos (ESP por sus siglas en inglés),
el Análisis de Género y la Cultura Institucional. En este ensayo argumentativo el tema a
discutir es a qué dificultades se enfrentan los estudiantes para apropiarse del
conocimiento a través del aprendizaje del discurso y la escritura académica. Esto lo
haremos con base en la perspectiva de la Literacidad Académica, es decir, desde las
prácticas discursivas, lingüísticas, cognitivas y retóricas propias de la educación superior,
que implican leer, escribir, hablar y pensar conforme al campo de las comunidades y las
disciplinas académicas (Hernández, 2016). Consideramos que es tarea de las
universidades brindar a los estudiantes los medios para apropiarse de la textualidad de su
campo disciplinar en el proceso educativo, debido a que en la educación superior los
estudiantes universitarios tienen problemas para escribir y exponer sus ideas mediante el
uso de la intertextualidad. Además, esta problemática se acentúa cuando un estudiante
incursiona en la redacción académica en lengua extranjera, por ejemplo, en inglés dado
que los procesos de literacidad son los mismos tanto para lengua materna como para
lengua extranjera. En consecuencia, discutiremos las vicisitudes implicadas en el proceso
de aprender y apropiarse del oficio de escribir en la universidad, tanto en español como
en inglés como lengua extranjera. La escritura académica es una actividad fundamental
para encauzar el desarrollo del pensamiento crítico y creativo del estudiante universitario,
lo cual implica, a su vez, la apropiación del conocimiento científico y humanista.
Palabras clave: educación superior, lengua extranjera, lengua materna, literacidad
académica, teoría de género, textualidad.
INTRODUCCIÓN
La finalidad de este trabajo es analizar algunas de las vicisitudes implicadas en el proceso
de aprender y apropiarse del oficio de escribir en la universidad, tanto en lengua materna
20
como en inglés como segunda lengua y/o lengua extranjera. Para guiar nuestro análisis,
abordaremos las cuestiones problemáticas que giran en torno a las dificultades de los
estudiantes universitarios para apropiarse del conocimiento a través del aprendizaje del
discurso y la escritura académica, cuestiones que han cobrado vigencia con la
internacionalización de la educación superior y el papel del inglés como lengua franca
para comunicar la investigación. Actualmente los cursos de Inglés para Propósitos
Académicos (EAP por sus siglas en inglés) se imparten también a hablantes nativos del
idioma, debido a los patrones lingüísticos y las especificidades de cada disciplina que se
aprenden en la vida académica. En nuestros contextos de educación superior el tema de
la apropiación de la textualidad disciplinar en español no es algo que demande la atención
de los agentes –autoridades, docentes y estudiantes– debido a que escribir no es, en la
mayoría de las disciplinas, una práctica social para el aprendizaje.
En los siguientes apartados delimitaremos, en primer lugar, la perspectiva de la
Literacidad Académica, sus alcances y algunos temas controversiales; en seguida,
abordaremos el concepto de textualidad y los problemas educativos y socioculturales
relativos a su apropiación en el campo universitario y, por último, presentaremos algunos
principios teóricos y las aproximaciones pedagógicas del Análisis de Género y su relación
con la apropiación del lenguaje de las ciencias y de las humanidades.
LITERACIDAD ACADÉMICA: SU CONCEPTUACIÓN
De acuerdo con Ken Hyland (2006:21), la Literacidad Académica es una extensión de los
modelos de estudio de las Nuevas Literacidades aplicados a contextos académicos. La
Literacidad Académica es un elemento integral de producción de significados, en el cual
las prácticas académicas toman lugar y éstas coadyuvan a la construcción de identidades
de los estudiantes universitarios. En este sentido, Hernández (2016:19) define a la
Literacidad Académica como prácticas discursivas, lingüísticas, cognitivas y retóricas
propias de la educación superior, que implican leer, escribir, hablar y pensar conforme al
campo de las comunidades y de las disciplinas académicas.
Estas definiciones resultan relevantes porque desvelan las características del
discurso académico. De acuerdo con Lillis y Turner (2001), Street (2015), Lea (1998) y
Bourdieu ([1982] 2008; [1989] 2013), la gran mayoría de estudiantes de educación
superior proviene de familias donde la vida académica es ajena a su realidad social y, por
ende, el trabajo intelectual, científico o humanístico no forma parte de su curso de vida.
Esta acotación vuelve importante el enfoque de la Literacidad Académica porque para
estos estudiantes enfrentarse a prácticas discursivas universitarias implica adentrarse en
un campo desconocido, razón por la cual, los códigos lingüísticos académicos pueden
resultarles difíciles de comprender y, en consecuencia, ser obturadores de su formación
profesional.
Algunos especialistas en Literacidad Académica (Hyland, 2006; Hernández,
2016; Lillis, 2003; Lea, 1998; Street, 2015; Kiili, Mäkinen y Coiro, 2013; Clarence y
21
Mckenna, 2017) señalan la importancia de superar, por una parte, la práctica
conservadora y tradicional del estudio de las habilidades lingüísticas, esto es, hablar,
escribir, leer y escuchar, y por otra, la de la socialización académica, la cual objetiva el
contexto sociocultural de las comunidades de práctica como si éstas fueran monolíticas,
homogéneas e inamovibles. Escribir en la universidad implica el estudio y reforzamiento
de habilidades lingüísticas, así como concienciar al estudiante de las prácticas discursivas
predominantes en su campo disciplinar; se trata de delimitar las formas en las que la
lengua es utilizada en contextos académicos particulares (Bourdieu, [1982] 2008; [1989]
2013). Dicho de otro modo, el enfoque de la Literacidad Académica enfatiza la articulación
de la lengua con el contexto en el que se utiliza y, además, considera importante avizorar
las relaciones de poder, inequitativas y asimétricas, inmanentes en los contextos
académicos.
En lugar de tomar la lengua como un objeto, distanciada de los usos de los
estudiantes y los académicos, la Literacidad es conceptuada como algo que las personas
hacen. En este sentido, Lea y Street (1998) la conceptúan como un verbo, resultado de la
interacción social. Debido a que la Literacidad es un elemento integral del contexto
académico, es importante destacar la heterogeneidad disciplinar como característica de la
educación superior. En otras palabras, en la universidad existen prácticas discursivas
múltiples, propias de cada campo disciplinar, lo cual genera la construcción de nuevas
identidades y modos de apropiarse de géneros discursivos.
La apropiación de géneros y de conocimientos se da en un campo tenso por las
relaciones de fuerza inmanentes en toda relación humana. Los enfoques de Literacidad
Académica subrayan que los estudiantes y los académicos utilizan la lengua de diversas
formas, determinadas por las prácticas institucionalizadas y las relaciones de poder; esto
sugiere la idea de que algunas Literacidades Académicas se vuelven más dominantes. La
complejidad y el prestigio de ciertas Literacidades Académicas se convierten en
mecanismos de exclusión de estudiantes, dificultando su acceso a un campo académico
dado. De hecho, el ingreso a un campo académico supone un cambio cultural y una
construcción de identidad con la finalidad de formar parte de una comunidad disciplinar.
Se trata de trascender la cultura heredada, donde el discurso es un elemento tangible de
la nueva identidad a adoptar.
Por otra parte, en la construcción de nuevas identidades, la perspectiva de la
Literacidad Académica delimita el estatuto tanto del docente como el del estudiante. El
estudiante es conceptuado como una persona que pretende aprender y apropiarse de los
discursos y las prácticas de una comunidad disciplinar y, el docente, puede ser un
profesional que facilita u, en su caso, obtura la apropiación de un discurso académico y el
camino a ingresar a esa comunidad. En este sentido, el docente como profesional de una
disciplina encauza al estudiante a involucrarse con las prácticas y discursos de la
comunidad académica y, además, censura a aquellas que no corresponden al estatuto de
su comunidad de adscripción. Es por eso que el docente es un agente pedagógico que
22
inculca una serie de sentidos respecto al prestigio y legitimidad de su disciplina (Bourdieu,
[1984] 2009).
Aunque los enfoques de Literacidad Académica ofrecen la posibilidad de pensar
en el contexto para explicar las experiencias académicas de los estudiantes, ésta carece
de una clara pedagogía (Hyland, 2006; Lea y Street, 1998; Lillis y Turner, 2001). Dicho de
otra manera, los especialistas en la Literacidad Académica fundamentan su quehacer en
su experiencia profesional y en lo que funciona mejor en el aula (Krashen, 1982), y de una
pedagogía que quizá pueda desvelarse mediante el análisis del currículum oculto (Giroux,
[1983] 2004). Este es un tema controversial que cuestiona el alcance educativo de la
Literacidad Académica.
Un enfoque que fundamenta a la Literacidad Académica es el constructivismo
social, esto es, la forma en la que el sujeto comprende el mundo (Berger y Luckmann,
[1967] 2008:40-41). Esta comprensión se da gracias a las categorías constitutivas de los
esquemas de apreciación, determinadas histórica y socialmente. Desde esta perspectiva,
la comprensión del mundo siempre está mediada por sistemas de creencias. Los
académicos no son ajenos a estos fenómenos, pero ellos sí construyen sistemas de
pensamiento capaces de suscitar modos convencionales de instaurar acuerdos en una
comunidad de práctica.
En suma, la perspectiva de la Literacidad Académica define el uso de la lengua
como algo que se da en la interacción social, es decir, en el campo de la intersubjetividad.
Las prácticas discursivas implican la idea de que las actividades lingüísticas forman parte
de la vida académica cotidiana, por lo cual, el aprendizaje y la apropiación del
conocimiento se dan mediante el uso de la lengua puesta en acción.
APROPIACIÓN DE LA TEXTUALIDAD ACADÉMICA
Antes de explicar los temas circundantes a la apropiación de la textualidad académica, es
importante realizar una aproximación conceptual. La textualidad es entendida como el
conjunto de características distintivas de un texto1. En este sentido, es pertinente
considerar la definición de Beaugrande y Dressler (1997), quienes definen textualidad a
partir de la conjugación de ocho criterios, estándares o normas ligadas entre sí: cohesión,
coherencia, intencionalidad, informatividad, situacionalidad, aceptabilidad, efectividad y
propiedad. En la redacción de un texto estas normas confluyen, razón por la cual los
criterios deben analizarse en conjunto porque la expresión de cada una depende de la
producción de las demás (Hernández, 2013:18). En suma, el texto es el resultado de un
proceso comunicativo dependiente tanto de los aspectos lingüísticos como del proceso de
producción.
1 Texto es el material comunicativo, algo que se hace en el proceso de interacción entre participantes en un
evento comunicativo dado. Texto es el producto semiótico de esa interacción.
23
De acuerdo con esta definición, pensamos que la textualidad es inherente a los
discursos sociales de las comunidades de práctica y de la construcción de identidades
académicas. La comunicación, la textualidad y el texto son elementos secuenciales de la
cultura académica, a partir de los cuales se obtienen repertorios lingüísticos y retóricos, se
construyen sentidos y, al socializarse a partir del texto, comunican el conocimiento
disponible.
En los enfoques de Literacidad Académica y en los temas de apropiación de la
textualidad, el énfasis está centrado en la redacción de unidades textuales y en los
elementos contextuales. El aprendizaje de habilidades lingüísticas y de habilidades
sociales, el tema de los estándares de textualidad y la construcción de identidades
mediante la adscripción a las comunidades de práctica dan cuenta de la complejidad de la
apropiación de la textualidad en el campo académico.
Sin embargo, ya que el estudio de las Literacidades sólo explora algunos
problemas socioculturales relativos a la apropiación de la textualidad en el campo
académico, también habrá que interrogar las condiciones de posibilidad para que un
estudiante universitario logre incorporarse a un campo específico o, en caso contrario,
fracase y se quede al margen o excluido del mundo intelectual.
¿Qué hace que los estudiantes universitarios tengan problemas para redactar en
el campo académico? A simple vista, la respuesta estaría en que los estudiantes
universitarios no han aprendido los estilos de redacción de las ciencias y de las
humanidades, o que no saben expresar sus ideas por escrito o, simplemente, carecen de
recursos discursivos para redactar unidades textuales. Sin embargo, en México y otros
países, los estudiantes universitarios han pasado por al menos doce años aprendiendo la
lengua oficial de su país antes de ingresar a la universidad y se responsabiliza a la
educación básica y media del fracaso escolar de los estudiantes universitarios.
Cabe destacar que los estudiantes universitarios han cursado el sistema
educativo mexicano, el cual, en la opinión de algunos especialistas, no tiende a fomentar
el desarrollo del pensamiento crítico, sino la repetición mecánica de contenidos de
aprendizaje2 (Hernández, 2016; Ferreiro, 2001); este tipo de educación es uno de los
aspectos básicos en la formación de los estudiantes, el cual, de acuerdo con Carlos
Ornelas ([1995] 2003:163), fomenta la construcción de perfiles profesionales cada vez
más estandarizados y favorece en los alumnos patrones rígidos con faltas de
preocupaciones sociales, éticas y de construcción de conocimiento. Además, en otros
niveles académicos, la alfabetización se da mediante un proceso monológico y no
dialógico, esto es, sin reconocer ni reconocerse en la mirada y la escucha del otro3
2 La lectura y la escritura son prácticas en doble sentido, pero si no hay una comprensión lectora es difícil que
se pueda escribir expresando en palabras propias lo que se lee. 3 Alfabetizar es enseñar simplemente a decodificar el alfabeto a los adultos analfabetos para leer y escribir de
manera aislada. Es una actividad que se lleva a cabo mecánicamente, en donde no hay significado ni contexto y, en consecuencia, el lector no entiende ni puede interpretar lo que lee porque es algo que está fuera de su realidad (Hernández, 2016: 21-22).
24
(Gunawardena, 2017; Lillis, 2011; Londoño, 2015; Montes y López, 2017). En este sentido
es que se considera que una vez que el alumno está cursando una licenciatura es porque
está alfabetizado, pero alfabetización y literacidad son dos niveles del lenguaje necesarios
para apropiarse del conocimiento, entendiendo a la alfabetización como el peldaño de la
literacidad para la decodificación de signos que conllevan a la lectura y la escritura de
manera aislada. La literacidad, como segundo nivel, va más allá de una simple
decodificación de signos en solitario que se da en contextos sociales e institucionales
específicos, como la universidad o el trabajo, es decir, es un aprendizaje situado y
altamente contextualizado.
Por lo tanto, estamos hablando de prácticas sociales mediadas que implican que
los estudiantes sean eficaces o competentes en las diversas situaciones o contextos
sociales en las que los géneros textuales están en proceso de construcción, adaptación,
evolución y cambio que dotan a las comunidades de práctica de una identidad de la cual
los estudiantes deben apropiarse, mediante el aprendizaje de los patrones discursivos y
las especificidades de los géneros disciplinares. De acuerdo con Lemke y García (1997),
Wellington y Osborne (2001) y Fang (2005), los estudiantes deben conocer las pautas
discursivas, utilizadas en el lenguaje científico para comunicar la producción de
conocimiento, de manera que éste no sea una barrera para que los estudiantes aprendan.
Es en esta parte donde se ancla el siguiente tema sobre análisis de género que se utiliza
para la enseñanza de la Literacidad Académica y la apropiación de la textualidad.
ANÁLSIS DE GÉNERO Y SUS ENFOQUES PARA LA ENSEÑANZA DE LA
LITERACIDAD ACADÉMICA
La cultura académica en la educación superior y la producción constante de conocimiento
conllevan a especificidades textuales y variantes lingüísticas complejas acordes a cada
disciplina y género textual. Por ejemplo, para hacer una definición se pueden usar
diferentes patrones sintácticos y términos léxicos determinados por el tipo de género, ya
sea un artículo de investigación, una monografía, una revisión de literatura o un libro de
texto. Antes de continuar, conviene resaltar que el Análisis de Género surgió por el interés
de entender esas especificidades, las cuales han sido el objeto de estudio y de
enseñanza de la Literacidad Académica y de EAP a través de tres enfoques: Inglés para
Propósitos Específicos (ESP por sus siglas en inglés), la Lingüística Sistémica Funcional
(SFL por sus siglas en inglés) y la Nueva Retórica Americana (Bathia, 2015).
Cada una de estas corrientes teóricas ha aportado amplias definiciones de Análisis
de Género que incluyen sus funciones y características. Con base en las tres corrientes y
acorde con los temas expuestos anteriormente, definimos el Análisis de Género como una
práctica social situada y contextualizada que permite investigar la interacción entre el
texto y su contexto y que incluye comunidades de práctica, relaciones de poder y la
intertextualidad (Bhatia, 2015; Dudley-Evans, 1998). Los tres enfoques para el análisis de
género no son excluyentes, al contrario, se complementan entre sí. Un breve y necesario
recorrido por las características más prominentes de cada uno de estos enfoques y sus
25
aplicaciones es útil. En las siguientes líneas, abordaremos cada una de ellas en orden
cronológico.
La SFL de Halliday (1975) sentó las bases para el desarrollo de la Teoría de
Género y, en particular, de la escuela de Sydney. Él clasificó al género como una
categoría analizada lingüísticamente, que surge de las interacciones sociales cotidianas y
que provee un marco experimentado, hecho y determinado socialmente, con base en el
cual, el género se asocia a un tipo de evento comunicativo particular. Lo anterior ubica a
cada quien, en este caso a los estudiantes, en el marco mental correcto y, si el género es
familiar, hay un sentido de seguridad; si no lo es, entonces, genera confusión y ansiedad.
Para que haya una interacción exitosa, los participantes de un género deben compartir la
comprensión del mismo, es decir, los estudiantes de una disciplina común se pueden
comunicar mejor por el hecho de compartir los conceptos y pautas discursivas de su
campo de conocimiento.
La SFL define género con base en criterios lingüísticos internos que agrupan
textos con características formales similares. Los géneros escritos y hablados pueden ser,
narrativos, argumentativos y explicativos, entre otros, los cuales están compuestos por
etapas y pueden generar macrogéneros. Por ejemplo, un género simple como un
procedimiento puede derivarse en una receta, un reporte de laboratorio o un manual de
instrucciones. Estas clasificaciones divergen en el uso del léxico, la gramática, la sintaxis
y la semántica. Por lo que esta corriente teórica considera necesario enfocar la
enseñanza en las especificidades particulares de las disciplinas y ubicar a la lengua en el
centro de la adquisición del conocimiento, utilizando el metalenguaje de la Gramática
Sistémica Funcional (Halliday, 1994). Por ejemplo, un manual de instrucciones puede usar
imperativos; una explicación utiliza conjunciones y/o marcadores de secuencia. Al
respecto, cabe mencionar que en Australia se ha generado una pedagogía basada en la
concienciación del género (genre awareness) para alumnos en riesgo de fracaso escolar
(Macken-Horarik, 2002).
En segundo término, la corriente de ESP desarrolla una propuesta sobre Análisis
de Género que surgió a partir de intenciones meramente pedagógicas para el desarrollo
de materiales didácticos para hablantes no nativos de inglés (Coffey, 1984). Se sabe que
ESP se caracteriza por su conexión con la cultura disciplinar y las contribuciones hechas
por Swales (1990), Flowerdew y Peacock (2001), Swales y Lindenmann (2002), Johns
(2002), Hyland y Tse (2007), Cheng (2011, 2015), Kuteeva (2013) y Bhatia (2015), han
estrechado más esa conexión con sus contribuciones a la Teoría de Género. Este
enfoque define género como un tipo de evento comunicativo con un propósito identificable
por una comunidad; también reconoce al género como una categoría para producir
diferentes tipos de conocimiento (Bhatia, 2015; Swales, 1990).
La aplicación pedagógica de género en ESP hace énfasis en la enseñanza de la
estructura esquemática, conformada por etapas que se desarrollan en movimientos y
pasos. El orden puede variar entre diferentes géneros; los movimientos pueden ser
26
opcionales, repetitivos, o incluso, contener otros géneros. Esto confirma el principio
pedagógico básico del enfoque de género en ESP, el cual es guiar a los estudiantes a
analizar los géneros académicos o profesionales. La aplicación principal del Análisis de
Género se utiliza actualmente en cursos de redacción en EAP (Gillet, 2011; Üstünel y
Kaplan, 2015). Algunos de los estudios que combinan ESP y Análisis de Género son los
trabajos de Putra y Tang (2016), cuyo objetivo fue encontrar la estructura en las
explicaciones científicas y la aplicación de esa estructura en la redacción académica. Los
estudios de caso de Cheng (2011) y Kuteeva (2013) exploran a los estudiantes de manera
individual dentro de un ambiente de instrucción de Análisis de Género y su aplicación a la
redacción. Estos ejemplos y muchos otros han tenido el objetivo de desarrollar la
literacidad disciplinar exigida a estudiantes universitarios, a través del diseño y la puesta
en marcha de programas académicos en ambientes donde el inglés es segunda lengua o
lengua extranjera.
Por otra parte, la Nueva Retórica Americana, iniciada por Miller en 1994, define a
los géneros como fluidos y dinámicos y los conceptúa como formas de acción social,
centrados en las acciones mismas de la forma en la que los usuarios expertos explotan
los géneros para propósitos sociales y, también, de la manera en la que se crean y
evolucionan. Esto ha llevado a tomar en cuenta un sentido más amplio de género para
incluir el contexto institucional e ideológico que posiciona e influye en el individuo. La
Nueva Retórica es pragmática y sugiere que la metodología para el Análisis de Género
debe ser etnográfica más que lingüística y enfocada en las actitudes, los valores, las
creencias y los patrones, es decir, en la cultura. Una característica importante de esta
escuela es el énfasis en la intertextualidad y en la forma en la que un género es parte de
un conjunto o sistema de géneros, los cuales interactúan con otros miembros del conjunto
o del sistema.
En cuanto a su aplicación pedagógica, en la Nueva Retórica no se identifica una
pedagogía clara porque los expertos de esta corriente no creen que en el salón de clases
se les puede ayudar a los estudiantes a usar los géneros para propósitos propios. Un
ejemplo del uso pragmático de la Nueva Retórica Americana es el estudio que Carrasco y
Kent (2010) llevaron a cabo en México con estudiantes de posgrado en actividades de
laboratorio. Los estudiantes más avanzados enseñaban a los novatos a comprender
artículos especializados escritos en inglés, así como la aplicación de técnicas y
metodologías que describían dichos artículos. La enseñanza de las literacidades era
parcial porque los artículos de investigación eran redactados por el docente investigador.
En Estados Unidos, la Nueva Retórica ha influido en varios contextos pedagógicos, como
en los programas de redacción académica, en los cuales, el énfasis se pone en la
creatividad individual y en la concienciación de los géneros.
En este sentido es importante señalar que la escritura académica ha sido el
objetivo final de las Literacidades Académicas y del Análisis de Género. Éstos y la
concienciación de género (genre awareness) son principios que se están utilizando para
que los estudiantes conozcan las herramientas prototípicas del discurso que una
27
comunidad de práctica tiene establecido como canon para la generación y divulgación del
conocimiento (Halliday, 1994). Por otro lado, la enseñanza de Literacidad Académica en
la universidad carece de una pedagogía per se. En México, por ejemplo, se dan cursos de
lectura y redacción basados en la enseñanza de gramática y de comprensión de lectura.
No obstante, existen algunos casos en instituciones de educación superior, donde se ha
promovido el desarrollo de la escritura académica en español: en la Universidad
Autónoma Metropolitana se imparte un Taller de Literacidad Académica que es obligatorio
para todos los estudiantes de ese campus (Hernández, 2016) y el Área de Escritura
Académica, el cual es un proyecto de la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad
Autónoma de Tlaxcala, ha implementado una pedagogía de la lectura y la escritura
fundamentada en el Análisis de Género, encauzada hacia el ámbito de la alfabetización
académica y disciplinar, pero cuyos cursos curriculares se circunscriben a la Licenciatura
de la Enseñanza de Lenguas de esa universidad (Castro, 2017). También se reportan
resultados de investigaciones sobre literacidad en tres instituciones de educación superior
en México, los cuales brindan una visión general de las prácticas de escritura en
programas de formación a nivel licenciatura en la enseñanza de inglés como lengua
extranjera, pero sin brindar información precisa de las instituciones donde se realizaron
dichas investigaciones ya que utilizan seudónimos para referirse a las tres universidades;
cabe subrayar que los resultados indican la ausencia del uso del género y del
conocimiento disciplinar en los programas analizados (Perales-Escudero, 2010).
En Estados Unidos, como se mencionó anteriormente, se dan cursos de redacción
conocidos como Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC); en Inglaterra, Australia y Asia los
programas de EAP varían ampliamente y la mayoría se sustenta en los principios de la
Teoría de Género, específicamente en la SFL. Autores como Cope y Kalantzis (1993:14)
e English (2011) justifican una pedagogía basada en el estudio de género porque “los
géneros son vistos como procesos sociales que moldean los textos en forma particular
para lograr objetivos” (English, 2011:72). Además, enfatizan que la enseñanza de la
literacidad a través de los géneros textuales es una forma de “empoderar a los
estudiantes ayudándolos a entender los contextos políticos, sociales y culturales en la que
los géneros se producen” (English, 2011:72).
En conclusión, la relación de la Teoría de Género con la enseñanza de la
Literacidad Académica es intrínseca debido a que se recurre al análisis textual de las
especificidades y las variaciones lingüísticas de los textos que una comunidad académica
produce. En general, e independientemente de la perspectiva desde la cual se realice,
siempre que se hace análisis de texto se hace Análisis de Género. Dicho de otra manera,
se producen cosas con la intención de comunicar significados (English, 2016, 68).
Consideramos que una pedagogía efectiva para la enseñanza de la Literacidad
Académica debe ser guiada de manera clara y servir de andamiaje a los estudiantes de
manera efectiva. En este sentido, al estudiante se le debe enseñar la forma en la que
están construidos los textos, la intencionalidad, los aspectos lingüísticos y la ideología a la
cual pertenecen. Pero, para hacerlo, los maestros deben ser conscientes de lo que van a
enseñar. Con base en esto, Halliday propuso el trabajo en conjunto entre el lingüista y el
28
docente para forjar la enseñanza transdisciplinaria y, de este modo, que ambos
especialistas avizoraran los mismos problemas desde diferentes puntos de vista. Esto
representa un reto en todos los niveles debido al ethos y a la praxis profesional ya que es
muy difícil conjuntar criterios de enseñanza cuando no hay una concepción de lengua, su
uso y su importancia en la construcción del conocimiento y la apropiación de la textualidad
académica.
REFLEXIONES FINALES
Como fue referido en los temas anteriores, para saber el modo en el que se construye el
conocimiento es necesario contar con habilidades especializadas en lectura, escritura y
razonamiento disciplinar porque la relación entre el lenguaje científico y la construcción
del conocimiento es esencial (Rainey, 2017). Por lo anterior, la apropiación de la
textualidad ha sido ampliamente abordado y, por ende, es un tema vigente, pero no es un
problema resuelto. La apropiación de la textualidad es una competencia lingüística que no
se puede aprender antes del ingreso del estudiante a la educación superior debido a que
es en este espacio donde se genera conocimiento, donde se investiga y donde las
literacidades académicas4 se convierten en prácticas sociales altamente contextualizadas.
Por este motivo, como lo planteamos al inicio del documento, nos adherimos a lo
planteado por Halliday (1994) en cuanto a que es tarea de la universidad proporcionar los
medios para que los estudiantes se apropien de las pautas discursivas existentes en los
géneros académicos. Esto puede realizarse a través de la enseñanza de la textualidad en
español o en la lengua extranjera que el alumno necesite, conforme a sus demandas
académicas y disciplinares mediante programas o cursos de Literacidad Académica o de
Propósitos Académicos. Es controversial pensar que la mera exposición a una
multiplicidad de géneros promueva la comprensión de los mismos. Resulta importante que
al estudiante se le enseñe las particularidades de los géneros y el tipo de discurso escrito
utilizado por su campo disciplinar. Queremos resaltar que la enseñanza de la Literacidad
Académica es una preocupación legítima en todos los ambientes de la educación superior
a nivel mundial, al reconocer el déficit que los estudiantes tienen tanto en su lengua
materna como en una segunda lengua o lengua extranjera, para apropiarse del
conocimiento.
Por último, el estudio de la apropiación de la textualidad académica nos lleva a
reconocer las deficiencias de los estudiantes universitarios al ingresar a campos de
estudio disciplinar que son desconocidos para ellos, porque esto los enfrenta a
situaciones complejas de adaptación, no sólo académica, sino social y cultural. Para los
estudiantes es un reto apropiarse del conocimiento de su disciplina, por lo que para
lograrlo tendrían que ser guiados por el docente disciplinar y el docente de la lengua
4 Utilizamos el plural para referirnos a un conjunto de habilidades cognitivas y no sólo al desarrollo de una
habilidad lingüística, por ejemplo, hablar.
29
extranjera para formarse en su campo. Se espera que esto potencie su capacidad
creativa para plasmar en textos su pensamiento crítico.
REFERENCIAS
Beaugrande, R. y Dessler, W. (1997). Introducción a la lingüística del texto. Barcelona,
España: Ariel Lingüística.
Berger, P. y Luckmann, T. ([1967] 2008). La construcción social de la realidad. Buenos
Aires, Argentina: Amorrortu.
Bhatia, V. (2015). Genre analysis: the state of the art (an online interview with Vijay
Kumar Bhatia). International Journal of Language Studies, 9(2), 121-130.
Bourdieu, P. ([1982] 2008). ¿Qué significa hablar? Economía de los intercambios
lingüísticos. Madrid, España: Akal.
Bourdieu, P. ([1984] 2009). Homo academicus. México DF, México: Siglo Veintiuno
Editores.
Bourdieu, P. ([1989] 2013). La nobleza de estado. Educación de élite y espíritu de
cuerpo. Buenos Aires, Argentina: Siglo Veintiuno Editores.
Carrasco, A. Kent, R. y Keranen, N. (2012). Learning careers and enculturation:
production of scientific papers by PhD students in a Mexican physiology
laboratory: an exploratory case study. En J. Early, K. Null, S. Rogers, P. Stansell.
(Eds.), International advances in writing research: cultures, places, measures,
(pp. 335-351). Fort Collins, Colorado, United States: The WAC Clearing House
and Parlor Press.
Castro Azuara, M. (2017). El área de escritura académica de la licenciatura en
enseñanza de lenguas de la Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala, México. En L.
Natale, D. Stagnaro. (comps.), Alfabetización académica. Un camino hacia la
inclusión en el nivel superior (pp. 133-160). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Ediciones
Universidad Nacional de General de Sarmiento.
Cheng, A. (2011). Language features as the pathways to genre: students’ attention to
non-prototypical features and its implications. Journal of Second Language
Writing, 20(1), 69-82.
Cheng, A. (2015). Genre analysis as a pre-instructional, instructional, and teacher
development framework. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 19, 125-136.
30
Clarence, S. y McKenna, S. (2017). Developing academic literacies through
understanding the nature of disciplinary knowledge. London Review of Education,
15(1), 38-49.
Coffey, B. (1984). English for specific purposes. Language Teaching, 17(1), 2-16.
Cope, W. y Kalantzis, M. (1993). The literacies of power and the power of literacy. New
York, United States: Falmer.
Dudley Evans, T. (1998). English for academic purposes. En T. Dudley-Evans,
Developments in English for specific purposes: a multidisciplinary approach (pp.
34-52). Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
English, F. (2011). Students writing and genre: reconfiguring academic knowledge.
London, United Kingdom: Continuum International Publishing Group.
Fang, Z. (2005). Scientific literacy: a systemic functional linguistics perspective. Science
education, 89(2), 335-347.
Ferreiro, E. (2001). Pasado y presente de los verbos leer y escribir. México DF, México:
Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Flowerdew, J. y Peacock, M. (2001). Research perspectives on English for academic
purposes. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
Gillet, A. (2011). What is EAP. IATEFL ESP SIG Newsletter, 6, 17-23.
Giroux, H. ([1983] 2004). Teoría y resistencia en educación. Una pedagogía para la
oposición. México DF, México: Siglo Veintiuno Editores y Centro de Estudios
sobre la Universidad, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
Gunawardena, M. (2017). The implications of literacy teaching models. International
Journal of Education & Literacy Studies, 5(1), 94-100.
Halliday, M. (1975). Learning how to mean: exploration in the development of language.
London, United Kingdom: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M. (1994). An introduction to functional grammar. London, United Kingdom:
Edward Arnold.
Hernández, E. (2013). Panorama sobre literacidad y escritura académica en la
educación superior. En H. Muñoz. (Ed.), Textualidad y lengua extranjera en el
desarrollo académico de estudiantes bilingües en la educación superior (pp. 17-
48). México DF, México: Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa.
31
Hernández, G. (2016). Literacidad académica. México DF, México: Universidad
Autónoma Metropolitana Unidad Cuajimalpa.
Hyland, K. (2006). English for academic purposes. An advanced resource book. New
York, United States: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
Hyland, K. y Tse, P. (2007). Is there an “academic vocabulary”? TESOL quarterly, 41(2),
235-253.
Johns, A. (2002). Introduction: genre in the classroom. In A. Johns. (Ed.), Genre in the
classroom: multiple perspectives (pp. 3-13). London, United Kingdom: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Kiili, C., Mäkinen, M. y Coiro, J. (2013). Rethinking academic literacies. Designing
multifaceted academic literacy experiences for preservice teachers. En Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57(3), 223-232.
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. London,
United Kingdom: Pergamon Press, Ltd.
Kuteeva, M. (2013). Graduate learners’ approaches to genre-analysis tasks: variations
across and within four disciplines. English for Specific Purposes, 32(2), 84-96.
Lea, M. (1998). Academic literacies and learning in higher education: constructing
knowledge through texts and experience. Studies in the Education of Adults,
30(2), 156-171.
Lea, M. y Street, B. (1998). Student writing in higher education: an academic literacies
approach. Studies in Higher Education, 23(2), 157-172.
Lemke, J. y García, A. (1997). Aprender a hablar ciencia: lenguaje, aprendizaje y
valores. Barcelona, España: Paidós.
Lillis, T. (2003). Student writing as ‘academic literacies’: drawing on Bakhtin to move from
critique to design. Language and Education, 17(3), 192-207.
Lillis, T. (2011). Legitimizing dialogue as textual and ideological goal in academic writing
for assessment and publication. Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, 10(4),
401-432.
Lillis, T. y Turner, J. (2001). Student writing in higher education: contemporary confusion,
traditional concerns. Teaching in Higher Education, 6(1), 57-68.
32
Londoño, D. (2015). De la lectura y la escritura a la literacidad: una revisión del estado
del arte. Anagramas. Rumbos y Sentidos de la Comunicación, 13(26), 197-220.
Macken-Horarik, M. (2002). “Something to shoot for”: a systemic-functional approach to
teaching genre in secondary school science. En A. Johns. (Ed.), Genre in the
classroom: multiple perspectives (pp. 17-42). London, United Kingdom: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Miller, C. (1994). Genre as social action. En A. Freedman, P. Medway. (Eds.), Genre and
the new rhetoric (pp. 20-36). London, United Kingdom: Taylor & Francis.
Montes, M. y López, G. (2017). Literacidad y alfabetización disciplinar: enfoques teóricos
y propuestas pedagógicas. Perfiles educativos, 39(155), 162-178.
Ornelas, C. ([1995] 2003). El sistema educativo mexicano. La transición de fin de siglo.
México DF, México: Centro de Investigación y Docencia Económicas, Nacional
Financiera y Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Perales-Escudero, M. (Ed.) (2010). Literacy in Mexican higher education: texts and
contexts. Puebla, México: Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.
Putra, G. y Tang, K. (2016). Disciplinary literacy instructions on writing scientific
explanations: a case study from a chemistry classroom in an all-girls
school. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 17(3), 569-579.
Rainey, E. (2017). Disciplinary literacy in English language arts: exploring the social and
problem‐based nature of literary reading and reasoning. Reading Research
Quarterly, 52(1), 53-71.
Street, B. (2015). Academic writing: theory and practice. Journal of Educational Issues,
1(2), 110-116.
Swales, J. (1990). Genre Analysis: English in academic and research settings. New York,
United States: Cambridge University Press.
Swales, J. y Lindemann, S. (2002). Teaching the literature review to international
graduate students. En Johns, A. M. (Ed.), Genre in the classroom: multiple
perspectives (pp. 105-119). London, United Kingdom: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Üstünel, E. y Kaplan, A. (2015). English for academic purposes course evaluation:
suggestions from students. International Journal of Humanities and Social
Science, 5(10), 33-43.
33
Wellington, J. y Osborne, J. (2001). Language and literacy in science education.
Buckingham, United Kingdom: McGraw-Hill Education.
LOS AUTORES
MARÍA TERESA CALDERÓN ROSAS. Egresada de la Escuela Normal Superior de
México en la especialidad de enseñanza de inglés. Maestra en Ciencias en la
especialidad de investigaciones educativas en el CINVESTAV/IPN. Estudiante del
doctorado en Lenguas Modernas, en la Universidad de Southampton (Inglaterra).
Docencia: Enseñanza de inglés en la SEP 1979-1989. IPN 1989-1990. Universidad
Autónoma Chapingo 1990-2002. Profesora invitada por la FLACSO, México, 2006.
Profesora-investigadora Titular C de Tiempo Completo UAMI 2002 a la fecha. Líneas de
investigación: Literacidad Académica, Lectura con propósitos académicos y Análisis de
género de publicaciones académicas. [email protected]
. Licenciatura en Lengua y Literatura Modernas
(Letras Inglesas) por la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Maestría en
Lingüística Aplicada (100% de créditos) por el Centro de Enseñanza de Lenguas
Extranjeras de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. ro esor-In estigador itular
“C” de iempo Completo, dedicada a la ense anza de inglés como lengua extran era en la
Coordinación de Ense anza de Lenguas Extran eras de la ni ersidad utónoma
Metropolitana Unidad Iztapalapa. [email protected]
. Licenciatura en edicina Veterinaria y
ootecnia por la ni ersidad utónoma etropolitana nidad oc imilco, aestr a en
roducción nimal por la ni ersidad Nacional utónoma de éxico, aestr a en
ecnolog a Educati a por la ni ersidad utónoma de amaulipas de créditos .
Certi icación de Ense anza de Inglés como Lengua Extran era por el Instituto olitécnico
Nacional. écnico cadémico itular “E” iempo Completo, dedicado a la ense anza de
inglés como lengua extran era en la Coordinación de Ense anza de Lenguas Extran eras
de la ni ersidad utónoma etropolitana nidad Iztapalapa. [email protected]
ARMANDO ORTIZ TEPALE. Licenciatura en Psicología y Maestrías en Desarrollo y
Planeación de la Educación y en Psicología Social de Grupos e Instituciones por la
Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco. Profesor invitado por la
Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, México, 2006, para impartir el curso de
Comprensión de lectura en inglés. A partir de 2014 es Profesor-in estigador sociado “C”
de Tiempo Completo del Departamento de Educación y Comunicación de la Universidad
Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad Xochimilco. Área: Psicología. Miembro del Área de
In estigación “Estudios de Familias” y del Comité Editorial del Departamento de
Educación y Comunicación de la Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana, Unidad
Xochimilco. [email protected]
34
PROPOSAL FOR INTEGRATING PROJECT WORK IN AN ENGLISH
AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS, AT A HIGHER EDUCATION
LEVEL
Gisela Domínguez Barrera
Andrés Arias de la Cruz Eleazar Morales Vázquez
Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco [email protected]
ABSTRACT
These days in the field of education, there is evidence of a renew interest in Task-based
Language teaching (Kumaravadivelu, 2006). Researchers (Affandi & Sukyadi, 2016;
Bullent & Stoller, 2005; Nunan, 2004) agree that this renew interest is reflected in the use
of project work as project work requires the completion of many tasks from the learners.
Project work offers students many advantages not only the ones related to the
development of language skills but also cognitive, social and attitudinal skills (Thomas,
2000).The aim of this pedagogical proposal is to determine the extent to which the
implementation of project work is suitable at a university level in a Mexican context, as well
as to shed light on the issues related to its implementation considering that there is scarce
literature about project work at university level in Mexico. The pedagogical proposal
presented in this paper follows the framework proposed by Stoller (1997); it is a semi-
structured project work as both teachers and students will make relevant decision
regarding the steps to be followed during its implementation (Stoller, 1997). This proposal
is to be implemented with young university students in the Southeast of Mexico whose
language level is at A1 according to the Common European Framework. Implementing
project work at the university level could set challenges for teachers, on one hand, as they
must know the methodology of project work very well to help learners maximise their
learning opportunities this approach offers. On the other hand, it provides opportunities for
students to display their strong abilities and develop the weak ones.
Key words: Task, task-based learning, project work
INTRODUCTION
Kumaravadivelu (2006) claims that there is a “renewed interest in Task-based language
teaching” (p. 64). To talk about project work implies talking about task-based learning as it
requires, from students, to carry out many tasks and be able to solve problems or develop
products (Moss & Duzer, 1998).
Beckett (2002) defines project work as an activity that might take several weeks
to be completed and it also involves a variety of both people and cooperative tasks such
35
as “developing a research plan and questions, and implementing the plan through
empirical or document research that includes collecting, analyzing, and reporting data
orally and/or in writing” (Beckett, 2002, p.54).
Project Work has many advantages for language learning. However, it has been
implemented and researched almost exclusively at elementary levels. The review of the
literature yielded evidence of the few project work research studies at university levels: in
Japan (Fuijoka, 2012); in Indonesia (Affandi & Sukyadi, 2016); in Thailand (Simpson,
2011; Poopon, 2011) and in Vietnam (Loi, 2017).
It can be safely said that project work research at university level is very limited.
In Mexico, implementation and research studies about this approach is scarce (Ramirez,
2013). Therefore, the aim of this proposal is to study the suitability of integrating project
work in an English as a foreign language class at a Mexican university; to discuss relevant
issues regarding its implementation and contribute to the body of literature of project work
in the Mexican context.
JUSTIFICATION
One of our main interests in incorporating Project Work in our teaching practice is to offer a new
mode in the teaching process with the intention of motivating students since we have observed
that sometimes they do not seem to be interested enough in class. We believe this attitude may
be caused by different reasons: the familiarity with both the format of the activities in the
textbook, as well as with their teachers’ methodology, and last but not least the low level of
challenge of some of the tasks. Bearing in mind their age, all the potential they have when it
comes to the use of technology, their capacity to do different things at the same time: listening to
music, chatting, downloading information, etc., we feel compelled to give them more challenging
activities, the hands-on type, which demand from them more active and more responsible roles,
in terms of thinking and doing. Hopefully this will lead both parts to a sense of achievement. As
Williams (1997) puts it:
If we want learners to become absorbed in the tasks we set, it is important to
provide an appropriate challenge, as well as helping the learners to develop
strategies to meet these challenges. This means finding language learning tasks
which are sufficiently difficult to provide a challenge, but are not too difficult for
students to be demotivated. It also means encouraging a sense of wanting to
grapple with challenges, of feeling that one can go one step further, rather than the
feeling of having reached one’s limits (p.75).
THEORETICAL FOUNDATION
Project-based learning (PBL) is an instructional model that is based on the constructivist
approach to learning, which entails the construction of knowledge with multiple
perspectives, within a social activity, and allows for self-awareness of learning and
36
knowing while being context dependent (Duffy & Cunningham, as cited in Tamim & Grant,
2013).
Regarding the defining features of PBL, literature indicates that PBL organizes
learning around projects which can be defined as complex tasks, based on challenging
questions or problems, that involve students in designing, problem solving, decision
making, or investigative activities; it offer students the opportunity to work relatively
autonomously over extended periods of time; and culminate in realistic products or
presentations (Jones, Rasmussen, & Moffitt; Thomas, Mergendoller, & Michaelson, as
cited in Thomas, 2000).
Project-based learning is defined as “an instructional approach that
contextualizes learning by presenting learners with problems to solve or products to
develop” (Moss & Duzer, 1998, p.1). It may be said that to talk about Project Work implies
talking about task-based learning and teaching, as project work consists on the integration
of multiple learning tasks to attain specific language outcomes; Nunan (2004) and Estaire
and Zanon (1994) align with this view since they state that in carrying out tasks, learners
are given the opportunity of planning and monitoring their own learning, which lead to
construct knowledge and to enrich their existing schemata. For researchers (e.g. Hedge,
1993; Sheppard & Stoller, 1997; Fried-Booth, 2002; Nunan, 2004; Bullent & Stoller, 2005;
Scrivener, 2005; Affandi & Sukyadi, 2016; Barrot, 2013 ; Giri,2016) Project work has many
advantages for language learners: it fosters an authentic integration of skills and mirrors
real-life tasks; it is both process and product oriented ; while carrying out the tasks,
students focus on fluency as well as on accuracy; it relies on the student’s collaboration
rather than on competition since learners are engaged in cooperative tasks; it is centered
on the learner. For his part Thomas (2000) calls for future research on the effects of PBL
on domains such as “life skills” or “process skills” which include metacognitive skills, social
skills, multiple intelligence and dispositions and attitudes associated with independent
learning.
CONTEXT AND PARTICIPANTS
The setting for this pedagogical proposal is an EFL class, at a public university in the
southeast of Mexico. It is important to mention that this is a Basic English course of a BA
in Modern Languages. The level of English of the students is A1 and by the end of the
course they are supposed to reach A2 level (Common European Framework). That is, they
are at the threshold of the B2 level. The class meets 3 times a week; each class period
lasts 2 hours, during a semester. The participants are young adults, whose age ranges
from 18 to 20 years old.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Project work has been implemented and researched mainly at elementary and secondary
levels; however, the increasing interest of ELT professionals at higher education level is
evident. Blackwell, Drake and Morgan (2014) acknowledge that while progressive K-12
37
schools have begun using PBL as an effective instructional model, higher education has
been much slower in adopting project-based learning. Despite the potential of this
pedagogical method, there seems to be a lack of PBL implementation and investigation in
Mexico (Ramirez, 2013). Therefore, the aim of this pedagogical proposal is to emphasize
the possibility of introducing Project work in a higher education context.
Empirical evidence
There are some studies that illustrate the implementation of Project work in higher
education contexts.
Fuijoka (2012) implemented Project work in an EFL class for engineering students
in a Japanese university. The conclusion he reached included several relevant aspects:
Project Work provided students with opportunities to generate language for discussions
and presentations; students experienced the benefits of engaging in problem-solving and
team-building, necessary traits in their field of duty. They showed their artistic and
technical creativity in designing the end product of the Project. In brief, this academic
experienced proved Project Work fosters not only the use of language (English) but also
autonomy, responsibility, and creativity. Similar results were reported by Grant (2017)
Mamakou and Grigoriadou (2010), and Loi (2017) whose studies indicated that students’
motivation, autonomous and active learning as well as academic socialization were raised
through PBL.
Affandi and Sukyadi (2016) investigated the effectiveness of both Project-based
learning (PjBL) and problem-based learning (PBL) with 78 participants at the tertiary level,
in Indonesia. Tertiary education refers to post-secondary education. It is important to
mention that PjBL and PBL imply working on projects and tasks.
The findings revealed that (1) both methods PjBL and PBL were able to improve
students’ writing achievements; (2) students perceived both methods as interesting since
they offered a new mode in the teaching process; (3) Both methods enabled them to be
more explorative as well as to develop their critical thinking.
For their part, Simpson (2011) and Poonpon (2011) investigated Project Work
focusing on the four skills, with 30 students and 47 students in Thai universities in both
cases; finding that students’ language skills were enhanced through Project-based
activities.
Irawati (2015) applied a cultural Project work to develop students’ ability in
academic writing, with 20 college students. Her study revealed that the students became
more independent and critical since they had to do their own references search to
generate writing ideas.
38
Types of project work differ from each other in the degree to which the teacher
and students decide on the nature and sequencing of the project-related activities, as
demonstrated by three types proposed by Henry (1994): “Structured projects are
determined, specified and organized by the teacher in terms of topic, materials,
methodology, and presentation; unstructured projects are defined largely by students
themselves; and semi-structured projects are defined and organized in part by the teacher
and in part by the students” (as cited in Stoller, 1997, p.110).
Stoller (1997) explains that projects can be linked to real-world concerns; projects
can be related to simulated real-world issues or they can be also tied to students’ interests
with or without real-world significance.
The following definition seems to describe best the project work learners will carry
out in this proposal.
A project is defined as a long-term (several weeks) activity that involves a
variety of individual or cooperative tasks such as developing a research plan
and questions, and implementing the plan through empirical or document
research that includes collecting, analyzing, and reporting data orally and/or in
writing (Beckett, 2002, p. 54).
In this pedagogical proposal, the role of the members play within the group is
fundamental. Tanner, Chatman and Allen (2003) claim that to foster positive
interdependence among group members during a team project, teachers can assign
randomly or strategically, specific roles within groups. The roles considered in this
proposal are the following: a) facilitator, b) recorder, c) reporter, and d) time keeper.
Furthermore, depending on the nature of the tasks and of the final products of the project,
other roles may emerge, for example: speakers, role players, PPP designers, amid others.
Project Work Organization
The Project Work will be organized following the framework proposed by Stoller (1997,
p.112). This framework comprises ten steps:
Step 3 Structure the project
Step 2 Determine the final outcome
Step 5 Gather information
Step 1 Agree on a theme for the project
Step 4 Prepare students for the language demands of information gathering
39
Bülent (2005) recommends taking into considerations some important factors
before planning a project, such as the benefits in terms of language, content, study skills,
real-life skills, etc., and to answer questions like how it fits the objectives of the
programme, if it is best integrated into an existing instructional unit or by creating one,
among others.
Having considered these issues, it can be said that the benefits and knowledge
the students are expected to gain are several: research skills, social skills, and real-life
skills. Regarding the content and the learning objectives, this project fits the learners’ study
programme, since it is based on a unit of the course book; this will allow them to work on
the new language input, and at the same time, to recycle some language items studied in
previous units, as needed to complete the tasks the project comprises; this includes
grammar (countable/uncountable), vocabulary (food), as well as the communicative skills.
PROPOSAL DEVELOPMENT
In this section the pedagogical sequence we propose will be explained, step by step,
providing some examples to illustrate the tasks that will be carried out by the students, as
well as some teaching activities.
Step1 Students and instructor agree on a theme for the project
The purpose of this first lesson is to raise students’ awareness about eating healthy as one
mean to avoid obesity, as well as prepare them with vocabulary related to this concept.
a) Teacher will ask the class to look at a picture, from a previous unit, to introduce the
concept, obesity. The teacher will try to elicit the word, since it is much more likely that
the students will come up with the word fat, s/he will write the word on the board in
order to work on a net word, in pairs or groups. The answers may vary. The teacher
Step 6 Prepare students for the language demands of compiling and analyzing data
Step 9 Present final products
Step 7 Compile and analyze information
Step 8 Prepare students for the language demands of final product
Step 10 Evaluate the project.
40
will ask students to write their answers to work on spelling and pronunciation, at the
same to make sure that the whole class has the same vocabulary.
b) Once the net word activity will be finished, the teacher will bring students’ attention to
problems, causes and finally to solutions.
S/he will hand out copies of two articles from a local newspaper, (facebook, twitter, etc.)
about one of the causes of the increase of obese children: junk food, and what is more
important, the measures the Health Secretary (Secretaria de Salud) has taken to limit the
sale of this kind of food. In this case, it is called “Escuelas Saludables” (Healthy Schools).
Since the articles are in Spanish, the students will not have any problems comprehending
the information, so they will be given some questions to apply the lexis they will have
learnt in activity a), and at the same time become aware of the magnitude of the problem
in their context. At this stage the teacher will have the opportunity to lead them to the
theme of the project.
1. - Write some examples of junk food mentioned in the articles.
2. - What is the main purpose of the program” Healthy Schools”?
3. - Does this program include schools of all levels of education?
4. - Is this program respected by the schools? If not, what do you suggest?
5.-Did you know about the seriousness of obesity? What is your opinion about it?
With the last two questions, the teacher can introduce the driving question: Does anybody
care about what university students eat on this campus?
To know who cares about the quality of food this university community is eating, they will
have to carry out a research. The title could be something like: “An apple a day keeps the
doctor away, what about three tacos a day”. This number is taken from one of the
advertisement in the cafeteria: “If you buy three tacos, you get a free beverage”. Once the
students carry out this research, they will feel confident enough to answer:
a) Who keeps watch on quality of food that is sold on this campus?
b) Are students on this campus eating healthy, so they can keep the doctor away now
and in the future?
At the end of the class, the class will be organized in groups, at random, to avoid
territoriality. This can be done by asking them to pick a piece of paper with a number on it,
which will be their team number.
2. Students and instructor determines the final outcome of the project
The teacher will elicit from the class ideas about the final product for the research. If the
students do not have ideas to share, then s/he will suggest: a poster, class newspaper,
wall paper, or bulletin board display, a PowerPoint Presentation, they will have to decide.
41
The teacher must be emphatic about two facts: 1) it is not necessary to produce something
expensive, they tend to think that the more they invest the better their work will be, and 2)
what they will have to invest are effort and time.
Next, the teacher will explain to the class that in the final outcome, they will have to show
evidence of the information and the results the investigation yields; so they can include
pictures of the cafeteria, and the food stands, including the combi (a van that parks in the
parking lot, where food is also sold), as well as their advertisements; a survey report, and
a report of the interview with the president of the students´ body in this campus. They may
also include pictures of students answering the questionnaires, as well as of the interview
with the students´ body president, provided they agree.
3. Students and instructor structure the project
The teacher will start the class with the following questions, the questions below, eliciting
ideas from students and guiding them when necessary, in order to answer at least the first
two questions.
a) What information is needed to know who keeps watch on the quality of food this
university community is offered?
b) Where and how can we find relevant or pertinent information?
c) How will we gather, compile and analyze the information?
The answers may be like this:
a) They have to find out if they need a permit from the university authorities to run the
cafeteria, and who gives this permit, under what conditions, and if there is any kind
of supervision. The people who know about this issue are the ones responsible for
the cafeteria, the food stands, and the president of the students’ body of the
División Académica de Educación y Artes (DAEA). The person that may be the
most helpful is the last one, since the students know him/her quite well, it is highly
likely he will agree on giving this information, besides it is part of his duties. We
cannot leave out the students’ opinions, since this will be first-hand information,
about the food they eat.
b) Taking into account that the president of the students’ body may not speak English,
the interview must be in Spanish. In the case of the students, they may choose
another technique, the questionnaire. They will have to keep in mind that not all of
them study English so they will have to decide who to include in their sample. One
suggestion would be to choose a number of students and at random distribute or
apply the questionnaire, in case they do not like the idea of having to do two
versions, then they can include in the research only the languages students.
Question c) will be left for next class. Once the students know what information they will
search for, who their informants will be, and the techniques available, they will have time to
discuss in their teams to decide about how they will collect the information and who will be
42
in charge of the different tasks, not to forget to set deadlines for each task. Alan and
Stoller (2005) suggest that determining the proper balance between teacher guidance and
learner autonomy is a crucial element of project planning. This indicates that learners may
feel more engaged in their work when both their language needs are addressed and they
are given the opportunity to make choices.
Step 4 Instructor prepares students for the language demands of information gathering
In this step what students need to work on will be on how to conduct a survey, and to hold
an interview.
To begin with this stage, the teacher will ask students to review unit six of the
coursebook and see if it has some of the language they need, the topic is food.
They will get a questionnaire which will be used as an example to analyze its
sections and characteristics:
a) an introduction, stating the objective, or purpose of the questionnaire,
b) the instructions, like Tick ( ) or cross out(x) only one answer,
c) the characteristics of the questions: close type, with some options, but only one
answer, this will avoid ambiguity when analyzing it,
d) the number of questions, it is not a good idea to have many questions, maximum
10.
They will be free to adapt some of the questions, since the topic is eating healthy.
Working with this questionnaire, the students will see examples using countable and
uncountable nouns in both the questions, and the options.
About the interview, the students may think that the only thing they have to do is go
and ask the questions; keeping this in mind, the teacher will pose questions like: to
conduct an interview, do I go to the person ask the questions and that’s it? Or are there
some actions to be taken prior to, during and after the interview? The purpose of these
questions is to get to the next information.
Pre: it is necessary to ask for an appointment, permission to record the conversation,
to take pictures, and prepare the questions.
While: they have to introduce themselves, state the purpose of the interview, kindly
reminding his/her he agreed on recording the interview, and taking pictures, if that is the
case; at the end of the interview it is necessary to thank the interviewees.
Post: it is necessary to report the information. This may be more demanding, in terms
of language. To make this task less difficult, the teacher will show them that it is possible
to write the answers in 3rd person singular: Examples:
43
a) The interviewee may not know who gives the permit to run the cafeteria.
b) S/he may not know about the program “Escuelas saludables”, etc.
The designing of the questions for the interview may not be that difficult in terms of
language since this will be in Spanish, but they need to be careful with the content of the
questions.
The role of the teacher is to remind them to ask only pertinent questions, to the point:
the permit, the conditions to run a cafeteria, the supervision, the quality of the food, the
healthy schools, etc.
The teacher will provide an example of a tapescript, showing the conversation gambits,
giving feedback, following the conversation, such as: well, anyway, really, of course, so,
yeah, ok, etc. and fillers like er, um, hum. They need to decide who will hold the interview,
and they will also need to do role play, practice the conversation, recording it several
times; this will help them to feel less nervous when the time of the real interview comes, as
well as to anticipate problems, about recording, for example, the volume. Something
positive is that most of they have fairly well-equipped cell phones, and the digital cameras,
the quality of the recording should not be a problem.
Step 5 Students gather information
At this point, that they have the questionnaires, the interview and have had enough
practice, they will go out on their own to carry out the different tasks. This stage may take
a little longer than the others, since in the case of the interview as well as giving out the
questionnaires there are other people involved, so not everything is in their hands. The
teacher will not be there to solve the problems, like refusing to answer the questionnaire,
having to explain any of the questions, etc. They will have to sort problems out
themselves.
The students who may not have any problems with their task are the ones in
charge of taking the pictures of the food stands, cafeteria, and the van (combi).
Step 6 Instructor prepares students for the language demands of compiling and analyzing
data
Having gathered the information, in this case, having taken the pictures carried out the
interview, given out the questionnaires, now their next challenge is to compile, evaluate,
and synthesize the relevant information.
They will have to decide if they need all the pictures, for example, or if they need to
report all the information they will have gathered, or just the most relevant ideas, etc.
44
The teacher can take advantage of this activity, to recycle and expand the
conversation gambits. This time, the expressions will be to agree/disagree, to suggest, to
add, etc., in other words to negotiate the meaning and relevance of gathered data (“I see
your point, but…” “Don’t you think…?” What is your opinion about …?” What about …?
“What do you think about …?).
The students may not have major problems to do the graphs. They can do it very
rudimentary way (the number of answers divided by each total number of people in the
survey, they will get a percentage), or certainly they can use a computer program. They
may need more help with the vocabulary to report the information: the majority, a
significant number, most students, a large number of students, half of the students, over
half of the students, nearly half of, a third, few students, plus any of the percentage.
Step 7 Compile and analyze information
Having decided which information to use in the final product, now they will do the editing
work, put all the pieces together, and organize the information. This may be the stage,
where the teacher seems to disappear; very little help may be needed, or maybe none,
since each team will make their own decisions based on how they have been planning
their work. Hopefully, they will feel satisfied with the result, and experience this sense of
achievement, but naturally, there is also the possibility of conflicts arising among team
members if their inter and intra personal intelligences do not work that well, mainly their
negotiating skills (Rodriguez-Bonces, 2010).
Step 8 Instructor prepares students for the language demands of presentation of the final
product
They will decide if there is going to be a speaker per team, or only one speaker to
welcome the audience and to briefly explain about the project, the language needed would
be to welcome, how to give a turn to classmates, how to introduce an idea, how to
conclude the presentation, etc. This will depend on the format they choose. The teacher
can use the conversation tapescripts from the coursebook, present a video clip of
somebody making a presentation to highlight the language items learners need to use in
this stage.
Step 9 Students present final Product
It is recommended that the teacher uses a rubric, to help her to evaluate each presentation
in an objective manner, thus the feedback the students get will be in the same terms,
without the risk of getting distracted by the creativity a team may have displayed,
disregarding the content, accuracy or linguistic aspect, for example. This would be of great
help for students than just receiving general comments like “it was very good”, “ok”, but,
without stating in terms of what. The criteria may include aspects like: research, content
45
accuracy, and presentation. We think students should get the rubric, in step 2 or 3, so they
know beforehand how their work will be evaluated.
Step10 Students evaluate the project
This final stage is for students to reflect about what they learned during the process, in
terms of language, content, skills, what they liked, did not like, what they would change,
improve, the problems they faced, how they sorted them out, etc. There will be one final
decision for them to make: what to do with that information, if they decide to send it to the
authorities or ask their president to do it.
We think at this particular stage, they will have the freedom to speak in Spanish, if
they need it, since the priority is to hear their voices to see if this experience has any
resonance for them. To conclude they will write individually about this experience.
Example of the rubric that can be used in step 9
http://www.mdc.edu/sailearn/documents/4.1%20Rubric%20Workshop%20Handout-Mary%20Allen.pdf
CONCLUSION
There are some adaptations we would like to make regarding the framework. First
regarding the final product, we think the students should have different options, in terms of
Rubric to evaluate project outcome
Beginning
1
Acceptable
2
Good
3
Excellent
4
Research Uses only one
source
Uses more
than one
source but
not always
successfully
Uses some of
the sources
available
successfully
Uses all the
sources
available
successfully,
makes a great
effort
Information
Accuracy
There is more
quantity than
quality
Selects info
related to the
project but
does not
really answer
the question
Selects info
that is related
to the project in
a general way
Selects info
that gives a
clear answer
to the driving
question
Presentation There is too
much reading
and little
creativity
Explains info,
but with too
many details
with some
creativity
Transmits
relevant info,
but with some
problems
connecting
ideas and with
some creativity
Transmits
main ideas in
a logical and
coherent way
and a lot of
creativity
46
format (power point presentation, role play, video recording, among others), provided that
the content is the same, the driving question is answered and the objective is achieved.
This would favor their creativity. Besides, we noticed that if more than one team choose
the interview with the president of the students’ body, it will not be practical to do it
separately, at least not for him/her. In this case, we would suggest them to work together
as one big team, once they will have done the task, they will go back to their teams and
write the report. They will still have the opportunity to divide the work: pre, while and post
actions, mentioned earlier in step four. Finally, the rubric, we believe it is not convenient to
show them how they will be evaluated at the very beginning, in the first step, since they will
be receiving a lot of information and they may underestimate its importance. We believe
the third stage is an appropriate moment to show them the rubric for they will be about to
start the designing stage.
It is important to mention that when we started choosing the expressions and
conversation gambits (for step 4) we realized that we have been wasting this opportunity in
class when we ask our students to work in pairs to interview each other. We could
introduce these conversation gambits, and social skills by asking each other if they agree
to answer some questions. This fact has solid value for their fluency development.
Implementing Project Work in our teaching could turn even more difficult for the
teacher than for students, since our main role will be that of leading them throughout the
process and to be a good guide we must know very well the methodology implications,
which we do not know that well at this point. Besides, students are quite equipped in terms
of technology, so in this area they will teach us. However, we are convinced that there are
many benefits for both parts.
From the teacher’s perspective, this approach seems quite suitable to get closer
to the ideal class: “the learning group ideal sets the conditions for a process-oriented, task-
based, inductive, collaborative, communicative English language teaching methodology”
(Holliday, 1994, p. 54). Concurrently, from the learners’ perspective, it gives everybody the
opportunity to display their strong abilities; by the same token Gardner (1983) strongly
supports the use of Project Work based on learning as one approach to creating a learning
environment that enhances each student’s multiple intelligences (Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences), for instance, by taking pictures for the visual , putting the survey information
into numbers, for mathematical, making the interview for linguistic intelligence, and so
forth.
On the whole, working under Project Work “learners are in fact at the center of the
(teaching/learning) system, although this does not mean that they are alone” (Gremmo,
1998, p.147). In other words, learners are given the opportunity to take the control and the
responsibility of the project, counting with the help of the teacher, as needed, during all the
process of the project.
REFERENCES
47
Affandi, A.,& Sukyadi, D. (2016). Project-based learning and problem-based learning for EFL students’ writing achievement at tertiary level. Rangsit Journal of Educational Studies, 3(1), 23-40.
Barrot, J.S.(2013). A macro perspective on key issues in English as second language
(ESL) pedagogy in the postmethod era: Confronting challenges through sociocognitive-transformative approach. doi 10.1007/s40299-013-0119-4. Manila, Philippines: The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher.
Beckett, G. H. (2000). Teacher and student evaluation of project-based instruction. TESL
Canada Journal, 19 (2), 52-66. doi: https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v19i2.929. Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of language learning and teaching (2nd Ed.). Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall. Bullent , A.,& Stoller, F.L. (2005). Maximizing the benefits of project work in foreign
language classroom. English Teaching Forum, 43 (4), 10-21. Ellis, R. (2003). Second language acquisition. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. English, M. C., & Kitsantas, A. (2013). Supporting student self-regulated learning in
problem- and project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7(2), 128-150. Retrieved from: https:/doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1339.
Estaire, S., & Zanon, J. (1994). Planning classwork a task-based approach. Oxford,
England: Heinemann. Fried-Booth, D. (2002). Project work. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Giri, R.D. (2016). Project-based learning as 21st century teaching approach: A study in
Nepalese private school, 6 (8), 487-497. Kathmandú, Nepal: David Publishing. Grant, S. (2017). Implementing project-based language teaching in an Asian context: a
university EAP writing course case study from Macau. Grant Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 2 (4), 017-027.
Gremmo, M. J. (1998). Learner autonomy: Defining a new pedagogical relationship. Forum
Mod Lang Stud, 34 (2), 144-155. Retrieved from Proquest database. Hedge, T. (1993). Key concepts in EFL: Project work. ELTJ, 47(3), 275-277. Holliday, A. (1994). Appropriate methodology and social context. Glasgow, England:
Cambridge University Press. Irawati, L. (2015). Applying cultural project-based learning to develop students’ academic
writing. Dinamika Ilmu, 15(1), 25-33. Kumaravadivelu,B.(2006).TESOL methods: Changing tracks, challenging trends.
TESOL Quaterly, 40 (1), 54-81.
48
Lee, J. S., Blackwell, S., Drake, J., Moran, K. A. (2014). Taking a leap of faith: redefining teaching and learning in higher education through project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 8 (2), 19-34.
Loi, N.V.(2017). Promoting learner autonomy: Lesson from using project work as a
supplement in English skills courses. Can Tho University Journal of Science, 7, 118-125.
Mamakou, I., & Grigoriadou, M. (2010). An E-project-based approach to ESP learning in
an ICT curriculum in higher education. Themes in Science and Technology Education, 3 (1-2), 119-137. Ionnina, Greece: Themes in Scienceand Technology Education.
Moss, D., & Van Duzer, C. (1998). Project-based learning for adult English learners. Eric.
Digest. Retrieved September 20, 2010. Washington, USA: ERIC Digest. Retrieved from: http://www.ericdigest.org/1999-4/project.htm.
Nunan, D. (1989). Designing tasks for the communicative classroom. Glasgow, England:
Cambridge University Press. Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based language teaching. Glasgow, England: Cambridge
University Press. Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know, New
York, USA: Newbury House. Poonpon, K. (2011). Enhancing English skills through project-based learning. The English
Teacher, XL, 1-10. Puchta, H., & Williams, M. (2011). Teaching young learners to think. Innsbruck, Austria
and Cambridge, England: Helbling Languages and Cambridge University Press. Ramirez,J. L.(2013). Una década de búsqueda: las investigaciones sobre la enseñanza y
el aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras en México (2000-2011). Naucalpan de Juárez, México: Pearson Education, México.
Richards, J.C., & Nunan, D. (Eds.). (1997). Second language teacher educator. Glasgow,
England: Cambridge University Press. Rodriguez-Bounces, M., & Rodriguez-Bounces, J. (2010). Task-based language learning:
Old approach, new style, a new lesson to Learn. PROFILE, 12(2), 165-178. Scrivener, J. (2005). Learning teaching. Oxford, England: Macmillan Publishers Limited. Sheppard, K., & Stoller, F. L. (1995). Guidelines for the integration of student projects in
ESP classrooms. English Teaching Forum, 33(2), 10-15. USA: English Teaching Forum.
Simpson, J. (2011). Integrating project-based learning in an English language tourism
classroom in a Thai university institution. (Unpublished doctoral thesis), Australian Catholic University, Australia. Sydney, Australia.
49
Stoller, F. L. (1997). Project work as a means to promote language and content. English
Teaching Forum, 35(4), 2-9, 37). USA: English Teaching Forum. Tamim, S. R., & Grant, M. M. (2013). Definitions and uses: Case study of teachers
implementing project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7(2), 72-101. doi: https://doi.org/10.7771/1541-5015.1323. Purdue, USA: IJPBL.
Tanner, K. D., Chatman, E. S., & Allen, E. D. (2003). Approaches to cell biology teaching:
cooperative learning, in the science classroom: beyond students working in groups. Cell Biol.Educ, 2, 1-5. doi: 10.1187/cbe.03-03-0010.
Thomas, J. W. (2000). A review of research on project-based learning. Retrieved from:
http://www.bie.org/research/study/review_of_project_based_learning_2000. San Rafael, USA: The Autodesk Foundation.
Wahyudin, A. Y. (2017). The effects of project-based learning on L2 spoken performance
of undergraduate students in English for business class. Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, 82, 42-46.
Wenden, A. (1991). Learner strategies for learner autonomy. Cambridge, England:
Prentice Hall. Williams, M., & Burden, R. L., 1997. Psychology for language teachers: A social
constructivist approach. UK: Cambridge University Press.
THE AUTHORS
GISELA DOMÍNGUEZ BARRERA. A full time teacher at the Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, where she teaches EFL language arts and content courses in the BA in Modern Languages and MA in English Language. Her main interest is metacognitive learning strategies. [email protected] ANDRÉS ARIAS DE LA CRUZ. MA in TEFL (Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico). ESL Teacher at Academic Division of Education and Arts from Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. His research interests span across the teaching of Content-Based Instruction, Testing and Teaching of English as a Second Language. [email protected] ELEAZAR MORALES VÁZQUEZ. MA in TEFL (Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco, Mexico). ESL Teacher at Academic Division of Education and Arts from Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. His research interests span across classroom assessment, teac er’s assessment eedback; a ecti e actors in students’ learning. [email protected]
50
LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES EMPLOYED BY
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS TO LEARN ENGLISH: A CASE STUDY
Cliserio Antonio Cruz Martínez
Jairo Gabriel Guerrero Hernández Universidad Veracruzana
[email protected] [email protected]
ABSTRACT
During the process of studying a degree there are many ways to get new techniques and
strategies to develop and enhance the language learning process. Students’ development
of their own learning strategies may favor their academic performance inside and outside
the school. This research attempts to shed light and study the learning strategies
employed by five university students during their English learning process. The study
utilized a qualitative approach in order to discover such strategies. For carrying this
investigation out, five students from the BA in English, were interviewed in order to explore
their perceptions in relation to the learning strategies they use. The participants were
enrolled in an Advanced English group. As a result of the data analysis process, the
findings emerged providing five categories, which include different types of strategies
applied by the participant students. It is expected that this research might report useful and
valuable data for the students who are trying to discover their ways of learning and for
other actors in education to be aware of the impact learning strategies have on students’
performance.
Key words: Learning, strategies, university, students, English, case study.
INTRODUCTION
This research is based on the learning strategies used by a BA in English Language
Advanced students. It is important to know and share the strategies students use during
their leaning process owing to the fact that the strategies are a paramount tool for the
teaching and learning process. During their studies, some students of English as a Foreign
Language (EFL, hereafter) employ a diversity of strategies to learn the English language;
some of them might be effective for the participants while others might not be relevant for
their particular development. The following research attempts to show how these university
students use their learning strategies in order to develop professionally and master the
language. Furthermore, it aims to shed light on those strategies which were effective for
them in order to discover the link between language learning strategies and effective
language learning in this educational context.
Thus, the main objective of the hereby research is to discover what strategies five
English students at University use to learn English. Furthermore, the inquiry attempts to
51
report how the participant students actually use the strategies in this particular context. In
order to get valuable data, a qualitative approach was employed; by using this approach
the characteristics and qualities students put into practice during their learning process
might be understood. Moreover, the study intends to discover some advantages and
disadvantages of using such strategies in the participants’ setting. Nevertheless, the
advantages are the ones which will be covered and reported due to time constraints.
Further research might be required to keep a track of the disadvantages and their
implications.
RATIONALE
English language learners are interested in learning the language efficiently and for this
reason they look for distinct ways to develop their learning strategies. It is necessary to
take into consideration the individual concerns each student possesses in order to find out
which strategies they employ. As students move on through their English levels, they find
plenty of new and complex vocabulary to be learnt, for instance. Furthermore, they learn
new grammar structures and with all this new vocabulary and grammar rules students
might potentially make mistakes and forget many things they already know. During the
English learning process, students might face some problems, hence the importance of
shedding light on them and looking for suitable, new and efficient learning strategies,
which may be the case of several contexts; in other words, other students in the same
area of study who share learning commonalities. Language learning strategies are the
ones students employ to facilitate their process of learning and help them further their
education efficiently. In addition to that, strategies are tools that students have to utilize in
their English classes and it is necessary for them to put them into practice in other
scenarios, students prior knowledge and self- learning inside and outside the classroom;
that is, pupils share their ideas to develop and identify their personal efficient learning
skills, thus the importance of the hereby inquiry as it aims to discover such techniques
students use.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following research question was set in order to go in depth into the techniques that
students use to learn the English language:
What strategies do the five university students use to learn English?
In addition to the main research question, a subsidiary one was intended to be answered
to report valuable data related to the way students utilize their techniques to learn English.
Why do students employ those strategies?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Strategies definition
52
First and foremost, O’ Malley & Chamot (1990) describes learning strategies as the special
thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new
information. The strategies students apply during their learning process might influence
language learning. Additionally, Oxford (1990, p.1) describes strategies “as steps taken by
students to enhance their own learning”. What is more, Oxford (1990) states that learning
strategies are especially important for language learning because they are tools for active,
self-directed involvement, which is essential for developing communicative competence.
Appropriate language learning strategies may result in language proficiency and greater
self-confidence.
Learning strategies, in this research, are those that students develop at any time
during their learning language process. Students acquire them in different ways.
Furthermore, by using different learning strategies, students may be able to develop their
learning techniques for understanding a foreign language. Students may try and classify
their learning strategies and apply them in particular situations according to their
usefulness; by using them, students might consider themselves better language learners.
The capacity to understand, process and apply previous knowledge is focused and applied
on the learning strategies. A foreign language learner should be able to decide which
strategies are better for their learning performance, look for more appropriate strategies
and focus on the ones which are the most suitable for them.
English as a foreign language
According to Oxford (1990, p.6) “a foreign language does not have immediate social and
communicative functions within the community where it is learned; it is employed mostly to
communicate elsewhere”. The context of the hereby study is that of foreign language,
since students mainly have contact with and practice the language in the classroom.
The central characteristics of foreign language learning lie in the amount and type
of exposure to the language: there will be very little experience of the language outside the
classroom, and encounters with the language will be through several hours of teaching in
a school week (Cameron 2002). During foreign language learning students have no the
necessity to develop a closer relation with the foreign language owing to the fact that there
is no a need or duty to learn the language.
Ox ord’s taxonomy
Oxford provides two types of learning strategies Direct Strategies and Indirect Strategies.
Insofar as to have a clear idea of all these strategies, it is necessary to revise the literature
on the hereby taxonomy, therefore it will be succinctly described in what follows.
1. Direct strategies. They are divided into three sets: memory strategies, cognitive
strategies and compensation strategies. These three strategies have a different function
during the learning process and have a different role during the mental process of
53
language learning, such strategies require a mental process of the language and this
process has a different purpose for the learner.
According to Oxford (1990) Direct Strategies are the ones that directly involve the
target language. In addition to this, Oxford claims that such strategies require mental
processing of the language, but the three groups of direct strategies (memory, cognitive,
and compensation) do this processing of information in a different way and manage
strategies for different purposes. Direct strategies help the learner to store and retrieve the
new information which is related to their learning process, in this case students may
employ a mental process which is the main characteristic of direct strategies;
consequently learners might perform better during their language acquisition process.
1.1 Memory strategies. They fall into four sets: Creating Mental Linkages, Applying
Images and Sounds, Reviewing Well, and Employing Actions. These strategies are
effective if you apply some of them simultaneously. Something that distinguishes Memory
Strategies is that the learner has everything under control and in an orderly way. Learners
can create mental linkages with sounds and images in order to remember something
related to the English language. By using visual tools pupils might perform better during
their learning processes, making relations between visual imagery, so that they can
construct meaning of words. “Memory Strategies help learners store in memory the
important things they hear or read in the new language, thus enlarging their knowledge
base” (Oxford, 1990, p.58).
With this regard, Memory Strategies functions are focused on storing information
so that students might use such information at any time they require it and, then, such
strategy is useful either for comprehension or production. Considering those aspects of
learning, students focus on key aspects by associating things, words, and schemas which
are useful for them in their learning process. Memory strategies are based on memory
aspects of the students, any student creates their own way to draw relationships based on
audios, pictures, mimic, and so on. All in all, we can say that students who apply Memory
Strategies are used to guessing and receiving information quickly.
1.2 Cognitive strategies. These strategies have an essential role during the learning
process, this means that there are a lot of different ways to practice them: from repeating,
practicing, analyzing and reasoning. The four sets of Cognitive Strategies are: practicing,
receiving and sending messages, analyzing and reasoning, and creating structure for
input and output.
The first letter of each of these strategy sets combine to form the acronym PRAC,
because “Cognitive strategies are PRACtical for language learning” (Oxford 1990, p. 43).
There are some elements which are considered for the practical strategies, such elements
are: repeating, practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using
formulas and patterns, recombining, and practicing naturalistically. The strategies related
to receiving and sending messages are: getting the idea quickly and using resources for
receiving and sending messages. This means that students are able to get the main idea
54
and recognize the key points without reading the whole text, they just focus on the main
words, and as a result they acquire a better understanding of the things they read. This
strategy shows that students do not need to focus on every single word.
There are students who apply Analyzing and Reasoning Strategy; they apply an
analytical technique which is focused on what they are learning; besides this is focused on
processing the information and creating logical thinking. Often learners can use these
strategies to understand the meaning of a new expression or to create a new expression
(Oxford 1990, p. 46). One of the most useful strategies applied for the students is taking
notes of the things they consider important for them in order to support their learning. In
addition to this, students can summarize main ideas and study them, as well. Considering
this, it is necessary that students get used to highlighting to focus and emphasize
important facts they consider useful to study.
1.3 Compensation strategies. These Strategies are divided into two sets: Guessing
Intelligently and Overcoming Limitations in Speaking and Writing. Students who are used
to applying this strategy can employ what they know about the second language. In
addition to this, Compensation Strategy allows students to form their own hypothesis at the
time they are learning something new. This means, students might have a perception
about a certain topic, besides learners can create linkages with their previous knowledge
in order to acquire a better understanding about what they are learning. Linguistic clues
are allowed to elicit the learning process of the students, so they can decide what is
correct for them and what is not correct. Moreover, “compensation strategies are also
useful for more expert language users, who occasionally do not know an expression, who
fail to hear something clearly, or who are faced with a situation in which the meaning is
only implicit or intentionally vague” (Oxford 1990, p. 90). Such strategies are intended to
understand the new language, as well as to allow the learner to develop their own way of
expression in the written and spoken way, and this is what might be called producing.
Compensation strategies are called like this because they make up for the possible lack of
vocabulary of the students; that is, compensation strategies may enable students to guess
possible unknown words, which is helpful for their understanding of the English language.
2. Indirect strategies. On the other hand, indirect strategies are divided into three sets:
Metacognitive Strategies, Affective Strategies and Social Strategies. According to Oxford
(1990) indirect strategies are called like this because they support and manage the
language learning without directly involving the target language, these strategies are
applicable for the four language skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing.
Metacognitive strategies help the learner to control their cognition; in other words, they
might somehow be conscious of their learning, as they intentionally plan and evaluate it.
Affective strategies refer to the things that influence the learners during their learning
process, and regulate their feelings, emotions, motivations and their attitudes. Social
Strategies are related to the interaction between people in order to develop their language
learning. “All these strategies are called ‘indirect’ because they support and manage
language learning without (in many instances) directly involving the target language”
55
Oxford (1990, p. 135). These strategies are helpful in many language situations and can
be applied in their four language skills.
Overview of studies on strategies
Several studies have focused on learning strategies in the same setting this investigation
has been carried out. It is important to generate a frame for the field in order to look at
similarities, commonalities and differences in the university’s research agenda. For
instance, Cervantes & Rodriguez based their study on identifying which strategies are
applied for English Language learners to learn vocabulary. This research reported that the
strategies used by the students to learn vocabulary are influenced by the lyrics of songs;
another aspect which influences students’ vocabulary learning is the pressure of having a
standardized exam.
Additionally, Cervantes & Rodrígues (2003) shed light on the factors that
influence the learning process of the students, such as the fact that students are motivated
by their teachers, students’ personality, and the materials used by their teachers. Another
aspect mentioned in this investigation is that students like to learn vocabulary simply out of
curiosity. There has been more research carried out in the learning strategies field and in
similar –not exactly the same- settings. Reyes (2012) explores the co-relation between the
academic success and the learning strategies used by the English language learners.
Reyes (2012) discovered that a better academic performance depends on the strategies
that students applied during their whole learning process; in other words, his research
attempted to show that students have to be aware of the strategies that best fit them in
order to achieve a better English language learning performance.
All in all, it could be understood that there are some factors that may influence
students’ learning, such as social, economic, scholarly and personal affairs. Students are
able to create their own atmosphere and habits which will help them to feel comfortable
during their learning process and their strategies will be the ones which enhance a better
academic performance.
Studies carried out in other contexts
Several studies have been carried out in different contexts which are based on learning
strategies as well. A brief review of the studies will be presented in this literature section.
Cánovas’s (2005) study emerged in order to know how English language learners develop
learning strategies to acquire new vocabulary; the context of the study is the classroom.
Through the commented study the author sheds light on the strategies and techniques that
students use to learn more vocabulary of a second language. Furthermore, it is explained
how techniques used by the teachers to teach the language inside the classroom might
influence students’ learning strategies. The research is focused on the qualitative
56
strategies employed by the students in order to acquire new vocabulary of English as a
second language. In addition to this, the inquiry shows the different ways to help students
to acquire such vocabulary. As a conclusion of the enquiry, the author wants to look for a
relationship between the possible ways in which students acquire vocabulary in a second
language.
What is more, Franzoni, Cervantes & Assar (2012) did research based on the
different kinds of strategies that students use for their language leaning, attempting to
show and recommend new ways to teach a foreign language in order to provide the
students with more efficient and practical learning strategies. This research was carried
out at InstitutoTecnológico Autónomo de México (Autonomous Technological Institute, in
English) and the participants were students of engineering and social sciences. The
commonalities of teaching and learning strategies were analyzed and discussed. As the
research shows, there are similarities between the teaching strategies applied by the
teachers and their influence among the students’ learning strategies. The results of the
study are an attempt to fill a gap in the learning strategies use data, helping students to
perform better during their learning process and enhancing the teacher’s teaching process
as well.
This revision of literature was included owing to the fact that these studies have
similarities with the hereby research. This may help the readers to achieve a better
understanding of the learning strategies field, besides these previous investigations show
a different overview from different university students in other settings.
METHODOLOGY
In this chapter details about the present research design are presented; that is, a) the type
of research employed, b) the data collection methods, c) the context in which the
investigation was carried out, d) a description of the participants, e) the procedure, and
finally f) the data analysis method. This information helps us to understand the findings of
the study as well as to address the design of the inquiry.
Qualitative research approach
The hereby research employed a qualitative approach to investigate the learning
strategies students use to learn English due to the fact that it is focused on discovering
their personal techniques to study as the most appropriate way for learning English.
Furthermore, according to Woods (1999), qualitative research has the following main
features: 1) focus on natural settings; 2) an interest in meanings, perspectives and
understandings; 3) an emphasis on process; 4) inductive analysis and grounded theory.
Indeed, Woods (1999) states that qualitative research is concerned with life as it is lived,
things as they happen, situations as they are constructed in the day-to-day, moment-to-
moment course of events. Using this qualitative method, the study can focus on the
students’ feelings. In addition to that, we may consider the perceptions they have about
57
the topic we are investigating. The researcher is the person who is going to look for the
information based on the personal experiences of the interviewees. Real situations are the
key experiences to get the desired results.
Moreover, Woods (1999 p, 4) states that “qualitative researchers do not start with
a theory which they aim to test and prove or disprove, though there is no reason why they
should not do that if they wished”. According to Holliday (2002), qualitative research helps
us to understand human affairs; it is insufficient to rely on quantitative survey and statics
for the purposes of this inquiry. The main purpose of employing a qualitative method in this
research is to look for possible answers to discover the students’ perceptions of their
learning strategies and shed light on the strategies that are important for them, as they can
be useful for going in depth into the typical behavior of the pupils. Qualitative research is
based on the behavior and the feelings of the student, for this reason, the hereby paper
makes use of this approach in order to know exactly what students are looking to enhance
their language learning experience. With regard to this, Creswell & Poth (1994, p. 15)
defines the qualitative approach as “an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct
methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The
researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyses words, reports detailed views of
informants, and conducts the study in a natural setting.”
It was decided to work using the qualitative approach due to the fact that the
present inquiry is based on the main strategies of the students, for this reason there is a
need to know the students’ perceptions and thoughts, the participants who took part in this
research were five students of an Advanced English class, owing to their experience
acquired during their six previous English courses, (Beginners, Elementary, Pre-
Intermediate, Intermediate, and Upper-Intermediate) the study can focus on the students
who have more knowledge of the subject matter and they can share the techniques they
used to learn and explain the reasons why they applied such strategies.
Type of Research: Case Study
Additionally, a case study, which is part of the qualitative paradigm, was implemented for
the purposes of the inquiry. Creswell (2014) claims that case is bounded by time and
activity, and researchers collect detailed information using a variety of data collection
procedures over a period of time. Furthermore, according to Gillham (2000), in a case
study we understand human activities in the real world, studied in a specific context that
exists here and now. For these reasons, a case study is suitable to identify student’s
language learning strategies while they are studying advanced level and to explore their
own techniques to learn English. The study aimed to develop an analysis taking into
account their specific context in which students develop such techniques.
Data collection method
58
This study employed semi-structured interviews as the only data collection method due to
the fact that the interviewer can ask any other questions in order to get more information
as the conversation flows. As a result, the interviewer can follow a sequence based on the
main questions of the interview, but at the same time he/she is able to ask some other
questions breaking out the interview’s sequence. As the interviewees answer the
questions their answers can give a chance to ask something else related to the research
question. Furthermore, the researcher can go in depth into the participants’ responses
and, in this way, they might be likely to share their perceptions. Therefore, Semi Structured
interviews were employed as the main data collection method for their qualitative nature.
Merton, Fiske, & Kendall, (1990) describe such interviews as those where the interviewer
introduces the topic, and then guides the discussion by asking specific questions. Using
this kind of interview, we might perceive people’s thoughts and the way they explain their
reasons without leading them.
Arsky & Knight (1999 p. 7) states that “Semi-structured interviews are the
commonest in qualitative work, where there is a desire to hear what informants have to
say on the topics and areas identified by the researcher. However, survey interviews may
sometimes also have room for the interviewer to improvise questions to clarify or extend
answers”. A format for the questions was designed in order to make an easy and less
complex interview. The questions were related to the students’ learning process, making
some questions in relation to their English level and how they use and develop their
learning strategies.
Context
This study was carried out at a public school in the southeast of Veracruz State, at a
School of Languages. The participants are studying a BA in English Language, which lasts
from three to five years; to earn their degree students have to get 318 credits. The School
of Languages has a Resource Center, a Library, and a Self-access Center (CAAFI) which
are in charge of favoring, facilitating and enhancing students’ practice of the language and
development of autonomy. These places count with extra materials to work with. Some of
them are authentic materials, which are focused on grammar, listening, writing and
speaking skills. Students are free to use them at any time they need it. In addition to this,
students might put their strategies into practice and look for further information using
computers, audio recorders, and videos. These spaces might bring more options for the
students’ learning process; students can choose from many different activities and tools to
practice the language and develop more learning strategies on their own. Using these
sources, students might be able to boost and enhance their less developed skills. The
curriculum of the BA in English accounts for 318 credits and students have to cover them
in a standard period of 10 semesters. Students acquire their credits at the time they
approve their selected courses; this is the only way to acquire the number of credits during
their time in the school.
Participants
59
It is important to know that students have different outlooks about the BA, since the
beginning of their University studies they have been learning English and for this reason
learners have acquired different methods and strategies in their learning process. The
learning acquisition of the participants can be better compared to the beginner students. It
is necessary to focus on what they have done during their learning process because
students have acquired more experience applying different learning strategies to learn
English. Furthermore, it is necessary to know their academic performance from the
beginning until the end of their English language acquisition process to share which are
the strategies they believe make the learning of the English language easier.
The interviewees were taking the sixth and seventh semester in the B.A. The
participants were given a nickname for the sake of anonymity: 1) Lian is from Xalapa. He
has finished the six previous English courses and took English language certification
exams before, (Exaver 1 and 2); 2) Alan is from Coatzacoalcos City, Veracruz. He does
not have any English certification, but previously he took six English courses at Languages
Center in Xalapa, Veracruz; 3) Bety is from Xalapa. She has Exaver 3 and TOEFL English
certifications, the certifications were in Xalapa; 4) Ginger is from Villahermosa, Tabasco,
and some years ago she took Exaver 3 in Xalapa, Veracruz; and 5) Susan is from Xalapa,
Veracruz, Mexico. Two years ago she took TOEFL certification at The Institute Languages
School, in Xalapa, Veracruz.
Data analysis
First and foremost, regarding the analysis of the data, the identified students’ strategies
were carefully compared within Oxford’s taxonomy; it was decided to do in order to get into
the students’ answers and get a better understanding of the strategies applied by them
during their whole language learning process. Therefore, Oxford’s classification of learning
strategies worked as a frame to explore and categorize students’ ways of learning the
foreign language.
FINDINGS
In this section the findings of the study are reported. The emerging categories were
developed in relation to what students stated and based on Oxford’s Taxonomy After
analyzing the interviews and checking students’ responses, the following categories were
identified: 1) Cognitive Strategies, which is one of the most common strategies students
use; 2) Social Strategies, which are also employed by most of the participants according to
the data analysis; 3) Metacognitive Strategies emerged regarding the students’ comments;
4) Memory Strategies is the fourth strategy detected; 5) at the end of the findings Affective
Strategies are shown, such strategies are not as used as the others according to the
participants.
Cognitive strategies
60
This category was consistently found in the data analysis. The five interviewed participants
reported to have made use of the strategy in several occasions. Indeed, in Lian’s words,
the cognitive strategies are employed in situations inside the classroom taking notes of the
things his teacher writes during the class.
During the class I copy the things the teacher writes on the
whiteboard.
Lian stated that he employed this strategy while attending his English class and
used this technique to store and record the information he had been seeing during the
lesson. In addition to what he expressed, Alan succinctly stated that he solved a problem
by means of the mentioned strategy:
I started to listen to ic ael ackson and Guns’ and Roses songs. I
really liked their music but I was not happy because I could not
understand t e songs’ lyrics, or t is reason I remember I grabbed a
dictionary and spent as a year translating songs.
He reported the use of this learning strategy in order to know what his favorite
songs meant, for this reason he started to use the translation method, applying it with his
favorite songs to discover their meaning.
Complementing the use of the Cognitive Strategies, the third participant Bety,
stated that she is used to taking notes in order to acquire the meaning of some words she
does not know, and then she studied such notes as well. With regard to her study habits,
she says the following:
There are many words that I do not understand, and is easy for me
taking notes and then study them.
Bety considers that this is a good strategy to be applied in class. In addition to
what Bety commented, Ginger not explicitly share that she applies Cognitive Strategy as
well, but in her case, she is used to paying attention to her class and uses note taking;
plus, she asks her teacher when she has queries about the class topics. She reports what
she usually does to learn English:
I just pay attention to the class, taking notes and asking to the teacher
when I have doubts.
Ginger uses this learning strategy to focus her attention in class, and then she
writes the things she considers important to enforce her learning process. Note taking is
one of the most popular strategies applied by learners, Ginger applies three strategies
61
inside the classroom to enhance her learning process, and such strategies are: paying
attention to the class, taking notes and asking the teacher to solve her doubts.
Susan commented that during her learning process she applies the cognitive
strategy through the practice of the exercises included in her English book.
I practice with the activities of my book and make a list based on the
vocabulary.
In relation to the way she is used to studying, she commented that this strategy is
used inside the classroom in order to study when she is attending her class. According to
Wenden and Rubin (1987, p. 24) “In the case of memorization, attention is paid to the
storage and retrieval process. The goal of these strategies is organization. Some
mnemonic strategies learners were: finding some sort of association or grouping (phonetic,
semantic, visual, auditory, kinesthetic, even olfactory or sensory), using one item to recall
a number of others (called key word), using some sort of mechanical means to store the
information (taking notes, writing out items with or without context).”
Social strategies
This learning strategy was detected five times in the recorded interviews. Furthermore, it is
important to state and consider that each participant has shared a different way in which
they apply such strategy in their learning process. At the beginning, Lian, the first
participant, shared the way he used this strategy. He commented that he is used to
reading articles in English in order to practice reading comprehension. Indeed, it was
reported that he prefers to put into practice reading articles and books in English.
Well, I practice my reading comprehension by reading articles and
books in English, for me it is better reading an article from an
Anglophone country.
In relation to this startegy, Lian prefers reading things written in English and get
involved in the culture of an English speaking country. By this means, he is applying the
Social Strategy in his learning process.
The second participant, Alan commented that he is used to watching interviews in
English language, he applies such strategy in order to study outside the classroom,
besides he considers this is useful to get familiar with English.
The strategy I employ to study outside the classroom is watching
interviews with books authors, or watching any kind of documentary,
obviously I watch the programs are in English language.
62
Alan considers it is useful to be involved in the English culture through the social
news, and other sources which contain any kind of information that he is able to
understand in order to keep practicing.
Bety shared that she has applied the use of social networks for studying; she has
been putting into practice her language skills thorough social networks. Bety states that it
is a way of studying and practicing the language at the same time.
Another way I study English is by the social networks, I am a Twitter
user, at the time I use this social network.
We have to consider the way she studies and applies her learning. Bety uses
social networks to share ideas with many people around the world, and this is a way to
keep in contact with different people who might help her to improve her learning process.
Social networks are useful and practical tools for learners who are getting learning English.
Ginger, who shared the same learning strategy, talked about the different
strategies she has applied during her learning process. She was asked about the way she
studies English. She argued that one way she studies the language is by talking to English
native speakers.
I practice my speaking skill with English native speakers.
Talking to English native speakers encourages learners to keep practicing their
speaking skills; at the same time, students practice they attempt to acquire more
experience with native speakers of the English language.
Susan, who has shared her experience related to the Social Strategy, commented
that one way to make language learning easier is to be familiar with people who speak
English, suggested that it is necessary to be involved in the culture of the language you
are learning.
I would recommend to be familiarized with people who are
English native speakers and to be involved in the culture of the
language as well.
The relationship and cooperation between learners and people who speak
English is beneficial for the learning process, a result of this cooperation students get
engaged into the culture, and they might feel comfortable to ask for help, and share their
opinions and doubts of the language. That is something that most of students consider
suitable to enforce their learning process. According to Oxford (1990, p. 144), “Language
is a form of social behavior; it is communication, and communication occurs between and
among people. Learning language thus involves other people, and appropriate social
strategies are very important in this process”.
63
Social Strategies are divided into three sets: Asking questions, Cooperating with
Others, and Empathizing with Others. As a result of this, students who are engaged in
social interactions can share and cooperate with one or more people in order to perform
better. These strategies create an atmosphere where students provide and receive ideas,
and reward themselves, and it also creates an interesting atmosphere to learn and
practice the language.
Metacognitive strategies
This learning strategy was mentioned by four participants, they have shared their own
ways in which they put into practice such strategy. Metacognitive Strategies were
mentioned the same number of times as Memory Strategies. Inside the classroom, Lian is
used to paying attention; he considers that is a better way than trying to study outside
inside the classroom in an autonomous way.
It is better for me paying attention than trying to studying in an
autonomous way inside the classroom.
This way to apply such strategy is focused on what the student does in addition
the things he considers useful to improve his learning process, he considers that it is better
to pay attention than study without any person who guides and supports him in any way.
Alan, who has shared his way to apply Metacognitive Strategy, commented about
the aspects that influence the language learning at university level, commented that he
considers learning English easy at this school level, besides he thinks lack of time as an
issue that affects the learning process.
I do not consider difficult to learn English at this level. Another issue I
consider is the lack of time.
Metacognitive Strategies attempt to show that for efficient language learning,
students have to organize their way to study; in this case, Alan considers that lack of time
is something that is not beneficial for good language learning.
Ginger shared that she has realized the positive results that her leaning strategies
has gave her, she claimed that now she is able to understand most videos in English.
I have noticed about the positive results the learning strategies have
given me. I can understand most of videos in English and this is a
progress in my learning process.
This participant is able to make a self-evaluation of her learning process; she has
realized how much has learnt up to now. This has to do with Metacognitive Strategies,
64
where students are monitoring their learning and at the end they have the chance to notice
their progress. Susan shared her way to apply Metacognitive in her language learning
process. She considers that the most suitable strategy to learn vocabulary is to pay
attention to her English class, and she considers any new thing that her teacher explains
during the class useful.
I pay attention during my English class, in order to not to lose
something important.
By applying this learning strategy, students can choose what they want to learn
and how they want to learn, pupils have their own perceptions of their learning and they
are able to create a schema to organize the way they arrange their learning.
Memory Strategies
Memory Strategies are divided into four sets: creating mental linkages, applying images
and sounds, reviewing well, and employing action (Oxford, 1990). These kinds of
strategies are often focused on the creation of mental linkages supported by imagery; in
order to acquire an idea of the things you are learning about English. Lian reported that
one way in which he studies English is by using audiovisual tools, besides he states that it
is the best way to practice and study English.
For me the most suitable way to study English is supported by
audiovisual tools.
Alan commented that he saw different products in a store which had their name
on the label, by this way he learnt some new words in English. He commented that:
You see a lot of words in English tagged on products and some
others things such as cans of tuna, potatoes and so on, and by this
way I learnt some new words.
Alan created a relationship between the things he saw and the things which were
labeled. Plus, Ginger shared that one way to study is making flash cards with vocabulary
she does not know, she is used to sticking Post-it notes in her book in order to remember
the new vocabulary she has learnt. Her use of flashcards relates to using imagery to
support her learning.
I am used to stick ‘post it’ wit ocabulary on my book and anot er
thing I use are vocabulary flashcards.
Susan talked about her experience with Memory Strategies and the way she
studies for her exams, she shared that one way to study is by learning new words which
are included in the book, studying vocabulary and drawing relationships between the
65
words and things in order to remember them. This is one strategy she is used to
employing to take her exams.
I just focus on the new vocabulary, and I associate the new words
with images which are easy to remember for me.
The use of images in order to remember new words is one effective way which
students might create a list of new words which will help them to acquire more vocabulary.
In this case, Susan likes to create relationships between words and pictures to make it
easier to learn the things or words she has to study for her exams. Oxford (1990, p. 61)
argues that “the four strategies for applying images and sounds are useful for
remembering new expressions that have been heard or read. These strategies include
using imagery, semantic mapping, using key words, and representing sounds in memory”
Affective strategies
The last category of learning strategies is related to cooperating with others and creating
relationships in order to get opportunities to put English into practice. Lian applies such
strategy in his learning process. He is used to studying in quiet places, inside the school
he likes studying at the Resource Center and CAAFI, this is because he does not like
noisy places to study and he likes to stay and study in a quiet place and when he is at
home, he opts to study in his living room or in his bedroom.
I am used to studying in the Resources Center and in the CAAFI.
When I am at home, I study in my living room or in my bedroom. I
look for a quiet place to study; I do not like noisy places.
Alan talked about the way he considers himself as a student, the question was
focused on how students describe themselves, and clearly he answered in a positive way.
I am trustful and I enjoy the learning process. I am comfortable with
the course.
This participant stated that he feels good with the way he is learning English.
Considering that such strategy is about how students encourage themselves by different
ways. Bety commented about the things that influence her learning process. She
considers that motivation is something that has influence on her learning process.
The things that influence me are the motivation to practice the
language and to take advantage of everything the English language
gives me.
She claims that she is waiting for an opportunity to travel abroad and meet people
from different places in order to practice English. According to Oxford (1990, p. 140), “the
66
term affective is referred to emotions, attitudes and values”. She states that “it is
impossible to overstate the importance of the affective factors influencing language
learning”. This kind of strategy is divided into three sets: Lowering your anxiety, self-
encouragement, and emotional temperature level. Students who are used to applying this
strategy are influenced by internal or external reasons which encourage them to keep
acquiring a good performance or English level through their learning process. Affective
Strategies are focused on students’ perceptions and feelings.
Affective strategies are the ones who are focused on the students’ feelings and
other perceptions related with their emotional aspects. Oxford (1990, p. 165) states that
“language learners often need to find ways to keep their spirits up and persevere as they
try to understand or produce the new language”.
All in all, having identified different kinds of strategies utilized by the English
language learners at the School of Languages, the emerging categories from the data
were presented according to Oxford’s (1990) taxonomy: Cognitive Strategies, Social
Strategies, Metacognitive Strategies, Memory Strategies and Affective Strategies. This
might be valuable data which could help us to know and understand the different ways that
students are used to studying English inside and outside the school.
CONCLUSION
Students stated that their strategies have been supportive for them to enhance their
language learning process. In addition to this, students have realized the positive results,
which their strategies have brought with them. Regarding the positive results, students
commented as well how they are used to managing such strategies and the factors that
might influence them to keep using their strategies. It is necessary to remark that students
manage their learning strategies, which may imply that they are the agents in charge of
their development. The use of each strategy may vary depending on how well students are
working.
Other aspects that this research found are the factors, such as motivation and the
teacher’s role, which might influence the learning strategies of the students. Such
elements might be either positive or negative and they may influence significantly the
language learning process of the students. For this reason, it may be relevant to identify
and get to know which things affect the students’ performance inside and outside the
school by doing further research.
As a conclusion of the inquiry, it is suggested that professors be aware of the
learning strategies that students use in their English classes. Learners’ strategies have
currently been influenced by several factors that help them to enhance their development;
some of the factors that include students’ techniques to study the language may be social
interest such as social networks, TV series in its original language, music in English,
among others. Additionally, affective situations such as motivation from their friends,
67
teachers, parents, and other people close to the student may have an impact on their
language learning strategies. Teachers have to consider these factors in order to motivate
students to keep developing and constructing distinct learning strategies.
After carrying out this investigation, we may infer that students are always looking
for and trying with new learning strategies, owing to the fact that there are relevant
elements, such as motivation and the role of teachers, which might influence them during
their language acquisition process. Students acquire many learning strategies and some of
them were acquired from their early childhood, while some others were developed at the
university level. All in all, learners are used to changing and developing the learning
strategies they use, as well as their exploration, and all actors in education should observe
and understand this process for the sake of language learning.
REFERENCES Bermejo et al. (2017) Learning Strategies in EFL Mexican Higher Education Students.
Escuela de Lenguas Campus IV. Tapachula, México: Universidad Autónoma de Chiapas.
Cameron, L. (2001). Teaching Languages to Young Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Cánovas, P. (2005) El aprendizaje de vocabulario en el salón de clase: las estrategias de
los estudiantes. In Akerberg, M. Líneas de Investigación en el Departamento de Lingüística Aplicada. Adquisición de Segundas Lenguas. Mexico City: UNAM-CELE.
Creswell, J. (2014) Research design qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches (4th ed.) Los Angeles, CA: SAGE. Creswell, J., Plano, C. et al. (2008) Advanced mixed methods research designs. In V. L.
Plano and J. Crewell (Eds.) The mixed methods reader. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA: Sage, pp. 161-196.
Creswell, J. (2014) Research Designs. Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches. Thousand Oaks, London: SAGE Publications. Del Angel, M. C. & Gallardo, K. E. (2014) Language learning strategies and academic
success: A Mexican perspective. Universitas Psychologica, 13(2). Doi:10.11144/Javeriana.UPSY13-2.Iisa
Denzin, N. & Lincon, Y. (1998). Strategies of qualitative inquiry. Texas: Sage. J. Michael O' Malley, A. U. (1990). Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge Applied Linguistics. Driscoll et al. (2007) Merging Qualitative and Quantitative Data in Mixed Methods
Research: How To and Why Not. University of Nebraska. Lincoln, 3 (1).
68
Franzoni, A. (2012) A Quantitative Analysis of Student Learning Styles and Teacher Teachings Strategies in a Mexican Higher Education Institution, 10 (3).
Giles, E., Pitre, S., Womack, S. (2003). Multiple intelligences and learning styles. En M.
Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/ in August, 2017
Gillham, B. (2000) Case Study Research Methods. Great Britain: Continuum. Griffiths, C & Judy M. Parr (2001). Language-learning strategies: Theory and Perception,
ELT Journal, 55 (3), 247-254. Knight, H. A. (1999). Interviewing for Social Scientists. SAGE Publications Ltd. Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know.
New York, NY: Newbury House Publishers. Merriam, S. (1998) Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education.
Revised and expanded from Case Study Research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morales, O. (2011) El Nuevo Modelo Educativo Integral y Flexible (MEIF) y los alumnos de
Humanidades de la Universidad Veracruzana (ago 07 – feb 08. Estudio sobre la congruencia entre los objetivos del Modelo y la opinión que de él tienen los alumnos que se forman bajo sus planes de estudio. Sociogénesis, E-Journal, Sociología, 5. Retreived from http://www.uv.mx/sociogenesis in April, 2017 Nuevo Modelo Educativo Primera edición, 2017 D.R. Secretaría de Educación Pública.
Poth, J. W. (1994). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design. Sage. Reyes, A. B. (2012). Learning Strategies for Better Academic Performance in Language
Learners of the University of Veracruz' BA English Program MEIF and Plan 90''. Xalapa, Enríquez.
Rubin, A. W. (1987). Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Prentice Hall. Rubin, H. J. (1995). Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data. SAGE Publications,
Inc. Woods, P. (1999). Writing for Qualitative Researchers. Cambridge, UK: Routledge.
THE AUTHORS CLISERIO ANTONIO CRUZ MARTÍNEZ has a BA degree in English Language and an MA degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language awarded by the University of Veracruz. He has participated in national and international forums presenting qualitative research results. Professor Cruz is currently working doing Doctorate studies in Applied Linguistics and Language Studies, at the UV. He works at the BA in English, University of
69
Veracruz, as a teacher and researcher. He is an active member of the Research Group: Language Teaching and Learning Processes at the UV. [email protected] JAIRO GABRIEL GUERRERO HERNÁNDEZ has a BA degree in English Language awarded by the University of Veracruz. He graduated from University with the research titled “Language Learning Strategies Employed by ni ersity Students to Learn English: A Case Study”. [email protected]
70
ATTITUDES: ENGLISH VS OTHER SUBJECTS.
AN EXPLORATORY CASE STUDY IN TELESECUNDARIA
Liliana Edith Campos Montero
Olga Lidia Sánchez Cruz Gloria Ofelia de la Soledad Reyes Méndez
ABSTRACT
Telesecundaria education plays an important role in the education system in the state of
Veracruz. However, these schools have experienced through the years different situations
which have hindered the teaching-learning process. One of the biggest problem is the lack
of knowledge and preparation on behalf of the teachers. They are expected to be experts
on Mathematics, Biology, Geography, Spanish, English, etc., Therefore, the purpose of
this research was to know the teachers’ attitudes when they teach the different subjects in
the classroom in a public telesecundaria school in the state of Veracruz. The main aim
was to identify the teachers attitudes towards the English class in contrast to their area of
specialty as a result of their lack of knowledge in the area. Some online interviews were
carried out for collecting the data to find out some important information regarding the
teachers’ CVs to have a better idea of what their area of specialization was. Also, some
observations were carried out to see the teachers’ attitudes from class to class. During this
inquiry, six teachers were interviewed using a qualitative method. The findings showed
that there seems to be different attitudes towards the English class, some positive and
some negative depending on the teachers’ professional development.
Key words: Attitudes, lack of knowledge, telesecundaria education, teachers’ profile, roles
of students and teachers.
INTRODUCTION
Telesecundaria is a school modality of educational system in Mexico in which the teacher
has access to a television and “teleclases”. “Teleclases” are lessons related to the books’
topics that can be watched on the television. One of the main purposes of telesecundaria
schools is to provide secondary education to young people who live in rural communities
where there is no access to general or technical schools. This modality emerged around
1960 to avoid people backwardness and as a kind of strategy to prevent people from
immigrating to cities. At the beginning, Telesecundaria schools wanted to prepare students
to do activities related to the environment they lived in. It is important to mention that at
that time telesecundaria teachers did not need to be specialized in education. In addition,
Telesecundaria has characteristics of full school attendance and long distance education
because it combines the use of different electronic media (like television for watching
classes) as well as students’ attendance because there is a professor every day in the
classroom.
71
Telesecundaria has experienced some changes along the years. Yet, a question
emerges: Do telesecundarias work as they should? For example, some teachers seem to
lack preparation for this kind of education; especially with some subjects such as English,
Chemistry, and Mathematics, among others. Backhoff Escudero & Pérez Morán (2015)
mention that Telesecundaria schools lack the necessary structures, e.g. the personnel are
not enough to look after the different courses and grades. In addition, the principal tends
to be a teacher as well, (p. 170).. Then, the teacher may need to be trained in their subject
matter such as Biology, Chemistry, Engineering, etc in addition to some teaching skills.
Another important issue emerges: What does a person need to become a telesecundaria
teacher?
As a result, the telesecundaria teachers’ training program has proposed different
specializations to empower teachers with both, subject matter knowledge and some of the
necessary teaching skills. For example: Mathematics, Spanish, Geography, History and
also English as a foreign language, etcetera. What is expected is that when telesecundaria
educators need to teach different subjects, and they are not specialized in them, it could
be difficult for them, especially if it comes to attitude in class, is it positive? Negative? It
might result in teachers teaching the subject they are specialized in, for example Spanish
better than History.
With this paper, what is expected is to illustrate what happens with the English
class in telesecundaria schools considering all the situations discussed previously. For
example, if the teacher is an English language graduated what attitude and behavior they
might take in the English class. Also, to see whether they change this behavior from the
English class to another. The main concern of this paper, then, was to study this situation;
how the telesecundaria teachers’ attitude, might affect students’ learning process as a
result of their development; to know more about English in telesecundaria schools, how
they work and some possible problems teachers may face when they are not specialized
in the English area.
JUSTIFICATION
This research provides aims at illustrating what telesecundaria schools are, some
implications of being a telesecundaria teacher, and, some attitudes telesecundaria
teachers have when teaching English in comparison to other subjects. The most influential
interest for doing this research was the teachers’ influence on the students’ attitudes
towards certain subjects as it was observed in a telesecundaria school. Then, it was
important to know more about the attitudes, both, telesecundaria teachers and students
have, especially in the English class because most of the teachers do not know neither
how the language works nor how to teach it.
For this study, knowing about the implications of being a telesecundaria teacher
was also important because even if teachers were trained to be in front of a class, most of
them are not specialists in all the subjects. As a result, the rapport between the teacher
72
and students could be affected, even more when teaching a subject they are not experts.
Also, the lack of references was a factor to continue investigating and contributing in this
area because there is little research done in this area. Therefore, it was considered
telesecundaria teachers´ attitudes were an important aspect to study because the learning
process could be negative if teachers and students have negative attitudes. Both,
telesecundaria teachers and students face difficulties when teaching and learning a
subject that is not dominated by the teacher.
LITERATURE REVIEW
In this chapter, some important aspects related to Telesecundaria such as its origins,
development and current situation will be presented. In addition, the importance of the
teacher and the teacher’s roles, attitudes and behavior will be discussed in order to
understand this topic.
Telesecundaria Education in Mexico
Telesecundaria education in Mexico was first introduced in the 60s (Jiménez, Martínez &
García, 2010) after the Revolution when it was necessary to provide education to more
people. Rural communities had no access to education as people in cities and most than
80% of population was illiterate (Jiménez, Martínez & García, 2010). Secondary education
wanted to prepare students by doing activities like fishing, agriculture, gardening, etc.,
then, if they did not want to continue studying after their Secondary education, they were
ready to enter the working environment. At first, Telesecundarias were not formal schools
because some of them were implemented in houses or improvised places. When
Telesecundaria emerged, there was a need for teachers; then, students graduated from
primary schools became the teachers with the promise of continuing their studies. The
government looked for people who wanted to go to communities and teach reading and
writing in order to avoid people’s backwardness and illiteracy. Telesecundarias main
interest was to provide education and at the same time to keep people in town; a way of
preventing migration to the cities to study.
How Telesecundarias started working in Mexico
At the beginning, telesecundaria schools provided education in remote places where there
were not general or technical schools (SEP, 2001). Teachers in telesecundarias had the
support of the TV to cover the program, as the name says, in a telesecundaria the TV
plays an important role for education. (Professor could watch classes on the TV for
subjects they were not specialized in, and in that way they could guide students better).
During a class, there were “telemaestros”, videos of teachers explaining the lessons. After
watching the video, the teacher reinforced the topics in the classroom, (Dirección General
de Materiales Educativos, 2011).
73
How Telesecundarias work nowadays
Telesecundaria model has been different from other teaching models because a teacher
teaches all the subjects in each grade like in elementary school but with videos. In
comparison with Secondary schools, in telesecundaria schools there is only one teacher
for all the subjects while in other schools, there is one teacher for every subject. Sandoval
(2009) mentions that nowadays Telesecundaria teachers face some problems, for
example, in most cases televisions do not work, there is a lack of materials, schools are
dilapidated, and there are too many students per classroom, among others. What is more,
Telesecundaria teachers are concerned because the educational reform has changed their
labor contract, salary, perks and bonuses.
How the Telesecundaria system should work
The main purpose of Telesecundaria schools according to SEP (2001) is to develop
students’ intellectual skills to make them work autonomously inside and outside school. It
is also expected that students develop the knowledge and skills related to natural and
social life and at the same time they learn and develop values and attitudes to become
responsible members of a society. Therefore, telesecundaria teachers need expertise on
the contents of the program to develop the basic competences in students. In addition,
they are responsible for teaching all the subjects included in the curriculum of secondary
education. That is why the Telesecundaria teacher needs to know the social and familiar
environment of every single student to help them when they need it (SEP, 2001).
Degree requirements of a Telesecundaria teacher
The profession of Secondary teacher has experienced many changes through the years.
In Mexico, teachers who teach basic education are graduated from a teaching training
school (these training schools are known as escuelas normales), which implies having
received pedagogical training and teaching in an institution specially designed for it. These
colleges qualify and certify graduated students to teach. The curriculum consists of four
years of formal education together with some teaching practice in addition to the social
service in target schools. This curriculum offers some areas of specialization such as
Mathematics, Spanish, English, etc., out of which students can choose to become
specialists. (Sandoval, 2009).
eac ers’ attitudes in t e Englis sub ect
According to SEP (2000) to learn a foreign language, the future teachers in secondary
education need to acquire skills, knowledge, attitudes, the domain of the foreign language
to be aware of the implications of teaching a foreign language and factors that could hinder
or help the learning process. Teaching a language is not as easy as it may seem, it is
different from teaching Spanish, Chemistry, Mathematics, etc., learners need to develop
skills to language learning more than a high IQ. In Telesecundaria schools, the English
74
subject is called a foreign language subject, and learners study English the same way as
they study the other subjects and teachers try to teach English the same way as they
teach the other subjects but the main difference is the fact that they have a book with
activities to develop the different skills such as oral expression and reading
comprehension, but it seems to be difficult for both teachers and students to understand
the activities when they have no idea of how the language works.
It seems to be difficult for teachers to explain or to guide students when they have
problems with the language; this is due to lack of teachers training. To teach a subject,
telesecundaria teachers explain a topic by using the book as a resource of information and
as a tool to review different topics but in the English class, the book does not fulfill its
function, and instead of being a resource or a tool for teachers, it seems to be just a book
to fill in the blanks although students do not understand or write the words correctly. Every
student has a book whose layout consists of texts, grammar explanations, examples and
practice activities. In the English class, teachers have repetition or pronunciation activities
and they rarely ask students to practice dialogues. Teachers do not do reading and writing
activities because they think students do not understand the language (Nuñez, 2005).
eac ers’ role
Professors in telesecundaria have to master all the disciplinary contents to be able to fulfill
the objectives of telesecundaria education. In other words, teachers need to be prepared
to be successful in what they do. In addition, they need to be aware of the contexts around
them, it is necessary to know the familiar, social and cultural environment in which each
student develops in order to provide quality education for them. Apart from this, teachers
need to pay attention to the roles they play in the classroom; for example, according to the
Secretaria de Educación Pública (2011) the role of the teacher is to coordinate and
promote learning with the support of different materials and educational means.
The characteristics a telesecundaria teacher must have are the following:
Design learning situations to know the needs and interests of telesecundaria
students.
Organize, implement and evaluate interactive activities that place each student in
front of different situations that generate personal and group benefits.
Develop and promote the implementation of institutional projects, with
management of school resources to engage students in the process.
To promote information and discussion meetings involving parents.
Use of Information and communication technologies as support tools to increase
the educational potential in relation to the objectives of teaching and learning.
What does a teacher need to become a Telesecundaria teacher?
Sandoval (2009) mentions that the professor who incorporates in a classroom without
having studied in a Teaching training college, such as Normal Superior, learns by doing,
75
becomes a teacher by practice without the support of other experienced teachers and the
proper training. To be a teacher, it is not necessary to get a teacher training diploma, but a
university degree which certifies a B.A. Then, teachers become teachers by practice, as
the old saying states: “Practice makes the master,” this has become a common behavior in
telescundaria schools. In short, to be a Telesecundaria teacher the only requirement is to
have the profile that the SEP (for its acronym in Spanish Secretaría de Educación Pública)
requests.
elesecundaria teac ers’ pro ile
According to the Secretaría de Educación de Veracruz (SEV) the profiles admitted to be a
telesecundaria teacher are the following:
Table 1: profiles accepted to become a telesecundaria teacher. (SEV, 2016)
Training to become a Telesecundaria teacher
76
According to the INEE (for its acronym in Spanish Instituto Nacional para la Evaluación de
la Educación), in Veracruz, the 0.5% of telesecundaria teachers studied media superior
education; the 90.8% have a degree and the 8.7% have postgraduate studies. To
overcome telesecundaria teachers´ lack of knowledge about the different subjects they
teach, the SEV’s website offers courses for Telesecundaria teachers who work in
Telesecundaria education model (system). The purpose of the courses is to acquire the
educational tools that enable teachers develop in students the intellectual skills demanded
by today's society; and implement them in a variety of situations in the diverse areas of
personal and social life, in order to respond to the challenges of the present and the
immediate future.
What is attitude?
According to Rodrigues, Leal and Jablonski (2009) attitudes can be learnt and achieve
different functions. Moreover, attitudes protect people’s self-esteem, avoid conflicts,
anxiety and establish the social identity. Some types of personality lead to the emergence
of some attitudes because both are related to each other. It can be said that attitudes are
responsible for judging or criticizing behavior, at the same time as Briñol, Falces and
Becerra (2007) explained other essential characteristic of attitudes is that they constitute a
mental phenomenon. It means that attitudes are responsible for the way people judge and
criticize objects, people, and behavior, among others.
elesecundaria teac ers’ attitude w en teac ing Englis
In this paper it is expected to identify the attitudes professors have when they teach
English. In telesecundaria schools, most of the teachers are not specialists in this area,
they do not have the language learning experience, then, they do not know how to teach it
as they did not have formal education in English. According to the Plan de Estudios of the
Escuelas Normales (Educational Program of a training school) (SEP, 2002) future
teachers have the opportunity to study English as a specialization in order to be prepared
when they face the English class in Telesecundaria but it is important to mention that
future teachers can choose the specialization they want to study and not all of them
choose English.
77
Table 2: Degree study programme of the Benemérita Escuela Normal Veracruzana (SEP, 2000)
elesecundaria teac ers’ attitude w en teac ing t e ot er sub ects
As the Plan de Estudios of the Escuelas Normales shows, the future teacherrs have the
opportunity to learn how they will teach their students in every single subject. However, it
does not give them the tools to face unexpected situations when something they do not
know is brought up to class. Telesecundaria teachers have a big challenge in their
everyday situations. They not only need to be well-prepared with concepts and knowledge,
but they also need to have the disposition to deal with different attitudes and behavior from
the students, for that, they also need to have positive attitude.
As stated at the beginning, this chapter has dealt with some important issues
regarding Telesecundarias’ origins and development. In addition, it has also discussed
what requirements are necessary to become a teacher in this educational system.
However, due to the fact that these types of schools are poorly studied very little has been
said about them, especially in the area of English. For this reason, it is expected that this
paper is the keystone for further research.
METHODOLOGY
This research aims at illustrating some of the problems a Telesecundaria teacher faces
regarding the English class. Most importantly, the main focus of this paper is to study the
teachers’ attitude when teaching English versus other subjects at this level. This is
because, most telesecundaria teachers are not specialists in English as they are in other
areas, for example, Mathematics, Biology, Spanish, etc. With this paper, it is expected to
78
answer the research questions about the attitudes teachers have when they teach other
subjects than English, in order to compare how the teachers’ attitude might be different
from the other subjects with the English class. In other words, the main aim of this paper is
to see if teachers react differently when students question them in the English class or
they react the same when they are questioned in the other subjects. The qualitative
research was chosen because it offers the researcher the opportunity to study the subjects
in their natural context. And, as this paper is expected to show the different attitudes
teachers may have in Telesecundaria School depending on what subject they teach to
compare them such attitudes.
Qualitative research
Over the years, many authors have defined qualitative research as a way to express an
idea by observing a fact when it could not be explained with numbers. It means that in a
qualitative research reality and nature are relevant points to study. In this kind of research,
ideology and diversity are important aspects to consider because they study the way
individuals behave (Hernández, Fernández & Baptista 2006). For this kind of research, it is
important to study the characteristics of a group of people and the way they behave.
Cortés and Iglesias (2004) argue that a qualitative research is a channel to investigate
without numerical measuring, the process is dynamic by means of interpretation of the
incidents and simultaneously, this approach is more utilized in social processes.
A qualitative research does not pick up pieces of information, it starts by asking
questions. As Quecedo and Castaño (2003) explain, in a qualitative research it is
important to understand the context people get on in order to have a better idea of what
they do and the way they behave. In a qualitative research the investigator does not look
for the truth but he looks for people’s perspectives; and to do this, he has to put his own
beliefs, traditions and perspectives aside. The investigator and people interact in a natural
way which allow the researcher have a good perspective of the phenomenon under study.
Data collection
To collect the information for this research, it was necessary to use two methods:
observations and online questionnaires. Online questionnaires through Google’s’
application were useful to get general information about teachers profiles and experience
at telesecundaria level and to know more about their experience in the English class.
Observations were used to compare teachers’ attitude in the English class with the attitude
they had in the other subjects such as Mathematics, Geography, History, etc.
Observations were useful to see how teachers react when students have questions about
vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar, (in the case of English). They also helped to see
what teachers did when students had questions about the other subjects. Observations
were the support of the online questionnaires and they gave a better idea of teachers’
attitudes in the telesecundaria classroom.
Online questionnaires
79
One of the methods used for this paper was the online questionnaires, this instrument is a
google’s application in which information can be gathered easily and fast and it can be
sent by e-mail or text. Online questionnaires were very helpful to know telesecundaria
teachers’ circumstances. For these questionnaires, it was used Google forms applications,
a Google’s drive application in which people can create surveys to obtain statistics about
different topics. Google forms have many advantages for example, obtaining of results
automatically in charts, the time consuming factor is overcome with this application as the
researcher sends the link and the participants can do it at any time.
Questionnaires were designed to know about characteristics teachers may have
at a Telesecundaria. The purpose of questionnaires was to obtain information that could
answer the research questions. The questionnaires were written in Spanish because most
of the Telesecundaria teachers do not speak English, in this way they could understand all
the questions and also answer them. The questions were easy to understand and the
information required was about teachers’ profile and experience. There were fifteen
questions aimed at knowing the Telesecundaria teachers’ level of education, the degree
they hold, and the teaching experience they have at this level, the amount of time they
spend with the different subjects, the time they dedicate to teach English, the kind of
activities they do in the English class and if they like the English class or not and why,
among others. In the observation sheet, the different aspects taken into account were the
kind of materials teachers use in the class, if the class seems to be boring for students, the
students’ participation, among others. (See appendix 1)
Observation.
Marshall and Rossman (1989), state that observation is the description of situations,
behaviors and events of a certain group of people to be studied. (As cited in Kawulich,
2005). For this research there were used participatory observations in which the observer
interacted with the group in order to get participants confidence and to make them react
naturally in their context. The observer was introduced to the students and teachers
explained to them why the observer was there in the classroom and the purpose of the
observations, in this case the purpose was to do this research. Students seemed not to
have problems about the situation of being observed and in this way the observations
were successful. Grinnel (1997) argues that observations are helpful to explore
environments, behaviors, cultures, and different aspects of social life (As cited in
Hernández, Fernández & Baptista 2006). To have objective observations it was
necessary to design an observation guide that allowed the researcher see specific aspects
that led to the answers the researcher was looking for. For example, teacher has control of
the class, teacher is a friend of students, teacher gets nervous if he/she does not know
anything, students show interest, students answer teacher’s questions, among others.
(See appendix 2)
80
Context
This research was carried out in a Telesecundaria located in one of the outskirts of
Xalapa, it is important to mention that Telesecundaria schools are commonly located in the
suburbs of a city or little towns. Teachers work the morning shift only, they are required to
arrive at school at 8:00 o’clock and leave at 2:00 o’clock from Monday to Friday. In
Telesecundarias there are at least one group of every secondary level –first, second and
third grades- teachers in Telesecundarias have to teach all of the following subjects. For
first grade: Spanish I, Mathematics I, Science I (biology), Geography of Mexico and the
World, Foreign Language I, Physical Education I, Technology I, Arts, State subject,
Orientation and tutorial.
For second grade: Spanish II, Mathematics II, Science II (physics), History I, Civics and
Ethics I, Foreign Language II, Physical Education II, Technology II, Arts, Orientation and
Tutorial.
For third grade: Spanish III, Mathematics III, Science III (chemistry), History II, Civics and
Ethics II, Foreign Language III, Physical Education III, Technology III, Arts, Orientation and
Tutorial.
Table 3: Study programme of Telesecundaria Schools
Every subject has its own book, the main difference between the books in general
or technical schools and in Telesecundarias is that Telesecundaria’s books include the
number of the “teleclase” for each topic students review, this way teachers can follow the
programs in an organized way. In the case of English, teachers have a book in which
students can find texts about different topics, grammar rules, examples and a kind of test
to improve their knowledge but maybe teachers do not know how to exploit all the sources
the book offers. There is also a classroom library in which different books in English are
included, but most of the teachers do not use them; some inferences can be made, it
81
might be because teachers do not understand them or students might not be interested in
them or they could think learning English is not important.
Participants
The participants were six female teachers who are different ages, they were native
speakers of Spanish. To keep their anonymity, for the purpose of this research, they were
called Li 1, Li 2, Li 3, and so forth. Teachers studied in an Escuela Normal (training school
to become a teacher) and they have been working as teachers for many years, Li 1 has
been working as a teacher for seven years, Li 2 has been working for five years, Li 3 for
about nine years, Li 4 approximately fifteen years and Li 5 and Li 6 more than twenty
years. Three teachers out of the six surveyed (Li 2, Li 4 and Li 6), stated that they have
taken an English course in order to be more prepared because they have to teach English
three times per week. The other three (Li 1, Li 3 and Li 5) commented that they have not
studied English at all. In order to obtain a more complete and varied sample of the
answers given, the teachers from all the three grades were chosen.
Research procedure
For this paper, a questionnaire and some observations were carried out. The link of the
questionnaire was sent via e-mail and text messages. The participants responded to the
questionnaires within a week. As the tool used (Google forms) to gather this data shows
the results automatically, the responses were analyzed and interpreted to do so, the charts
were analyzed carefully one by one in order to be sure the results were not repetitive, the
participants answered all the questions and the participants’ answers were coherent. An
observation sheet was designed before going to observe the Telesecundaria teachers
taking into account the purposes of this research and the teaching inquisitiveness of the
observer, it included some aspects about the teacher, the students, the English class and
the other subject. To do the observation sheet, piloting was necessary, then, an English
class and another subject class were observed. This way, the observation guide could
provide the information needed to compare the attitudes teacher showed in each class and
the way students responded. Every observation lasted about 40 minutes, it is the time a
class takes.
Observations helped in this research to get a general understanding of the
attitudes teachers had when they interacted in the English class in comparison with the
other subjects. At the same time, observations were helpful to compare what teachers had
commented in the questionnaires and what they did during the observations. In some
cases what is said is not the same as what is done.
FINDINGS
82
After analyzing all the data gathered, the information was organized in three categories in
order to get a better understanding of the topic and a wider vision of the phenomena under
study. The categories are explained as follows: 1) teachers and students’ behavior in the
Spanish classroom; 2) Teachers and students’ attitudes in the English class; 3)
Comparisons and contrasting of teachers and students’ behavior in both English and
Spanish class.
eac ers and Students’ be a ior in t e Spanis classroom
As it was mentioned, the role of the teacher is important, he is the one in charge of all the
subjects and it helps him/her to create a friendly environment in the class in most cases.
For example, in the observations it was seen that the teacher is very relaxed when
students say something, in one occasion one student made fun of the teacher and even
laughed when the teacher Li 1 made a mistake and the student corrected the teacher:
Teacher: Vamos a escribir las palabras que faltan en el texto, la primera es “sueming”…
let’s write t e missing words, t e irst one is “swimming”
Student: Ya “sueming” maestro, eso que dijo quién sabe que es. No se pronuncia
“sueming” (laughing). It is not like t at teac er, I don’t know w at you said. The
pronunciation is not “sueming”
Teacher: Bueno, yo no sé pronunciarla bien pero esa es la respuesta correcta, la que
sigue… well, I don’t know ow to pronounce it but t at word is t e correct one, next…
In this case students seem not to be respectful towards the teacher; this might be
as a result of being together every single day and all day long. The teacher did not say
anything and continued explaining. Li 1 seems to be a friend of students but has to set a
limit for students not to cross the line. It is important to draw a line because when students
have no limits, they tend to be disrespectful, especially at this age. In this specific case,
the teacher showed a very relaxed attitude and acted as if it were natural to make
mistakes.
On the contrary, Li 2 is very strict and students are always respectful, the teacher
is like a friend but with clear limits so that she can keep some control over students and
they do as teachers says. Li 2 speaks loud and has rules in the classroom. For example, if
a student is walking around the classroom, the teacher asks him to go to his place and the
student goes quickly. Li 2 is self-confident and students know that, she accepts comments
and does not get angry if students correct her. Once she was explaining something in the
English class and made a mistake, a student corrected her and she thanked him and
explained to the students again.
Teacher: ‘’Ahora vamos a ver la diferencia entre “before” y “after”, esto es súper fácil y ya
lo habíamos explicado, recuerdan que “after” es antes y “before” es después. Ahora
repitan todos “after” antes y “before” después’’. Let’s see t e di erence between “be ore”
and “a ter”, t is is easy and we a e already re iewed t is topic, remember “a ter” means
antes and “be ore”, después.
83
Student: (Student stood up and walked to the teacher) ‘’En el diccionario lo dice al revés,
“after” significa después y “before” es antes’’. (Teacher, but in the dictionary it is not the
same, “a ter” means “después” and “be ore” means “antes” .
Teacher: ‘’Gracias hijo, tienes razón. Ahorita lo corregimos con todos tus compañeros,
muchas gracias hijo, es cierto’’. You are rig t, let’s correct t e mistake, t ank you so
muc , t at’s rig t. (She was looking for that word in the dictionary to correct the mistake)
The teacher showed a good attitude and reacted in a good way, she told the
students that she was wrong and the correct words are after that means “después” and
before that means “antes”.
Li 4 is a friend of students and as well as Li 1, the students do not respect the
teacher but the difference between Li 1 and Li 3 is that Li 3 has rules and has marked the
limits. Sometimes students make comments about the teacher but the teacher cannot hear
them; and when she asks them they say they did not say anything. Students do not
respect the teacher as they are supposed to.
Li 3 only asks the students to answer the exercises on the book; she speaks louder
and reads the instructions and the activity in Spanish although it is the English class.
Students do not understand the vocabulary or the grammar rules because they are not
used to the English language. If students ask the teacher about the meaning of a word,
she answers that they have a dictionary, for example:
Student: ‘’Maestra, ¿qué significa “grin groceria”?; ¿Significa grocería?’’ (laughing)
“ eac er, w at’s t e meaning o gringrocers’? Is it a bad word?
Teacher: ‘’No niño, eso no significa (laughing) y además no se pronuncia así, se dice
“Green grocers”, significa verdulería’’.
“No, t at’s not t e meaning and t at’s not t e pronunciation, it is greengrocers’… It’s t e
place w ere you can get egetables”
Student: “¿qué significa “bakeri”?’’
(what does bakery mean?)
Teacher: ‘’Para eso tienen su diccionario, búsquenlo en el diccionario, no crean que todo
se los voy a decir yo’’.
“ at’s w y you a e a dictionary, look t e word up in t e dictionary… don’t you t ink I
will tell you e eryt ing you want to know”
Sometimes teachers do not answer students’ questions because they also do not
know what students ask.
Li 5 and L6 are friends of students but they have limits, students are respectful
and they are well behaved. There are some students who do not like to participate or to
work, though. For instance when teachers ask for examples, students prefer to stay
silence and not to say anything wrong.
84
As shown here, the teachers’ behavior goes from a relaxed to a stricter one; the
atmosphere in the classroom might depend on the teachers’ own personality, mood and
way of controlling students. In general, the English knowledge they have seems not to
interfere with the rapport they built in the classroom, they accept they make mistakes and
self-correct they let students laugh at the mistakes, yet, they have develop their own way
of controlling misbehavior.
eac ers and students’ attitudes in the English class
In telesecundaria schools most of the teachers are not specialized in English so English
tends to be rejected at this level. As mentioned before, only three of the teachers
observed have studied English courses. This fact is important to understand why English
is not practiced in the class. In most of the cases the teacher speaks in Spanish although
the book is written in the foreign language. Students are not even used to following
instructions in English. For example, once Li 1 wrote vocabulary about body parts on the
board and students copied and repeated next.
Teacher: “Nariz” “Nose”
Students: “No sé, maestra” “I don’t know, teac er”
Teacher: “cómo que no sé, dejen de jugar y traten de pronunciarla” “Don’t you know?…
stop playing and try to pronounce it” .
Students: “Pues así se escribe maestra, no sé.” “ ut t at’s t e way you write it teac er, I
don’t know”
In the English class, the teachers do not explain grammar; they just answer and
read the texts on the book. For example, in the observation, it was seen that Li 3 speaks in
Spanish all time during the English class, then, students are not familiarized with the
language.
Teacher: “La lección trata sobre lugares y voy a leer el texto para que veamos de qué
habla.” “ e lesson is about places and I’m going to read it in order to see w at it is
about”
Students: “¿Lo leemos cada quién? “Do we need to read it by oursel es?”
Teacher: “No hijo, lo voy a leer yo”… “En la verdulería se encontraron María y Victor,
necesitaban un kilo de tomates, unas naranjas y algunas zanahorias…” “No, I’m going to
read it… in t e greengrocers’. ar a and Victor met eac ot er, they needed a kilo of
tomatoes, some oranges and some carrots…”
However, there are other participants who, at least, read in English and give the
instructions in English, too. Students seem to understand a little more than the others
although the teachers do not pronounce very well. Some teachers use videos and audio
recordings in order to listen to native speakers that way students may get familiar with the
language.
Teacher: “Ya voy a poner el diálogo, todos atentos y calladitos para que escuchen lo que
dicen. Contesten la actividad pero escuchen para que escriban la respuesta” “I’m going to
85
play the dialogue, pay attention and be quiet in order to listen to what they are talking
about. Answer the activity but listen carefully in order to write the answers”
Student: “Ay maestra, hablan bien rápido y ni se les entiende nada. Yo no entiendo nada,
ni se cómo se escribe eso que dicen” teac er, t ey speak ery ast and I don’t
understand. I don’t understand anyt ing and I don’t know ow to write w at t ey say”
Teacher: “Así es como se habla el inglés, traten de identificar las palabras conocidas”
“ at’s t e way Englis is spoken, try to identi y t e words t at you know”
To conclude, students look not very familiarized with the English language. Also,
teachers might not teaching English as they do not speak it, English is difficult for the
teachers, they lack confidence with the target language as they are not experts on it.
Students know their teachers are not prepared and they make fun of the teacher; students
criticized the way teachers pronounced the words and gain a little control over the
teachers but not that much as they do not know either. As a final remark, it can be said
that English can be a difficult subject to teach, and so, the teacher’s insecurity or lack of
confidence can easily be perceived when they teach it. Despite this, they seem not to lose
the control of the class.
Comparisons and contrasting of teachers and students’ attitudes in bot Englis and
Spanish class
The observations showed that as teachers in telesecundaria teach all the subjects, the
relationship between them and students is very close. This is because they spend around
six hours together every day during the week. Both, teachers and students, feel confident
with each other, therefore, their attitudes are worthwhile discussing.
First of all, students in the English class usually get bored easily more than in the
other classes mainly because they do not understand what is written in the English book.
The attitude in this class from both, teacher and students, is negative because on the one
hand, the students do not understand. And on the other hand, the teacher does not know
how to explain teachers do not have a special training in the subject matter.
The teacher speaks in Spanish during the English class. This could be a negative
aspect because students are learning English; they need to practice it. As teachers do not
speak English, students do not show interest and start talking or doing other things.
Most of the teachers just use the book and the blackboard to teach English, only
two out of the six teachers do different activities, such as watching videos about grammar
explanations, listen to dialogues and others. Students are more interested when the
teacher does something different in the class. For example, when Li 3 played the video the
students were in silence and they started repeating the vocabulary after the pronunciation.
Students showed interest and they repeated without the teacher’s instruction.
86
When students had questions in the English class about vocabulary, the teacher
suggested students to use the dictionary in order to get the answer. Students have
dictionaries but they do not know how to use it because sometimes they do not know the
spelling of the words.
The participants seem to be self-confident in the Spanish class, on one occasion
Li 5 explained the different kind of words, such as oxytone, paroxytone and proparoxytone.
Li 5 asked students to give examples in order to review what they already know.
Student: “Maestra, ¿tengo que decir una palabra esdrújula?” “ eac er, do I a e
to say a proparoxytone word?”
Teacher: “Sí, un ejemplo de una palabra esdrújula” “Yes, gi e an example o a
proparoxytone word”
Student: “Ay maestra es que no me acuerdo” “ ut I don’t remember”
Teacher: “Ya lo revisamos, es la palabra que suena fuerte en la ante penúltima sílaba”
“we re iewed t is topic, t e words stressed on t e t ird -to - last syllable are
proparoxytones)
In the Spanish class, teacher seemed to be more comfortable than in the English class
and answered the students faster and in a different way such as giving examples about
what they were talking about.
CONCLUSION
In this research, important information was obtained. According to Vega López and
Trinidad (n.d.), Telesecundaria teachers are the ones who promote the change in the
society and they have to promote values in the students to incorporate them in social life.
Unfortunately, students in Telesecundaria are not trained as they should because of the
lack of materials and poor teaching techniques on the side of the teacher. As illustrated
before, teachers are not well-prepared to teach all the subjects. Telesecundaria teachers
use very few techniques to teach, resulting in regular lessons which demotivate students;
especially at this age, when they are curious and want to do more dynamic activities.
Telesecundaria teachers’ attitudes are not varied from one class to other,
teachers and students feel comfortable in the classroom and as they spend many hours
per day there, the environment is friendly and relaxed. The way teachers teach varies from
subject to subject; in the Science class, for example, they do activities such as
experiments, in Spanish they make comparisons, in English they translate texts. The 50
minutes they have to teach a subject is not enough for students’ practice to consolidate,
activities should be short.
Telesecundaria educational model has to be improved in order to provide better
education for students. One possible way of solving this problem is by having different
teachers teaching according to their teacher profile. It may take long to have teachers from
different areas in one school but it is necessary to offer better education conditions. In the
87
case of English, it is urgent that telesecundaria teachers should be trained to improve the
language classes so that students see the real use of learning a language.
LIMITATIONS
While doing this research some limitations made the process a bit difficult. First of all, the
time the school term is not enough for doing a deep research, more time was necessary to
obtain richer data. Second, the school that was chosen for doing the observations is very
poor and dilapidated. The environment is not good enough to promote the learning
conditions, this could be a problem because if they do not work in a good environment,
learning does not take place. Another limitation was the online questionnaire, a person
answered it four times, making the data collection harder for the researcher. Finally,
another problem that was faced was the observations; they were difficult because of the
teachers’ schedule, in some cases, the teachers had English class at the same hour
making it difficult to organize the observations.
TEACHING IMPLICATIONS
First of all teachers need to be trained in the subjects they teach because it is not the case
to teach something wrong or halfway; this could affect the students’ learning process. It is
also important to improve the teachers’ teaching skills because they always do the same
and at this age, adolescents need to be motivated, classes should not be reduced to only
answer the books. Telesecundaria teachers should try different activities, for example,
quizzes, games, songs, and other strategies that are useful. Also, BA in English students
should do their social service in these schools. Finally, the attitude Telesecundaria
teachers have regarding English need to be improved. By having a better attitude towards
the language teachers can motivate students better and involve them in the learning
process.
FURTHER RESEARCH
Interesting information was found with this research, for example, that videos are not used
anymore; the lack of training and knowledge on behalf of the teachers, etc. Hence, it is
expected that in the near future it will be possible to investigate about some strategies a
Telesecundaria teacher could use for teaching the subjects they do not have much
knowledge about. For example, the use of technology, as it is supposed that
Telesecundaria teachers use the television, they could also use of web pages to facilitate
the teaching and learning processes. Technology could be a useful tool for not well
prepared teachers and in Telesecundaria the use of it might make the difference in
education but as Backhoff, Pérez & Contreras (2015) mention, only six out of every ten
Telesecundaria teachers use the media to teach a subject in a Telesecundaria school. (p.
8)
88
As it is known, nowadays the internet is very useful and talking about English,
Telesecundaria teachers can look for activities online, games, tests and also exams that
they can use in the classroom. Students should do different activities and the use of these
materials could help teachers if they are not prepared. It is important to take into account
that Telesecundarias need to do some research because there is not enough information
about these schools, how they work, how teachers deal with all the problems face with the
school premises, students, the materials, the equipment, etc.
REFERENCES
Backhoff Escudero, E., Pérez Morán, J. C., & Contreras Roldán, S. (2015). Congreso Latinoamericano de Medición y Evaluación Educacional. Las telesecundarias en México: resultados de TALIS 2013, (from 1 to 9). México.
Backhoff Escudero, E., Pérez Morán, J.C. (2015). Segundo estudio internacional sobre la
enseñanza y el aprendizaje. Resultados de TALIS 2013, (from 169 to 173) Briñol, P., Falces, C., & Becerra, A. (2007). Actitudes, In J.F. Morales, E. Gaviria, M.C.
Moya Morales, & M.I. Cuadrado Guirado, Psicología Social (from 3 to 946) Avaraca (Madrid) Spain, McGraw Hill.
Cortés, M., & Iglesias, M. (2004). Generalidades sobre Metodología de la Investigación.
Ciudad del Carmen: Universidad Autónoma del Carmen.
Dirección General de Materiales Educativos (dgme), d. l. (2011). Modelo Educativo para el
Fortalecimiento de Telesecundaria Documento base. México: SEP.
Estrada Quiroz, R. (2003). Telesecundaria: los estudiantes y los sentidos que atribuyen a
algunos elementos del modelo pedagógico. Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa, 8(17), (from 221 to 243).
Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández-Collado, C., & Baptista Lucio, P. (2006). Metodología
de la Investigación. México D.F.: McGraw-Hill.
INEE. (2016) Instituto Nacional de Evaluación Educativa. Retrieved from
www.inee.edu.mx/bie/mapa_indica/2005/.../RS/RS03/2005_RS03__.pdf Jiménez Hidalgo, J. D., Martínez Jiménez, R., & García Mancilla, C. D. (2010). La
telesecundaria en México: un breve recorrido histórico por sus datos y relatos. México: Secretaría de Educación Pública.
Kawulich, B. B. (2005). La observación participante como método de recolección de datos.
FORUM: QUALITATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH (translated by López, D.), 6(2), 1-32
Las telesecundarias en México: resultados de TALIS 2013. (2015). Segundo Congreso
Latinoamericano de Medición y Evaluación Educacional, (from 1 to 9). México.
89
Núñez Palma, J. A. (2005) La enseñanza del inglés en la escuela secundaria (Master’s degree in educational innovation) Universidad Pedagógica Nacional Unidad 26A, Hermosillo, Sonora.
Quecedo, R., & Castaño, C. (2003). Introducción a la metodología de investigación
cualitativa. Revista de psicodidáctica, (14), (from 5 to 39)
Rodrigues, A., Leal Assmar, E. M., & Jablonski B. (2009). Psicología Social. Río de
Janeiro: Vozes.
Sánchez Fernández, S., Mesa, F., & Carmen, M. (n.d.). Instituto Universitario de
Investigación de la Paz y los Conflictos de la Universidad de Granada. Retrieved from http://www.ugr.es/~eirene/publicaciones/eirene_item9.html
Sandoval Flores, E. (2009). La inserción a la docencia. Aprender a ser maestro de
secundaria en México. Profesorado, (from 185 to 190).
SEP. (2000). Licenciatura en Educación Secundaria. México: Secretaría de Educación
Pública.
SEP. (2000). Licenciatura en Educación Secundaria. Campo de Formación específica.
Especialidad: Lengua extranjera (Inglés)
SEP. (2001). Programa para la Transformación y el Fortalecimiento Académicos de las
Escuelas Normales. México: Secretaría de Educación Pública.
SEP. (2016).Secretaría de Educación Pública. Retrieved from http://telesecundaria.dgmie.sep.gob.mx/formacion/temario.php SEP. (2016).Secretaría de Educación Pública . Retrieved from http://telesecundaria.dgmie.sep.gob.mx/mapa/ SEV. (2016).Secretaría de Educación de Veracruz. Retrieved from www.sev.gob.mx/servicios/convocatorias/rec_hum/2009/perfil/TV.pdf
THE AUTHORS
LILIANA EDITH CAMPOS MONTERO, with a degree in English (Universidad Veracruzana), teacher of kindergarten and elementary school in Colegio Nuestro Mundo; with 2 years of teaching experience. She teaches English in a constructivist model. [email protected] OLGA LIDIA SÁNCHEZ CRUZ Specialized in Language eac ing, aster’s Degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language for the Universidad Veracruzana, C1 certification by the University of Cambridge. Professor of the BA in English of the Universidad Veracruzana. She is currently teaching English among other subjects, and coordinating the English Academy. [email protected]
90
GLORIA OFELIA DE LA SOLEDAD REYES MENDEZ. Bachelor degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language for the Universidad Veracruzana, Master´s Degree in Education. Certification for Overseas Teachers of English for the University of Cambridge. Professor of English at the Universidad Veracruzana. She is currently teaching English and translation subjects to the different majors of the Universidad Veracruzana. [email protected]
91
Appendix 1
92
Appendix 2
93
94
¿ENSEÑANDO CON IMÁGENES UN VOCABULARIO EFICAZ?
Alicia Marcela Rendón Castro Elia Cristina Rosales Galindo
Mabel Jiménez González Universidad Veracruzana
RESUMEN
Diversos estudios apoyan la idea de que las técnicas en el proceso de enseñanza-
aprendizaje de léxico de un idioma extranjero son de suma importancia, debido a que son
herramientas motivadoras que permiten ordenar el trabajo, priorizar ideas, aprovechar los
recursos disponibles de mejor modo, además permiten al alumno enfrentar el
conocimiento a futuro. Teniendo tal referencia, se propone el uso de la técnica visual en la
enseñanza de léxico. Nation (2008) afirma que la técnica visual es aquella que está
relacionada con todo lo que ven los estudiantes y en donde se utilizan recursos visuales
tales como: imágenes, cuadros y diagramas, siendo ésta eficaz en la enseñanza del
léxico porque fomenta la memorización de las palabras de manera significativa,
principalmente en aquellas palabras como los sustantivos, adjetivos calificativos,
adverbios de modo y verbos. Por lo consiguiente, en el Centro de Idiomas- región
Veracruz de la Universidad Veracruzana se trabaja en un proyecto en fase inicial, la cual
involucra actividades didácticas donde el alumno demuestre el aprendizaje de léxico
simple o compuesto, utilizando la técnica visual para comprobar si realmente la
adquisición de nuevo léxico es eficiente. Para este proyecto se tomó como muestra
alumnos de dos idiomas diferentes, inglés e italiano, de niveles básicos. El objetivo
principal de este trabajo es compartir los resultados de aprendizaje de léxico obtenidos
por los alumnos hasta el momento. Así mismo, contribuir a la comunidad inmersa en la
enseñanza de idiomas extranjeros con actividades que fomenten el aprendizaje
significativo de una manera dinámica.
Palabras claves: Técnica visual, léxico, enseñanza, aprendizaje significativo.
INTRODUCCIÓN
En la actualidad en México el aprendizaje de un idioma extranjero se ha vuelto sin duda
indispensable debido a que este país es parte del mundo globalizado y va expandiendo
internacionalmente sus horizontes en el comercio, educación, cultura, etc., es decir, la
globalización al ser considerada como un proceso de interacción e integración entre la
gente, las empresas y los gobiernos de diferentes naciones, conlleva a que los jóvenes
mexicanos adquieran un idioma extranjero y cuenten con las herramientas que les ayuden
a ser agentes competitivos en los ámbitos laborales, académicos y personales.
95
Para que los jóvenes de nuestro país sean competitivos en los ámbitos
mencionados anteriormente, es primordial que los programas de estudios de idiomas
extranjeros tanto a nivel primaria, medio superior y superior desarrollen en los aprendices
competencias lingüísticas que les ayuden a comunicarse, es decir, que unifiquen los
conocimientos, habilidades y actitudes para que sean capaces de comprender,
transformar y actuar en el mundo actual. El Centro de Idiomas región Boca del Río de la
universidad pública del estado de Veracruz, Universidad Veracruzana, se suma a esta
tarea colosal, formando estudiantes competentes interesados en adquirir los
conocimientos, las habilidades y las actitudes necesarias para el dominio de una lengua
extranjera y el manejo de la diversidad lingüístico-cultural, la cual es reflejada de manera
competitiva en los ámbitos laboral y social.
No obstante, se ha podido observar que durante nuestra labor docente de los
idiomas inglés e italiano básico en Centro de Idiomas se necesita fortalecer la
competencia léxica, para que ésta a su vez genere una competencia lingüística entre los
aprendices. Así mismo, se ha identificado que uno de los factores cruciales en el proceso
de enseñanza-aprendizaje del léxico de dichos idiomas es el uso de técnicas apropiadas
para la enseñanza. Por lo consiguiente, el presente documento es un trabajo de
investigación en fase inicial que se refiere al tema del fortalecimiento de la competencia
léxica de los idiomas inglés e italiano a través de la técnica visual. El planteamiento del
problema está basado en la siguiente pregunta ¿Cómo se puede fortalecer la
competencia léxica de los idiomas inglés e italiano para que el alumno sea capaz de
desarrollar su competencia lingüística de dichos idiomas?
La investigación de esta problemática se realizó por el interés de conocer sí
realmente la competencia léxica de los alumnos de inglés básico 1 (IBAS100) y los
alumnos de italiano (OBAS 100) se fortalece mediante la técnica visual y los vuelve más
competentes lingüísticamente. Por otro lado, también tiene la finalidad de concientizar a
los profesores inmersos en la enseñanza de idiomas y a los alumnos a utilizar dicha
técnica para el incremento de léxico, proponer clases más dinámicas y difundir el
conocimiento alcanzado por los alumnos. Este proyecto de investigación está enfocado en
tres fases. En la primera se pretende demostrar que los estudiantes adquieren léxico
simple o compuesto, en la segunda el estudiante aprende expresiones fijas y semi-fijas y
en la tercera el estudiante aprende colocaciones.
JUSTIFICACIÓN
Nation (1990) señala “Vocabulary is now recognized as central to any language
acquisition process,native or non-nati e” por lo tanto, dentro del proceso de enseñanza-
aprendizaje de cualquier idioma extranjero es primordial que el aprendiz maneje
vocabulario para el desarrollo lingüístico y competencia léxica; que los docentes utilicen
técnicas efectivas y apropiadas en la enseñanza del mismo las cuales favorezcan el
aprendizaje y a la vez éstas generen ambientes propicios para la producción del idioma
extranjero.
96
Durante nuestra labor docente en el Centro de Idiomas región Veracruz de la
Universidad Veracruzana a través de los resultados de evaluaciones se ha podido
identificar que los alumnos que cursan IBAS100 y OBAS100 presentan un léxico
insuficiente para poder expresar información oral y/o escrita en un nivel básico, el cual de
acuerdo con el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las lenguas (MCER) el
estudiante es capaz de comprender y utilizar expresiones cotidianas de uso muy
frecuente, así como frases sencillas destinadas a satisfacer necesidades de tipo
inmediato. Por tal motivo, esta investigación tiene como finalidad ayudar a los alumnos
que presentan esta problemática a incrementar su léxico mediante la técnica de ayuda
visual, para que a su vez lleguen a tener una mejor competencia lingüística Por otro lado,
esta investigación pretende aportar información de los resultados a la comunidad de
profesores del idioma inglés e italiano que enseñen en el área básica para que sea
modelo de una mejor técnica de enseñanza de vocabulario y así se contribuya a la
mejora de las clases para hacerlas más dinámicas y motivacionales para los alumnos.
MARCO TEÓRICO
Las técnicas de aprendizaje
Las primeras escuelas, las griegas, son la cuna de los primeros métodos o técnicas de
aprendizaje, las primeras formas de presentar el saber de aquella época, a través de la
comunicación, del intercambio entre los pueblos. Las técnicas de aprendizaje han estado
presentes desde que el hombre empezó a adquirir conocimiento, a reflexionar y a
filosofar. Cuando el individuo experimenta el proceso de aprendizaje se enfrenta también
a ciertas técnicas que le son útiles en todo su camino para llegar a un aprendizaje
significativo. (Flores, 2004).
Las técnicas de acuerdo con Brown son las actividades específicas manifiestas
en el salón de clases que son consistentes con un plan (método) y por lo tanto en armonía
con un enfoque. (Brown 2001). Mientras que Bernardo et al (2011) las definen como una
serie de herramientas que ayudan a mejorar el aprendizaje y rendimiento académico, las
cuales, al ponerse en práctica, agilizan, dinamizan y, sobre todo, facilitan el conocimiento
y su retención. Las estrategias, técnicas y medios de aprendizaje que se planifican de
acuerdo con las necesidades de la población a la cual van dirigidas, los objetivos que
persiguen y la naturaleza de las áreas y cursos, tienen la finalidad de hacer más efectivo
el proceso del aprendizaje.
Las técnicas y estrategias son herramientas de vital importancia dentro del
aprendizaje de un idioma extranjero, de acuerdo con Oxford (1990), quien desarrolló una
taxonomía de estrategias para el aprendizaje de una lengua (Strategies Inventory for
Language Learning, SILL), estas son pasos tomados por los estudiantes para formar su
aprendizaje. A su vez, Gu (2003) considera las estrategias como una serie de acciones
que el estudiante decide llevar a cabo para facilitar su aprendizaje. Además, agrega que
97
las estrategias empiezan cuando el aprendiz analiza la tarea y la situación, haciéndolas
viables en su repertorio.
Desde este punto de vista, para Jones (1995) las estrategias de aprendizaje
utilizadas para un idioma no van en contra de las técnicas, sino considera que existe una
estrecha relación entre ambas. Jones (1995) define las estrategias como las encargadas
de establecer lo necesario para resolver bien la tarea del estudio y las que determinan las
técnicas más adecuadas a utilizar. Mientras que las técnicas son las responsables de la
realización directa del aprendizaje, a través de procedimientos concretos.
Técnica visual
Según Magaña (2011) la técnica visual es aquella que está relacionada con todo lo que
ven los estudiantes, utiliza recursos visuales tales como imágenes, cuadros y diagramas.
Es una técnica eficaz utilizada en la enseñanza del léxico porque fomenta la
memorización de las palabras de manera significativa, principalmente aquellas palabras
como los sustantivos, adjetivos calificativos, adverbios de modo y verbos.
French opina que dentro de esta técnica se pueden utilizar varios materiales
visuales como son los objetos físicos (realias). Estos objetos reales (realias) son de gran
utilidad cuando se quiere enseñar léxico concreto a los alumnos de nivel básico. También,
los dibujos o pinturas pueden ser utilizados dentro de esta técnica para presentar el
vocabulario tanto concreto como abstracto. (French, 1983).
Sin embargo, trabajar con imágenes puede tener algunas limitaciones. Magaña
(2011) afirma que es posible que los alumnos se preocupen demasiado por la imagen y
se olviden de la palabra en sí, explica que quizá si la palabra que deben aprender es
“run”, solamente se van a enfocar en la cara de la persona que está corriendo haciendo
un lado el significado. Por tal motivo siguiere que es mejor darles las palabras escritas,
para que el propósito sea bien claro.
De la misma manera, Nation menciona la importancia de determinar el significado
de una imagen, para que no haya diferentes maneras de interpretarla, es decir; es muy
importante que las imágenes sean claras y precisas. Sin embargo, puntualiza que no es
fácil encontrar una imagen que corresponda a una sola palabra. Por ejemplo, una persona
que está comiendo puede representar diferentes palabras de varias categorías
gramaticales: hombre, comer, delicioso, verduras, etc. (Nation 2001).
La técnica visual ha sido recuperada por los seguidores y practicantes del
método de Respuesta Física Total (Total Physical Response- TPR) la cual promueve la
inmersión inicial en una gran cantidad de información comprensible mientras se hace uso
del entorno inmediato del salón de clases, y de las cosas que se pueden introducir en el
aula. Una lección siguiendo este método requiere que el profesor demuestre acciones,
use objetos reales, dibujos para que luego los aprendices respondan siguiendo ciertos
98
comandos. Los diferentes autores antes mencionados coinciden en que la técnica visual
es representada mediante diferentes herramientas o recursos visuales tales como dibujos,
ilustraciones, tarjetas, murales, diapositivas, realias, entre otros; para la enseñanza del
nuevo léxico.
Al respecto, Cuesta (2009) indica que estas herramientas no solo pueden
enseñar vocabulario nuevo, sino también ayudan a practicar el léxico previo, puesto que
estimulan los principios básicos de la memoria visual. Tornberg (2009) afirma que las
asociaciones fomentan la memorización de palabras, según este autor es muy importante
que los alumnos puedan relacionar la nueva palabra con sus conocimientos anteriores.
De esa manera pueden recordar la palabra durante más tiempo.
Léxico
Partiendo de la pregunta de qué es el léxico, podríamos encontrarnos con un sinfín de
definiciones y posturas, desde el significado de la real academia española, la cual define
al léxico como:
1. adj. Perteneciente o relativo al léxico (vocabulario de un idioma o región).
2. adj. Ling. Que expresa contenidos o conceptos propios del léxico, por
oposición a los característicos de la gramática.
3. m. Diccionario de una lengua.
4. m. Vocabulario, conjunto de las palabras de un idioma, o de las que
pertenecen al uso de una región, a una actividad determinada, a un campo
semántico dado, etc.
5. m. Conjunto de voces, modismos y giros característicos de un autor o de una
obra.
Durante la década de los 90 comienza a gestarse lo que más adelante sería uno
de los abordajes más innovadores y característicos de estos tiempos en el ámbito de la
enseñanza-aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras. Los lineamientos más importantes del
enfoque léxico son definidos por el conocido lingüista británico Michael Lewis en 1993,
bajo su obra titulada The Lexical Approach. The State of ELT and a Way Forward, en
donde dice que el léxico consiste en el aprendizaje no solo de palabras o vocabulario
aislado, sino en el aprendizaje de bloques prefabricados de palabras (chunks) y en donde
la idea principal es lograr la fluidez y la naturalidad en la comunicación gracias a la
adquisición de segmentos léxicos, pues son enunciados lingüísticos empleados por
nativos. Así, Lewis (1993) propone enseñar estos segmentos léxicos desde niveles
iniciales para que a medida que los aprendientes avancen en el conocimiento de la lengua
extranjera sean capaces de separar dichos segmentos léxicos, reconocerlos y usarlos
para otros segmentos.
Aprendizaje significativo
99
El aprendizaje es un proceso mediante el cual el sujeto, a través de la experiencia, la
manipulación de objetos, la interacción con las personas genera o construye
conocimiento, modificando, en forma activa sus esquemas cognoscitivos del mundo que
lo rodea, mediante el proceso de asimilación y acomodación. No obstante, lo que
realmente importa es tener un aprendizaje significativo, el cual según el teórico
norteamericano David Ausubel (1978), es el tipo de aprendizaje en donde un estudiante
relaciona la información nueva con la que ya posee, reajustando y reconstruyendo ambas
informaciones en este proceso. Dicho de otro modo, la estructura de los conocimientos
previos condiciona los nuevos conocimientos y experiencias, y éstos, a su vez, modifican
y reestructuran aquellos. Este concepto y teoría están enmarcados en el marco de la
psicología constructivista.
Siguiendo la idea que menciona Ausubel acerca del aprendizaje, Nation (1990),
menciona que el estudiante tiene que enfrentarse a la adquisición de palabras nuevas
(léxico) o conjunto de palabras como lo menciona Lewis (1993) por medio de un
aprendizaje significativo, ya que tanto estudiantes como maestros ven al léxico como un
elemento importante en el proceso de aprendizaje de una lengua.
Competencia léxica
La enseñanza del léxico tiene como finalidad que las unidades léxicas pasen a la
competencia comunicativa o lingüística del individuo, dado el valor del vocabulario como
elemento estructurador del pensamiento (función simbólica) y su necesidad para la
interacción social (función comunicativa), tal como manifiesta French (1983) Es evidente
que el léxico es el componente lingüístico que mejor comprende el conocimiento del
mundo y la competencia comunicativa de un hablante porque, como indican Ogden y
Richards (1954), el lenguaje es un medio para conseguir objetivos y para simbolizar
relaciones.
El dominio del léxico de una lengua puede observarse en cuatro componentes:
1. Competencia gramatical (lexicología, morfología y semántica, relaciones entre
los signos y sus referentes, formación de palabras, elección de palabras para expresar
significados específicos, etc.)
2. Competencia sociolingüística (conocimiento de las reglas socioculturales de
uso, adecuación de la forma al contexto sociolingüístico, interpretar los enunciados por su
significado social, interpretar el lenguaje figurado).
3. Competencia discursiva (combinación de significados para lograr un texto
hablado o escrito en diferentes géneros).
4. Competencia estratégica (estrategias verbales y no verbales para compensar
las deficiencias en la comunicación real debidas a limitaciones o a incapacidades
100
momentáneas -gramaticales, sociolingüísticas, discursivas-, y también para aumentar o
realzar el efecto retórico de los enunciados).
Así mismo es importante mencionar factores que pueden facilitar o limitar la
competencia léxica, por ejemplo, Thornbury (2008) menciona que hay factores como
pronunciación, ortografía, longitud, complejidad, gramática, significado, connotación e
idiomaticidad los cuales están inmersos en la competencia léxica. Nation también afirma
que el aprendizaje de nuevo vocabulario de una lengua extranjera es todo el tiempo
influenciado por el primer idioma, causando en mucho de los casos un efecto de
“fosilización” esto es que los estudiantes siempre mantienen el significado de la primera
lengua para el significado de la palabra nueva sin darse cuenta de que quizá la palabra
tenga un significado diferente debido al contexto. Un ejemplo de ello es cuando se
cuestiona a los estudiantes: “what are you like?” y confunden la palabra “like” con el verbo
gustar. A lo que Folse (2004) menciona que efectivamente la polisemia es un factor de
esencial de estudio para todos los alumnos de una lengua extranjera, ya que la mayoría
de las palabras polisémicas o significado múltiple tienen que ser aprendidas bajo un cierto
contexto, puesto que si no se hace de esa manera se interpretan erróneamente.
Por otro lado, si el estudiante es limitado en vocabulario en su propio idioma esto
hace que no se aventure a descubrir y aprender nuevas palabras en el idioma extranjero.
Estudiantes con un nivel de competencia bajo tienden a relacionar el vocabulario de
acuerdo al sonido de las palabras, por ejemplo, tienden a conectar palabras con sonido
similar como horse y house, además tienden a relacionar sonidos del idioma materno con
el idioma a aprender, por ejemplo, actually y actualmente, lo cual causa problemas de
aprendizaje puesto que los alumnos confunden el significado. (Nation 1990).
Con respecto a la pronunciación Thornbury (2008) comenta que las palabras con
sonido desconocido o no familiar para los estudiantes son las que mayormente cuestan
trabajo de aprender, así como las que son difíciles al pronunciar. En cuanto a la
ortografía de la palabra comenta que parece ser uno de los factores que contribuye a que
una palabra se dificulte debido a que hay muchas irregularidades, por ejemplo, las
palabras que contienen letras silenciosas tales como: know, pneumonia, tomb, etc.
En este sentido, Folse (2004) indica que el idioma inglés tiene una correlación
baja entre las letras y el sonido, lo que hace que muchas palabras se escriban y
pronuncien erróneamente. Esto es especialmente cierto cuando el inglés es comparado
con idiomas como el español o japonés en donde la pronunciación es consistente con la
ortografía de la palabra. Así mismo conocer la ortografía de la palabra es bastante
desafiante para estudiantes de la L2, puesto que una letra puede tener diferentes sonidos,
un ejemplo de ello es la letra a que puede ser pronunciada en cinco diferentes modos: cat
/ae/, at er /a/, lawn /[Ɔ]/, cake /eI/, inter al /ə/ [sc wa]. (Folse, 2004).
Thornbury (2008) en su libro How to teach vocabulary menciona que las palabras
más largas parecen ser las palabras problemáticas para los estudiantes a diferencia de
101
las palabras cortas, puesto que las palabras cortas son más usadas, es decir, las palabras
cortas son frecuentes en la comunicación del estudiante y favorecen la capacidad de su
aprendizaje.
Para Folse (2004) la frecuencia es muy importante en la competencia lingüística
debido a que hace que el estudiante adquiera la palabra con facilidad, efecto contrario al
no tener la frecuencia adecuada, ya que sin ella la palabra jamás se adquiere. Por
ejemplo, las palabras starving, ravenous y famished pueden significar lo mismo, no
obstante, una de ellas es la más común por su uso frecuente dependiendo el contexto.
Nation (1990) también considera la frecuencia del uso de palabras para el
desarrollo de la competencia léxica. Menciona que un estudiante puede obtener el
aprendizaje de una palabra por la frecuencia en que se usa en los textos, en las lecciones
de clases, en su lengua materna y por su frecuencia en sí, es decir, cuando un maestro
utiliza una palabra demasiadas veces ésta tiene un impacto en el estudiante. Así mismo
comparte la opinión de Thornbury (2008) con respecto a que las palabras cortas son las
más utilizadas, y comenta que en inglés las palabras monosílabas tales como: big, run,
can, bag, etc son usualmente las más frecuentes.
Otro factor que Nation (1990) puntualiza es el caso de la adecuación o la
inadecuación de la palabra, lo cual se da cuando el estudiante de la lengua extranjera
utiliza una palabra inadecuada para el contexto en que se desenvuelve la comunicación,
por ejemplo, cuando utiliza una palabra descontinuada o anticuada en vez de una
actualizada o una informal en vez de una formal. El significado de la palabra es un
elemento más que atender cuando se aprende léxico. Cuando dos palabras como en el
caso de make y do tienen el mismo significado puede ser causa de un mal aprendizaje, o
al contrario cuando una palabra tiene muchos significados también puede causar
dificultades puesto que el estudiante asocia esa palabra con un solo significado y le es
complicado aceptar el segundo o tercer significado totalmente diferente. (Thornbury,
2008).
Davies (2000) menciona que a pesar de que el aprender léxico puede ser una
tarea gratificante para el estudiante y pareciera un asunto simple a primera vista, no
obstante, es un trabajo arduo y desafiante, ya que mientras que la gramática pareciera ser
finita el léxico es virtualmente infinito. Mantener cientos y después miles de palabras y
frases activas para la comunicación en los estudiantes de una lengua extranjera es una
labor complicada, debido a que veces tienen que hacer un esfuerzo en memorizarse las
palabras o frases que raramente utilizan en una comunicación real pero que serán
evaluadas en las próximas pruebas, lo cual hace que alumno se sienta desmotivado por
aprender un vocabulario descontextualizado con sus intereses.
Competencia lingüística
102
El concepto de competencia lingüística, lexicón mental o léxico mental utilizado por
Chomsky es definido como un sistema de reglas que, interiorizadas por el individuo,
conforman sus conocimientos verbales (expresión) y le permiten entender un número
infinito de enunciados lingüísticos (comprensión) (Chomsky 1965), es decir, es el conjunto
de conocimientos que permiten al hablante de una lengua el comprender y producir una
cantidad, potencialmente infinita de oraciones gramaticalmente correctas, con una
cantidad finita de elementos.
Para Padilla et al (2008) la competencia en comunicación lingüística se refiere a
la utilización del lenguaje como instrumento de comunicación oral y escrita, de
representación, interpretación y comprensión de la realidad, de construcción y de
comunicación del conocimiento y como instrumento de organización y de autorregulación
del pensamiento, de las emociones y de la conducta, y la cual tiene como objetivo final el
dominio de la lengua oral y escrita en numerosos contextos.
PREGUNTAS DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Pregunta Central
¿Cómo se puede fortalecer la competencia léxica del idioma inglés e italiano para que el
alumno sea capaz de desarrollar su competencia lingüística del mismo idioma?
Interrogantes del estudio
¿Juega un papel importante el léxico en el aprendizaje de un idioma?
¿Tener léxico extenso y diverso es esencial para el dominio de una lengua extranjera
(inglés/ italiano)?
¿Cómo prenden las palabras y frases los alumnos?
¿Qué estilos de aprendizaje prefieren los estudiantes?
¿Qué tipo de estudiantes hay en las clases?
¿Qué tipo de técnica es la que utilizan los alumnos para aprender léxico?
¿Qué propósito tiene la técnica visual?
¿Tener técnicas para aprender léxico es de ayuda para los alumnos?
¿Las clases de idiomas se vuelven significativas con ayuda de diversas técnicas para
aprender léxico?
¿Los alumnos con léxico extenso y diverso son más competentes lingüísticamente
hablando que los que carecen de este?
HIPÓTESIS
Alumnos de inglés e italiano básico fortalecen su competencia léxica mediante la técnica
visual haciéndolos más competentes lingüísticamente.
MÉTODO
103
El Centro de Idiomas de la Universidad Veracruzana región Veracruz se encuentra
situado en la ciudad de Boca del Rio, Veracruz, México. Fue fundado en octubre de 1980
y actualmente ofrece cursos de diferentes lenguas extranjeras entre las cuales están:
alemán, inglés, italiano, francés y chino, además cursos de comprensión de Textos en
inglés, los cuales son ofertados en una amplia variedad de horarios. A su vez, el Centro
de Idiomas funge como sede de algunos exámenes de certificación internacional en
lenguas.
El centro de Idiomas de la Universidad Veracruzana región Veracruz cuenta con
una población de 3,125 estudiantes. Entre los cuales 1000 pertenecen a unos de los
programas de licenciatura de la Universidad Veracruz y los 2000 restantes son alumnos
considerados público externo. Cabe mencionar que este tipo de estudiantes son
profesionistas, amas de casa, jubilados alumnos de último semestre de bachillerato o
alumnos que sólo se dedican al estudio de un idioma extranjero. El 90% de los
estudiantes pertenece a un nivel socioeconómico medio-bajo a medio, y el 10 % un nivel
medio - alto.
La muestra que se seleccionó para esta investigación está constituida por dos
grupos. El grupo de italiano básico 100 el cual cuenta con 20 estudiantes, 14 mujeres y 6
hombres cuyas edades fluctúan entre los 17 y 65 años. El horario de clase de este grupo
es de 10:15 a 11:30 horas de lunes a jueves. El segundo grupo corresponde a un nivel
básico 100 de inglés, cuyos integrantes son 18 mujeres y 2 hombres. El horario de este
grupo es de 9:00 a 10:15. Dentro de este grupo, existen 13 individuos que estudian un
programa de licenciatura de la Universidad Veracruzana, el resto son personas
pertenecientes a público en general, cuyas edades están comprendidas entre los 30 y los
50 años. El procedimiento de muestreo que se realizó en esta investigación es no
probabilístico, se seleccionaron estos alumnos debido a que por medio del ejercicio diario
frente a grupo nos percatamos que los estudiantes no adquirían el vocabulario nuevo.
La primera fase de la investigación, enseñar léxico simple y compuesto por medio
de la técnica visual, se inició en febrero de 2017 y se concluyó en agosto de 2017. La
investigación es de tipo cuasi experimental y el enfoque utilizado en esta investigación fue
el método cuantitativo y cualitativo. Las técnicas de investigación fueron observaciones,
exámenes (pre-test y un post-test) y encuestas. Las observaciones que se hicieron fueron
de participantes, en donde se formó parte activa del grupo que se estudió con el fin de
saber el nivel de léxico que poseían los alumnos, y por lo consiguiente se tuvo una visión
más clara de lo que sucedió en el grupo, ya que los miembros se comportaron
normalmente al no saberse sujetos de estudio.
Con respecto los exámenes estos fueron formatos redactados en forma de
interrogatorio en donde se obtuvo información acerca de las variables a investigar.
Primeramente, se les aplicó un pre- examen (pre-test) con diez palabras de léxico
concreto previamente seleccionado, léxico no común para ellos, utilizando la técnica
104
auditiva como contraste. Posteriormente se aplicó el post-examen (post-test) con las
mismas características del pre-test, léxico concreto y mismo número de reactivos
utilizando la técnica visual.
La tercera técnica, fue la encuesta, la que consiste en obtener información acerca
de una parte de la población o muestra, mediante el uso del cuestionario o de la
entrevista. Su objeto puede variar, desde recopilar información para definir el problema
hasta obtener información para probar una hipótesis. Se aplicó una encuesta con formato
de cuestionario a la muestra, para saber las opiniones de los alumnos con respecto a la
técnica visual y si ésta durante toda la investigación cumplió con su cometido, fortalecer la
competencia léxica del inglés e italiano de los alumnos de nivel básico del Centro de
Idiomas. Los datos fueron analizados de manera cuantitativa y cualitativa.
CONCLUSIONES
Puesto a que la investigación está en su fase inicial, aun no es posible llegar a
conclusiones que comprueben o rechacen la hipótesis planteada, solo se cuenta con los
resultados de la fase uno, en donde se encontró que los estudiantes tienen una
preferencia por la técnica visual en comparación a la técnica auditiva puesto que los
resultados del pos-test muestran un incremento de aciertos, los cuales fueron
comprobados mediante la prueba de t de Student.
RESULTADOS
Muestra: 20 alumnos Grupo: OBAS 100
Calificación % de alumnos
Técnica auditiva
% de alumnos
Técnica visual
≥ 5 70 0
6 15 15
7 10 20
8 5 30
9 0 25
10 0 10
105
RESULTADOS Muestra: 20 alumnos Grupo: IBAS 100
Calificación % de alumnos
Técnica auditiva
% de alumnos
Técnica visual
≥ 5 70% 20
6 10 30
7 15 5
8 5 10
9 0 20
10 0 15
≥ 5 6 7 8 9 10
70%
15% 10%
5% 0% 0% 0%
15% 20%
30% 35%
10%
OBAS 100
Técnica Auditiva Técnica Visual
106
De la misma manera por medio de los resultados de la encuesta se concluye que
los alumnos se sintieron más a gusto con la técnica visual debido a que expresaron haber
aprendido el léxico con más facilidad por imágenes ya que estas los ayudaban a
relacionar, interpretar o tener una idea del contexto, caso contrario a cuando les
explicábamos los conceptos. Además, las imágenes les permitían pensar más sin traducir
a la lengua materna.
Sin embargo, se puntualiza que, si bien se encontraron aspectos positivos al usar
imágenes como herramientas para el aprendizaje de léxico tales como interés en la
palabra y la clase, retención de esta, estimulación de la imaginación, también se encontró
que no todas las imágenes fueron óptimas para enseñar el léxico que habíamos
seleccionado. Hubo imágenes que les parecieron confusas a los estudiantes y algunas
otras más no daban el significado a enseñar, de igual manera hubo una limitación de
léxico con relación a la imagen, es decir, los estudiantes insistían en relacionar la imagen
a determinadas palabras sin generar nuevas ideas.
Por lo antes mencionado se pretende que estas observaciones den pauta para
mejorar en la segunda fase de la investigación, la cual se llevará a cabo para finales de
noviembre abarcando el periodo intersemestral de invierno diciembre 2017- enero 2018,
en donde se pretende enseñar léxico de expresiones fijas y semifija.
≥ 5 6 7 8 9 10
70%
10% 15%
5% 0% 0%
20%
30%
5% 10%
20%
10%
IBAS 100
Técnica Auditiva Técnica Visual
Calificación
107
REFERENCIAS
Ausubel, D., Novak, J., y Hanesian, H. (1978). Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View (2nd Ed.). New York, U.S.A: Holt, Rinehart y Winston.
Bernardo, J C. (2011). Enseñar hoy: Didáctica básica para profesores. Madrid, España:
Síntesis Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language
Learning. London, U.K.: Longman. Chomsky, N. (1965) Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge, U.S.A.: MIT Press. Cuesta G.M. (2009) Manual de apoyo visual en la enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras.
MEDISAN. 13(5). En: http://bvs.sld.cu/revistas/san/vol13_5_09/san08509.htm Davies, P. y Eric P. (2000) Success in English Teaching. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University
Press. Flores, M. (2004) Creatividad y Educación. Técnicas para el desarrollo de capacidades
creativas. México, D. F., México: Alfaomega. Folse, K.S. (2004) Vocabulary Myths: Applying Second Language Research to Classroom
Teaching. Ann Arbor, U.S.A.: University of Michigan Press. Folse, K. S (2008) Six Vocabulary Activities for the English Language Classroom. English
Teaching Forum, 46(3), 2-12. ERICIS. SN: ISSN-1559-663X French A. V. (1983) Techniques in Teaching Vocabulary. Oxford, U.K: Oxford University
Press. Gu, P. Y. (2003). Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language. Person, Task, Context and
Strategies. TESL–EJ, 7(2). Recuperado de http://www.tesl-ej.org/ej26/a4.html Jones, F., Palincsar, A., et. al. (1995) Estrategias para enseñar a aprender. Buenos Aires,
Argentina: AIQUE. Lewis, M. (1993), The Lexical Approach: The State of ELT and a Way Forward. Boston,
U.S.A.: Thomson and Heinle. Magaña, L. (2011). Estilos de aprendizaje en: Estrategias para aprender vocabulario: Un
estudio piloto sobre combinaciones de estrategias de aprendizaje y métodos de enseñanza. En http://www.tecnologias-ova.com/tutores/recursos/recurso23.pdf
Nation, P. (2001) Learning vocabulary in another language. New York, U.S.A.: Cambridge
University Press. Nation, P. (2008) Teaching Vocabulary: strategies and techniques. Boston, U.S.A.: Heinle
and Heinle.
108
Nation, P. (1990) Teaching and learning vocabulary. Boston, U.S.A.: Heinle and Heinle. Ogden, C.K. y Richards L.A., (954), El significado del significado. Buenos Aires, Argentina:
Paidós. Oxford, R. (1990) Adult Language Learning Styles and Strategies in an Intensive Training
Setting. The modern language journal,74. Padilla, D. et al (2008) La competencia lingüística como base del aprendizaje. INFAD
Revista de Psicología, 1, ISSN: 0214-9877. Thornbury, S. (2008). How to Teach Vocabulary. London, U.K.: Pearson Longman. Tornberg, U. (2009). Lengua perspectivas educativas - Sobre el aprendizaje y la
enseñanza de las lenguas extranjeras. Pamplona, España: Liber
LAS AUTORAS
ALICIA MARCELA RENDÓN CASTRO docente de inglés del Centro de Idiomas región Veracruz, de la Universidad Veracruzana, cuenta con la licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa de Universidad Veracruzana y maestría en Educación de la Universidad de México. Ha fungido como coordinadora de la academia del AFBG y de niveles intermedios. [email protected] ELIA CRISTINA ROSALES GALINDO profesora egresada de la Universidad Veracruzana de la licenciatura de lengua inglesa, con maestría en Educación en la Universidad Euro Hispanoamericana, coordinadora del área de inglés en el Centro de Estudios Tecnológicos del Mar 07, Veracruz, profesora de Inglés del Centro de Idiomas región Veracruz y AFBG. [email protected] MABEL JIMÉNEZ GONZÁLEZ licenciada en lenguas extranjeras con especialidad en ciencias diplomáticas y relaciones internacionales, con estudios de maestría en Educación. Forma parte de la AMIT, es coordinadora de la academia estatal de italiano en la Universidad Veracruzana y actualmente se desempeña como maestra de italiano e inglés en el Centro de Idiomas de la Universidad Veracruzana. [email protected]
109
EL ENFOQUE BASADO EN TAREAS Y EL PNIEB
Esteban Juan Bautista Zárate Mejía
Secretaría de Educación de Veracruz [email protected]
RESUMEN El Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación Básica (PNIEB) es más que un documento.
Constituye un referente sui generis en el aprendizaje de la legua inglesa en el contexto
público mexicano. Ello se debe a que su estructura plantea toda una teoría de la lengua y
del aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras. Asimismo, ofrece una guía metodológica para su
aplicación en clase. Del mismo modo, brinda sugerencias para efectuar la evaluación del
desarrollo de competencias comunicativas en los estudiantes. Sin embargo, su
operatividad ha experimentado diversas vicisitudes. Entre ellas se encuentran las
metodologías que los docentes han empleado para la enseñanza del inglés. Estas ideas
son discutidas a lo largo del presente documento en el cual se presenta, en primera
instancia, un panorama de la enseñanza del inglés hasta el 2011. Asimismo, se exponen
las condiciones necesarias para operar efectivamente el PNIEB. En un segundo
momento, se exponen concepciones teóricas y metodológicas sobre la lengua, su
aprendizaje, la organización de contenidos desde el diseño de secuencias de actividades
bajo el enfoque basado en tareas y procedimientos de evaluación de competencias. La
finalidad del presente documento es que tanto investigadores educativos del área de
enseñanza y aprendizaje de la lengua inglesa en el contexto mexicano como profesores
de educación básica cuenten con bases teóricas necesarias para poder analizar el cómo
se ejecutan las prácticas docentes al implementar el PNIEB en el aula.
Palabras clave: PNIEB, metodología, evaluación, teoría del aprendizaje, secuencia
didáctica, Enfoque Basado en Tareas
INTRODUCCIÓN
El Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación Básica (PNIEB por sus siglas) ha
representado un verdadero desafío para los docentes de inglés de educación básica. Ello
se debe a diversos factores. El primero se refiere a las condiciones de operación de dicho
programa. Sobre todo en educación básica, donde ha mostrado distintas inconsistencias
en su operatividad e implementación en el aula. Un segundo desafío es la estructura
metodológica bajo la cual se constituye.
La metodología bajo la cual se fundamenta el PNIEB suele ser compleja. Esto se
debe a que en su conformación confluyen, al menos, tres perspectivas o nociones del
aprendizaje de lenguas: el enfoque comunicativo-funcional, el enfoque del aprendizaje
basado en tareas y una noción socio-interactiva del aprendizaje de la lengua (Mejía,
110
Briseño y Cardoso, 2014). Tales perspectivas –o nociones- sobre el aprendizaje de una
lengua extranjera resultan, la mayoría de las veces, incomprensible para los profesores de
educación básica, razón por la cual es necesario proporcionar a tales docentes un
acercamiento teórico-metodológico que les permita diseñar situaciones de aprendizaje
acordes a las necesidades de sus alumnos.
Para comenzar este estudio, se aborda un somero recorrido histórico por el
panorama mexicano de la enseñanza del inglés hasta el año 2011 en el cual se publicó el
PNIEB para secundaria. Posteriormente, se continúa con una revisión de las condiciones
ideales para lograr los objetivos que el PNIEB se plantea –desarrollar y consolidar las
habilidades comunicativas de los estudiantes a través de prácticas sociales del lenguaje-.
Enseguida se desarrollan los aspectos curriculares imbricados en el PNIEB, así como la
teoría de la lengua y del aprendizaje que subyacen. Del mismo modo se explican los
constructos prácticas sociales del lenguaje y competencias específicas. Esta sección
concluye con un abordaje teórico sobre la metodología del aprendizaje basado en tareas y
el diseño de situaciones de aprendizaje. El documento finaliza recapitulando los aspectos
más sobresalientes abordados en esta revisión teórica sobre el PNIEB y el enfoque
basado en tareas.
JUSTIFICACIÓN
Panorama de la Enseñanza del Inglés en México al 2011
La enseñanza del idioma inglés en México se ha desarrollado desde hace más de
ochenta años. De acuerdo con la Subsecretaría de Planeación y Evaluación de Políticas
Educativas (2015), la enseñanza del inglés en secundaria es obligatoria desde 1926.
Lamentablemente, no se tiene datos de un seguimiento histórico documentado que dé
cuenta de las transformaciones en la enseñanza del inglés que hayan ocurrido desde
aquél entonces hasta el año 1975 (Latapí, 1975). En tal virtud, sólo se procede a
mencionar algunas transformaciones relevantes en cuanto a la enseñanza del inglés a
nivel currículo, desde el año 1958 hasta 1975.
Para dar cuenta de ello, Latapí menciona que en el sexenio 1958-1964 se
emprendió una revisión de los planes y programas de estudio por áreas de conocimiento.
En tal virtud, con el propósito de que la educación contribuyese al desarrollo
socioeconómico de aquella época, se modernizó la estructura curricular de la Educación
Secundaria. Con ello, la asignatura de Inglés pasó de tener una hora a dos horas a la
semana, aunque no se precisa una perspectiva teórica del aprendizaje y de la enseñanza
de lenguas extranjeras (Latapí, 1975).
Para el sexenio 1964-1970, las reformas a los planes y programas de estudio
tuvieron una perspectiva pedagógica desde el aprendizaje basado en la acción y la
enseñanza mediante la producción de constructos ideológicos o materiales. Sin embargo,
nada se menciona en cuanto a la enseñanza del inglés. Para el sexenio 1970-1976, los
111
planes y programas de estudio establecieron objetivos específicos de aprendizaje a través
de la exploración y descubrimiento del conocimiento. Asimismo, estableció mecanismos
para acreditar conocimientos adquiridos. Sin embargo, no hace mención alguna sobre la
enseñanza del inglés (Latapí, 1975).
Información escasa se tiene con respecto a programas de inglés para el periodo
1982-1988. La única información disponible proviene de Mejía, Briseño y Cardoso (2014)
quienes mencionan que el programa de inglés de 1982 tenía como objetivo que los
estudiantes conocieran los aspectos formales de la lengua con el propósito de leer
literatura en inglés. Ello bajo la creencia que el lenguaje literario era superior al hablado.
Para que los alumnos alcanzasen dicho objetivo, ellos debían conocer y memorizar las
reglas gramaticales y el vocabulario de la lengua que estaban aprendiendo –inglés-, a fin
de traducir textos literarios.
Un parte aguas en los planes y programas de estudio se originó en el sexenio
1988-1994. Particularmente, el 18 de mayo de 1992, “se firmó el Acuerdo Nacional para la
Modernización de la Educación Básica (ANMEB), mediante el cual el gobierno federal, a
través de la SEP, transfirió a los gobiernos de los estados los servicios de educación
básica” (Zorrilla y Barba, 2008, p.7). Esta transferencia de los servicios educativos a los
estados permitió que diseñaran e implementaran sus propios programas de inglés para
educación básica –algunos con un énfasis en necesidades regionales como en los
estados fronterizos-(Subsecretaría de Planeación y Evaluación de Políticas Educativas,
2015).
En esta reforma - conocida como reforma del 93-, particularmente en el nivel
Secundaria, se reorganizó el currículo por asignaturas y se empezó a distribuir materiales
a los maestros como fue el denominado Libro para el Maestro. En dicho texto, se
esbozaba una guía metodológica para la enseñanza del inglés a adolescentes mexicanos.
Del mismo modo, se estableció en el currículo nacional de educación secundaria el pasar
de dos a tres horas a la semana de instrucción en Lengua Extranjera –inglés- (Latapí,
2004; Secretaría de Educación Pública, 1995; Secretaría de Educación Pública, 1993).
El programa de Lengua Extranjera Inglés establece que el propósito de la
enseñanza de dicha lengua es que el alumno “la utilice como instrumento de
comunicación; es decir, que tenga la posibilidad de adquirir conocimientos a través de
ella, de comprender y expresar ideas, sentimientos y experiencias y no solo la considere
objeto de estudio” (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 1993, p. 130). Para lograr tal
objetivo, el enfoque metodológico para la enseñanza del inglés fue el comunicativo. Dicho
enfoque “traslada la atención de lo que es el lenguaje a lo que se hace con el lenguaje,
determinando así los contenidos a enseñar, el papel de los alumnos y del maestro, el tipo
de materiales y los procedimientos y técnicas” (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 1993, p.
132).
112
Sin embargo, la falta de información referente al nivel mínimo de dominio del
idioma con el que debían contar los docentes, la carencia de entrenamiento pedagógico
bajo el enfoque comunicativo y las prácticas docentes como la traducción y la repetición
en coro han hecho que, desde la implementación del Programa de Lengua Extranjera
Inglés 1993 hasta el inicio del nuevo milenio, los estudiantes no sean capaces de
desarrollar sus habilidades lingüísticas ni de comunicarse en inglés (Secretaría de
Educación Pública, 2006). Ante tal situación, en el año 2006 la Secretaría de Educación
Pública emprendió una revisión del plan del 93.
Dicha revisión implicó establecer un objetivo de enseñanza contextualizado a la
realidad mexicana, así como una descripción más detallada de la metodología de
enseñanza. En cuanto al objetivo de enseñanza, se estableció el identificar, practicar y
aprender lo que hacen los usuarios expertos de la lengua extranjera para y durante la
interpretación y producción de textos orales y escritos, enfatizando la función social de
tales actos lingüísticos. De ahí surge que el objeto de estudio son las “prácticas sociales
del lenguaje” (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2006, p. 109).
En especial, el programa de estudios 2006 Lengua extranjera inglés adoptó una
noción del aprendizaje bajo el enfoque del aprendizaje basado en la experiencia. Este
enfoque encuentra sus bases en una concepción constructivista del aprendizaje bajo la
cual cada individuo –aprendiz- constantemente construye y reconstruye significados a
partir de la interpretación de experiencias personales. Por ello, se puede decir que la
experiencia personal inmediata es el punto focal del aprendizaje (Secretaría de Educación
Pública, 2006).
Además, este enfoque permite una organización de los contenidos mediante
unidades temáticas agrupadas por bloques a través de los cuales los alumnos desarrollan
tres práctica sociales del lenguaje: “Realizar algunas transacciones básicas, Dar y obtener
información factual de tipo personal y no personal; y establecer y mantener contactos
sociales” (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2006, p. 125). Para poder desarrollar cada
práctica social del lenguaje, los estudiantes requieren conocer y desarrollar un cierto
número de funciones del lenguaje. Por ejemplo, para la práctica social del lenguaje
Establecer y mantener contactos sociales, los estudiantes debían desarrollar las funciones
del lenguaje Dar consejos así como Hacer y responder sugerencias (Secretaría de
Educación Pública, 2006).
Con el presente programa de estudios 2006, se pretendió que los alumnos hayan
estudiado, al finalizar tercero de secundaria, un promedio de 270 a 300 horas de inglés,
por lo cual deberían haber salido con un nivel A2 del Marco de referencia europeo para el
aprendizaje, la enseñanza y la evaluación de lenguas. Sin embargo, los resultados de un
estudio emprendido por una organización empresarial mexicana revelaron que cerca de
un 80% de alumnos participantes se situó en un nivel inferior al A2. Tan sólo un 6% del
total alcanzó el nivel A2. Ello demuestra que los alumnos “no poseen las herramientas
113
básicas para comunicarse en inglés con base en los estándares nacionales e
internacionales plasmados por la SEP” (Székely, O’Donoghue y Pérez, 2015, p.86).
A la par del programa nacional que sólo estructuró la enseñanza del inglés a nivel
Secundaria, 21 entidades federativas generaron sus propias propuestas para la
enseñanza del inglés a nivel primara. Sin embargo, al no ser un programa a nivel
nacional, provoca que su operación sea heterogénea en cuanto a cobertura, niveles de
logro, contenidos que abordan y horas de clase. Tal situación propicia la necesidad de
diseñar programas de estudio para la enseñanza del inglés desde tercer año de
preescolar hasta sexto grado de primaria, así como crear las condiciones para operarlos
con equidad y calidad en todas las escuelas del país (Secretaría de Educación Pública,
2011a).
Ante tal panorama, a partir del 2009 y hasta el 2011 la Secretaría de Educación
Púbica empezó a diseñar e implementar el Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación
Básica (PNIEB por sus siglas). El objetivo de este programa fue que los estudiantes que
concluyeran el tercer año de secundaria, lo hicieran con un dominio de inglés intermedio-
nivel B1 de acuerdo con el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las Lenguas
(MCER)-(Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a).
Asimismo, se diseñaron planes y programas de estudio desde tercero de
preescolar hasta tercer grado de secundaria. También se incluyeron programas de
formación continua y de certificación del dominio del idioma para docentes. Del mismo
modo, se desarrolló una innovación sui-generis: la Certificación Nacional de Nivel de
Inglés (CENNI). Tal certificación permitió generar equivalencias de los distintos
estándares de inglés- equiparables a los propuestos por el MCER- y se determinaron los
niveles de conocimiento que los alumnos de educación básica debían tener en cada ciclo
del PNIEB. Tal propuesta innovadora resultó acotada al fusionarse con otros programas
gubernamentales que conformaron Programa de Fortalecimiento de la Calidad en
Educación Básica (Instituto Mexicano para la Competitividad, 2015).
A pesar de tan ambicioso programa, los resultados obtenidos por el estudio hasta
el año 2015 demuestran que México tiene un sistema de enseñanza del inglés que no
ofrece oportunidades significativas de aprendizaje del idioma. Esta aseveración se verifica
al momento en que los alumnos no son capaces de poner en práctica en una
conversación lo que han estudiado en clase (Mexicanos Primero, 2015). Ante tal
situación, se debe plantear cuales son las condiciones mínimas y necesarias para
alcanzar los objetivos del PNIEB.
Condiciones necesarias para lograr los objetivos del PNIEB
Existen tres áreas que las autoridades educativas deben atender para lograr
satisfactoriamente implementar el PNIEB. La primera es el desarrollo curricular, la
segunda se enfoca en el desarrollo de materiales y la tercera de orienta al desarrollo
114
profesional del docente de inglés. La primera área, desarrollo curricular, requiere un
replanteamiento en cuanto a su alcance. El PNIEB está diseñada para que los alumnos
transiten por un camino gradual desde un nivel A0 o Desconocimiento total del idioma
hasta que alcancen un nivel B2 o de usuario independiente, de acuerdo con el MCER
(Sayer, Mercau y Blanco, 2013).
Sin embargo, se han desarrollado estudios en los cuales se evidencia que los
alumnos después de haber dedicado un aproximado de 360 horas a clases de inglés
durante su educación básica, “no pueden comunicarse ni por escrito ni de manera oral
con sus interlocutores (Székely, O’Donoghue y Pérez, 2015). Ello se debe principalmente
a que no existe una continuidad, vinculación y secuencia entre los contenidos de primaria
y los de secundaria, aunado a que en el nivel de preescolar y primaria las lecciones de
inglés bajo el programa PNIEB tiene un estatus no obligatorio (Ramírez, Pamplón y Cota,
2012). Ante tales condiciones, los alumnos que ingresan a secundaria pública no cuentan
con bases sólidas para alcanzar el nivel B2 que el PNIEB señala.
El segundo aspecto se refiere al uso y desarrollo de los materiales didácticos.
Para la Secretaría de Educación Pública (2001), se espera que los docentes utilicen en
sus clases de inglés textos auténticos; por ejemplo, etiquetas comerciales, cartas,
diálogos, entre otros. Sin embargo, también reconoce que se pueden diseñar materiales
didácticos cuyo propósito sea social y comunicativo, que estén contextualizados y
respondan a modelos de lenguaje auténticos. El diseño y/o adaptación de materiales
didácticos –sin incluir el libro de texto- es responsabilidad del docente. Un estudio reciente
señala que la formación, capacitación y experiencia de los profesores de inglés no
cuentan con las habilidades necesarias para seleccionar, adaptar y diseñar materiales
educativos acordes a las necesidades de aprendizaje de los alumnos (Ramírez, Pamplón
y Cota, 2012).
El tercer rubro se refiere a la falta de un nivel adecuado en conocimiento, uso y
comprensión del idioma por parte del docente, lo que trae como consecuencia que sus
estrategias metodológicas de enseñanza propicien que sus alumnos no desarrollen las
habilidades necesarias para comunicase en inglés (Calderón, 2015). Con respecto a
estrategias metodológicas, resultados de estudios recientes con profesores de educación
básica arrojaron que una carencia fundamental de ellos es el desconocimiento sobre
cómo crear ambientes de aprendizaje propicios para la enseñanza y el aprendizaje del
inglés, así como sobre organización de los contenidos de enseñanza y los aprendizajes
esperados (Mejía, Briseño y Cardoso, 2014; Mejía, Briseño y Cardoso, 2013).
Especial énfasis se hace en el docente de inglés. Ello se debe a que en diversos
escenarios educativos en nivel básico, es el único actor que sirve como modelo a seguir
por los estudiantes. Por tal motivo, resulta fundamental que el docente genere las
condiciones necesarias para promover situaciones de comunicación oral y escrita en la
que se use el inglés con fines académicos, sociales, literarios y lúdicos (Secretaría de
Educación Pública, 2011a). Para ser más específicos, se requiere que el docente conozca
115
y domine los propósitos y contenidos del nivel educativo donde prestarán sus servicios.
Dicho de otro modo, se requiere de un docente que reconozca todos los componentes de
la situación educativa en la que está implicado con los alumnos y que sepa adaptarse a
dicha situación (González, 2011).
Sin embargo, el reto más importante que el PNIEB le presenta al docente de
educación básica es el diseñar, implementar y evaluar situaciones de aprendizaje que
propicien en el alumno las capacidades para comunicarse de manera básica en diversas
situaciones en las que utilice el lenguaje para organizar su pensamiento y su discurso,
para analizar y enfrentar problemas y para manejar diferentes expresiones culturales.
Para lograr tales habilidades en el docente, éste tiene que ofrecer muestras modelo de la
lengua que enseña; seleccionar y modificar documentos que usará como auxiliares
didácticos, a partir de criterios de contenido lingüístico o referencial; así como aplicar
evaluaciones formales prestando mayor atención al uso del código o lengua que enseña
(Martínez, Killian, Delgado y Brande, 2013).
En síntesis, el desafío que representa la implementación del PNIEB en educación
básica es una adecuación a los contenidos curriculares del programa. Se debe tener en
cuenta el panorama actual en el cual alumnos que estudian en escuelas primarias
públicas no cuentan en su totalidad con suficientes profesores de inglés y que además
cuenten con el conocimiento sobre el idioma y la capacitación adecuada en metodologías
didácticas para lograr los objetivos del PNIEB. Es por ello que cuando los alumnos llegan
a secundaria –en el ámbito público- es casi imposible lograr que desarrollen las
habilidades lingüísticas y culturales necesarias para poderse comunicar en inglés con
otras personas.
Aunado a la adecuación curricular, el otro reto que enfrenta el profesor de inglés
en educación básica es su propio dominio de la lengua inglesa, así como su propia
preparación profesional. Como se hizo mención, un docente que no posee suficiente
conocimiento sobre la lengua inglesa se encuentra en serias dificultades para poderla
enseñar. Del mismo modo, si el docente desconoce los fundamentos teóricos –la
perspectiva sobre la lengua inglesa y su enseñanza-, el objetivo de aprendizaje y el
enfoque didáctico del diseño de situaciones de aprendizaje, originará que sus alumnos no
desarrollen las destrezas, habilidades y actitudes necesarias para comunicarse
adecuadamente en inglés con otras personas. Ante tal escenario, es necesario revisar los
aspectos curriculares y del enfoque de enseñanza del Programa Nacional de Inglés en
Educación Básica.
DESARROLLO
Aspectos Curriculares del PNIEB
Un primer aspecto a revisar es el de la Política Lingüística (PL) en la que se inserta el
PNIEB. Para entender tal término, conviene revisar la definición de Payne (2007, p. 237
116
citado en Reyes, Murrieta y Hernández, 2012, p. 171): “la política, planeación,
organización y facilitación de aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera o segunda lengua”. La
PL se refiere al conjunto de acciones encaminadas a establecer condiciones generales
para el aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera. En el caso de México, tales acciones se
derivan de los resultados obtenidos en 2006 en el Programa para la Evaluación
Internacional de Estudiantes (PISA por sus siglas en inglés) administrado por la
Organización para la Cooperación y el Desarrollo Económico –OCDE- (Reyes, Murrieta y
Hernández, 2011).
De los resultados obtenidos en tal evaluación, surgen doce recomendaciones
que OCDE efectuó al sistema educativo mexicano. Dos de ellas cobran especial
importancia: la necesidad de establecer estándares de logro en áreas clave como lectura,
aritmética y alfabetización digital; y la de alinear el currículo de éstas para que guarden
coherencia en la progresión de un nivel de estudios a otro, así como el diseño de
materiales didácticos que las apoyen (Hopkins, Ahtaridou, Matthews y Poster, 2007,
citado en Reyes, Murrieta y Hernández, 2011). Dentro de ese contexto, distintos
documentos de política educativa mexicana- como el Plan Sectorial de Educación 2007-
2012 y el Plan Nacional de Desarrollo 2007-2010- han considerado la necesidad de
reformar, reforzar y articular la enseñanza de una lengua extranjera en toda la educación
básica (Reyes, Murrieta y Hernández, 2011).
Para lograr la enseñanza del inglés en toda la educación básica, se identifica
como un aspecto necesario el incorporar la asignatura de inglés de una manera articulada
a los planes y programas de estudio de la educación básica (desde tercero de preescolar
hasta la secundaria). El marco contextual de esta política tuvo como fundamento atender
las necesidades de desarrollo de México en un mundo globalizado, en el cual se requiere
que los países cuenten con ciudadanos que posean un domino efectivo del inglés desde
edades más tempranas –política más y temprano- (Sayer, Mercau y Blanco, 2013;
Mercau, Sayer y Blanco, 2012).
Una vez establecida la política educativa en la que se enmarca el PNIEB, se
revisan las características del programa PNIEB, así como el propósito de la enseñanza de
inglés para la educación básica –con especial énfasis en educación Secundaria-. Para
comenzar, el propósito general de la enseñanza del inglés en Educación básica se definió
como propiciar las condiciones necesarias para que los alumnos “obtengan los
conocimientos necesarios para participar en prácticas sociales del lenguaje -orales y
escritas- con hablantes nativos y no nativos del inglés mediante competencias
específicas” (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a, p.22). Como se puede apreciar, el
propósito de la enseñanza del inglés busca que los alumnos desarrollen competencias
comunicativas, sociales y culturales a través del aprendizaje del idioma.
De una manera más particular, el propósito de la enseñanza del inglés en
educación básica es lograr que los alumnos reconozcan el papel del lenguaje en la
construcción del conocimiento y de los valores culturales, además de que desarrollen una
117
actitud analítica y responsable ante los problemas que afectan al mundo. Para lograr tal
propósito, se estructuraron programas de estudio cuyo objetivo es el desarrollo de
competencias que conllevan la producción e interpretación de diversos textos orales y
escritos –de naturaleza cotidiana, académica y literaria– mediante los cuales los alumnos
serán capaces de satisfacer necesidades básicas de comunicación en diversas
situaciones cotidianas, familiares y conocidas (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a).
En segundo lugar, se describe grosso modo los propósitos bajo los cuales los
programas de estudio se desarrollaron. Los programas de estudio del PNIEB son cuatro y
están organizados por ciclos de aprendizaje. El Ciclo 1 comprende de tercer año de
preescolar hasta segundo grado de primaria. El propósito central de este ciclo es
sensibilizar a los alumnos en relación con el inglés. El Ciclo 2 (tercero y cuarto grado de
primaria) persigue que los alumnos obtengan los conocimientos necesarios para
comprender y utilizar el inglés para establecer un contacto social básico con su repertorio
lingüístico (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a).
El Ciclo 3 abarca quinto y sexto grado de primaria. El propósito de la enseñanza
del inglés en este ciclo es que los alumnos desarrollen competencias específicas para
desarrollar tareas comunicativas simples y cotidianas sobre temas conocidos o habituales.
Finalmente, el Ciclo 4 –que abarca de primero a tercero de secundaria- tiene como
propósito que los alumnos consoliden su dominio del inglés en situaciones comunicativas
básicas y desarrollen competencias específicas para que comprendan y produzcan, de
manera general, textos orales y escritos sobre diversos temas (Secretaría de Educación
Pública, 2011a).
Ahora bien, el enfoque pedagógico del PNIEB busca el desarrollo de
competencias. Este término se refiere al “conjunto de capacidades que incluye
conocimientos, actitudes, habilidades y destrezas que una persona logra mediante
procesos de aprendizaje y que se manifiestan en su desempeño en situaciones y
contextos diversos” (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2004, p.22). En específico, el
PNIEB enfatiza tres tipos de saberes relacionados con la lengua inglesa. El primero es
saber hacer e implica acciones comunicativas en situaciones concretas de interacción. El
segundo, saber sobre la lengua, significa conocer las propiedades, características y
elementos del lenguaje. El tercero es el saber ser y está vinculado con las actitudes y
valores que permiten la comunicación armónica, tolerante e inclusiva ante la gran
diversidad cultural (Martínez, Killian, Delgado y Brande, 2013).
Después de haber revisado el propósito que tiene la enseñanza del inglés en
educación básica –lograr que los alumnos mediante el uso de una lengua extranjera
construyan su conocimiento y valoren la dimensión cultural que ello implica, así como el
enfoque pedagógico bajo el que se sustenta el PNIEB –enfoque bajo el desarrollo de
competencias- se analizarán los elementos teóricos que constituyen la visión del uso y
aprendizaje de la lengua inglesa. Dicho análisis pretende identificar la definición que el
118
PNIEB hace sobre la lengua inglesa, así como el enfoque que este programa sugiere
para la enseñanza de dicha lengua.
Teoría sobre la Lengua y del Aprendizaje
Para comenzar, se definen los conceptos teoría sobre la lengua y teoría sobre el
aprendizaje de lenguas. El primer término se refiere a la percepción sobre cómo se
organiza, comporta y funciona una lengua con un propósito en específico. Además, la
teoría sobre la lengua influye directamente sobre un método o enfoque de enseñanza
(Richards y Rodgers, 2001). Por su parte, la teoría sobre el aprendizaje de lenguas se
refiere a los procesos psicolingüísticos y cognitivos incluidos en el aprendizaje de una
lengua, así como las condiciones que se deben reunir para que dichos procesos de
aprendizaje sean activados (Richards y Rodgers, 2001).
Une vez definidos los términos en cuestión, la teoría de la lengua bajo la que el
PNIEB se fundamenta considera a la lengua como un objeto complejo mediante el cual un
individuo comprende el mundo y se integra a la sociedad; expresa, intercambia y defiende
sus ideas; mantiene sus relaciones interpersonales; accede a la información; participa en
la construcción del conocimiento; y que sirve no sólo a propósitos comunicativos, sino
también cognitivos y de reflexión sobre su propio proceso de creación discursiva e
intelectual. Por lo tanto, ser un usuario competente de la lengua significa ser capaz de
interactuar con otros a través de la producción e interpretación de textos orales y escritos
con el fin de participar en la sociedad (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011b; Secretaria
de Educación Pública, 2006).
Desde la perspectiva teórica sobre la lengua, el aprendizaje de la lengua inglesa
implica adquirir las convenciones (implícitas) de uso impuestas socialmente y los modos
de usarlas en los diversos ámbitos sociales en los que participan las personas para:
comunicar y pensar las ideas y los sentimientos; establecer y mantener relaciones con las
personas; acceder a la información; construir conocimientos; y organizar el pensamiento
(Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011b). Además, este enfoque se basa en una
perspectiva de la lengua llamada socio-interactiva. Esta perspectiva define al lenguaje
como un vehículo para el desarrollo de relaciones interpersonales y para el desarrollo de
transacciones sociales entre individuos en contextos ordinarios de actividades cotidianas
(Mondada y Doehler, 2004; Richards y Rodgers, 2001).
Dicha percepción sobre la lengua se traduce a una teoría sobre el aprendizaje del
inglés. Para el PNIEB, el aprendizaje del inglés se basa en la capacidad de reflexión
sobre la lengua y su vínculo con las funciones comunicativas del lenguaje con el propósito
de analizar y mejorar la competencia comunicativa de los alumnos. Asimismo, el PNIEB
promueve y fomenta la reflexión de las formas lingüísticas del lenguaje, además de sus
funciones y usos comunicativos (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a). Dicha
percepción se materializa mediante un enfoque metodológico llamado prácticas sociales
del lenguaje.
119
Asimismo, una forma de manifestar en el programa de estudios dicho enfoque es
a través de la sistematización de competencias específicas con el lenguaje –saber sobre,
hacer y ser con el lenguaje- en un contexto social determinado. Dichas competencias se
refieren al tratamiento de acciones comunicativas desarrolladas en situaciones concretas
de interacción, en las que resalta la función social del lenguaje. Por lo tanto, a través de la
participación situada en diversos ambientes sociales se puede desarrollar competencias
específicas con el lenguaje (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a). A continuación se
aborda a detalle el sustento teórico sobre las prácticas sociales del lenguaje y las
competencias específicas.
Prácticas Sociales del Lenguaje y Competencias Específicas
En primer lugar se define el concepto de prácticas sociales del Lenguaje. Para la
Secretaría de Educación Pública (2011a, p.28), las prácticas sociales del lenguaje:
[…] son pautas o modos de interacción que, además de la producción o
interpretación de textos orales y escritos, incluyen una serie de
actividades vinculadas con éstas. Cada práctica está orientada por una
finalidad comunicativa y tiene una historia ligada a una situación cultural
particular. Por ejemplo, en la actualidad, las prácticas del lenguaje oral
que involucran el diálogo son muy variadas. Éste establece o se
continúa de acuerdo con las regulaciones sociales y comunicativas de
las culturas donde tienen lugar.
Cabe recordar que la percepción del lenguaje como un vehículo de comunicación
social proviene de una interpretación Vigotskiana sobre la naturaleza del lenguaje. Es
decir, se asume que la naturaleza del lenguaje se encuentra en la sociedad. Esto se debe
a que la sociedad establece patrones de comunicación basados en situaciones culturales
específicas. De ahí deriva que en el aprendizaje de una lengua es más importante
aprender patrones sociales de interacción que solamente contenidos lingüísticos
(Sánchez, 2004).
En segundo lugar, las prácticas sociales del lenguaje se enmarcan en una visión
del aprendizaje bajo la premisa de construcción social del conocimiento. En otras
palabras, los ambientes sociales contribuyen a generar las condiciones para el
aprendizaje de una lengua -inglés- porque implican el desarrollo de actividades colectivas
que favorecen la participación y el intercambio de información entre iguales a partir de lo
que cada uno sabe hacer y necesita aprender para superar con éxito el desafío de
comunicarse en inglés con un propósito social específico. Por ello, se puede afirmar que
esta perspectiva de aprendizaje de la lengua no considera variedades lingüísticas mejores
que otras (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a).
120
Por otra parte, la manifestación en el programa de estudios de las prácticas
sociales del lenguaje se logra mediante el desarrollo de competencias específicas con el
lenguaje. Se les concibe como “configuraciones complejas y articuladas de haceres con el
lenguaje, saberes sobre el lenguaje y maneras de ser con el lenguaje, cuyo propósito es
preservar las funciones que el lenguaje tiene en la vida social y sus aspectos formales”
(Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2011a, p.29). En otras palabras, constituyen el conjunto
de nociones sobre el lenguaje, su uso y las actitudes que se ponen de manifiesto en una
situación comunicativa en un contexto social específico –en la familia, en la escuela y en
ambientes recreativos-.
Las competencias específicas de saber hacer con el lenguaje corresponden a las
acciones comunicativas desarrolladas en situaciones concretas de interacción que
implican la producción e interpretación de textos orales y escritos de la manera como lo
realiza un hablante competente del inglés al participar con éxito en actividades con el
lenguaje situadas en los diversos ámbitos sociales en los que se desenvuelve –familiar,
escolar y lúdico-. En tanto, las competencias específicas de saber sobre el lenguaje
involucra un conjunto de conceptos, aspectos y temas de reflexión sobre propiedades,
características y elementos del lenguaje orientados a que los alumnos cobren conciencia
de sus conocimientos, reflexionen sobre aspectos peculiares de la lengua inglesa y
desarrollen con mayor confianza y versatilidad el uso del lenguaje (Secretaría de
Educación Pública, 2011a).
El tercer rubro de competencias específicas se enmarca en el saber ser con el
lenguaje. La intención de estos saberes es que los estudiantes incrementen sus
oportunidades para compartir sus conocimientos y experiencias con el inglés
manifestando actitudes y los valores implicados en interacciones orales y escritas. El
propósito de dichos saberes es que los alumnos “tomen conciencia de la propia cultura y
la de otros países, aprendan a actuar con el lenguaje en diferentes ámbitos de la vida
social y valoren las consecuencias de dicho actuar” (Secretaría de Educación Pública,
2011a, p. 33).
Tras haber revisado la naturaleza de las prácticas sociales del lenguaje y de las
competencias específicas con el lenguaje, se aborda una perspectiva teórica sobre el
diseño de una situación de aprendizaje basada en el PNIEB, bajo el enfoque de enfoque
del Aprendizaje Basado en Tareas (TBL por sus siglas en inglés). Este abordaje permitirá
que el profesor de inglés que trabajo bajo el programa PNIEB esté consciente de las
consideraciones metodológicas que debe tomar en cuenta desde antes de realizar una
planeación didáctica.
Diseño de una situación de aprendizaje
Una situación de aprendizaje se concibe como un conjunto de actividades articuladas a fin
de resolver un conflicto cognitivo –los contenidos a estudiar- por parte de los estudiantes,
quienes entablan una serie de relaciones –entre ellos y el profesor-. Tal conjunto de
121
actividades, relacionadas entre sí, permitirán el desarrollo de competencias genéricas y
específicas con la lengua (Frade, 2009; Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2004). Aunado
al concepto de situación de aprendizaje, se encuentra el de secuencia de aprendizaje.
Díaz Barriga (2013) señala que una secuencia didáctica es el resultado de establecer una
serie de actividades de aprendizaje que tengan un orden interno entre sí. Asimismo,
sostiene que la secuencia didáctica demanda que el alumno realice acciones que vinculen
sus conocimientos y experiencias previas con algún interrogante que provenga de lo real
y con información sobre un objeto de conocimiento.
Díaz Barriga (2013) sostiene que la construcción de una secuencia didáctica
tiene como punto de partida una serie de aspectos formales que emanan del plan de
estudios, pero particularmente del programa en el que se inscribe. Además, la estructura
de la secuencia se integra con dos elementos que se realizan en el aula de manera
paralela: la secuencia de las actividades para el aprendizaje y la evaluación para el
aprendizaje inscrita en esas mismas actividades. Debido a la naturaleza del presente
documento, sólo se limita a mencionar -grosso modo- la estructura que compone a una
secuencia didáctica. Sin embargo, se enfatiza su utilidad en cuanto son componentes de
la metodología de enseñanza de la lengua –enfoque didáctico y evaluación de los
aprendizajes-.
En primer lugar, la secuencia inicia con actividades de apertura. Ellas permiten
abrir el clima de aprendizaje –partiendo de un problema de la realidad-, o bien, abrir una
discusión en pequeños grupos sobre una pregunta que parta de interrogantes
significativas para los alumnos. Asimismo, se puede desarrollar a partir de una tarea que
se les pida a los estudiantes. En segundo término, las actividades de desarrollo. Éstas
tienen la finalidad de que el estudiante interaccione con una nueva información –mediante
trabajo intelectual y mediante el uso de tal información en una situación problema a
resolver-. Finalmente, las actividades de cierre que se realizan con la finalidad que el
estudiante logre reelaborar la estructura conceptual que tenía al principio y la integre a
una evidencia de aprendizaje (Díaz Barriga, 2013).
Para lograr una situación de aprendizaje de lengua adecuada a las necesidades
de los estudiantes, se debe considerar cuatro condiciones primordiales. De acuerdo con
Willis (1996), la secuencia didáctica debe incluir una cantidad suficiente de información en
el idioma extranjero en estudio, siempre y cuando dicha información sea comprensible
para el nivel de lengua de los alumnos. En segundo lugar, debe propiciar oportunidades
para usar el lenguaje en situaciones reales de comunicación. Por ende, -y en tercer lugar-
debe favorecer el desarrollo de las habilidades lingüísticas, sin desatender el estudio de
las formas en que se produce la lengua extranjera -cuarta condición-.
Con la intención de propiciar que los estudiantes desarrollen competencias, la
organización de las actividades en la secuencia didáctica juega un papel importante. Sin
embargo, la secuencia didáctica por sí sola no asegura que los estudiantes desarrollen
sus habilidades comunicativas. El profesor de lengua debe orientar sus esfuerzos bajo
122
una concepción del aprendizaje que permita que sus estudiantes experimenten por sí
mismos bajo su guía cómo funciona la lengua y cómo se estructura. Esta perspectiva del
aprendizaje es conocida como aprendizaje basado en la experiencia y guarda una
relación muy estrecha con el enfoque de aprendizaje de la lengua de las prácticas
sociales del lenguaje como se verá a continuación.
La noción del aprendizaje a través de la experiencia es una conceptualización
pedagógica del aprendizaje humano (desde una perspectiva cognitiva), del cual se
pueden derivar una variedad de metodologías y tareas. No es un término que pueda ser
aplicado a una serie de actividades para el salón de clases, tampoco es un método a
seguir por maestros y estudiantes. Más bien, es un enfoque basado en la noción de la
naturaleza constructivista del aprendizaje la cual sostiene que cada individuo está
constante y activamente involucrado en dar sentido al mundo por medio de la
construcción o reconstrucción de significados a partir de la interpretación de experiencias
personales (Secretaría de Educación Pública, 2006).
La noción del aprendizaje basado en la experiencia concuerda con la estructura
de una unidad didáctica basada en el enfoque basada en tareas (TBL, por sus siglas en
inglés). El objetivo de una unidad didáctica de TBL es desarrollar los conocimientos
instrumentales y formales necesarios para que los alumnos puedan realizar una actividad
comunicativa. Al respecto, el trabajo en el aula se organiza mediante una secuencia de
tareas de comunicación y de apoyo lingüístico que conducen de forma coherente y lógica,
desde una perspectiva comunicativa y pedagógica, a la realización de una tarea final.
Últimamente, la unidad didáctica de TBL requiere que el estudiante de lenguas emplee
sus conocimientos lingüísticos previos –como sustento- y experimente con nuevas formas
lingüísticas al realizar las tareas comunicativas (Estaire, 2009).
Metodología del Enfoque Basado en Tareas
El origen de esta metodología se remonta a principios de los años 80. En especial, se
relaciona con el reporte de un proyecto comunicativo de enseñanza del idioma inglés en
escuelas primarias y secundarias de la India llamado Bangalore Project, iniciado en 1979
y terminado en 1984 por N. Prabhu. El objetivo de dicho proyecto fue mejorar la
metodología del enfoque situacional, enfatizando el desarrollo de competencias
comunicativas (Sánchez, 2004; Willis, 1996).
La metodología TBL se caracteriza por privilegiar la comunicación sobre la forma
del lenguaje. Es decir, la producción de textos orales o escritos es primordial a corregir
detenidamente los errores lingüísticos en dichas producciones. Ello se debe a que el
enfoque TBL se centra en actividades significativas centradas en el contenido más que
atender las formas lingüísticas. Por ello, se dice que el enfoque TBL se centra más en una
filosofía educativa centrada en atender las necesidades comunicativas de los estudiantes
(Hismanoglu y Hismanoglu, 2011; Willis, 1996).
123
Una vez enunciadas las características del enfoque TBL se expone el significado
que expertos en el área le han asignado al concepto tarea. Willis (1996) define a la tarea
como una actividad con un propósito definido en la cual los estudiantes usan la lengua
para alcanzar un propósito verdadero. Esta definición la completa Ellis (2003) quien lo
define como un plan de trabajo que requiere que los estudiantes procesen la lengua de
forma pragmática para lograr un objetivo evaluado en términos de qué tan adecuado o
correcto fue desarrollado el contenido de la actividad. Por lo tanto, el rol que una tarea
desempeña en el aprendizaje de una lengua es el estimular su deseo natural de mejorar
su competencia comunicativa mediante el desarrollo de tareas comunicativas del mundo
real (Córdoba, 2016).
Para desarrollar una secuencia didáctica bajo el enfoque del TBL, se debe
considerar el objetivo de aprendizaje que se pretende alcanzar. Basado en ello, se
estructura la secuencia de actividades en actividades previas, durante y al finalizar la
tarea (Munira y Ferdousi, 2012; Willis, 1996). El propósito de las actividades previas a la
tarea –actividades de inicio- es que los estudiantes se preparen para realizar actividades
subsidiarias que contribuirán en la realización de la tarea integradora –genéricamente
llamada tarea-. Ejemplo de estas tareas subsidiarias son actividades encaminadas a
proveer a los estudiantes con el vocabulario y frases con contenido gramatical que
necesitarán integrar en la tarea.
En cuanto a las actividades realizadas durante la tarea –actividades de
desarrollo-, se compone de actividades subsidiarias –como son la sistematización de
información, elaboración de textos orales o escritos necesarios para la tarea- cuyo
propósito es que los estudiantes desarrollen la tarea. Este tipo de actividades se
caracterizan por desarrollarse en equipos colaborativos bajo la guía y supervisión del
docente, quien actúa como consejero. Finalmente, las actividades posteriores a la terea –
actividades de cierre- tiene como objetivo presentar la tarea final y valorar tanto el
producto como el proceso de desarrollo de la tarea.
La evaluación del aprendizaje mediante el enfoque TBL requiere valorar dos
áreas. La primera, qué tan bien se completó la tarea en cuestión. La segunda área se
relaciona con la propiedad en el uso de la lengua al realizar la tarea por evaluar. Es decir,
se valora si el estudiante pudo desarrollar la tarea asignada usando como vehículo de
comunicación la lengua en estudio. Por ello, se puede decir que la evaluación de una
tarea se puede realizar mediante dos consideraciones. La primera, referida en la dificultad
que la tarea tiene para ser realizada. La segunda se enfoca en valorar la pertinencia de
los actos comunicativos desarrollados al realizar la tarea (Benavides y Valvona, 2008).
CONCLUSIONES
El Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación Básica (PNIEB) representa un significativo
avance en cuanto a diseño instruccional y curricular se refiere. En específico, considerar
el estudio de la lengua extranjera –inglés- como parte del currículo nacional se traduce en
124
un diseño de programas de estudio que estén acordes con los estándares de aprendizaje
que conforman el currículo nacional de educación básica. Por lo tanto, se puede decir que
el PNIEB es un programa sui generis. Sin embargo, la viabilidad en su aplicación en las
escuelas públicas del nivel básico ha constituido un reto para los docentes en las áreas de
metodología didáctica, evaluación del aprendizaje y formación docente.
En primer lugar, la metodología que el PNIEB propone se compone de una
perspectiva de la lengua desde una visión interactiva social. Dicha teoría del lenguaje
implica que para aprender una lengua se requiere crear ambientes de aprendizaje
socialmente significativos para los alumnos. Ello se traduce en diseñar una secuencia
didáctica en la que se establezca una serie de actividades que promuevan el uso de la
lengua extranjera a fin de dar solución o resolver una tarea integradora. Dicha tarea
integradora debe ser motivante y constituir un reto cognitivo para los alumnos. Ellos,
mediante las interacciones sociales entre sus compañeros y con el profesor lograrán
desarrollar sus habilidades comunicativas, objetivo que persigue el PNIEB.
En segundo lugar, la evaluación del aprendizaje que el PNIEB señala se basa en
valorar el desarrollo de competencias. Sin embargo, el docente debe estar consiente que
evaluar competencias no significa valorar únicamente la competencia lingüística del
alumno. Valorar el desarrollo de competencias – bajo el enfoque comunicativo-socio-
cultural –enfoque del PNIEB- representa valorar las interacciones que los alumnos
desarrollan durante y después de la elaboración de la tarea integradora. Es decir, la
evaluación por competencias requiere del maestro sistematizar información que obtiene
de su propia labor cotidiana. Por ello, se puede decir que la evaluación que el PNIEB
promueve no privilegia el uso de exámenes como único medio para obtener datos del
desarrollo de competencias lingüísticas y comunicativas.
En cuanto a la formación docente, es necesario que el docente de inglés de
educación básica se forme en metodologías actuales de enseñanza de lenguas
extranjeras. Ello se debe a que el enfoque metodológico del PNIEB requiere de un
docente que conozca quienes son sus alumnos, como aprenden de mejor manera y sobre
todo, cómo pueden desarrollar sus competencias comunicativas de mejor manera.
Asimismo, el formarse en metodologías actuales en la enseñanza del inglés demanda que
el docente sea capaz de adaptar lo mejor de cada metodología a las necesidades de
aprendizaje de sus alumnos y con ello lograr que ellos desarrollen sus habilidades
comunicativas.
Finalmente, la presente revisión de literatura contribuye a que tanto
investigadores inmersos en el área de procesos de enseñanza aprendizaje del idioma
inglés, así como profesores de educación básica y alumnos en formación para convertirse
en futuros profesores de inglés cuenten con un sustento teórico que les permita
desarrollar competencias pedagógicas a fin de comprender, analizar, reflexionar, aplicar y
evaluar el uso del enfoque basado en tareas al desarrollar los contenidos establecidos en
el PNIEB.
125
REFERENCIAS Benavides, M., & Valvona, C. (2008). Widgets: Student Book: A Task-Based Course in
Practical English. China: Pearson Education North Asia Ltd Calderón, D. (2015). Capítulo 4. La política educativa actual del inglés en México. En
Mexicanos Primero. Sorry. El Aprendizaje del Inglés en México. México: Mexicanos Primero, Visión 2030 A.C.
Córdoba Zúñiga, E. (2016). Implementing task-based language teaching to integrate
language skills in an EFL program at a Colombian university. PROFILE Issues in eac ers’ ro essional De elopment, 8(2), 13-27. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.15446/ profle.v18n2.49754.
Díaz Barriga, A. (2013). Secuencias de aprendizaje. ¿Un problema del enfoque de
competencias o un reencuentro con perspectivas didácticas? Profesorado. Revista de Currículum y Formación de Profesorado, 17 (3), 11-33. Recuperado de http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/567/56729527002.pdf.
Ellis, R. 2003. Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. UK: Oxford University
Press. Estaire, S. (2009). El aprendizaje de lenguas mediante tareas: de la programación al aula.
Madrid: Edinumen Frade Rubio, L. (2009). Desarrollo de competencias en educación: desde preescolar
hasta el bachillerato (2ª ed.).México: Inteligencia Educativa. González Quintos, V. (2011). El perfil mínimo deseable del profesor de inglés en la
Educación Básica. Memorias del XII Encuentro Nacional de Estudios en Lenguas. Tlaxcala: Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala. Recuperado de http://filosofia.uatx.mx/45.pdf
Hismanoglu, M., & Hismanoglu, S., (2011). Task-based language teaching: what every
EFL teacher should do. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences (15), 46-52. Instituto Mexicano para la Competitividad, (2015). Inglés es posible. Propuesta de una
Agenda Nacional. México: IMCO-COMCE. Latapí Sarre, P. (2004). La política educativa del Estado mexicano desde 2002. Revista
Electrónica de Investigación Educativa, 6 (2).Recuperado de https://redie.uabc.mx/redie/article/view/108/187
Latapí Sarre, P.(1975). Reformas educativas en los cuatro últimos gobiernos (1952-1975).
Comercio Exterior (Diciembre), 1323-1333. Recuperado de http://revistas.bancomext.gob.mx/rce/magazines/738/3/RCE3.pdf.
Martínez Guevara, J.L., Killian Reyes, M.G., Delgado Hoy, N.A., & Brande Martínez, E.D.
(2013). Necesidades de Formación de Docentes de Inglés en el Marco del PNIEB en la Zona Sur de Tamaulipas. Memorias del VI foro Internacional de
126
Especialistas en Enseñanza de Lenguas Gregorio Torres Quintero. Colima, Mexico: Universidad de Colima. Recuperado de http://cenedic.ucol.mx/fieel/2013/ponencias_pdf/43.pdf
Mejía, J., Briseño, F., & Cardoso, E.O. (2013). Evaluación de las Percepciones de los
Docentes de Secundaria con Respecto al Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación Básica. Memoria electrónica del XII Congreso Nacional de Investigación Educativa. Recuperado de http://www.comie.org.mx/congreso/memoriaelectronica/v12/doc/0289.pdf.
Mejía, J., Briseño, F. & Cardoso, E.O. (2014). Necesidades de formación del profesorado
de secundaria en el marco de la implementación del programa nacional de inglés en educación básica. Revista Iberoamericana para la Investigación y el Desarrollo Educativo (12). Recuperado de http://ride.org.mx/1-11/index.php/RIDESECUNDARIO/article/viewFile/741/724
Mercau V., Sayer P., & Blanco, G. (2012). Estudio del perfil y análisis de necesidades de
formación de maestros PNIEB de Tlaxcala. Memorias del XIII Encuentro Nacional de Estudios en Lenguas. Tlaxcala, México: Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala.
Mexicanos Primero, (2015). Sorry. El Aprendizaje del Inglés en México. México:
Mexicanos Primero, Visión 2030 A.C. Mondada, L., & Doehler, S.P. (2004). Second Language Acquisition as Situated Practice:
Task Accomplishment in the French Second Language Classroom. The Modern Language Journal 88 (IV), 501-518.
Ramírez, J.L., Pamplón, E.N., & Cota, S. (2012). Problemática de la enseñanza del inglés
en las primarias públicas de México: una primera lectura cualitativa. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación (60), 2, 1-12. Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos para la Educación, la Ciencia y la Cultura.
Reyes Cruz, M.R., Murrieta Loyo, G., & Hernández Méndez, E. (2011). Políticas
lingüísticas nacionales e internacionales sobre la enseñanza del inglés en escuelas primarias. Revista Pueblos y fronteras digital, (6) 12, 167-197.
Richards, J.C., & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching
(2nd Ed). USA: Cambridge University Press. Sánchez, A., (2004). The Task-based Approach in Language Teaching. International
Journal of English Studies, 4(1), 39-71. Recuperado de http://revistas.um.es/ijes/article/view/48051/46021
Secretaría de Educación Pública, (1993). Plan y programas de estudio 1993. Educación
Básica. Secundaria. México: SEP. Recuperado de https://es.slideshare.net/VICMAR871/plan-deestudiossecundaria1993
Secretaría de Educación Pública, (1995). Libro para el maestro. Educación Secundaria.
Inglés. México: SEP.
127
Secretaría de Educación Pública, (2004). Educación básica. Programa de educación preescolar 2004. México: SEP.
Secretaría de Educación Pública. (2006). Programas de Estudio 2006. Lengua Extranjera
Inglés. México: SEP. Secretaría de Educación Pública. (2011a). Programa Nacional de Inglés en Educación
Básica. Fundamentos Curriculares. México: SEP. Secretaría de Educación Pública. (2011b). Programas de Estudio 2011. Ciclo 4. México:
SEP. Subsecretaría de Planeación y Evaluación de Políticas Educativas. (2015). Diagnostico
Ampliado. S270. Programa Nacional de Inglés para Alumnos en Educación Básica. México: SEP.
Székely, M., O’Donoghue, J.L., & Pérez, H. (2015). Capítulo 4. El estado del aprendizaje
del inglés en México. En Mexicanos Primero. Sorry. El Aprendizaje del Inglés en México. México: Mexicanos Primero, Visión 2030 A.C.
Willis, J. (1996). A framework for task-based learning. Harlow, U.K. Longman Addison-
Wesley. Zorrilla, M., & Barba, B. (2008). Reforma educativa en México. Descentralización y nuevos
actores. Revista Electrónica Sinéctica (30), 1-30. México: ITESO. Recuperado de http://www.redalyc.org/pdf/998/99819167001.pdf.
EL AUTOR ESTEBAN JUAN BAUTISTA ZÁRATE MEJÍA. Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa, Especialidad y Maestría en Enseñanza del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera por la Universidad Veracruzana. Profesor de inglés en Secundaria. Catedrático por oposición de Metodología de Enseñanza del Inglés, Redacción Académica, Planeación Educativa, Inglés Intermedio Alto e Inglés 1 y 2 en la Universidad Veracruzana.. Autor de libros, capítulos de libros y artículos sobre enseñanza de lenguas extranjeras. [email protected]
128
¿CÓMO LLEGAR A SER MAESTROS CREATIVOS? UNA AUTO-
REFLEXIÓN
Claudia Andrea Durán Montenegro Adriana Araceli Padilla Zamudio
Alicia Marcela Rendón Castro Universidad Veracruzana
RESUMEN
En el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera existen factores tales
como estilos de aprendizaje, motivación, ambientes educativos, técnicas y estrategias,
entre otros, los cuales se encuentran correlacionados. Por lo tanto, es importante que los
profesores tomen responsabilidad como co-participes en dicho proceso y optimicen todos
estos factores para lograr un aprendizaje significativo. En ocasiones el componente
creatividad parece ser superado por causas múltiples tales como el uso de las nuevas
tecnologías, o por la necesidad de cubrir el programa de estudio a tiempo. Sin embargo,
es pertinente considerar a la creatividad como un elemento valioso que se debe activar o
reactivar dentro de la enseñanza de una lengua extranjera, puesto que estimula la
atención, motiva y satisface la necesidad de aprendizaje de los estudiantes. Además, la
creatividad tiende a mejorar la autoestima, la confianza y la autonomía de los mismos;
creando un ambiente placentero y memorable. La creatividad es: “pensar fuera de cuadro,
crear diversas, frescas, y originales ideas, nuevas soluciones a los problemas, o encontrar
di erentes percepciones a una situación”. (Read, 2015). De igual manera, Maley (2015)
afirma que la creatividad nos ayuda a enfrentar los retos en un mundo de cambios
constantes y nos da las soluciones que necesitamos. Por lo consiguiente, el objetivo
principal de este trabajo es contribuir en la reflexión cotidiana de la práctica del profesor
de idiomas extranjeros, con la finalidad de llegar a ser un maestro creativo sin importar la
edad que tengan los estudiantes, el ambiente o modalidad en la que se trabaje.
Palabras claves: creatividad, actividades didácticas, alumnos universitarios.
INTRODUCCIÓN
Durante muchos años los profesores de idiomas, se han esforzado por mejorar las
clases y métodos de enseñanza para poder trasmitir a los estudiantes de una lengua no
sólo el conocimiento sintáctico y/o gramatical; sino también cultural y situacional de la
misma. Poder lograr que los estudiantes de idiomas puedan tener una conexión
emocional, tal que amen aprender otros idiomas y aún más, que amen disfrutar un
idioma extranjero, es sin duda una de las preocupaciones de los profesores de lenguas
hoy día.
129
Al buscar la calidad educativa, los profesores de idiomas se han de enfrentar a
diferentes factores a los cuales se ha de poner atención inmediata. Un profesor de
lenguas no puede esperar que la solución venga de lo externo, sino debe encontrar
soluciones originales e inteligentes al contexto en que se desarrolla, esto es a lo que
algunos autores, definen como creatividad.
De acuerdo a Bono (2000) es el talento o habilidad que tiene cada individuo
para transformar su entorno. Mientras que De la Torre (2006) asegura lo siguiente: "La
creatividad es un bien social, una decisión y un reto de futuro. Por ello, formar en
creatividad es apostar por un futuro de progreso, de justicia, de tolerancia y de
convivencia". De la misma manera, Montes de Oca (2008) agrega: “Y para lograr este
fin es preciso preguntarse por las características del modelo pedagógico que puede
respaldar y orientar este proceso formativo, permitiendo materializarlo en las prácticas
de enseñanza contextualizada. La educación es al mismo tiempo un producto y una
herramienta del proceso histó-rico-evolutivo de la humanidad, y en este orden de ideas
exige una constante reflexión y teorización permitiendo a la vez su retorno y efecto
trasforma-dor en el ser umano, … En nuestras manos est el lograr que la educación
no sea instrumentalizada por objetivos ajenos a ella y a sus receptores"
Por otro lado, el diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua Española (2017)
define a la creatividad como: “ acultad de crear, capacidad de creación”. Por lo tanto,
este trabajo busca la reflexión del docente de una lengua extranjera con relación a su
creatividad, ya que no se trata de innovar por trascender, aunque ciertamente algo de
eso existe en el interior de todo ser humano y no excluye a los profesores que han
dedicado su tiempo a tan noble labor. El deseo es encontrar la manera de capitalizar
tiempo, dinero, esfuerzo para lograr una clase que motive, inspire, que sea inolvidable.
De modo que el profesor de lenguas modifica su entorno: lo personaliza, lo hace único e
irrepetible con cada grupo.
Por medio de la reflexión de ser creativos, se ha de llamar la atención de todo
profesor de lenguas y se les invita a desarrollar las habilidades y competencias de la
creatividad, las cuales les permita:
a) Innovar dentro de su ambiente de aprendizaje teniendo en su profesor un
modelo y un co-participante en el proceso enseñanza –aprendizaje que involucra tanto
al profesor como al estudiante.
b) Reconocer la tecnología como un recurso y la falta de esta como una
oportunidad.
c) Buscar el cambio y promoverlo con control, de modo que sea evaluable, y
lograr dicho cambio de manera ordenada y respetuosa.
130
Durante la búsqueda de una metodología de enseñanza de idiomas extranjeros
para México, se ha encontrado el Enfoque a la Creatividad. Este enfoque menciona
algunos puntos y precisiones que se han de se han de compartir, a lo largo de este
trabajo. La posibilidad de la aplicación de dicho enfoque en las escuelas de idiomas
extranjeros en México será de gran utilidad a todos los profesores quienes deseen
mejorar su práctica docente al incorporar la creatividad no sólo como una actividad o
dinámica sino como un enfoque en la adquisición de lenguas extranjeras.
DISCUSIÓN
El Enfoque de la Creatividad. El rol del profesor de Lenguas.
La búsqueda de métodos y técnicas de enseñanza que garanticen, no sólo el
aprendizaje de los estudiantes de idiomas sino la capitalización de tiempo, dinero, y
material, es sin duda la preocupación de los profesores de idiomas en todo el mundo.
Durante mucho tiempo, las palabras talento y creatividad aparecen como sinónimos en
diferentes ocasiones. No obstante; es oportuno reconocer que el talento es dado al
nacer, o incluso antes, afirma la ciencia de la neurología. En cambio, la creatividad se
adquiere, y se presenta en momentos, situaciones diversas, en ambientes específicos.
Dentro del ámbito educativo, al parecer los cambios o transformaciones han ido
de poco en poco en comparación con otras áreas del conocimiento. Además, parece
que la creatividad dentro del aula se ha enfocado más al carácter pedagógico de la
disciplina y últimamente a la inclusión masiva de la tecnología en las clases de una
lengua extranjera. Ballerster (2002) señala: “las situaciones abiertas de aprendizaje, a
partir de experiencias y emociones personales, con estímulo del pensamiento
divergente en que el alumnado proyecta sus ideas, potencian la diferencia individual y la
originalidad y se convierten en hechos clave y decisivos para una enseñanza activa y
creativa”.
De modo, que se ha decidido iniciar este recorrido con algunas consideraciones
al respecto. La primera será el rol del profesor en el aula. Contemplando no sólo la
importancia de la producción lingüística, sus conocimientos teóricos, pedagógicos o
tecnológicos de la materia. Por lo que el presente trabajo no se trata de un análisis
terminológico sino de enfatizar las competencias que ha de poseer el profesor de
idiomas.
En cuanto al rol del profesor de idiomas dentro del aula debemos tener en
cuenta que antes de enseñar una habilidad debemos adquirirla nosotros mismos. Por lo
que si se desea que los alumnos canten o bailen el profesor de idiomas ha de lograr
dichas habilidades primero. Para ello es necesario en ocasiones abandonar el rol
docente para formar parte del grupo. “Deberíamos, pues juzgar la creatividad en el salón
por lo que el profesor logra que los estudiantes hagan y no por lo que hace el profesor”.
(Stevick, 1980). Es decir, un profesor creativo no es aquel que logra que sus estudiantes
131
rían, corran y/o salten dentro del aula debido a que él llegó con un disfraz, o cuenta
chistes sin parar. Un profesor creativo es quien logra que los estudiantes deseen
participar en clase, compartan su conocimiento con sus compañeros, sus experiencias
de aprendizaje, o que se involucren en diferentes proyectos: sociales, culturales, de
investigación, etc. todos ellos relacionados con la adquisición lingüística y su integración
profesional.
En ocasiones veremos el esfuerzo de algunos profesores que constantemente
buscan la creatividad en el aula a través de ellos mismos, o en la inclusión de juegos y
dinámicas para “entretener” a los estudiantes. Desafortunadamente, estos juegos o
actividades no son indicador de la competencia lingüística de los estudiantes, y en
ocasiones al comparar las calificaciones de grupos de dichos profesores dinámicos a las
calificaciones de profesores no dinámicos los resultados no son muy diferentes. Más
aún, en ocasiones los resultados son desalentadores; por lo que en diferentes
momentos los profesores prefieren evitar dichas dinámicas para aprovechar el tiempo
en otro tipo de actividades, que, aunque menos divertidas, permiten a los estudiantes
entender mejor el tema. De manera que re pensar en el rol del profesor de idiomas para
El Enfoque Creativo es necesario e incluso podríamos suponer la necesidad de un
nuevo rol para el profesor de lenguas.
“Ser autónomos significa gobernarnos a nosotros mismos, ser responsables de
nuestras acciones y sentimientos, deshacernos de patrones estereotipados que nos
esclavizan porque el hombre nace libre y tiene derecho a serlo, tiene derecho a una
autonomía que sus propios padres le retiran cuando se escuchan los comentarios: “ ay
que acer caso a las personas mayores” Franca, 2 6). Al parecer las nuevas
tendencias educativas dan al estudiante el papel protagónico e incluso, “único” de quién
se espera autonomía.
Sin embargo, en un proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje no es posible dejar a los
estudiantes como únicos responsables. En dicho proceso ambos: estudiante y maestro
comparten la misma responsabilidad, siendo ambos autores y actores, es decir, los dos
construyen con experiencias únicas elementos que promueven la construcción del
conocimiento y al mismo tiempo les permiten la socialización de dicho conocimiento
adquirido siendo ambos co-participes del crecimiento y enriquecimiento educativo por
igual.
132
Por lo que, en esta reflexión nos hemos de concentrar en el papel docente y su
importancia sin olvidar a cada uno de los elementos que hacen este proceso una realidad,
como lo son: las autoridades educativas, administrativas, y los padres de familia que se
consolidan como agentes de fortaleza institucional, etc. (Padilla y Espinosa, 2015). Y, por
lo tanto, se ha de centrar esta reflexión en el profesor ya que es en él en quien recae la
mayor responsabilidad ante la sociedad y ante él mismo.
Es importante la consideración del papel del profesor o maestro de lenguas, ya
que desempeña muchas de las tareas relacionadas con la labor docente de cualquier otra
institución educativa; además, las expectativas de los estudiantes y las exigencias o
demandas de la sociedad al académico universitario, suelen coincidir en la mayoría de las
universidades en México siendo siempre altas.
Algunos de los roles que se han de mencionar en esta ocasión son los siguientes:
Controlador Asesor Organizador
Promotor Negociador Motivador
Evaluador Investigador Facilitador
Colaborador Acompañante Expositor
Mediador Observador Investigador
Guía Agente de Cambio Recurso
Una observación pertinente en este momento es que a través del tiempo los roles
del profesor de idiomas han ido cambiando debido a las tendencias educativas y quizá sin
que se pueda notar, junto a la inclusión de las nuevas tecnologías. Por lo que parece que
cada vez se requiere menos tiempo del profesor junto al estudiante, es decir; es menor el
tiempo de acompañamiento en el aprendizaje y menor la socialización del conocimiento
adquirido. Al parecer se puede apreciar con cierto ceño de melancolía o añoranza al
profesor fuente del conocimiento de antaño, al tutor, al colaborador, guía y acompañante
hoy en día resumido a profesor- recurso. En donde: “…el pro esor debe estar siempre listo
para ofrecer su ayuda si es necesario. Después de todo, tiene el lenguaje y el
conocimiento que los estudiantes pueden necesitar, sobre todo en las tareas de escritura.
Sin embargo, el profesor no debe estar disponible como un recurso para ciertas
acti idades, como uegos de comunicación o uegos de roles…” “Los diferentes roles del
pro esor y los alumnos en el aula de lenguas extran eras” (Juan y García 2012).
No es posible seguir considerando al profesor de idiomas como un recurso, ya
que los recursos no podrían evaluar, analizar, proponer, crear y mucho menos ser
responsables de un proceso de aprendizaje. La deshumanización de las profesiones en
todo el mundo parece ser la respuesta más fácil para la realización de procesos
mecanizados. También parece ser la meta de algunas corporaciones lucrativas pero la
labor del profesor no puede ser mecanizada, lucrativa o resumida a un recurso.
Por ello hemos de proponer para los profesores de idiomas un nuevo rol: el rol
de “participante”. Este rol coloca al profesor de lenguas en una posición única cuyas
133
ventajas pueden ser innumerables, desde esa posición el docente podrá ver el proceso
de enseñanza desde donde nunca había sido considerado con anterioridad, puesto que
se ve inmerso en el proceso enseñanza-aprendizaje sin ser el único responsable de
dicho proceso.
La creación de un ambiente creativo
La creación de un ambiente adecuado para generar, promover y motivar a los
estudiantes a la adquisición de una nueva lengua, no es tarea fácil por lo que algunos
profesores han enfocado sus esfuerzos en la creación de ambientes adecuados para
que el proceso enseñanza aprendizaje se lleve de manera óptima, y han concentrado la
creatividad en el salón de clases. Por lo que el segundo tema de reflexión será la
creatividad en los ambientes de aprendizaje de una nueva lengua.
Ahora bien, si es cierto que los profesores de idiomas deben de lograr el
ambiente óptimo no pueden olvidarse del proceso, las necesidades, los métodos o
técnicas de aprendizaje, las dinámicas de aprendizaje, la autonomía y la importancia de
la toma de decisiones. Este Enfoque de la Creatividad permite a los profesores de
idiomas no sólo identificar y conocer los métodos y técnicas de su quehacer cotidiano
que tiene el potencial creativo que se desea, sino además identificar los procedimientos
educativos que se realizan y enriquecerlos con toques de creatividad. (Maley y Peachey,
2015)
La generación de ambientes creativos de aprendizaje, de tecnologías creativas,
métodos creativos, tareas creativas, y de tener un rol creativo en el proceso enseñanza
aprendizaje de un idioma depende mucho de una actitud creativa. La idea de innovar
parece pertenecer al ser humano desde siempre puesto que es una habilidad de
sobrevivencia, de no conformismo, de la búsqueda constante de cambios que se
pueden controlar y que se desea controlar. Es por ello, que a continuación se ha de
profundizar en cada uno de los aspectos de la creatividad. Al mismo tiempo indicar
algunas ideas que mencionan Maley y Peachey (2015) en su libro “Creativity in the
Englis language classroom” junto con algunas consideraciones personales.
La actitud creativa
La actitud creativa debe:
No sobre cargar la clase de actividades.
Ser constante.
Rol
Modelador
Participante
Motivador
El ambiente de aprendizaje debe:
134
Aprovechar la enseñanza de los estudiantes.
Generar tradiciones y romperlas.
Aplicar los saberes heuristicos siempre.
Establecer un ambiente óptimo.
Establecer un ambiente en donde todo se puede mejorar y las críticas son bien recibidas (pedir que dar críticas se hagan con respeto)
Re-valorar el ambiente de aprendizaje de cada estudiante o del grupo.
Modificar el mobiliario
Crear un espacio creativo
El ambiente de enseñanza debe:
Establecer un ambiente organizado.
Establecer un tiempo personalizado (dar retroalimentación)
Aprovechar la tecnología.
El proceso metodos y técnicas
Las actividades deben ser:
con límites.
de contraste.
de observación.
de recolección
de información y reporte.
en diferente dirección constante.
Potencializadoras de talentos individuales.
multidisciplinarias.
Las estrategias deben ser:
de motivación (todo trabajo debe ser publicado).
de relajación.
de plantear problemas que ellos puedan resolver y analizar.
de cambio de roles (video)
de inventar cosas juntos.
El idioma como instrumento de creatividad es sin duda uno de los elementos
con los que cuenta un profesor de lenguas, y es precisamente este elemento que ofrece
al profesor de lenguas un abanico de posibilidades que ha de presentar a sus
estudiantes.
Uno de los aspectos en que hace énfasis este Enfoque Creativo es en la
realización de actividades que involucren distintos escenarios; actividades dentro y fuera
del aula, en línea, en clases, actividades en donde se presenten opiniones, se tomen
decisiones, se busquen soluciones, se reflexione, se responda a las reacciones de los
diferentes actores del proceso enseñanza – aprendizaje. Este enfoque, además,
presenta a los estudiantes como generadores de recursos, no sólo como receptores de
135
conocimiento. Además, rompe con la rutina de los profesores de ser ellos los
encargados de proveer material para los estudiantes y para sus clases.
Ofrece a los estudiantes la posibilidad de ser ellos los proveedores de recursos
didácticos y aún más ser ellos mismos un recurso didáctico. Štěpánek, y Haaff (2011)
ofrecen algunos principios que los profesores de idiomas podrían pedir a los estudiantes
para mejorar su habilidad lectora:
Explorar sus campos de interés en línea y encontrar textos que ellos consideren
de información relevante.
Enviar ejemplos de dichos textos al grupo.
Leer dichos textos antes de la siguiente clase.
En este momento, el profesor debe seleccionar los textos y de acuerdo al grupo
y al tema de la clase crear las actividades que considere tanto para producción e incluso
evaluación del curso.
Comparar dos textos que ellos hayan seleccionado y considerar las diferencias o
similitudes.
Seleccionar un texto o párrafo para escribirlo al respecto con sus propias
palabras.
Identificar las ideas principales, las ideas de soporte, las oraciones, el argumento
principal del texto.
Identificar las fechas, los datos, los hechos, las opiniones, etc.
Comentar las estrategias de lectura, de búsqueda, de investigación, de
aprendizaje, de vocabulario.
Votar por el texto más interesante, más divertido.
De este modo se podrían llevar acabo muchas actividades que relacionen
diferentes habilidades, por ejemplo, poemas, canciones, videos, biografías, puntos
gramaticales, capsulas informativas, tutoriales, etc.
Otro de los temas que no se deben pasar por alto es el utilizar el vocabulario que
los estudiantes ya utilizan, así como su conocimiento previo.
Los siete pilares de la creatividad
De acuerdo con Read (2015) existen siete pilares de la creatividad, tales como:
1. La creatividad no se da en vacunas, menciona la autora, es necesario un
detonador de la creatividad, algo que nos sirva para encender la chispa del
pensamiento o estimular la aportación de ideas. Este elemento detonante puede
ser: una idea, una foto, un texto, una historia, un objeto, una pregunta o problema,
o la combinación de algunos o varios de estos elementos.
136
2. “El pensamiento creativo surge cuando los estudiantes se involucran
emocionalmente en una actividad explica Read (2015). De modo que el factor
emocional es determinante para la creatividad. Generalmente, vemos a diferentes
profesores involucrados con los gustos e intereses de sus estudiantes, buscando
con conocimiento de ello o no, este elemento emotivo que les pueda ayudar a
realizar clases no sólo significativas, integrales sino además inolvidables.
3. Los estudiantes necesitan un marco en donde puedan desarrollar las habilidades
del pensamiento creativo y generalmente se ha de presentar a ellos un modelo a
seguir, un ejemplo. Ello le permite al estudiante delimitar el trabajo, tarea o
actividad a realizar, al mismo tiempo que les permite concentrarse en sus propias
ideas. Dicho modelo proporciona el soporte lingüístico necesario. Además, que
este “marco” les proporciona seguridad, autoconfianza y control.
4. La creatividad, provee la oportunidad de generar ideas de una manera libre y
espontánea, al mismo tiempo concede disciplina de pensamiento, curiosidad,
atención a los detalles y esfuerzo.
5. La creatividad es mejor adoptada en el desarrollo de la mente (Dweck, 2007)
mientras que los niños son alentados a creer que pueden mejorar su presentación
y alcanzar mejores resultados a través del esfuerzo propio, perseverancia y trabajo
duro.
Pilar Uno. La construcción de la autoestima
La autoestima es caracterizada por cinco componentes: la sensación de seguridad, de
identidad, de pertenencia, de propósito y de competencia personal. Este pilar es
fundamental, es quizá la razón por la cual Read (2015) lo ha puesto en primer lugar. La
principal razón de guiar a los estudiantes dentro de una experiencia educativa, es hacer
de dicha experiencia algo positivo, agradable, y desde luego productiva en el aprendizaje.
Pilar dos: Un modelo de creatividad
Una regla esencial para desarrollar cualquier habilidad o cualidad en otras personas es
necesario adquirir dicha habilidad para uno mismo primero. La capacidad de lograr la
creatividad no puede venir de una fuente no creativa. De modo que el primer modelo de
creatividad ha de ser el profesor mismo. La responsabilidad de la creatividad por parte del
profesor de idiomas, por otra parte, no ha de requerir un cambio de personalidad del
profesor. Desde luego que cada profesor ha de encontrar su rango de creatividad y este
puede estar basado en aspectos muy específicos, rasgos o características que nos
permiten ser únicos y que han de ser maximizados para lograr la creatividad.
Pilar tres: Permitir a los estudiantes tomar decisiones.
Al permitir a los estudiantes tomar decisiones ellos aprenden a ser responsables de las
mismas, desarrollan autonomía y aprenden a tomar el control de su aprendizaje. Esto
conduce a una sensación de auto pertenencia y liderazgo que les posibilita recorrer la
137
milla extra la cual conduce a la producción del trabajo creativo. El ejercitar la toma de
decisiones ayuda a los estudiantes a hacer el aprendizaje más memorable y
personalizado.
El ofrecer a los estudiantes oportunidades de tomar decisiones puede ser una
herramienta poderosa en habilidades de dirección, las decisiones pueden ser pequeñas o
grandes, desde la persona con la que han de trabajar, los colores que han de utilizar, el
material, la hora o fecha de entrega de un proyecto, así como las decisiones grandes e
importantes como los temas en los que han de participar, el proyecto con el que han de
contribuir, etc.
Pilar cuatro: Uso de preguntas efectivas
La manera en que utilizamos las preguntas para llamar la atención de nuestros
estudiantes y conducirlos a pensar creativamente, es esencial. Además, la búsqueda de
estrategias que permitan a los estudiantes formular preguntas, dichas técnicas o
estrategias les ayudan, motivan a la generación de preguntas mecánicamente, podría
acercar a los estudiantes al cuestionamiento sistematizado y más adelante a la
meditación, a la auto-reflexión e incluso a la introspección.
Pilar cinco: Hacer conexiones
Hacer conexiones y buscar la relación entre las cosas genera ideas e incrementa la
chispa creativa del pensamiento. Es útil para motivar a los estudiantes a hacer conexiones
entre la casa y la escuela, así como también entre una materia y otra. Más adelante, los
estudiantes harán conexiones entre eventos presentes y pasados experiencias dentro y
fuera del salón, entre ideas aprendidas de otras fuentes tales como libros y el internet. El
estar alerta a las conexiones en diferentes áreas de sus vidas les ayudará a construir
confianza y les proveerá de los cimientos que incrementaran la creatividad en su trabajo
cotidiano.
Pilar seis: Explorar ideas.
Se requiere una atmosfera de respeto mutuo en donde los diferentes puntos de vista sean
valorados y los juicios sean bien recibidos. Entonces, las técnicas de lluvias de ideas,
solución de problemas y actividades donde los estudiantes expresan puntos de vista,
sentimientos, etc. Pueden conducir a la exploración de un pensamiento creativo que
permita a los estudiantes explorar, experimentar y jugar con diferentes ideas.
Pilar siete: motivar la reflexión crítica.
Finalmente, como parte de la promoción a la creatividad, es necesario entrenar a los
estudiantes para evaluar y reflexionar sobre sus propias ideas, presentaciones,
actividades y logros. Así mismo el desarrollo integral del estudiante le permitirá lograr la
138
autonomía con validez y valor en su trabajo creativo. Todo ello forma parte de un
aprendizaje reflexivo y conduce al pensamiento creativo. También se requiere una
reflexión constante por parte del profesor, de cada actividad no sólo concentrarse en la
satisfacción de una clase que involucre la toma de decisiones, reflexión, autonomía y
respeto a la otredad; sino además una reflexión crítica, constructiva a la actitud, al
comportamiento, al respeto, empatía y sensibilidad humana en cada clase.
CONCLUSIONES
Aun cuando parece que después de todos los métodos, técnicas, estrategias y de la
tecnología a disposición de la enseñanza de idiomas, y de la búsqueda sincera de la
calidad del quehacer docente ya no es posible agregar o incluir nada nuevo al proceso
enseñanza-aprendizaje; se puede reconocer, revivir, y también se puede reflexionar y/o
replantear el rol o papel del profesor de idiomas y los beneficios que trae consigo la
posibilidad de desarrollar el pensamiento creativo en sus estudiantes y en él mismo. La
posibilidad de mejorar las expectativas de una clase basada sólo en el libro de texto, de
salir de la rigidez del programa, la posibilidad de mejorar la efectividad del tiempo de
clase, de considerar la afectividad del tiempo de acompañamiento del profesor dentro del
aula, etc.
Los beneficios de un enfoque creativo han de incrementar en gran medida la
posibilidad de incluir en clases y en cada actividad objetivos educativos con un propósito
definido, la enseñanza con valores, y la promoción de actitudes positivas, un ambiente
académico flexible y ordenado, junto a una mezcla de un profesionalismo académico y a
una curiosidad e interés no sólo por parte del docente sino también del estudiante. Este
enfoque no se basa en la idea típica de que sea el docente quien domine el conocimiento,
el tiempo y la experiencia educativa generando creatividad de modo que el estudiante no
tenga idea de lo que tratará la clase al día siguiente. Este enfoque rebasa por completo
ese tipo de trabajo; y abre la posibilidad al dialogo.
De modo que los métodos y técnicas podrán ser considerados no sólo del punto
de vista académico, sino del punto de vista de los participantes, cuidando la autoestima
de ambos, la motivación, transformando así la experiencia de aprendizaje a una
experiencia memorable. De ahí que una clase puede ser guiada, por el docente, o puede
ser guiada por los estudiantes, pero el momento de aprendizaje en conjunto hará de dicha
experiencia algo único, y memorable. Los valores, el sentido de hermandad, respeto y
confianza, serán finalmente de apoyo en la clase.
La búsqueda constante de nuevas ideas, métodos y actividades académicas en
ocasiones no logran encontrar eco en los enfoques metodológicos ya existentes. Los
profesores de idiomas en México han de enfrentarse a un sin número de estudiantes en
clase, muchos de ellos con diferentes ideas, debido a un sinfín de razones que van desde
su cultura, situación geográfica, política, social, religiosa, edad, nivel de inglés, estilo de
aprendizaje, valores entre otros. Además; han de encontrar dentro de cada experiencia
educativa el respeto, el profesionalismo, el compromiso y la búsqueda de la creatividad
139
que le permita adquirir y/o reforzar su identidad, valores y su compromiso con el
aprendizaje de otro idioma, mismo que le permitirá conocer otras culturas, ideología y
personas con las que podrá interactuar con respeto.
La importancia de trabajar con este enfoque es la oportunidad de incluir todo lo
ya se ha utilizado en clase y aun así sentir la oportunidad de poder innovar. Este enfoque
incluye la enseñanza por proyectos, de valores, de problemas, e incluso la enseñanza
colaborativa. No es un enfoque excluyente sino incluyente, una propuesta de aplicación
basada en el conocimiento y experiencia de cada profesor de lenguas, modulada por las
necesidades y conocimientos previos del grupo, que potencializa las habilidades de cada
estudiante y la reflexión del proceso enseñanza –aprendizaje.
Como profesores de idiomas estamos conscientes de la necesidad que tiene
nuestro país (México) al incorporar en la educación métodos, técnicas y dinámicas que
junto a los hábitos de estudio, de preparación de clases, de evaluación y apoyo constante
del profesor y los compañeros de clase, puedan generar en los estudiantes seguridad,
compromiso, una actitud positiva ante el cambio, y la búsqueda constante de mejorar, de
potencializar las habilidades obtenidas y producir a través de la reflexión continua los
hábitos y valores necesarios para convivir con otros.
Por lo tanto, es importante que, al buscar la innovación, la creatividad y la calidad
en la labor docente, se pueda compartir los diferentes resultados con otros profesores de
idiomas en México o en diferentes partes del mundo. Además, de poder exponer los
trabajos realizados por los estudiantes de idiomas, los cuales han de satisfacer la
demanda de la sociedad y dar respuesta a diferentes necesidades de esta. Dicha
sociedad que demanda profesores cada vez más preparados, una sociedad que ha dado
a los profesores de lenguas la oportunidad de compartir experiencias educativas con altas
expectativas de calidad y profesionalismo.
Además, una sociedad que parece delegar la responsabilidad total de
generaciones de estudiantes, faltos de valores, respeto, tiempo, deseo de salir adelante,
compromiso por el estudio, e incluso visión e identidad, a los profesores. Por lo tanto, es
necesario un enfoque que pueda retomar todo lo anteriormente planteado, que pueda
generar el hábito de cuestionar, pensar, reflexionar, reportar, investigar, promover,
gestionar, escuchar y respetar para que nuestro país tenga profesores más capacitados
que busquen la calidad no en las instalaciones de lujo sino en los proyectos, actividades
cotidianas, en el aprendizaje, en la autonomía y compromiso individual de los agentes del
proceso enseñanza aprendizaje, en el respeto entre dichos agentes y generación de
nuevas oportunidades de estudio, trabajo y vida de esta la sociedad en la que se convive.
REFERENCIAS Acosta, M. (1998) Creatividad, motivación y rendimiento académico. Barcelona, España:
Aljibe.
140
Amabile, T. (1990) Creativity in context. Boulder, U.S.A.: Westview Press. Annarella, L. (1999) Encouraging Creativity and Imagination in the classroom, viewpoints.
Illinois. U.S.A.: Eric. Bacus, A. y Román, C. (1992). Creatividad, ¿cómo desarrollarla? Barcelona, España:
Paidós Ibérica Ballester, A. (2002). El aprendizaje significativo en la práctica. Cómo hacer el aprendizaje
significativo en el aula. Barcelona, España. Consultado en: http://www.cibereduca.com/
Betancourt, J. y Valadez, M (2005). Atmósferas creativas: juega, piensa y crea,
D.F.,México: Manual moderno. Bono, E. (2000). El pensamiento creativo: El poder del pensamiento lateral para la
creación de nuevas ideas. Barcelona, España: Paidos Iberica Craft, A. (2005) Creativity in Schools: Tensions and Dilemmas. London, U.K.:Routledge. Cropley. A. (2001). Creativity in education & Learning: A guide for teachers and
educators. London, U.K. Routledge Falmer Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996) Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and
Invention. New York, U.S.A.: Harper Perennial Dacey, J. y Lennon, K. (2000). Understanding Creativity: The interplay of biological,
psychological and social factors. New York, U.S.A.: John Wiley & Sons. Dweck, C. (2007) Mindset: The New Psychology of Success. New York, U.S.A.:
Ballantine Books De la torre, S., y Violant, V. (2006) Comprender y evaluar la creatividad, 1. Málaga,
España: Aljibe. Franca, Aroa (2016) Autonomía, Autoestima y Rendimiento Académico. Sevilla, España:
Universidad de Sevilla. Hadfield, J. (1992) Classroom dynamics. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press Juan, A. y García I. (2012), Los diferentes roles del profesor y los alumnos en el aula de
lenguas extranjeras. Reflexiones y Experiencias Innovadoras en el Aula, 38. San Javier, Murcia. España. Consultado en:
https://es.scribd.com/document/161249937/Roles-Del-Profesor-y-Los-Alumnos-en-El-Aula-de-Lenguas-Extranjeras
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2003) Beyond Methods: Macrostrategies for Language Teaching.
New Haven, U.S.A.: Yale University Press. Maley,A. y Peachey, N, (2015) Creativity in the English language classroom. London,
U.K.: British Council.
141
Montesdeoca, A. (2008) “Y... aquí seguimos” [en línea]. Intervención en la cuarta sesión
del I Ciclo Complejidad y Modelo Pedagógico. Organizado por el Comité de Educación para una Sociedad Compleja del Centro Unesco de la Comunidad de Madrid, España: http://www.tendencias21.net/ciclo/index.php?action=article&numero=19, recuperado: 25 de junio del 2012.
Padilla, L y Espinosa, L. (2015). La práctica docente del profesor de inglés en secundaria.
un estudio de casos en escuelas públicas. UPTC-Tunja, Colombia, Sinéctica (44) recuperado de: versión On-line ISSN 2007-7033 versión impresa ISSN 1665-109X
Perkins, D., Nickerson, R., y Smith, E. (1987) Enseñar a pensar. Barcelona, España:
Paidós. Puchta, H, y Rinvolucri, M. (2005) Multiple Intelligences in EFL. Madrid, España:
Innsbruck: Helbling Languages. Pugliese, C. (2010) Being Creative: The challenge of change in the classroom. London.
U.K.: Halstan & Co. Ritchhart, R. y Perkins, D. (2008): Making Thinking Visible. Educational Leadership 65,
(5). San Francisco, U.S.A.: JosseyBass. Read, C. (2007) 500 Activities in the Primary Classroom.. Oxford. U.K.: Macmillan
Education Read, C (2015) Seven pillars of creativity in primary ELT. London, U.K.:British Council
publication. Real Academia Española. (2017). Diccionario de la lengua española (23.a ed.). Madrid,
España: Felipe IV. Consultado en: http://dle.rae.es/?id=EO5CDdh Štěpánek, L. y Haaff a kolektiv, J. (2011) Academic English. Akademická angličtina.
Prague, the Czech Republic: Grada Stevick, E (1980) A way and ways. Massachusetts, U.S.A.: Newbury House. Spiro, J (2004) Creative Poetry Writing.Oxford. U.K.: Oxford University Press Wilson, K (2008) Drama and Improvisation. Oxford. U.K.: Oxford University Press.
LAS AUTORAS
CLAUDIA ANDREA DURÁN MONTENEGRO docente del centro de Idiomas- Veracruz, UV cuenta con la licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa, Maestría en Ciencias de la Educación y Doctorado en Ciencias de la Educación. Ha sido docente y ha realizado investigaciones en traducción y la enseñanza del inglés como segunda lengua. [email protected]
142
ADRIANA ARACELI PADILLA ZAMUDIO docente del Centro de Idiomas- Veracruz, UV cuenta con la licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa, especialidad en Educación, Maestría en Ciencias de la Educación, y con estudios de doctorado en Ciencias de la Educación. Maestra de intercambio por la SEP en Mandela High School en Ockland California. ecada por la .E.N. para tomar el curso “ asic merican Language Instructor Course” (BALIC) en Lackland Air Force Base, San Antonio TX. [email protected] ALICIA MARCELA RENDÓN CASTRO docente de inglés del Centro de Idiomas región Veracruz, de la Universidad Veracruzana, cuenta con la licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa de Universidad Veracruzana y maestría en Educación de la Universidad de México. Ha fungido como coordinadora de la academia del AFBG y de niveles intermedios. [email protected]
143
ESTUDIANTES NO ESPECIALISTAS DE FRANCÉS, SU SENTIDO
DE AUTOEFICACIA PARA APRENDER EL IDIOMA
María del Rosario Reyes Cruz [email protected]
Nelly Paulina García Poot [email protected]
Universidad de Quintana Roo
RESUMEN
En este artículo, reportamos los resultados de una investigación cuyo objetivo fue
establecer el sentido de autoeficacia de los estudiantes de francés de la Universidad de
Quintana Roo y su experiencia respecto de las fuentes de la autoeficacia. Como referente
teórico, utilizamos la teoría de la autoeficacia de Bandura. El diseño metodológico
empleado fue cuantitativo por encuesta. Los hallazgos indican que la mayoría de los
estudiantes se considera capaces en las 4 habilidades lingüísticas, pero destaca en la
habilidad de lectura. Acerca de las fuentes de la autoeficacia encontramos que en cuanto
a la experiencia vicaria la mayoría de los estudiantes dijo que ha habido personas que
han sido modelos para ellos. Respecto de la persuasión verbal los estudiantes de los
niveles B1 y A2 dos concordaron en haber recibido retroalimentación sobre su
desempeño en francés mientras que los del nivel A1 mencionaron haberla recibido
escasamente. En lo que concierne a los estados fisiológicos y emocionales casi la mitad
de los estudiantes de los niveles A2 y B1 aseveraron que los ejercicios de expresión oral y
escritura en francés los estresaban a veces. Un poco menos de la mitad de los
participantes de los tres niveles declaró sentirse nervioso al hacer ejercicios de
comprensión auditiva.
Palabras clave: sentido de autoeficacia, estudiantes de francés, fuentes de la
autoeficacia
INTRODUCCION
Durante los últimos años, el constructo de la autoeficacia ha generado gran interés entre
los investigadores educativos. Chowdhury y Shahabuddin (2007, p. 2) aseveran que
Bandura (1997) expone "amplia evidencia y documentación de que la autoeficacia es un
factor clave para lograr resultados significativos en la vida de las personas". Locke y
Latham (1990) y Zimmerman, Bandura y Martinez-Pons (1992), muestran que "la
autoeficacia puede ser un buen predictor del rendimiento" (Chowdhury y Shahabuddin,
p.3). Bandura (1997) sostiene que las creencias de eficacia influyen en cómo las personas
piensan, sienten, se motivan y actúan. En ese sentido, es evidente que las creencias de
autoeficacia juegan un papel importante en la educación y en la vida en general.
144
En nuestra experiencia en el área de francés en la Universidad de Quintana Roo,
hemos notado que varios estudiantes son conscientes de la importancia de aprender una
segunda lengua extranjera, adicionalmente al inglés. Por esta razón, muchos de ellos se
inscriben en cursos de francés, pero solo algunos continúan estudiando este idioma hasta
los niveles avanzados. El estudio de un segundo idioma proporciona a los estudiantes las
percepciones sobre qué tan eficientes o ineficientes son para aprenderlo. Estas
suposiciones a menudo pueden tener un impacto positivo o negativo en las creencias de
autoeficacia y el proceso de aprendizaje de los alumnos. Investigar el sentido de
autoeficacia de los estudiantes de francés proporcionaría elementos empíricos para
ayudar a que un mayor número prosiguiera a niveles más altos de dominio de este
idioma.
Hasta donde sabemos, las investigaciones sobre el sentido de autoeficacia
asociados a estudiantes de francés como segunda o tercera lengua extranjera son
escasas en México. Los estudios más relacionados se enfocan en aspectos tales como
las creencias sobre la autoeficacia en investigación de estudiantes de maestría (Reyes &
Gutiérrez, 2015) y en profesores de lenguas extranjeras (Reyes y Perales, 2016).
Asimismo, encontramos un trabajo acerca de las creencias sobre alfabetización
informacional de profesores universitarios (Reyes y Franco, 2014). En Quintana Roo, se
han realizado dos tesis de licenciatura sobre las creencias de los profesores de inglés en
formación (Pool-Antonio, 2015; Cruz-Rosales, 2015) y una de maestría acerca de las
creencias de autoeficacia en investigación de estudiantes de licenciatura (Reyes- Cruz,
& Gutiérrez-Arceo, 2015). El trabajo más relacionado con el presente es la tesis de
Villanueva-Delgado (2015), quien investigó las creencias de autoeficacia de los
estudiantes de inglés.
En el entorno internacional, algunas investigaciones han abordado las creencias
de autoeficacia de estudiantes de francés en relación con otras variables como el estrés
(Zajacova, Lynch, & Espenshade, 2005), el nivel de ansiedad (Çubukçu, 2008), la
motivacion (Hsieh, 2008), las estrategias (Gahungu, 2007), la habilidad de decodificar y
las atribuciones causales (Erler & Macaro, 2011), la autorregulación y el género (Bresó,
2007). La mayoría de ellos son de corte cuantitativo y utilizan escalas y cuestionarios.
Estas investigaciones señalan que es importante trabajar en las debilidades de los
estudiantes para incrementar su sentido de autoeficacia y su capacidad de logro. De igual
manera, estos estudios también hallaron que la motivación, el uso de estrategias y la
autorregulación se encuentran positivamente asociadas con un alto sentido de
autoeficacia y un buen desempeño.
Otros investigadores se han interesado en indagar el sentido de autoeficacia en
relación con las habilidades lingüísticas. Las intervenciones para mejorar la comprensión
auditiva en francés (Graham & Macaro, 2008; Graham, 2011) han mostrado que el uso de
estrategias incrementa esta habilidad al igual que el sentido de autoeficacia. Mills,
Pajares, & Herron (2006), adicionalmente a las variables anteriores analizaron la lectura,
la ansiedad y el género. Los resultados indicaron que aquellos estudiantes que reportaron
145
un mayor sentido de la eficacia para leer obtuvieron puntajes de dominio de lectura más
altos. Así mismo, reportaron que la ansiedad en la lectura no tenía relación con la
competencia lectora. La competencia lectora, sin embargo, se asoció negativamente con
el sentido de autoeficacia en la lectura .La autoeficacia auditiva se relacionó positivamente
con la competencia auditiva solo para las participantes femeninas, y la ansiedad auditiva
se relacionó positivamente con la competencia auditiva tanto de hombres como mujeres.
Cubillos e Ilvento (2012) son los únicos investigadores que han abordado el
sentido de autoeficacia en las cuatro habilidades a la par. Ellos descubrieron que realizar
estancias en el país donde se habla la lengua estudiada mejora el sentido de autoeficacia
en las 4 habilidades. Puozzo (2004) investigó el sentido de autoeficacia en general para
aprender francés e italiano, los resultados de su estudio mostraron que la autoeficacia no
tiene una acción directa sobre el comportamiento humano, sino que pasa por cuatro
procesos de mediación psicológica que ayudan a las personas a comprender sus
capacidades. Estos procesos son: cognitivo, motivacional, afectivo y selectivo. Los
resultados en lengua francesa fueron satisfactorios, los de italiano, por el contrario,
resultaron decepcionantes. Hunt (2002) investigó la autoeficacia de los estudiantes
universitarios con respecto a las variables género, maestro, último curso de francés
tomado y calificación final en el último curso de francés académico en el que se
inscribieron los estudiantes. Los resultados mostraron que las creencias de autoeficacia
de los estudiantes universitarios franceses se correlacionan con el rendimiento del alumno
en el curso. También se halló que los estudiantes se siente más capaces de realizar
ejercicios de compresión auditiva con sus compañeros y su maestro que con hablantes
nativos.
Las investigaciones anteriores son relevantes para éste estudio porque ayudarán a
informar y contrastar los resultados con los propios. Sin embargo, es importante destacar
que estos trabajos examinaron sus propios contextos y algunas escalas se adaptaron de
acuerdo con sus programas, por lo que las soluciones e instrumentos mostrados podrían
no funcionar en otros campos y otros temas. Ninguno de estos estudios se realizó en
México. El presente trabajo contribuye a la literatura incorporando las fuentes de
autoeficacia como componentes de una escala ayudando así a llenar un vacío en el
campo de las lenguas extranjeras. Adicionalmente, esta investigación proporciona
conocimiento sobre la autoeficacia en el aprendizaje del francés en el ámbito mexicano ya
que, hasta donde conocemos, no hay estudios al respecto.
JUSTIFICACIÓN
Nuestro estudio tiene la potencialidad de contribuir a dar a conocer a los profesores de
francés el concepto de autoeficacia, sus efectos en los estudiantes y los aspectos de su
aprendizaje que les resultan problemáticos. Los profesores tienen la posibilidad de
comparar los resultados empíricos sobre la autoeficacia con el estado de su práctica
docente. Esta comparación puede hacerlos más conscientes de la importancia de proveer
a los estudiantes con experiencias de desempeño reales, realizar retroalimentación
146
puntual, critica y empática así como fomentar un ambiente de aprendizaje
emocionalmente positivo. Lo anterior con miras a incrementar el sentido de autoeficacia
de sus estudiantes.
Esta investigación podría adicionalmente estimular la realización de más estudios
sobre el tema utilizando enfoques diversos para enriquecer el conocimiento sobre las
creencias de autoeficacia en francés. Este trabajo también podría contribuir a que los
estudiantes tomen conciencia sobre sus creencias y busquen estrategias para fortalecer
las habilidades en las que tienen dificultades. En ese orden de ideas, el objetivo de esta
investigación fue establecer cuáles son las creencias de autoeficacia de los estudiantes
de francés de la Universidad de Quintana Roo con respecto a las cuatro habilidades
lingüísticas (escuchar, hablar, leer y escribir). Del mismo modo, este estudio buscó
analizar las experiencias que los estudiantes han tenido respecto de tres fuentes de la
autoeficacia (persuasión verbal, experiencia vicaria y estados fisiológicos y emocionales)
y su relación con las creencias de autoeficacia en las habilidades lingüísticas.
MARCO TEÓRICO
Bandura (1997) define la autoeficacia percibida como “la creencia en la propia capacidad
de organizar y ejecutar las acciones necesarias para alcanzar los logros deseados” (p. 3).
La autoeficacia es una habilidad generativa en la que deben organizarse y desplegarse de
manera efectiva sub-habilidades cognitivas, sociales, emocionales y conductuales. La
autoeficacia percibida no es la habilidad en sí misma que uno posee, sino la creencia de
que, en ciertas circunstancias, uno es capaz de realizar una determinada actividad. Las
creencias sobre la autoeficacia son relevantes porque son los más importantes
mediadores de la conducta y del cambio de ésta. Dichas creencias afectan el éxito o
fracaso en las acciones que emprendemos (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1997). Bandura (1997)
establece que las fuentes de la autoeficacia son: la experiencia previa, la experiencia
vicaria, la persuasión verbal y los estados fisiológicos y emocionales.
En cuanto a las experiencias previas, estas son las fuentes más importantes
para desarrollar la autoeficacia (Bandura, 1997) porque se trata de los éxitos y fracasos
por los que atraviesan los individuos. Además, dichas experiencias proporcionan la
evidencia más auténtica de si uno es capaz de reunir todo lo necesario para tener éxito.
El éxito aumenta la eficacia mientras que el fracaso la reduce, especialmente cuando el
sentido de autoeficacia ya está fuertemente construido. Sin embargo, esto no ocurre así
siempre. Los inconvenientes también pueden brindarle a la gente experiencia en la
superación de obstáculos. Se dice que los obstáculos brindan a las personas la
oportunidad de aprender cómo convertir los impedimentos en oportunidades para tener
éxito. Si las personas están convencidas de que tienen la capacidad de tener éxito,
persisten y se recuperan más rápido de las dificultades.
La segunda fuente predominante de autoeficacia es la experiencia vicaria
(Bandura, 1997). Las experiencias vicarias se basan en el modelado. El modelado se usa
147
como una herramienta para aumentar las creencias de autoeficacia. En la experiencia
vicaria, las personas evalúan sus éxitos en relación con los éxitos de otras personas
cuando tienen una falta de conocimiento sobre sus propias habilidades. Un ejemplo de la
experiencia vicaria podría ser cuando los estudiantes de francés comparan los resultados
de sus exámenes para ver qué tan bien se desempeñaron sus compañeros. Los
estudiantes que van más allá de sus compañeros de clase aumentan su autoeficacia,
mientras que los estudiantes que no los superan generalmente disminuyen la suya.
En cuanto a la persuasión verbal, ésta se lleva a cabo cuando las personas
reciben retroalimentación de otros. Las personas se motivan por los comentarios, críticas,
puntos de vista y el apoyo que reciben de los demás. Un aspecto importante de esta
fuente de autoeficacia es la credibilidad del persuasor. Es más probable que la eficacia de
las personas se vea influida si el persuasor ya domina las habilidades que juzga. Por
ejemplo, cuando los profesores o los asistentes franceses le dicen a sus alumnos que les
va bien o mal en las tareas, o cuando los compañeros de clase felicitan a sus compañeros
por una buena pronunciación en clase. Ver a personas similares a uno mismo realizando
con éxito varias tareas puede aumentar el sentido de eficacia y persuadirnos para llevar a
cabo esas actividades dado que ellos pueden ejecutarlas.
Finalmente, los estados fisiológicos y afectivos involucran los estados corporales
y las respuestas que experimentan las personas cuando realizan ciertas tareas y las
interpretaciones que les dan. Las personas con alta autoeficacia podrían considerar el
nerviosismo como una reacción típica a tareas como dar un discurso en francés; mientras
que las personas con baja autoeficacia podrían pensar que es una consecuencia de su
falta de preparación y debilidad. Así mismo, los estudiantes que se ven afectados por el
nerviosismo o la ansiedad mientras hablan en francés o participan en clases o en
exámenes orales, pueden interpretar esos sentimientos como normales o como señales
de su falta de organización.
PREGUNTAS DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Como se mencionó líneas arriba, el objetivo de esta investigación fue establecer cuáles
son las creencias de autoeficacia de los estudiantes de francés de la Universidad de
Quintana Roo relacionadas con las cuatro habilidades lingüísticas (escuchar, hablar, leer
y escribir). De igual manera, analizar las experiencias que los estudiantes han tenido
respecto de tres fuentes de la autoeficacia (persuasión verbal, experiencia vicaria y
estados fisiológicos y emocionales) y su relación con las creencias de autoeficacia en las
habilidades lingüísticas.
Para alcanzar los objetivos establecidos, nos planteamos dos preguntas de
investigación:
1. ¿Cuál es el sentido de autoeficacia de los estudiantes de francés de la universidad
de Quintana Roo respecto a las cuatro habilidades lingüísticas?
148
2. ¿Qué experiencias han tenido los estudiantes respecto de tres fuentes
(experiencia vicaria, persuasión verbal y estados fisiológicos y emocionales) de la
autoeficacia?
MÉTODO
Éste trabajo es un estudio cuantitativo descriptivo por encuesta (Reyes-Cruz, Hernández
& Yeladaqui, 2011). Se eligió este diseño debido a que se trata de un trabajo exploratorio
dado que, hasta donde hemos investigado, es el primero que estudia las creencias de
autoeficacia para el aprendizaje del francés en contexto mexicano. Por ello también se
adaptó una escala ya utilizada en otros estudios y se añadieron algunos ítems propios.
Los resultados obtenidos aquí servirán de base para futuros estudios que utilicen otros
diseños.
Contexto
El presente estudio fue llevado a cabo en la unidad Chetumal de la Universidad de
Quintana Roo, (UQRoo). La UQRoo es la universidad pública más importante en el estado
de Quintana Roo. Como parte de la oferta educativa de la unidad Chetumal, se ofrece la
Licenciatura en lengua Inglesa. Este programa está enfocado a formar profesionales
capaces de planear y dar clases de este idioma, (Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa, 1995).
El programa incluye 4 cursos opcionales de francés. Este campus también ofrece cursos
de francés en el Centro de Enseñanza de Idiomas (CEI).
Muestra
Para este estudio se eligieron a los estudiantes mediante una muestra intencionada
(Creswell, 2008). Se invitó a participar a los estudiantes de francés del CEI y estudiantes
de la Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa inscritos en alguno de los cursos de francés. En
total, la muestra estuvo constituida por 95 estudiantes (38 hombres y 57 mujeres), cuyas
edades fluctúan entre los 18 y 36 años. En el momento del levantamiento de los datos, los
estudiantes del CEI se encontraban en algún punto entre el 1° y el 6° semestre, y los
estudiantes de la Licenciatura en 6°, 8°, 9° y 10° semestres.
Instrumentos
El instrumento utilizado fue una adaptación del cuestionario The Questionnaire of English
Self-Efficacy [QESE] (Kim, Wang, Ahn & Bong, 2015), el cual contenía preguntas sobre
autoeficacia y respuestas tipo Likert. Se hicieron tres versiones de la encuesta debido a
los diferentes niveles de francés en que los estudiantes se encontraban. La versión A1 del
instrumento incluía a los estudiantes de francés de los niveles Básico e Introductorio; la
versión A2 a aquellos ubicados en los niveles Pre-intermedio e Intermedio, y la versión B2
149
a quienes cursaban el nivel Post-intermedio de francés. La encuesta se encontraba
dividida en tres secciones: la primera parte consistía en 12 preguntas sobre las
percepciones del estudiante para ejecutar tareas en las cuatro habilidades lingüísticas en
francés (hablar, escuchar, leer y escribir). Es importante mencionar que estas preguntas
se basaron en el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las lenguas (Consejo de
Europa, 2002) y se adaptaron al nivel de francés que cursaban los estudiantes. El Marco
fue utilizado para tener una fuente sólida que respaldara los niveles de dominio de la
lengua. La segunda sección del instrumento estaba conformada por 12 preguntas
respecto de las fuentes de la autoeficacia propuestas por Bandura (1987): experiencia
vicaria, persuasión verbal, estados fisiológicos y emocionales. La tercera sección del
instrumento consistió en 3 preguntas sobre datos demográficos de los estudiantes.
Procedimiento
Se pidió autorización a los profesores de francés para administrar el instrumento en una
clase al final del semestre. Se informó a los estudiantes sobre el propósito del estudio y se
les solicitó su participación voluntaria. También, se les aclaró que su anonimidad sería
protegida. El procesamiento y análisis de los datos se realizó mediante el software
estadístico The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Para el análisis de resultados se utilizó estadística descriptiva. La confiabilidad
del cuestionario fue de un alfa de Cronbach de .746.De acuerdo con Muijs (2010), una
puntuación por encima de .7 es usualmente considerada de confiabilidad razonable para
fines de investigación.
RESULTADOS
A continuación presentamos los resultados en el orden en que se establecieron las
preguntas de investigación. La primera fue ¿Cuál es el sentido de auto-eficacia de los
estudiantes de francés de la Universidad de Quintana Roo respecto de las cuatro
habilidades lingüísticas?
En cuanto a la habilidad de expresión oral, los resultados proveen evidencia de
que el 53% de los estudiantes del nivel B1 se considera capaz de hablar en francés. El
32% de los estudiantes del nivel A2 se autoevaluó como “totalmente capaz” y el 32% de
los estudiantes del nivel A1 se describió como “básicamente capaz”. En la figura 1 se
aprecian en detalle los resultados.
150
Figura 1. Expresión Oral
Los resultados de este estudio pueden comparase parcialmente con el
de Cubillos e Ilvento (2012) que aunque se enfocó en estancias en el extranjero,
concuerda con el presente estudio porque también muestra que el sentido de
autoeficacia varía con la experiencia. Este hallazgo también es coherente con la teoría de
la autoeficacia de Bandura (1997) en el sentido de que asevera que las percepciones de
autoeficacia cambian a través del tiempo. Los resultados muestran que, en efecto, hubo
un cambio en el nivel de autoeficacia en la habilidad de hablar de los estudiantes de
todos los niveles. Es posible que los estudiantes del nivel B1 hayan afirmado no sentirse
totalmente capaces porque, a pesar de que ya tenían experiencia y dominio de los temas
básicos y algunos de los niveles intermedios, estos estudiantes cursaban un nivel
relativamente alto. La complejidad de lo que están haciendo en este momento es alta,
por lo que se espera que no se sientan totalmente capaces. Se puede decir que sus
creencias son acordes con su situación de aprendizaje.
En cuanto a los estudiantes del nivel A1, éstos recién empiezan a estudiar el
idioma y los temas que estudian son novedosos para ellos. La pronunciación y la
gramática son completamente nuevas y, probablemente, esto hace que los estudiantes
crean que no son tan eficaces. Sin embargo, los estudiantes de nivel A2 están en su
segundo o tercer semestre de su carrera, ya superaron la etapa inicial, y se sienten más
capaces de producir en francés. Además, los temas de este nivel no son tan complejos o
difíciles de entender.
En lo que concierne la compresión auditiva, los resultados revelaron que la
mayoría de los estudiantes de todos los niveles (A2: 50%, B1: 47%. A1: 40%) se
consideraba capaz de realizar tareas auditivas. La figura 2 muestra los resultados en
detalle.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
A1
A2
B1
151
Figura 2. Comprensión auditiva
Estos resultados coinciden con los hallazgos de Bandura (1997), quien sugiere
que las percepciones cambian a través del tiempo, y los niños finalmente juzgan sus
capacidades en comparación con otros a medida que crecen. Probablemente, cuanto
más tiempo pasan los estudiantes del nivel A2 en la práctica de la habilidad de
escuchar, mejor desempeñan en ella. Por otro lado, los estudiantes del nivel B1 tal vez
tienen ejercicios auditivos más complejos que los hacen sentir más estresados, a
diferencia de los estudiantes del nivel A2, que tienen ejercicios difíciles, pero no
demasiado complicados de realizar. Por el contrario, los estudiantes del nivel A1 tal vez
no han desarrollado suficientemente la habilidad de escuchar, ya que son relativamente
nuevos en la carrera y no cuentan con suficientes estrategias de comprensión auditiva.
Contar con un sentido de autoeficacia alto es crucial para el desarrollo de habilidades
auditivas efectivas (Graham, 2008).
En cuanto a la habilidad de lectura, la mayoría de los alumnos de nivel A2 (44%)
y B1 (58%) se consideraron capaces de realizar actividades de lectura. Sin embargo, la
mayoría de los estudiantes del nivel A1 (32%) dijo ser básicamente capaz. Obsérvense
los detalles en la figura 3.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Totalmente Capaz
Capaz Basicamente Capaz
Posiblemente Capaz
Incapaz
A1
A2
B1
152
Figura 3. Comprensión de lectura.
Los resultados de este estudio coinciden con los hallazgos de Mills, et al. (2006),
quienes sugieren que la autoeficacia está vinculada con el desarrollo de los estudiantes
en la lectura. Estos autores también apoyaron las declaraciones de Bandura acerca de
que los lectores de lenguas extranjeras pueden experimentar ansiedad cuando perciben
que son menos competentes para leer. En el presente estudio, la mayoría de los
estudiantes de nivel A1 se ubicó en la opción “básicamente capaz” mientras que los de
los niveles A2 y B1 prefirieron mayoritariamente la opción “capaz”, seguida de
“totalmente capaz”. Basándonos en los resultados de los autores anteriores, es posible
que los estudiantes de nivel A1 tuvieran un vocabulario limitado, ya que estaban en un
nivel de principiante. Igualmente, es posible que los estudiantes de los niveles A2 y B1
hayan aprendido estrategias de lectura. Sin embargo, ningún estudio precedente pudo
compararse totalmente con los resultados del presente trabajo, ya que los primeros se
centraron en investigar alguna de las habilidades lingüísticas de manera individual o en
relación con otras variables. Luego entonces, se necesita más investigación para
explicar con precisión estos hallazgos.
En cuanto a la habilidad de escritura, la mayoría de los estudiantes de la versión
A1 (33%) se declaró "capaz". El 44% de la versión A2 expresó ser "Totalmente Capaz"
y el 49% de la versión B1 mencionó sentirse “Capaz”. Consúltese la figura 4 para una
información detallada.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Totalmente Capaz
Capaz Basicamente Capaz
Posiblemente Capaz
Incapaz
A1
A2
B1
153
Figura 4. Habilidad de escritura.
Los resultados del presente estudio coinciden con los hallazgos de Zimmerman
y Bandura (1992) efectuado con estudiantes universitarios de inglés. Estos hallaron que
las fuentes de autoeficacia influyeron en las creencias de autoeficacia. También
encontraron que los mensajes que los estudiantes recibían de adultos y compañeros
sobre su escritura estaban directamente relacionados con el grado de confianza que los
estudiantes sentían hacia sí mismos como escritores. Los tipos de escrito que los
estudiantes del nivel A2 realizan son menos complejos que los requeridos para el nivel
B1, posiblemente a ello se deba que se la mayoría se hayan autoevaluado “totalmente
capaz”. En cambio, a pesar de que los tipos de textos para el nivel A1 son muy
sencillos, los estudiantes apenas empiezan a conocer los rudimentos de la escritura en
francés y por ello puede ser que se sientan menos capaces que sus contrapartes.
Los resultados generales en las cuatro habilidades lingüísticas revelaron que, en
general, los estudiantes del nivel B1 piensan que son “capaces” de desempeñarse
mejor en la habilidad de lectura. Por otro lado, los estudiantes del nivel A2 se sintieron
más eficaces en la habilidad de escuchar y en la expresión oral. La mayoría de los
estudiantes de la versión A1 se sintió más eficaz en la habilidad de escuchar que en
otras habilidades. Los hallazgos del presente estudio coinciden con el de Mills et al.
(2006), en el que afirman que los estudiantes que se perciben como buenos lectores se
volvieron competentes en la lectura. Con base en sus resultados, es posible que los
estudiantes del nivel B1 se percibieran como buenos lectores, lo que puede haber
hecho que se sintieran más eficaces en la habilidad de lectura. Sobre los estudiantes de
nivel A2 es posible decir que se sentían más eficaces en la comprensión auditiva y en la
expresión oral. Puede ser posible que a medida que los estudiantes de este nivel van
avanzando en el aprendizaje del francés se sientan más eficaces para realizar
actividades en las habilidades mencionadas, dado que se presupone tienen un mayor
conocimiento sobre el uso de estrategias que cuando estaban en el nivel A1.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Totalmente Capaz
Capaz Basicamente Capaz
Posiblemente Capaz
Incapaz
A1
A2
B1
154
Igualmente, podría ser posible que los estudiantes del nivel A1 de francés se hayan
sentido menos eficaces en algunas habilidades porque en los niveles más bajos los
estudiantes de idiomas extranjeros cuentan con menos vocabulario, gramática y
conocimiento sobre la aplicación de estrategias efectivas en la habilidad de lectura que
los estudiantes de los niveles superiores. También podría ser posible que los
estudiantes de nivel A1 no conozcan estrategias efectivas de lectura, lo que indicaría
que los maestros deberían trabajar más en su implementación.
A continuación se da respuesta la pregunta ¿Cuál ha sido la experiencia de los
estudiantes con las fuentes de auto-eficacia?
En relación con la experiencia vicaria, los resultados revelan (ver figura 5) que
menos de la mitad de los estudiantes en los niveles A1 (32%) indicó que la influencia de
otras personas siempre ha sido importante para estudiar el idioma francés. Seguido por
los estudiantes del nivel A2 (40%) quienes dijeron haber tenido siempre profesores de
francés que han sido inspiradores. Finalmente, casi la mitad de los estudiantes del nivel
B1 (40%) reportaron haber tenido siempre maestros inspiradores del francés.
Figura 5. Experiencia vicaria
Bandura (1997) establece que cuando las personas son consideradas modelos,
como amigos, parientes y asistentes nativos, se genera una gran motivación para
alcanzar el mismo nivel, en este caso de francés. Según Bandura la influencia del
modelo está relacionada con la confiabilidad de las personas. Los estudiantes
mencionaron que tenían maestros que los inspiraron; es decir, los consideran modelos
dignos de imitarse. Bandura establece que dependiendo de cómo los estudiantes
percibieron el modelo, decidirán si son buenos o no. Si se dan cuenta de que su modelo
es un apasionado de un determinado tema y sabe cómo hacer frente a los obstáculos,
el estudiante verá a esta persona como un modelo a seguir pero no lo hará en caso
contrario. Sobre los estudiantes que declaran no tener un modelo a seguir, podría ser
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Siempre Casi Siempre Indeciso Aveces Nunca
A1
A2
B1
155
que en su experiencia académica, no hayan tenido maestros, parientes o amigos que
consideren modelos dignos. Bandura menciona que la gente debe juzgar los modelos
como dignos para que desee imitarlos. Los resultados de este estudio no coinciden con
los hallazgos de Mahyuddin et al. (2006), quienes hallaron que inicialmente los
estudiantes consideraban a los profesores como una inspiración, pero como no
recibieron atención de su parte, estos estudiantes bajaron su sentido de autoeficacia.
En el presente estudio, los estudiantes de todos los niveles (A1, A2 y B1) reportaron
haber tenido siempre maestros inspiradores. Los hallazgos de este estudio sugieren
que los maestros de francés de la UQRoo se preocupan de prestar suficiente atención
a los estudiantes, lo que en consecuencia, aumenta sus creencias de autoeficacia.
En cuanto a la fuente de la persuasión verbal, los resultados revelaron (Ver figura
5) que menos de la mitad de los estudiantes en los niveles B1 (42%) y A2 (42%) declaró
que los buenos comentarios casi siempre han tenido una influencia en sus percepciones;
mientras que los estudiantes del nivel A1 (28%) se mostraron indecisos.
Figura 5. Persuasión verbal
Los estudiantes que recibieron una buena retroalimentación, por ejemplo, de
amigos, maestros o familiares tienden a estar más motivados para seguir haciendo las
cosas bien. Lit y Schunk (citados en Bandura, 1995) afirman que las personas
persuadidas verbalmente tienden a dominar las actividades dadas y hacer un gran
esfuerzo. En esta fuente, la mayoría de los estudiantes dijo que han tenido comentarios
positivos sobre su progreso en francés. Los estudiantes que estaban ubicados en la
respuesta "casi la verdad", probablemente han tenido comentarios buenos y malos, pero
posiblemente han recibido más comentarios negativos o bien no los consideraron
importantes. Bandura (1997) afirma que el escepticismo se desarrolla a partir de
experiencias personales cuando la gente no cree lo que se les ha dicho. Esto significa que
los ejecutores eventualmente ignorarían a sus persuasores. Hasta donde sabemos, no
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
Siempre Casi Siempre Indeciso A veces Nunca
A1
A2
B1
156
hay estudios que investiguen esta fuente de autoeficacia con estudiantes de francés de
diferentes niveles. Entonces, los resultados de este estudio no pueden compararse. Por lo
tanto, sería pertinente investigar más sobre esta fuente.
En cuanto a la fuente de estados fisiológicos y emocionales, los resultados
revelaron que casi la mitad de los estudiantes de los niveles A2 y B1 dijeron que los
ejercicios de hablar y escribir en francés los estresaban a veces. Los participantes de los
tres niveles, A1 (35%), A2 (26.5%) y B1 (43%), declararon sentirse nerviosos al hacer
ejercicios de comprensión auditiva (Véase Figura 6).
Figura 6. Estados fisiológicos y emocionales
Bandura (1995) afirma que aquellos que tienen un alto sentido de eficacia ven su
estado de estimulación afectiva como un facilitador de rendimiento que aquellos que
tienen muchas dudas. Los estudiantes que declararon no estar nerviosos o estresados
por hacer las actividades tienen fuertes creencias de eficacia. Bandura (1997) sugiere que
las personas que interpretan su estimulación como resultado de deficiencias personales
son más propensas a disminuir sus creencias de eficacia que aquellos que ven su
estimulación como una reacción transitoria que todos pueden experimentar. Hasta donde
sabemos, no hay estudios que investiguen esta fuente de autoeficacia con estudiantes de
francés. Sin embargo, estos resultados pueden compararse con el estudio de Mills et al.
(2006) quienes encontraron que los lectores de lenguas extranjeras experimentan
ansiedad cuando perciben que son menos competentes en su capacidad de leer textos en
lenguas extranjeras. Además, los autores anteriores sugirieron que la ansiedad de
escuchar se asoció significativamente con la competencia auditiva de todos los
participantes. Entonces, podría ser posible que todos los participantes en este estudio se
sintieran ansiosos y nerviosos al hacer las tareas de escuchar, hablar o leer, lo que puede
haber causado que se sintieran menos eficaces en esta fuente.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Siempre Casi siempre Indeciso A veces Nunca
A1
A2
B1
157
CONCLUSIONES
El objetivo de este estudio fue establecer el sentido de autoeficacia en los estudiantes
que aprenden francés en el CEI y en la Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa así como su
experiencia respecto de tres de las fuentes de autoeficacia. Para lograrlo, se adoptó el
enfoque cuantitativo y se utilizó un cuestionario como instrumento de investigación. Los
resultados indican que la mayoría de los estudiantes se considera autoeficaces en las
cuatro habilidades lingüísticas. Acerca de las fuentes de la autoeficacia encontramos que
en cuanto a la experiencia vicaria la mayoría de los estudiantes dijo que ha habido
personas que han sido modelos para ellos. Respecto de la persuasión verbal los
estudiantes de los niveles B1 y A2 dos concordaron en haber recibido retroalimentación
sobre su desempeño en francés mientras que los del nivel A1 mencionaron haberla
recibido escasamente. En lo que concierne a los estados fisiológicos y emocionales casi
la mitad de los estudiantes de los niveles A2 y B1 aseveraron que los ejercicios de
expresión oral y escritura en francés los estresaban a veces. Un poco menos de la mitad
de los participantes de los tres niveles declaró sentirse nervioso al hacer ejercicios de
comprensión auditiva Los resultados concuerdan con la teoría de la autoeficacia de
Bandura (1997) que sostiene que la experiencia vicaria tiene un papel importante en el
sentido de auto-eficacia de los estudiantes y que el contar con modelos sirve como otra
herramienta eficaz para promover un sentido de eficacia personal. En general, el estudio
coincide con la literatura previa. Aunque ésta investiga una o dos habilidades lingüísticas
y no todas como en el presente trabajo.
El presente trabajo contribuye a ayudar a profesores y estudiantes de francés en
la UQRoo a tener una mejor visión sobre cuáles son las percepciones de los estudiantes
para aprender el idioma francés. Los resultados de este trabajo, entonces, sugieren que
los maestros deben buscar diferentes estrategias para trabajar con las habilidades de
escuchar y escribir, porque son en las que los estudiantes se sintieron menos eficaces.
Es importante que los maestros hagan que estas habilidades sean observadas igual que
las otras, para que los estudiantes puedan ganar confianza y concentrarse en las tareas.
Es una buena idea que el CEI y la Licenciatura en Lengua Inglesa ofrezcan cursos
específicamente diseñados para practicar una habilidad en lugar de varias en la misma
lección. Tal vez, de esta manera, los estudiantes podrían concentrarse en sus
debilidades y reforzar sus fortalezas y percepciones sobre su eficacia para un mejor
desarrollo de cada habilidad. Sería trascendental si la UQRoo pudiera adaptar un
laboratorio en el que los estudiantes pudieran expresar su creatividad e ir a practicar sus
habilidades creando diferentes tipos de medios como programas de radio, periódicos,
libros, revistas que se pudieran publicar.
Por otro lado, los estudiantes deben buscar diferentes estrategias para fortalecer
sus habilidades de comprensión auditiva y de redacción. Deben ser conscientes de cómo
utilizar las estrategias para planificar, supervisar y evaluar dichas habilidades. Para la
habilidad de escuchar, conviene tratar de estar expuestos tanto como puedan a la lengua
francesa. Escuchar diferentes recursos como programas de televisión y canciones en
158
francés podría ser una buena idea para hacerlo. Para mejorar la habilidad de escritura,
es aconsejable que los estudiantes lean mucho, o escriban un diario para mantenerse al
día con lo que aprenden en el aula y así mejorar sus habilidades. Es importante que los
estudiantes sean responsables de su propio aprendizaje y éxito. Como Gahungu (2007)
afirma:
“La meta de cada instrucción de segundo idioma es desarrollar la competencia
comunicativa del alumno. Este esfuerzo puede ser desafiante; sin embargo, la
planificación, la participación activa en el proceso de aprendizaje, la supervisión
del progreso y la temperatura emocional pueden hacer la tarea más manejable y
agradable. La medida en la que un estudiante de lenguas utiliza estrategias de
aprendizaje de idiomas puede determinar en última instancia el nivel de su éxito "
(p.157).
En futuros estudios sería interesante investigar el sentido de autoeficacia, de los
profesores, para saber si su autoeficacia como maestros de la lengua francesa influye
directamente en las creencias del estudiante sobre el aprendizaje del francés. Una
limitación de este estudio fue que todos los resultados se basaron en las percepciones
del estudiante de su propia autoeficacia y no se comparó con el desempeño real. Existe
la posibilidad de inconsistencias entre ambos aspectos. En el futuro podría
complementarse el estudio con pruebas de desempeño y entrevistas, lo anterior aportaría
una mayor solidez a los hallazgos.
REFERENCIAS
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (Ed). (1995). Self-Efficacy in changing societies. New York: Cambridge
University Press. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman
and Company. Bresó, E. (2007). Well-being and performance in academic settings: The Predicting
Role of Self- efficacy. Tesis de doctorado. Universidad de Jaume I. Disponible en: http://www.tesisenred.net/handle/10803/10524
Cubillos, J. & Ilvento, T. (2012).The impact of study abroad on students‘
self‐efficacy perceptions. Foreign Language Annals, 45 (4), 494–511.doi: 10.1111/flan.12002
Çubukçu, F. (2008).A study on the correlation between self-efficacy and foreign language
learning anxiety. Journal of Theory and Practice in Education, 4 (1):148-15. Recuperado de: http://eku.comu.edu.tr/index/4/1/fcubukcu.pdf
159
Consejo de Europa. (2002). Common European framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, and assessment. Language examining and test development, Little, D. Strasbourg. Recuperado de: http://www.coe.int/t/DG4/Portfolio/documents/Guide%20October%202002%20revised%20versi on1.doc
Chowdhury, M., & Shahabuddin, A. (2007). Self-efficacy, motivation and their
relationship to academic performance of Bangladesh college students. College Quarterly, 10 (1), 1-9. Recuperado de: http://www.senecac.on.ca/quarterly/2007-vol10-num01 winter/chowdhury_shahabuddin.ht...10/7/2008
Creswell, J.W. (2008). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method
approaches (2nd. Ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Erler,L., Macaro, E. (2011). Decoding ability in French as a foreign language and language learning motivation. The Modern Language Journal, 11, 496-518.
Gahungu, O. N. (2007).The relationships among strategies use, self-efficacy, and
language ability in foreign language Learners. Northern Arizona University, 1-195.
Graham, S., & Macaro, E. (2008).Strategy instruction in listening for lower-intermediate
learners of French. Language Learning, 58, 747–783. Hsieh, P. (2008). Why are college foreign language students ‘self-efficacy, attitude, and
motivation so different? International Education, 38(1). Recuperado de: http://trace.tennessee.edu/internationaleducation/vol38/iss1/11
Hunt, K. (2002). Measuring the self-efficacy beliefs of college students learning French:
The development and validation of an instrument. Tesis sin publicar. Recuperado de http://community.actfl.org/communities/communityhome/librarydocuments/viewdocument?DocumentKey=58b167ce-4549-4d3a-ae95 119c5708cd22&tab=librarydocumentsfrom:http://trace.tennessee.edu/internationaleducation/vol38/iss1/11
Kim, D.-H., Wang, C., Ahn, H. S., Bong, M. (2015).English language learners' self-efficacy
profiles and relationship with self-regulated learning strategies. Learning and Individual Differences, 38, 136-142. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2015.01.016
Locke, E. & Latham, G. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Mahyuddin, R., Habibah, E., Cheong, L., Muhamad, M., Noordin, N., & Abdullah, M.
(2006).The relationship between students‘ self-efficacy and their English language achievement. Journal Pendidik dan Pendidikan, 21, 61–71.
Mills, N., Pajares, F., & Herron, C. (2006). Self-efficacy of college intermediate French
students: Relation to achievement and motivation. Foreign Language Annals, 2,417–442. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00421.x.
160
Muijs, D. (2010). Validity, reliability and generalizability in Doing Quantitative Research in
Education with SPSS (Second Edition). Los Angeles, Estados Unidos: SAGE Publications Ltd.
Pool-Antonio, D.A. (2015).The sense of self-efficacy of EFL pre-service teachers at the
University of Quintana Roo. Tesis de licenciatura sin publicar. Universidad de Quintana Roo, México.
Puozzo, I. (2004). Le sentiment d'efficacité personnelle. Pour un nouvel
enseignement/apprentissage des langues [El sentido de autoeficacia personal. Para una nueva capacitación / aprendizaje de idiomas].Sciences-Croisées, 6, 1-29.
Reyes-Cruz, M.R. & Franco- Alatorre, K. (2014).Creencias de profesores sobre su
autoeficacia en habilidades informacionales para la investigación, en D. Toledo, Fierro, E. Lobatos, L. y Saldivar, E. (Coords.)Trabajos de investigación de profesores de lenguas (pp.129-158). México: Universidad Autónoma de Baja California.
Reyes- Cruz, M.R. & Gutiérrez-Arceo, J.M (julio - diciembre, 2015) Sentido de
autoeficacia en investigación de estudiantes de posgrado. Sinéctica, 45,1-15. Recuperado de http://www.sinectica.iteso.mx/?seccion=articulo&lang=es&id=691_sentido_de_autoeficacia_en_ investigacion_de_estudiantes_de_posgrado.pdf
Reyes-Cruz, M. R. & Perales-Escudero, M.D. (2016). Research self-efficacy and research
motivation in a foreign language university faculty in Mexico: implications for educational policy. Higher Education Research and Development Journal, 41, (2), 1-15. DOI.10.1080/07294360.2015.1137884
Reyes-Cruz, M. R., Hernández, E., & Yeladaqui, B. (2011). ¿Cómo elaborar tu proyecto
de investigación? México: Universidad de Quintana Roo. Villanueva-Delgado, E. (2015).Mexican English language learner´s self-efficacy profiles
and their relationship with the four sources of self-efficacy. Tesis de licenciatura sin publicar. Universidad de Quintana Roo, México.
Zajacova, A., Lynch, S., & Espenshade, T. (2005).Self-efficacy, stress, and academic
success in college. Research in Higher Education, 46, (6), 677-706.doi: 10.1007/s11162-004-4139-z
Zimmerman, B. J., Bandura. A., & Martinez-Pons, M. (1992). Motivation for academic
attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29, (3), 663-676.
LAS AUTORAS:
161
MARÍA DEL ROSARIO REYES CRUZ. Doctora en educación internacional, profesora investigadora titular de la Universidad de Quintana Roo y miembro del Sistema Nacional de Investigadores. Ha publicado diversos textos científicos e impartidos ponencias sobre los temas: creencias sobre la enseñanza, el aprendizaje, la investigación y la autoeficacia. NELLY PAULINA GARCÍA POOT. Licenciada en Lengua Inglesa, ha trabajado como profesora de inglés en La Secretaría de Educación de Quintana Roo (SEQ), en el Instituto Tecnológico de la Zona Maya (ITZM) y en la Universidad de Quintana Roo.
162
SECCIÓN II: EVALUACIÓN DEL APRENDIZAJE DE LENGUAS
163
EXPLORING ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
METHODS FOR ENHANCING EFL STUDENTS’ LEARNING
Cecilio Luis de Jesús López Martínez
Luz Edith Herrera Díaz Universidad Veracruzana
[email protected] [email protected]
ABSTRACT
In recent decades, a reform in education different from traditional evaluation processes
seems to have found a positive response among most EFL teachers all over the world.
However, alternative forms of assessment and evaluation have received limited attention
so far, or there is a lack of awareness on the type of evaluation method being used. This
research aimed at exploring alternative assessment methods in the English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) area, used by teachers enrolled in an MA TEFL program at the Language
School of the University of Veracruz, to enhance students’ learning. Thus, it is of
paramount importance to review the most common assessment and evaluation methods
used in the educational field, specifically in the TEFL arena, to understand how students’
learning processes are evaluated and, as a result, to promote the method that best
contributes to the achievement of their language proficiency, their autonomy, confidence
and success. Interview and observation (field-notes) were employed to collect instructive
data provided by in-service teachers. On the one hand, findings suggested that
assessment and evaluation should avoid being merely summative; on the other hand,
formative appraisal reveals traces of behaviourist methods. All this makes evident that in
service-teachers need some support to try alternative assessment and evaluation methods
in their teaching situations; so that students may benefit from what their teachers do as
effective evaluators, instructors and facilitators. Finally, an alternative way to implement
assessment and evaluation methods is suggested.
Key words: analytical, assessment, evaluation, holistic, performance, rubric, scoring
INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, due to a more dynamic and practical evolvement of the learning of English as
a Foreign Language (EFL), teachers on this field have started to focus more on what their
students can actually do with the language – competencies – than in only quantifying the
outcomes revealed in an exam. This type of assessment is referred to as alternative,
performance and/or practical assessments, since performance and production have
started to have more weight than memorization. This is not something new, but teachers
need to raise awareness of the way they can address learning assessment in their classes
and have more informed arguments to back up a more meaningful form of assessment.
164
Students from the MA in TEFL from the Language School of the University of
Veracruz were invited to participate in this project considering that they were enrolled in
the subject “evaluation processes”, in which their main goal is to be up to date in new ways
of conducting assessment. The outcome of this inquiry may also raise teachers’
awareness about what they already do regarding the application of different types of
assessments; thus, at the end, they might be provided with some theoretical basis to
support what they are already doing in their EFL classrooms, their daily practice in this
area. However, the intention was only to explore, along with participants, the usefulness
and relevance of new ways to evaluate EFL students’ learning.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions that helped us explore our concern expressed at the end of the
previous section were:
How useful and relevant are alternative assessment and evaluation methods for
the MA program students’ working context?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using alternative assessment
methods according to teachers?
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this study was to explore, among TEFL MA students, the usefulness
and relevance of alternative assessment and evaluation methods to enhance EFL
students’ learning. Thus, it was important to identify possible advantages and
disadvantages that teachers identify when using alternative assessment methods.
CONTEXT
Current evaluation systems in Mexico intend to move from traditional into more alternative
assessments. However, it must be mentioned that both types of evaluation seem to
overlap at most educational settings where they are applied, as teachers need to provide
students with summative and formative assessments. For the purpose of this study,
summative assessment is related to traditional evaluation as it gives emphasis on
outcomes rather than on performance improvement (Calidoni-Lundberg, 2006). This is
particularly relevant in the EFL context, as it is usually in constant evolvement regarding
teaching and learning methodologies, which take behaviourism and constructivism into
consideration.
Nevertheless, at present, EFL institutions seem to accept traditional evaluation
traces combined with more pragmatic evaluation methods as they may respond to
professional and/or personal demands. On the one hand, students may be required a
language certification; it is apparently here, when international exam policies are
considered, implemented and/or imposed. On the other hand, students want to be
165
proficient in the use of a second language and be functional in foreign everyday settings.
The main concern in this context is whether language teachers are aware of the
methodologies they are presently using to measure their students’ improvement or if they
are more interested in observing and measuring their students’ performance.
The University of Veracruz offers the Master's Degree in Teaching English as a
Foreign Language (MEILE for its name in Spanish), program in which this study took
place. This is a modular program designed for promoting the improvement of the
professional level of those who work in the field of teaching and learning this language.
MEILE is recognized as a quality program by the National Council for Science and
Technology (CONACyT fot its Initials in Spanish), and it is listed in the National Catalogue
of Continuous Training and Professional Development by the Ministry of Education (SEP
for its Initials in Spanish). Those MEILE students who have been awarded a grant are
allowed to work a maximum of eight hours per week and they usually teach at levels that
go from kindergarten to university.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This section has been divided into six subsections. First of all, we deal with recapitulating
traditional evaluation. After that, we contrast alternative assessments in the following
subsection: Discussing alternative methods. The next subsection, combining traditional
and alternative assessment describes a phenomenon that is taking place today. Then, the
subsection recognizing the characteristics of alternative assessment emerges as a crucial
point to raise awareness. The fifth subsection, searching innovative means for assessment
& guidance, may confirm what teachers are already doing or may do in their teaching
context. Finally, exploring alternative assessment & guidance processes are described for
teachers to gain confidence in the use of this type of assessments.
Recapitulating traditional evaluation
Using standardized exams is the common reference for traditional assessment (Lopes,
2015). In this respect, Aliasin & Amanlu (2017) affirm that teachers tend to stigmatize
students depending on their results in exams based on multiple choice, fill-in the blank and
cloze exercises, among other types of items. Teachers seem to have the habit of focusing
more on students’ accurate outcomes than on meaningful performance. In addition, in
summative testing, the most traditional way of evaluating, teachers play the role of test
administrator, instructor and examiner (Sandlund at al., 2016). However, according to
Jabbarifar (2009), evaluation should go beyond language achievement and meaningless
learning; therefore, language assessment should take into account what teaching and
learning involve today. EFL learners need to be autonomous using language naturally.
Considering the above mentioned, making decisions related to educational policies should
be based on alternative forms of evaluation outcomes.
166
Discussing alternative methods
Alternative assessment may, then, be understood as different from the traditional
standardized assessment, which seems to classify students’ capability and obstruct their
autonomy and creativity (Lopes, 2015). This situation may occur because traditional
testing forces students to rely more on their memory than on what they can do with the
acquired knowledge. According to Herrera and Macias (2015) assessment has numerous
purposes and may be applied in different forms; however, it continues being merely seen
as a summative evaluation. In this respect, Braun et al. (2006) affirm that formative
assessment is regarded as a way to assist students’ learning processes while summative
assessment is used for making decisions. Akubuilo (2012) adds that alternative
assessments encourage generalizations, but teachers need to take into account different
students’ learning styles. Finally, Estrada et al. (2016) found that students’ performance
during oral presentations may be assessed with clear and friendly guidelines that would
serve as parameters in a disclosed rubric. This last remark makes evident that traditional
and alternative assessments could be combined with caution.
Combining traditional and alternative assessment
There are certain types of assessments that can be encapsulated in the traditional
evaluation paradigm. First of all, Herrera and Macias (2015) define summative assessment
as a way to inform teachers of their “students’ success or failure in their learning process
based on a numeric scale” (p.1). On the contrary, analytical assessment provides data and
feedback and allows re-teaching. National and international assessments search for a
meaningful context to interpret test results and carry out cross-national comparisons.
Thus, alternative assessment goes beyond the traditional type of test items such as
multiple-choice, fill-in the blanks and cloze. In this respect, Gallagher (2008) briefly clarifies
the dissimilarity between traditional and alternative assessments when he explains that the
main difference has to do with the way they are used and not only with the specific
purpose of a particular test.
Nevertheless, traditional and alternative assessments seem to overlap in the
former paradigm, which embraces formative, analytical and holistic assessments. First of
all, formative assessment implies that teaching and learning adjust while they are taking
place. Secondly, analytical assessment allows constant data and feedback to improve
students’ performance. Finally, holistic assessment may encourage self and peer-
assessment in a friendly environment. Therefore, the whole point of exploring alternative
assessments is raising EFL teachers’ awareness that by combining traditional and
alternative assessments, students may be encouraged to focus on their academic
performance as well as on their linguistic development (Lopes, 2015).
167
Recognizing the characteristics of alternative assessment
There are different reasons why teachers and students may consider alternative
assessments as ways to provide immediate evaluation in an ongoing process. For
example, by participating in the design of the evaluation criteria, students may set their
own achievement goals and teachers may contribute guaranteeing students will sort out a
task with a reasonable level of difficulty (Aliasin & Amanlu, 2017; Lopes, 2015). In this
regard, Lopes (2015) states that alternative assessments encourage students to raise
awareness on the linguistic application of the target language in real situations and
contexts outside the educational milieu. Espinoza (2015) adds that any task designed for a
specific educational context should be authentic and meaningful as well as be based on a
predetermined criterion. This criterion needs to be shared and agreed with students as it
will be used to evaluate their performance during the preparation and development of
tasks and projects.
It is to be added, that evaluation goes beyond a certification or standardized exam
to pass or fail a subject, students may also face evaluation in case they want to write
academic texts such as journal articles or book chapters. This real world task should be
presented and discussed with undergraduate and postgraduate students, so that they
become aware of the evaluation process they may go through when interested in
publishing their work and what might be expected from them in this case (Lopez &
Herrera, 2017). It must be noticed that such type of evaluation could be considered as
lifelong learning and a truly innovative way of assessment and guidance.
Searching for innovative means for assessment & guidance
There is a series of possible types of tasks, projects and activities within the alternative
assessment paradigm, which may encourage students’ language learning development.
These have to do with activities such as organizing political campaigns or doing website
projects, as explained later in this subsection. According to Lopes (2015), alternative
assessments allow the use of varied tasks and evaluation criteria that must be disclosed,
that is to say, they must be known by students. Muñoz (2009) adds that these tasks or
projects should be based on students’ needs, real world situations and meaningful
activities. Akubuilo (2012) grounds Lopes’ and Muñoz’ ideas when asserting that
alternative tasks should be relevant in the real world, therefore, students might get
involved in activities such as cultural, ecological and political campaigns, conferences
and/or documentaries. These tasks and projects need to be designed within challenging
situations in which students perform to sort out different situations. In addition, as part of
the process while carrying out these activities, they receive assessment and guidance
from their teachers.
168
Moreover, students should be clearly guided on the form they will be assessed
during class dynamics. In this way, they might be trained to cope with academic
presentations and their corresponding evaluation. In this regard, Buenfil and Lopez (2016)
highlight the importance of giving students the rationale behind the design of score
descriptors, so that they know exactly what is expected from them. On the same line,
Reddy and Andrade (2010) sustain that providing students with the evaluation criteria is
truly beneficial as students can achieve autonomy, self-efficacy and more rewarding
learning processes. It can be concluded that regarding traditional and alternative
assessments, there have been attempts to standardize the use of agreed rubrics to
evaluate, but at the same time, to function as guidelines to provide feedback and to
monitor meaningful learning, which EFL teachers also need to be aware of.
METHODOLOGY
This study has been carried out as a Case Study framed by the qualitative approach, in
which small and/or particular groups of human actors are studied in natural settings, in
their everyday world, in a particular time. Thus, in this case, a group of MA TEFL students,
taking the Evaluation Methods course (one of the subjects in this program) at the
Language School of the University of Veracruz, has participated in this research, in order
to know the relevance and their awareness of the evaluation/assessment methods they
use in their respective teaching practice.
Qualitative inquiry, then, seeks to understand the meanings and significance of
certain humans’ actions from their own perspective (Lankshear and Knobel 2004; Maykut
and Morehouse 1994; Richards 2003; Robson 2002) and it is done by employing a range
of methods, and its analysis is based on a range of features. Thus, in qualitative research,
data may be obtained through interviews (close or open-ended questions), and
observation, among other methods, that help to investigate individuals, groups, institutions
or other social units in an integrated and detailed way (Stake, 2010). Since in this study we
aimed to explore the awareness and relevance of the implementation of alternative
assessment and evaluation methods to enhance EFL students’ learning, among the MA
TEFL students at the University of Veracruz, we considered carrying it out as a case study
by using interview and observation as the data collection methods.
Case Study
As abovementioned, we made use of a Case Study within the Qualitative Paradigm as it
allowed us to gather real-life information and to explore a particular phenomenon (Lopez,
2012; Stake, 2010); in this case the information from MA TEFL students (EFL teachers)
who have implemented, or are exploring alternative assessment methods. According to
Merriam (as cited in Gan, 2013), a case is “a phenomenon that is inherently bounded, with
a finite amount of time for data collection or a limited number of people who could be
interviewed or observed” (p. 97). In this case, it was a 4-month data collection period in a
169
group of 16 MA TEFL students, from which 6 students were purposefully chosen as
participants (Patton, 2002).
As Creswell (2014) explains, a case study approach allows the researcher to
gather information from different data collection instruments and sources. Hence, by
considering this approach, we were able to obtain comprehensive information about the
five participants interviewed and two (of them) observed with the purpose of analysing the
data obtained from them. The former is consistent with Hayes’ (2000) declaration that
educational case studies mainly focus on typical members of groups, but they may also
provide information on particular individuals.
Context & Participants
Taking advantage of the researchers being the teachers in charge of the ‘Evaluation
Methods’ course, the sample was purposefully chosen (Patton, 2002) from the group
taking this subject at the moment of the research. They were invited to participate because
they were available and willing to contribute with this case study (Convenience/Purposeful
sampling, Cohen et al., 2000; Patton, 2002). The sample consisted of six participants; one
man and five women from different cities of Mexico and a woman from Colombia. They
were between 25 and 34 years old, and were also teaching at different educational levels
and settings: from kindergarten to university. Two of them were observed while giving
classes to a BA TEFL group, and these same participants and three others were
interviewed when the course was over.
It is important to clarify that the students who were observed were in fact
implementing assessment activities in the classes they gave at the Languages School -
UV. Besides, during the interview, they talked about this experience, and all the
participants commented other events they had experienced when teaching and evaluating
in an English class, including the concepts they learnt about assessment in their MA class.
Data collection instruments: Interviews and Observation logs
Since we wanted to get the participants to share with us their opinions and views about the
evaluation/assessment methods they had used as teachers in their classes, by giving
them “a degree of power and control over the course of the interview” (Nunan, 1992, p.
150), we used a semi-structured interview. This type of interview consists in having a list of
questions and/or prompts to address the topic (See Appendix 1), considering that the
same basic lines of inquiry are pursued with each interviewee; nevertheless, it does not
have to be intrusive or directive (DeWalt & DeWalt 2002; Patton 2002). We carried out the
interviews until we noticed we had sufficient data and had reached a saturation point, that
is, the data stopped revealing new and relevant information (Kvale, 1996) as demanded in
qualitative research.
170
Regarding the moderate participant observation, which we also made use of,
DeWalt and DeWalt (2002) define it as that in which the researcher is present at the scene
of action, is identifiable as such, but does not actively participate nor engage in anything
that people being observed are doing there. It does not mean that the observer/researcher
was never able to interact with the two students that were specifically observed while they
were giving their classes and evaluating their students. In fact, the group in which these
MA TEFL students were implementing an evaluation/assessment method was one of the
researchers’ groups, so, the students in this class already knew him as their teacher.
Once the two MA TEFL students’ classes had been observed and four of the
participants had been interviewed, we proceeded to analyze the data gathered through an
adaptation of the constant comparative method (Lincoln & Guba 1985, based on Glaser &
Strauss 1967; Maykut & Morehouse 1994). The reason for choosing this method was that
it suited the analysis of data during the data collection stage, as well as later on, when we
had already collected the data.
FINDINGS
After having analysed the data gathered from both methods (interviews and observations),
six categories emerged: alternative assessment based on experience; realistic tests
scores vs. significant learning; improvement on test scores and learning strategies; impact
of evaluation on students’ lifelong learning; advantages and disadvantages of evaluating
students’ performance through major and minor assignments, and new learning
tendencies consideration. As it is shown below, the findings will be explained according to
the category they belong to. In the extracts supporting each category, it seems that after
noticing the term alternative during the interview, participants reflected on the way they
use alternative assessments.
It is to be noticed that the quotations taken from the interviews are called
‘extracts’, and when they are taken from the field notes (observation) they are only
numbered in the order in which they are presented. Besides, they are coded with the three
first letters from the word participant (par) and the three first letters of their corresponding
names (mer for Merlina), so, parmer = participant Merlina).
Alternative assessment based on experience
Alternative assessment based on experience means that students did not receive training
to implement it. During their teaching practice, teachers consciously or unconsciously
know there are different forms to evaluate students as well as to give them feedback. The
participant in the first extract seems to follow the instructions provided by coordinators in
an educational setting. S/he highlights the importance of helping students to organize their
work and have more meaningful learning experiences with materials provided by the same
course-books. Nevertheless, teachers might not necessarily depend only on the textbook
171
as students also need to be motivated. If feedback is adequately provided during these
tasks, students’ production may be meaningful for them.
Extract 001
The process to asses our students should show how they learn and what their
abilities are, how they demonstrate what they have learnt and the circumstances in
which they learn. This requires alternatives to standardize testing to assess student
learning… Today, there are different alternative assessment tasks provided by
course-books such as portfolios, video recordings, checklists, journals, and
interviews, among others, to achieve adequate, enriching, positive and relevant
outcomes from students.
(Parmer)
Nevertheless, Parmer seems to have left aside the opportunity to provide
students with advice regarding their learning as s/he underlines students’ outcomes and
omits the term feedback. This may show that it is of paramount importance to raise
teachers’ awareness of the need to provide students with constant assessment while they
carry out different class activities. This is particularly relevant if they do want to use
alternative assessment in its whole dimension as state by the following participant.
Extract 002
When I started working as a teacher, I used to evaluate students’ performance in
the traditional way. Students worked exclusively with a textbook, tests, and exams.
Then, students started being evaluated in a formative way as well. Two aims were
covered: to train students to take a language certification exam and also to learn for
life. Now, I can measure students’ performance focusing on what students can do,
providing feedback without highlighting their faults. Hopefully, they have a chance
to demonstrate improvements in their learning without being limited to narrow
questions or a test.
(Parsec)
Parsec admits the fact that s/he has evaluated students’ performance in a
traditional form and that, at some point, more alternative assessments were incorporated.
It was only when students were consciously prepared for two real world demands: on the
one hand, they have to be certified in the language and, on the other hand, they need to
be competent with a more practical application of what they have learnt of the target
language. S/he seems to have succeeded in combining positive test scores with lifelong
learning outcomes.
Realistic tests score vs. significant learning
172
This category intends to explore whether test scores really correspond to the language
level and knowledge (outcomes) achieved by students. There is definitely an intimate
relationship between realistic test scores and significant learning outcomes as expressed
by Pared in extract 003. Nobody can deny that a well-designed rubric could allow teachers
measure their students’ progress at a specific moment of their learning process.
Nevertheless, the fact that an exam can be used to provide feedback gives the test a new
role. This role needs to be implemented cautiously and consciously to guarantee that
students’ learning is being meaningful.
Extract 003
Talking about learning outcomes, students’ tests scores measure what they have
learnt: grammar, fluency, pronunciation, vocabulary, writing, etc. Realistic scores
should be designed in a way that they can show whether students’ have improved
in a certain skill. But, teachers still need to provide feedback and guidance with the
results of a test. So, the relationship between them is the use of tests scores not
only to assign a number to the language level of a student, but also to prove that
the students’ learning has been meaningful.
(Paredu)
Furthermore, for Pared, students may know how much they have improved
certain skill with an adequately and appropriately designed score, which has been
disclosed. S/he insists on the importance of providing feedback at all times, especially with
the students’ results in an exam. S/he underlines the fact that assigning a number to the
student’s performance in an exam is not enough to guarantee her/his learning has been
meaningful. The student needs to discuss what an exam reveals about the competence
achieved, but at the same time, the student can get ready to take another exam and to
apply what s/he has learnt in the real world. Maybe the impact of a score used to give
feedback of a realistic task in class, could allow students get better results at exams.
Nowadays, a test should not only be designed with questions or test items. The
following participant shows concern regarding the use of other activities that may help
students achieve significant learning outcomes. Performance emerges as a key element to
prove meaningful learning has been achieved and not only count on what the student is
able to memorize.
Extract 004
Well, a teacher may not only base a test on questions. A teacher may include oral
or written activities based on real situations where students can demonstrate how
capable they are to perform and not only by memorizing all that let them have a
good score in a test.
(Parsec)
It cannot be denied that an exam is not usually designed to respond to different
learning styles which are deeply connected to the way in which people often respond in
173
realistic situations such as in job interviews or exams to get a job. Therefore, students
need to develop strategies to connect theory and practice and improve test scores and
cope with an unavoidable requisite of our society (Commander el al., 2012). Thus, the use
of class activities based on real world situations might help them to improve their test
scores, although, this idea needs to be cautiously discussed.
Improvement on test scores and learning strategies
This category intends to discuss whether a realistic assessment is in agreement with
strategies to perform adequately in real life. Developing learning strategies in students is
still a topic in vogue at present (Oxford, 1990). Memorization is a well-recognized strategy,
but students definitely need to develop strategies not only to answer an exam but also to
sort out real life issues they might face at some point in their lives. Definitely, one of the
roles a teacher plays is that of a trainer. S/he could be a trainer for an exam or a trainer for
life as expressed by the following participant.
Extract 005
This may happen when students have been trained to perform daily situations or
situations they can develop by themselves because they have been well-trained in
different areas. So, when taking tests, they are able to answer them without
problems even if the test content is hard, as they might have developed strategies
to answer exams.
(Parmer)
Pared agrees with what Parmer says and underlines the fact that teachers seem
to be well aware that tests are designed with different purposes. One of these purposes
could be precisely to perform successfully in a simulated context to be able to cope with a
real situation, which is an aspect tests should or could also cover. Thus, teachers as
facilitators and trainers should design or base their student’s learning on certain activities:
dynamics, tasks and/or projects similar to activities they will have to handle outside the
educational context.
Extract 006
If test scores improve, the results on learning strategies may change a lot since
according to the type of test, students have to improve learning. If a test involves a
performance in real context, students’ learning has to be based on activities which
involve real life situations and more realistic performances.
(Paredu)
What has been discussed so far is basically that teachers cannot get rid of exams
and summative evaluation. But apparently, they can combine both types of evaluations to
provide students with a more productive, useful and realistic assessment. If these last
aspects prove to be real, students as well as teachers will be getting reading for
developing effective lifelong learning strategies.
174
Impact o e aluation on students’ li elong learning
This category encapsulates an exploration of the relevance of evaluation in students’
continuous learning. The impact evaluation may have on students’ lifelong learning may
affect the students’ self-confidence and trust in their teacher’s fairness. Then, according to
the following participant, there must be a balance between achieving a good score in a test
and being able to apply what has been learnt in a real context.
Extract 007
First, I’ve noticed not all the students admit they deserve a certain final grade,
because they aren’t aware of how well they perform during classes or how good or
bad a score in an exam is. So, they think the teacher is a bad person and they
don’t forget that teacher. Second, I’ve also witnessed there are students who keep
improving in order not only to have better grades but also to take advantage of
what they learn in order to apply their knowledge at school or at work. Finally, they
have admitted evaluation has made them to know what they are good at in life.
(Parosc)
Nobody can deny that people in general are competitive and interested in getting
high scores and receive social recognition. Moreover, everyone tends to blame others for
what s/he cannot do. In this respect, sharing or disclosing the rubrics and score criteria
could help students understand under what basis they are being evaluated, and the
feedback and assessment received could be more fruitful not only for their school time but
for their future working life. In addition, by implementing real tasks and projects, students
might have a more realistic vision of this competitive world and the standards they might
need to reach in order to become competitive in the real world labor market. This idea is
also supported by the following participant:
Extract 008
Evaluation in long-life learning impacts on the way the learners are always judged
through a set of aspects, and they sometimes only get prepared to cover certain
characteristics of the performance instead of internalizing knowledge to be able to
be productive in real contexts.
(Parosc)
Memorization is definitely a useful strategy when taking mandatory certification or
standardized exams; however, internalizing knowledge and learning for life might prove to
be more rewarding. It can be said that one way in which more benefits could be reached
may be encapsulated in an effective application of alternative assessments.
d antages and Disad antages o e aluating students’ per ormance t roug ma or and
minor assignments
175
This category intends to underpin the benefits and constraints of evaluating students
through different types of assignments. Participants were also questioned about the
importance of doing major and minor assignments in an EFL classroom. As seen in the
theoretical framework, a major assignment could be understood as creating a campaign to
protect and save our environment, and a minor assignment as an activity to start
organizing the steps to follow in such project. In the same line, the following participant
seems to be convinced that students may benefit from challenging tasks and activities in
which they can recognize his/her strengths and weaknesses.
Extract 009
I consider the more challenging an activity or project is, the more students prove
themselves to be able to do something, which is an advantage to know what area
they are good at or what aspects they need to keep working on. They can discover
something they didn’t know about themselves.
(Parsec)
Furthermore, feedback needs to be provided to guarantee that the tasks and
activities carried out have been successful and meaningful and that autonomy has been
promoted. Moreover, self-efficacy should be encouraged as students realize their effort
results in a clear, practical and effective outcome. They may get outcomes that can
eventually help them to obtain other valuable outcomes, as shown in the following extract
from a field note.
010
It seems that with major assignments, students could prove that they acquired all
the knowledge and were able to perform an accurate outcome, but they also need
to count on their teachers’ feedback. With minor assignments, students keep
working more and developing more practice, so that students may have a better
performance at the end.
Nevertheless, the roles of the teacher and the peers as well as the feedback are
essential in alternative assessment. If students are not prepared to ask for help, accept
corrections and look for solutions, they might benefit from this type of assessment.
Assessment is only one of the several factors a teacher has to take into account
when giving classes. Other factors are the learning strategies mentioned in the previous
category and the learning styles mentioned by the following participant. The way
assessment is provided must also respond to the way a student learns. Teachers must be
aware of these two aspects in order to address the assessment a student needs according
to the way s/he learns, how challenging the task is and how to reconstruct ineffective
strategies to learn or to cope with specific academic issues.
011
176
A disadvantage may appear when a teacher doesn’t take into account all learning
styles when asking for an assignment, or based on what the students are able to
do because this may make some students to get frustrated because they don’t
know how to cope with challenging stuffs.
What has been said, so far, implies a lot of work from the part of the teacher,
since s/he needs to effectively play different roles in the educational setting. With teachers’
such overload of work, alternative assessment runs the risk of being ignored again, as
expressed by the following participant.
Extract 012
In major assignments, students only employ their short term memory to memorize
information for a final test. In minor assignments, it is a lot of work for the teacher to
evaluate many assignments and distribute percentages.
On the one hand, traditional assessment also involves a lot of work, as teachers
have to grade exams and assign a number to the students’ performance. In addition, this
type of work may become stuck in its ways. On the other hand, alternative assessment
demands constant training from the part of teachers (Estrada et al., 2016) in order to
provide students with major and minor assignments, in vogue at present. The application
of effective assessment methods also depends on how open teachers and students are to
new learning tendencies as well as their interest, response and vision.
New learning tendencies consideration
This category explores the degree in which teachers try new types of assessments. The
idea of having a new vision regarding the type of assessments teachers use in their
classes to provide their students with feedback is briefly underlined by the following
participant.
Extract 013
Evaluation processes could vary depending on the education standards of
each school and its goals. However, combining both traditional and alternative
assessments could be effective. For example, presentations could be
interesting and appropriate to assess the improvement of students’
performance while giving emphasis to a specific grammar point. They could
also show students’ strengths and weaknesses during the task. They also
demand constant monitoring and feedback, which can be quite time
consuming.
(Parsec)
Parsec states the importance of students’ presentations as a class dynamic and a
possible form to evaluate and assess students. A practical task can be given with the use
177
of real world language, but as EFL learners, students can also share knowledge and give
feedback on grammar points among other linguistic skills.
014
The outcome could be evaluated through vocabulary tests adapted to what they
learnt. Moreover, the outcome could be evaluated through activities in which the
learner can employ the knowledge acquired in a real situation.
Teachers still need to go beyond traditional types of assignments and try more
realistic ones such as the design of a YouTube channel, an ecological campaign or a blog,
in order to help their students, get involved in the culture of the target language
community. It must be pointed out that it is a process that needs to be developed
cautiously, and implemented after being planned, taking into account all the factors that
have been mentioned along this section such as score and rubric criteria disclosure,
feedback, performance and real world projects and tasks, among others.
CONCLUSION
Summing up, it may be affirmed that teachers found alternative assessment and
evaluation methods useful and relevant for EFL students’ learning. These teachers
identified that they were able to provide students with more realistic and meaningful tasks,
which make their learning process as well as their performance in real world situations
more successful. However, there are several obstacles they need to overcome before they
are able to truly apply this type of assessments. For example, some teachers find it difficult
to deconstruct or unlearn what they have acquired through theory or modelling; they tend
to evaluate their students the same way they were evaluated when they were students.
Therefore, one of the options teachers have is precisely to turn disadvantages into
advantages. That is, they may start combining traditional and alternative assessments
(Fig. 1) not only as a way to fulfil an educational policy for making decisions, but to
gradually move towards alternative assessments. This has the purpose of providing
students with a tangible description of the level achieved, and the necessary evidence to
provide feedback and enable them to use the acquired knowledge in real situations and in
Lifelong learning as expressed in the following chart.
Traditional Assessment
Alternative Assessment
Learning to unlearn
Meaningful learning
Lifelong learning
Practical Learning
178
Figure 1. Overlap of Alternative and Traditional Assessments
In other words, teachers, in general, can try alternative assessments to start scaffolding
students’ ways of learning, so that they can assimilate new knowledge in a more realistic
form and receive more constructive feedback. Figure 1 above intends to show [arrows in
opposite directions] that the dependence on or imposition of traditional assessments could
gradually be reduced. Thus, we must emphasize the importance of making teachers aware
of the fact that alternative assessments have been employed long before, and have
proved to be beneficial, realistic and useful for teachers and students. Moreover,
alternative, authentic or practical assessments could be applied in a more systematic way
and in accordance with traditional forms of assessments, such as standardized exams.
Consequently, exams, in general, could turn into a tool to provide feedback, to promote
more effective assessment and to enhance meaningful learning to go beyond the
educational context. If this becomes real, then students will be able to develop
competencies to apply when taking mandatory exams and to use them in order to achieve
a successful personal career.
REFERENCES Akubuilo, F. (2012). Holistic Assessment of Student’s Learning Outcome. Journal of
Education and Practice, 3, (12), 56-60. Aliasin, S. & Amanlu, M. (2017). The effect of alternative assessment techniques on EFL
learners’ comprehension ability and self-efficacy in reading: The case of Iranian junior High School students. Linguistics and Literature Studies 5 (3) pp. 160-68.
Braun, H, Kanjee A., Bettinger E. & Kremer M. (2006). Improving Education through
Assessment, Innovation, and Evaluation. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Cambridge, MA.
Buenfil, C. & Lopez, C (2016). Searching for Objectivity in the Contents and Guidance of a
Final Paper. In Perales, M. & Hernandez, E. (Editors), Lenguas Modernas: Investigación y Praxis (pp. 51-61) Chetumal, QR: UQROO.
Calidoni-Lundberg, F. (2006). Evaluation: definition, methods and models. stersund,
Sweeden: Swedish Institute for Growth Policy Studies. Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education. London:
Routledge. DeWalt, K. & DeWalt, B. (2002). Participant Observation, a guide for fieldworkers.
Maryland, USA: Altamira Press. Espinosa, L. (2015). Effective Use of Performance-based Assessments to Identify English
Knowledge and Skills of EFL Students in Ecuador. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5,(12) 2441-2447.
179
Estrada, G., López, C. & Scholes, B. (2016). Processes to Achieve Agreement when Grading Oral Presentations. In Perales, M. & Hernández, E. (Eds.), Lenguas Modernas: Investigación y Praxis (pp. 40-50) Chetumal, QR: UQROO. pp.40-50.
Gallagher, C. (2008). Kairos and informative assessment: Rethinking the
formative/summative distinction in Nebraska. Theory into Practice, 48, 81-88. Gan, Z. (2013). Learning to Teach English Language in the Practicum: What Challenges
do Non-Native ESL Student Teachers Face?. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 92-108.
Hayes, N. (2000). Doing Psychological Research. Gathering and analysing data.
Buckingham: Open University Press. Herrera, L. & Macías, D. (2015). A call for language assessment literacy in the education
and development of teachers of English as a foreign language. Colomb. Appl. Linguist. J., 17(2), 302-312. Online: http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/calj/v17n2/v17n2a10.pdf
Holi Ali, I & Al Ajmi, A. (2013). Towards Quality Assessment in an EFL Programme.
English Language Teaching; 6(10). Online: https://resources.oncourse.iu.edu/access/content/user/mikuleck/Filemanager_Public_Files
/EFL_Assessment/Unit_3/Metler_Designing_scoring_rubrics_for_your_classroom.pdf
Holliday, A. (2002). Doing and Writing Qualitative Research. Great Britain London, UK:
Sage. Jabbarifar, T. (2009). The importance of classroom assessment and evaluation in
educational system. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference of Teaching and Learning (ICTL 2009)., Malaysia: INTI University College
Kaufman, J. (2015). Why Creativity Isn’t in IQ Tests, Why it Matters, and Why it Won’t
Change Anytime Soon Probably. Journal of Intelligence, 3, 59-72. Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. London:
SAGE. Lankshear, C. & Knobel, M. (2004). A handbook for Teacher research, from design to
implementation. Glasgow, UK: Open University Press. Lincoln, Y. & Guba, E. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. CA, USA: Sage. López Martínez, C.L. & Herrera Díaz, L.E. (2017). Processing Documents towards
publication: Novice Editors´ Accounts. In Perales Escudero M.D. & Hernández Méndez, E (Eds), Investigación y praxis contemporáneas en torno a las lenguas modernas (pp.36-54) Chetumal, QR: UQRO.
Lopes, S. (2015). Alternative assessment of writing in learning English as a Foreign
Language: Analytical Scoring and self-assessment (Unpublished Master’s degree thesis). Massachusetts: Bridgewater State University.
180
Lopez, C. (2012). An adjustable research approach. . In Mora I. & Goodwin D.(Eds),
Alternative Methods for Undertaking Qualitative Research, (pp. 171-190 Guanajuato: Universidad de Guanajuato.
Maykut, P. & Morehouse, R. (1994). Beginning Qualitative Research, a Philosophic and
Practical Guide. London: Routledge Falmer. Mertler, C. A. (2001). Designing scoring rubrics for your classroom. In Rudner, L. M. &
Schafer W. D., Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 7-25. Online: http://pareonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=25
Mora I. & Goodwin D. (2012) Alternative Methods for Undertaking Qualitative Research.
Guanajuato: Universidad de Guanajuato. Muñoz, J. (2009). Exploring teachers’ practices for assessing reading comprehension
abilities in English as a foreign language. PROFILE.11, (2), 71-84. Nannette Evans Commander, W. & Zabrucky, K. M. (2012). Theory and Practice: How
Filming “Learning in N. E., T. E. the Real World” Helps Students Make the Connection. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education24, (3) 395-402.
Nunan, D. (1992). Research Methods in Language Learning. NY, USA: CUP. Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning Strategies. Boston, USA: Heinle, Cengage Learning.
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd Ed.). Thousand Oaks, Ca: Sage.
Perales, M. & Hernandez, E. (2016). Lenguas Modernas: Investigación y Praxis.
Chetumal, QR: UQROO. Richards, K. (2003). Qualitative Inquiry in TESOL. London, Great Britain: Palgrave. Reddy, Y. M. & Andrade, H. (2010). A Review of Rubric Use in Higher Education.
Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 35(4), 435-448. Robson, C. (2002). Real World Research (2nd ed.). Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell
Publishing. Sandlund, E., Sundqvist, P. & Nyroos, L. (2016). Researched-based professional
development workshops for EFL teachers: Focus on oral interaction and assessment. Nordic Journal of Modern Language methodology, 4 (1) 24-48.
Stake, R.E. (2010). Qualitative Research: Studying How Things Work. New York, NY:
Guilford Press. Wolf, K & Stevens, E. (2007). The Role of Rubrics in Advancing and Assessing Student
Learning. The Journal of Effective Teaching, 7(1), 3-14.
181
THE AUTHORS CECILIO LUIS DE JESÚS LÓPEZ MARTÍNEZ is a full-time professor at the School of Languages of the University of Veracruz (UV). He has a PhD degree in Language Studies awarded by t e ni ersity o Kent, K. Dr. Lopez is currently coordinator o a aster’s program in TESOL at the UV as well as leader of the Research group: Educational Processes (UV-CA-365): [email protected] LUZ EDITH HERRERA DIAZ has a PhD degree in Language Studies awarded by the University of Kent, England. Dr. Herrera is also the leader of the Research Group (Foreign Languages: Teaching, Learning & Communication. She is a full time counsellor at the SAC (Veracruz) and a professor in an MA TEFL and a PhD in Education Systems and Environments programs at Universidad Veracruzana. [email protected] APPENDIX 1 Interview guide
What do you think the relationship between realistic tests scores and significant learning outcomes is?
Based on your experience, how may improvements in tests scores represent significant learning outcomes?
Based on your experience, how can improvements in tests scores be the result of improved learning strategies?
What do you think the impact of evaluation in general on students’ long life learning is?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of evaluating students’ performance with major and minor assignments? (Comics, magazine & tale/ time-lines: dinosaurs, animes, sports & discoveries)
Considering story-telling, micro-learning (learning capsules & bites) and gamification: new learning tendencies, how could the obtained outcomes be evaluated?
Adapted from Lopes (2015)
182
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS ABOUT THE ENGLISH
STANDARDIZED TESTS USED AT A BA IN ENGLISH
Olga Lidia Sánchez Cruz Daniela Jerónimo García
ABSTRACT
Evaluation and assessment play an important role in the language learning process,
teachers, then, need to find out the best way to measure students’ progress. The purpose
of this research was to explore the teachers’ perceptions and possible proposals about the
English standardized tests used in a public university in the State of Veracruz. Interviews
were carried out for collecting data to find out to what extent the standardized tests used
are effective to measure students’ progress from the teachers’ perspectives. During this
inquiry, four teachers were interviewed using a qualitative method. The findings showed
that there seemed to be two opposite points of view. On the one hand, there is the belief
that the exams are effective, but still they need to be improved. On the other hand, the
other belief is that tests are inadequate as they are not accurate and might not reflect the
students’ real level of proficiency. Despite these contrastive ideas, based on the discomfort
of the professors, some suggestions arose so as to raise awareness of this situation.
Key words: assessment, evaluation, formative, perceptions, reliability,
standardized, summative, tests, validity, washback.
INTRODUCTION
People study English for different purposes as it has become highly needed for academic
purposes as well as for personal growth. For this reason, there is a need for well qualified
teachers to provide appropriate training and assessment to those learners. One important
issue, related to the learning process, is the assessment and evaluation. The former,
centers on teaching and learning issues, while the latter, focuses on grades and scoring.
Therefore, teachers need to be informed about the different kinds of assessing and
evaluating their students’ learning progress. However, some difficulties may arise.
Especially when choosing the correct procedures in order to fulfill students’ learning
process needs as teachers need to adjust their teaching to the syllabus and the objectives
of the institution where they work. According to Hughes (2003), it cannot be said that there
is the best testing technique to be followed, every institution has specific needs and
objectives so special tests; there is no the best testing technique as each institution
requires specific kinds of tests, and such a test, then, should be one that measures
accurately the abilities one is interested in, has a beneficial effect on teaching, and is
economical in terms of time and money. Hughes (2003) also discusses that testing will
183
depend on the purpose they are designed for, that is to say, whether we want to measure
language proficiency, or diagnose students’ levels etc.
The use of standardized testing has become popular with teachers to measure
the abilities and knowledge of a specific subject. However, it has not been proved that they
are the best way of presenting students’ language learning. Besides, not all teachers take
part in the design. It has also been seen that many students have unsatisfactory outcomes
according to the pre-established scores. Consequently, different opinions and beliefs come
up the teachers and students regarding examination and in most of the cases the opinions
seem to be not very positive. Bachman ( p. 291) states that “language testing occurs in an
educational and social setting”. Then, it is very important to be aware of the fact that
teaching and testing are linked and that they should be integrated for the sake of the
testing system and everything that it embodies: the teacher, the learner, the institution.
This research took place in a BA of the English language in a public university in
Veracruz. This program has students in three main areas: Teaching, Translation, and
Literature. For the language class, students are evaluated with standardized tests, which
aim at measuring their abilities with the English language. However, these exams do not
seem to be completely accurate as sometimes the results may not represent the students’
actual language abilities. Despite the students’ discomfort with their grades, this inquiry
focused on the teachers and how they feel about these exams. Therefore, this research
seeks to find out how teachers perceive the effectiveness of the standardized exams when
measuring the students’ progress.
OBJECTIVES
This paper intends to illustrate the teachers’ perceptions towards the standardized tests in
order to find a way to improve the students’ evaluation. A main objective is to identify the
areas of improvement teachers suggest regarding their perceptions of the standardized
test.
MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION
The question that guided this research was:
How do the teachers at the English language B.A. Program perceive the standardized
tests?
SUB-QUESTIONS
The following are sub-questions:
To what extent are they satisfied with the results that these exams give?
How much do they agree with their students’ results as passing or failing?
184
Do they agree with the marking scale used to grade students?
LITERATURE REVIEW
Here, the concepts of evaluation, assessment, and formative and summative assessment
are discussed. Then a review of language testing is provided as well as definitions of
validity and reliability and a scope of standardized test. Finally, it provides an overview of
the evaluation issues in a language-learning environment, such as backwash.
Evaluation and assessment
During their lifetime, most people are evaluated in one way or another, especially in
educational institutions. Therefore, it is necessary to define two main concepts: evaluation
and assessment. To evaluate is a process, which makes judgments, checks the
worthiness or progress of something, and depends of the purposes given. Kixlik (2017)
mentions that “Inherent in the idea of evaluation is ‘value’. When we evaluate, what we are
doing is engaging in some process that is designed to provide information that will help us
make a judgment about a given situation” (para. 6). Assessment, according to Kizlik
(2017, para.5), is “a process by which information is obtained relative to some known
objective or goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes testing”.
Both, assessment and evaluation stand on their own. While assessment
emphasises the outcomes of learning and teaching by providing useful information to
improve both processes, evaluation focuses on grades replicating classroom components
different from the course content and mastery level; it may include discussion,
cooperation, assistance, and verbal ability. Evaluation and assessment are quite different
in terms of objectives for a specific lapse of time. Kizlik (2017) distinguishes that what
teachers do at the end of a unit is testing, but they assess the progress of a whole year
with tests. Yet, both try to analyse and verify the learning and teaching progresses. The
data gathered, especially from assessment can help to modify and propose actions for
assuring students’ learning or improve the evaluation itself.
Formative and summative assessment
There are two prominent practices to assess students’ learning advancement: formative
and summative assessment. These include different kinds of tests, for instance, the
standardized tests. Garrison and Ehringhaus (2013) state that summative assessments
are usually implemented to check what learners know and do not know in a specific point
of time. They are associated to state-run assessments but are administered in district and
classroom programs as well; some examples of them are the state assessments, district
benchmark, end-of-unit and end-of-term or semester tests and the report cards grades
(Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2013). On the other hand, formative assessments are part of the
185
teaching and learning processes; they are integrated in the lessons and give information to
make adjustments while these processes happen. These regulations on time ensure
students successful in targeted standards-based learning aims. Some formative strategies
are criteria and goal setting, observations, questioning strategies, self and peer
assessment and student record keeping (Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2013).
Language testing
How students are evaluated is different in terms of examinations and, each examination
has its own features and purposes. As a result, professors pursue specific guidelines and
take into account some factors regarding society, culture and policy to design these
exams. Educational Testing Service (ETS) (2009) describes some factors that may
influence in the professors’ making-decision: diverse linguistic backgrounds, varying levels
of proficiency in English and their mother tongue, varying degrees of formal education in
English and in their mother tongue, and varying the exposure to standardized tests and
variation in degrees of acculturation.
To avoid misunderstandings, it is necessary to define the words test and exam.
Tests are short exams that a professor gives to his or her students when the lesson
finishes, it is used to check the level of students’ understanding of the lesson and it is not
as formal as an exam. An exam is a formal test, which checks students’ knowledge of a
number of lessons; the term is typically used in the written English language (Koshal,
2011). For the purpose of this research, these words will be used as synonyms. There are
many types of examinations to measure language skills such as diagnostic, achievement,
proficiency, placement, etc., each of which has its own purpose and features to measure
the language mastery of learners.
Hughes (2003) distinguishes diverse approaches, claims that testing is direct
when demands that the aspirant performs accurately the skill intended to measure, the
tasks should be as authentic as possible. On the contrary, indirect testing tries to measure
the capabilities that underlie the skills in which the test is interested. Another dichotomy is
discrete point and integrative testing; the former refers to test a single element at once,
item by item, in a series of items, and each one tests a specific grammatical structure. The
latter demands from the individual a combination of several language elements in the
completion of a task (Hughes, 2003). The final and more interesting dichotomy is the
norm-referenced vs. criterion-referenced testing, the norm-referenced testing tells about
the student’s performance in reference to others; it does not tell directly what he or she
can do in the language. In contrast, the purpose of the criterion-referenced tests is to
classify students due to their ability to perform some task or tasks satisfactorily.
Validity and reliability
Examinations need to be competent; they must have specific features to be considered as
valid. Hughes (2003) states that a test is considered valid if it measures precisely what it
186
aims to measure; this is known as validity. Fulcher and Davidson (2007) explain that
validity assumes that when a test is made, it has an intention to measure something that is
“real” and that validity concerns to discover whether a test “really does measure” what is
proposed.
To construct validity it is necessary to have some evidence from the experience,
Hughes (2003) points out two forms in sequence to show their importance in solving
language-testing problems. The first is content validity, which refers to the content of the
test; to be valid it must establish a representative model of the language abilities or
structures with which it is meant to be concerned. The second form is criterion-related
validity, which “relates to the degree to which results on the test agree with those provided
by some independent and highly dependable assessment of the candidate’s ability”
(Hughes, 2003, p. 27).
Another essential characteristic that exams need to consider is reliability; this
concept is defined as the consistency of test marks or scores through facets of the tests
(Fulcher & Davidson, 2007). It means that tests should afford almost the same results from
the test takers, even if they took it at different hour or day. What testers must do is
construct, manage and mark tests in manner that the scores acquired on a test a specific
moment are probable to be quite similar to some which would have been obtained if it had
been administered at a different time (Hughes, 2003). For this reason, Fulcher and
Davidson (2007) state that to guarantee the quality of reliability, when designing the test
items, these should provide further information regarding the ability of test takers. It needs
to ensure that answers to single items are independent on the answers to other items
having good facility values and discrimination as well as sufficient items.
Standardized tests
The use of standardized tests in schools has increased greatly. These types of tests are
more prominent in the public school system. These tests are used to evaluate learners’
knowledge, to check their learning progress and to verify the success of a curriculum.
Weaver (2011) states that the standardized tests offer data that helps support four critically
significant tasks for professors and the public. The first is to recognize the training needs
of individual students; thus, professors can answer with effective, targeted teaching and
proper training resources. Secondly it is to judge students’ knowledge in essential basic
ability, challenging standards and measure their progress during a period. Thirdly it is to
evaluate the effectiveness of educational programs. The last task is to monitor school for
educational accountability.
However, a standardized achievement test is questionable; Weaver (as cited in
Standardized Assessment, 2000) explains that it is a test that is created by standard
procedures and it is administered and scored in a constant way for all test takers. It might
be said that the result of this test tends to be reliable, and that is why they have become
more and more popular. Plenty of opinions have come up –positive and negative— about
using the standardized testing. Criticism usually centers on linguistic biases versus
187
minorities, in the methods, which may not work for all kinds of learners and the harmful
reinforcement of lower performing learners (Weaver, 2011).
There are some advantages that can be found in the tests. For instance,
standardized tests guide teachers helping them to define what to teach and when to do it;
is usually complemented by a collection of established standards or instructional
framework. Tests are objective, developed by specialists and each question undergoes a
strong process to eliminate bias. Standardized tests give precise comparisons among sub-
groups including facts on ethnicity, socioeconomic status, special needs to promote
programs to increase scores in these sub-groups (School and Child Care Search Service,
2013). In contrast, the disadvantages are that standardized tests evaluate learners’
performances on a specific day and do not consider outer factors. Also, they can induce
stress in teachers and learners. These tests might result in many professors simply “teach
to the tests”; students’ whole learning potential might be hindered (School and Child Care
Search Service, 2013). Equally, Chomsky (2015) says that professors must teach to tests
ensuring the destruction of any significant learning process. It means they are not allowed
to be creative, imaginative nor attending the individual learners’ needs.
Given these points, it can be said that standardized testing has numerous benefits
that help to analyse what teachers and schools are doing for improving education.
Although this may be true, standardized tests are strongly criticised; it can be pointed out
that has several limitations and disadvantages, both for teachers and students. This can
lead to a negative effect in education.
Backwash effect
Tests influence the teaching and learning processes in one way or another. Hughes
(2003) states that backwash is the influence that the tests have on teaching and learning,
on the educational system and even in society. This effect can determine the way in which
the professor teaches. That is, tests commonly rule what professors do and what students
expect from their language lesson (Sánchez, 2009). The backwash effect can be beneficial
or harmful (Hughes, 2003). Sánchez explains that if an exam is considered as significant,
whether the stakes are high, the way tests are planned can dominate all teaching and
learning activities. If the test content and the test techniques have inconsistency according
to the aims of the course, it is possible to be harmful backwash.
Then, there is a tendency that professors teach only for the test, leaving aside
other important aspects to improve learners’ skills. Sánchez (2009) claims that the
teaching practice should be created rendering to students’ needs instead of just training
students to be successful in the evaluation process; there should be a negotiation of the
meaning in the target language. The previous advice can lead students to have a
meaningful learning, to improve their language skills and avoid the harmful backwash
effect.
188
METHODOLOGY
This research is focused on knowing how teachers perceive the role of the standardized
exams at the English Language B.A. of the University of Veracruz. With this paper, it is
expected to answer the research questions about the perceptions teachers have when
they test their students with the standardized exams that a committee of teachers designs.
It may be a difficult situation to make decisions about students passing or failing through
an exam teachers are given. However, there seems to be two opposing views regarding
these exams. The qualitative research was chosen because this paper is expected to
show teachers’ perceptions regarding the standardized exams used at this program as
well as the results students obtain.
For the purposes of this study, the qualitative approach was the most appropriate
to understand teachers’ perceptions about the standardized tests as it tries to analyse
people’s behaviours, attitudes and beliefs shared among them in their everyday life, to
understand or solve a problem. It is said that qualitative inquiry (QI) is a soft option, but “In
fact, QI is anything but a soft option – it demands rigour, precision, systematicity and
careful attention to detail” (Richards, 2003, p. 6). Richards (2003) states three aspects of
QI: the fact that experiments or surveys will only take us so far because they are not
designed to explore the social world. It is a person-centred enterprise, and the
investigation may have profound effects on the researcher.
Context
This research took place at the Language Department of the University of Veracruz, a
public institution located in the south of Mexico. The English Language B.A. consists of
different courses, which include six levels of English. The English courses are evaluated
through an standardized exam which is designed by DEXE for the words in Spanish:
Departamento de Exámenes Estandarizados which is a committee that is in charge of all
the evaluation process: from designing the exams to giving the grades. Some native
speaker professors participate in the layout and the appropriateness of the exam items.
Teachers only check a number of tests depending on the number of students they have in
their courses.
As can be seen, the teachers’ participation is to teach the course following the
course book whose contents are used as a reference to design the tests. Teachers teach
two hours a day –having between eight and ten hours per week, check exams and give
the exam revision after each partial.
Tests are given three times a school term; one test takes place in the middle of
the course, the second one at the end of the course; and the finals two weeks after the
course is over. The first two exams include grammar and vocabulary items. The time given
to answer is, in average, one hour thirty minutes. The final exam is divided in two parts.
The first part is a written section which includes four sections: English language in use,
189
listening, reading and writing, and the time given is around two hours thirty minutes. The
second part is the speaking test, and it consists of a ten-minute interview to a pair of
students who are asked some personal information as well as a situation which they have
to perform.
Participants
The interviewees were four teachers, one female teacher and three male teachers. They
have worked in the English B.A for more than nine years. There were one native speaker
of English and three Spanish speakers who graduated from this same program. Three of
them have an MA in language teaching and one of them holds a PhD in Linguistics. They
were selected because they have experience with the English language courses,
especially the tests and the impact they have in the students.
Participants will be referred to by giving them pseudonyms to protect their
identity. Carolina is a non-native full time teacher who has worked for the English B.A
during ten years. Carlos is a non-native full time teacher as well; he has worked for the
English B.A during twenty-five years. Ralph and Eduardo are also full time teachers. The
former is a native speaker who has worked for over forty years and the latter is a non-
native speaker who has worked for nine years.
Data collection method
The qualitative research embraces different traditions, paradigms and methods that help
researchers to accomplish their objectives. Kohlbacher (as cited in Gillham, 2000)
emphasises that qualitative methods focus mainly on the kind of evidence –what people
tell or do- that will allow the researcher to understand the meaning of what is happening.
Its great strength is that it can illuminate issues and bring to light possible explanations.
Interviews were used for this research as they illustrate the human behaviour,
thoughts and feelings and they can generate useful information about lived experience and
its meaning (Mora, 2012). Seidman (2006) also highlights that interviews offer access to
the context of people’s behaviour to understand the meaning of that behaviour. For the
purpose of this research, three main questions with some follow up questions were used to
know more about the topic we were exploring.
Research procedure
The semi-structure interview was piloted with only one teacher to see the feasibility and
appropriateness of the questions. After that, some adjustments were necessary. For
example, question number one was modified as to be more specific in terms of length of
teaching in the U.V. The interviews were organized considering the teachers’ schedules as
they were working long hours and the school calendar had some days off which interfered
with the dates arranged. When the interviews were completed, it was necessary to
190
transcribe them for the analysis. The data was organised in categories in order to present
the findings, which were written and discussed based on the theory considered in the
literature review to support the interviews.
Data analysis
After gathering the data, it was analysed to construe the information and shape the
findings. A careful description of the data and categorisation are important steps in this
process (Kohlbacher, 2006). In a qualitative inquiry, data were analysed differently from
the quantitative approach as it requires particular techniques. For example, Kohlbacher (as
cited in Cassell & Cymon, 1994) specifies that qualitative techniques emerge form
phenomenological and interpretive paradigms; being on constructivist approaches where
there is no clear-cut objectivity or reality.
For analysing the data, the Qualitative Content Analysis was used as the case
study suggests. According to Kohlbacher (as cited in Mayring, 2000), it is an empirical,
methodological and controlled analysis of texts inside the context of communication,
succeeding rules and models, without rash quantification.
Kohlbacher (as cited in Mayring, 2000) explains that qualitative content analysis
procedures as follows: first, the text is paraphrased, abstracted and reduced. Second, the
explanation is scanned in reference to the total context. Finally, the structuring whose main
goal is to filter out a particular structure from the material. The text is structured conferring
to content, form and scaling. In fact, it is a set of techniques from which the researcher can
chose and adapt to his or her research question (Kohlbacher, 2006).
FINDINGS
After analysing the data five categories emerged and they are presented as follows: 1)
Teachers’ views about the evaluation; 2) Teachers’ perceptions about the English
standardized tests: first impressions; 3) Factors influencing the teaching and learning
processes; 4) Criteria to grade students: perceptions about the scale used to grade the
tests; 5) Improving the tests and the assessment.
eac ers’ iews about t e e aluation
Discussing evaluation is complex. In addition, not all teachers think the same about, and
what is more, their practices may vary, for example, Miguel says that “the evaluation is
sub ecti e and relati e”. Another participant agrees that the evaluation is a process with no
real outcomes. Miguel explains that students and teachers can have feedback from each
other but sometimes it is not given. Therefore, teachers must take into account the most
suitable practice to assess students such as the formative and summative assessments.
According to the data, one participant said that he uses different tools to assess students.
191
The evaluation is not only an exam, of course there are exams but there are also
quizzes, presentations, reading reports and these different tools give me a broader
picture of what I want the student to assimilate, learn.
As can be seen, the formative assessment is used to obtain information about the
students’ learning progress. Teachers can put into practice some tools and methods in the
classroom and there are several strategies that are part of the collection of good training
(Garrison & Ehringhaus, 2013). Miguel said that here are factors having a negative impact
on education, for this reason, some teachers prefer practicing other methods. He tries to
use alternative methods, such as gamification.
I do not t ink t at t e “ IS ” tool is an e ecti e tool because it is a contradiction
that a country ranked 54th place in the PISA exam, has young people who win
international e ents… ll t ese actors are a ing a negati e impact on education.
I really like the idea of projects that students work on their own projects, animes,
documentaries. I’m looking orward to exploring “gami ication” as an alternati e or
evaluation.
However, these new methods sometimes are quite difficult to incorporate because
students have been evaluated through the standardized exam for years. They are used to
it and there is a lack of maturity which makes it difficult to try new ways. Therefore,
sometimes learners cannot understand new methods and practice self-evaluation. Miguel
explains:
…t e student does not understand. e also wants to see a number and it is not a
number; it is a process in which he has to practice self-evaluation as well. It is a
conditioning, it is pure behaviourism. Maturity is a crucial factor for the student to
self-evaluate. Perhaps that maturity does not exist but we have not promoted it
either.
Other factors that we found that seem to affect the learners are motivation or lack
of strategies to study. Some teachers believe that students cannot manage the
assessment and the evaluation properly because they do not have the proper strategies to
face the exams resulting in low grades. In some cases, teachers overgeneralise the fact
that students lack strategies as they hardly pass the exams. For example, David suggests
that:
Students can’t andle it because t ey simply do not know ow to study, t eir
strategies are really poor; apart from that their motivation problems and the low
language levels.
As can be seen, teachers complain not only about the evaluation system but they
also perceive themselves as part of this failure. On the one hand, teachers comment that
some students may not have the strategies to take a standard exam which makes them
192
obtain low grades. On the other hand, they seem to believe that despite the fact that there
are other alternatives to evaluate the students, teachers avoid them because they suppose
students are not ready for them.
eac ers’ perceptions about t e Englis standardized tests: first impressions.
Here, some teachers’ perceptions about the English standardized tests will be discussed.
All participants have taught in this university for longer than 15 years, which means that
they are familiar with the tests and the B.A.’s objective. Two of them promoted the arising
of the tests and how they have evolved through the years. And, as the data suggests,
there are positive and negative positions when it comes to the exams. For example,
Carolina thinks that the tests are acceptable and they have many advantages and only
one disadvantage:
The good thing about the standardized test is that it measures your progress in
general, t e le el you are ac ie ing… t ey know w at t ey saw and w at to study
and then he can be more identified with the test and probably do it better. They are
more controlled in terms o c eating, w at is known as acking. …as it is more
general sometimes it is difficult to the student not seeing clearly what he saw in
class, has trouble identifying the contents in other contexts; that would be a small
disadvantage.
Standardized tests are suggested to have some disadvantages. For example, two
participants, Miguel and Eduardo think that the tests have limitations. For example, they
mentioned that the exams are not proficient and the different styles of teaching are not
reflected on them neither are the learning styles.
I think they are very deficient. They have many limitations. You cannot evaluate
students in a standardized way if you did not teach them in a standardized way.
There are many ways to teach and those different styles are not at all reflected on
the standardized test.
Students might not pass these exams but it does not mean that they did not
understand the classes or they are not skillful enough to pass. Countless external factors
play an important role in the test performances. Standardized tests may not consider the
diversity of learning styles and economical or emotional factors. Miguel supports these
ideas:
…we are not taking into account ot er actors. “W y don’t you memorize?”
Because you did not have breakfast, it means financial, emotional, social factors
are involved when it comes to the standard exam and the results it brings about.
As illustrated, the perceptions teachers have regarding the standardized exams
are both, positive and negative regardless their position in this process. On the one hand,
193
they think the exams are positive as they help control what each teacher does in class.
However, others think there are other factors that interfere with the process such as
financial social problems on the side of the students, for example.
eac ers’ perceptions about t e design o t e tests
The data showed other perceptions in respect to the tests. These are related to its
design. In the first place, David and Miguel agree that teachers promote that students only
memorize instead of providing tools to master the language. On the other hand, students
do not have efficient learning strategies which results in poor learning, then, they easily
forget.
I’ e been telling teac ers w at we’ e been doing or years w at we’re promoting is
a system w ere by students don’t really learn because t ey don’t study properly. ll
t ey’re doing is memorizing. ey orget t at later, t ey won’t a e e ecti e
learning strategies. at’s t e biggest problem.
Miguel and David think that tests are a kind of hybrid; they are neither
achievement tests nor progress tests. They are a combination of grammar, vocabulary
and the communicative skills. Teachers agreed that these exams are not the kind of tests
they proposed when they were planning the curriculum of this B.A. They conclude that the
exams are something strange and out of context. This is because of the hybrid format and
in some cases the contents are not what is seen in class. Miguel says:
…t e middle o t e 98 s someone mentioned t is idea o standardization and I
took it up and promoted it; standardization is normal in Europe. The standardized
examinations which were a great idea at that time we had nothing else, have been
turn into a Frankenstein. Standard examinations were devised for another
curriculum. at’s w at we did and once again we're stuck wit t ese standard
exams.
In t e end, t e tests are a ery strange ybrid o w at a “progress” test and
“ac ie ement” test. I’m not e aluating an acti ity or t e student to be aware o t at,
one follow up that helps him/her realize and has self-correcting, … Our exams are
a simulation of what those international examinations are, which are a huge
business because they cost a lot of money and it is an imperialist imposition.
On the contrary, participant Carolina thinks that the design is effective and
students can practice for a certificate examination:
The structure seems good to me. Besides, they prepare you for a certificate
examination. I t ink t e design is good…
194
It can be seen that while only one teacher thinks the design is effective and it
helps students to practice for certificate examinations. Most teachers think the design of
the tests is not accurate but incomplete. They seem to complain that it is a mixture of
different exams or simply copies from other organizations which results in inconveniences
for the students.
Factors influencing the teaching and learning processes
There are factors influencing the teaching and the learning processes, for example, the
time established to cover the contents of the course, the syllabus or program, the design of
the exams, the strategies used to teach and learn, etc. Together with the layout of the
exams, sometimes teachers cannot find good examples of exercises that can help
students to be ready for the test. Each activity has its own features and students should be
able to recognize them. Carolina explains that:
…sometimes I try to ind exercises o t e same type as t ose t at will be in the test
in order for them to be more familiar at the time of the test.
Another factor related to the design is that activities or tasks should not only focus
on grammar or vocabulary, they should consider the four skills: reading, writing, listening
and speaking. That is why, it can be said that the tests may not reflect neither the students’
accuracy nor their proficiency of the language. Besides, the time and the contents of the
textbook have some impact on the teaching. David argues the following:
ere are lots o ery nice acti ities, but t ey’re time consuming, and w en you try
to do them you end up getting behind. You end up focusing mainly on
grammar/vocabulary. The whole thing is based on that task. What about the skills,
how are they tested?
As mentioned above, it is essential to say that validity and reliability are important
in the design of the exams. And, as can be noted, David says that there are problems with
testing the four skills. What is highlighted here, is the fact that the standardized exams do
not test the four skills of the language; then teachers focus more on grammar and
vocabulary during the courses.
“ eac or t e test”: true or alse?
Most schools use standardized tests because these tests try to measure students’ abilities
and knowledge about certain subjects. In this case, these tests measure students’
language abilities. However, one disadvantage of using standardized tests is that teachers
may only teach for the test so the test decides what happens to them. Most of the
participants agree with this issue:
195
at’s anot er ailing; t e teac er ends up teac ing w at e/s e belie es will be
the contents of the test and what he/she thinks it is necessary for students to pass
the test, rather than teaching to develop skills.
We’ e ad an un ortunate p enomenon that we get students ready for the exam
and not or li e… t e pro essor only teac es or t e exam and t en t e student
orgets…
This seems to be the biggest issue regarding tests; they have a negative
backwash effect on the teaching and learning processes because students might not have
a meaningful learning and teachers may be limited. X says the following:
It is not “li elong learning”; it is not “meaning ul learning”. It is a negati e impact; it
means that everything you learned is eventually forgotten after it was learned
because you did it in order to pass an exam.
To sum up, as it has been illustrated, there may be a general discomfort with how
the exams direct teaching. These teachers seem to agree on the fact that they are
teaching students to take the exam rather that promote meaningful learning in the class.
Their main goal which is to teach the contents of the books involving the language skills is
left behind in order to help students pass their exams.
Criteria to evaluate students: perceptions about the scale used to grade the tests
When grading, some questions and doubts arise. The student’s grade is at stake and in
the English Language B.A. the scores of the standardized tests are the criteria which
decides if students pass to the next level. Additionally, one extra point from a portfolio is
added to the final grade. According to Carolina and David the scale is at discrepancy,
Carolina says it is good and David says the opposite, as shown below:
I consider it has been made very carefully and professionally. They are more
modern ways o adding up t e scores. I t ink it is ine… it is measured in a air and
equitable way and it gives more scores to some specific skills.
The scale is quite flexible because in the end it is adapted. If items do not work,
you remo e t em…
However, participant Eduardo thinks that teachers should have more influence in
the decision-making of the final grade apart from the portfolio:
It should be modified so that the person teaching the course has some influence on the
final grade as a complement of the standardized test. The test is scored 90% and the
teacher 10%. It is little.
196
The grading system used can affect learners in a bad way. Sometimes they are
divided into intelligent and not intelligent in relation to their scores. In relation to this, David
said:
I really don’t worry too muc about t e grading system. at’s t e way it is ere in
exico. It’s ard to c ange t at because t e uni ersity aut orities expect to see a
number grade on the report card.
Improving the tests and the assessment
Throughout this chapter, we have seen the perceptions from the teachers about the tests
and how they influence teaching and learning. There are some problems and it is
necessary to make some improvements, for instance, concerning the design of the tests,
the curriculum or the assessment itself. David said the tests can be improved in the
following:
It could be better. We could experiment with other forms, for example, open-close
tests... The close test is a test o your actual ability to andle Englis and t at’s
what I want because it is not in the book.
Teachers also commented that they need to be involved in the evaluation as they
were before. They said that the assessment can be improved in the following:
…promote t e teac er being co-responsible of the grade, taking into account what
was taught and how and seeing the standardized test as another tool from the
different tools used to evaluate, not the only one.
I would like to participate in order to make a study as a pre-intermediate English
teacher to make a comparison, checking that all the contents are covered or not
and then I would advocate so that what was seen in class is more reflected.
In the case of David who has been involved in the development of the tests for
many years, currently he is not taking part in the design of the tests. He agrees on having
teachers writing tests but considers that not all teachers are capable of doing it.
…teac ers can go ahead if they like and write exams. But I can guarantee you of
one thing, they'll be a complete mess with few exceptions. Most teachers here
a en't got enoug Englis to be able to design one o t ose exams…
eac ers’ inal comments, re lections, and proposals
Participants have some reflections and proposals to improve the standard exam. One of
these reflections is related to the way students are evaluated, some are either positive or
negative. For example, Carolina argues that:
197
e standardized tests a e more ad antages t an disad antages. I’m rom t e
80s plan. I remember that the tests were made and administered by my professor;
however, not many of us failed.
Miguel, for example, suggests that the methodology to assess students has to be
autonomous and self-reflective. He strongly believes that teachers and students have to
work in a collaborative way:
The teacher has to be a model of values; I cannot be an imposing teacher. In that
sense, he/she has to be fairly honest and work trying to respond to his/her
students’ learning styles, truly work collecti ely and collegially. I t is does not
happen, one standardized test is simply a straitjacket used to get raw data.
When it comes to the proposals, they believe that assessment and teaching can
be improved by ensuring students meaningful learning. Miguel suggests not using
examinations and teaching students suitable vocabulary for their career:
I want to propose not using exams, opening two English pre-intermediate sections.
o state “in t is course t ere are exams and in t is ot er course t ere are no
exams”. … i students want to be kindergarten teac ers, their vocabulary will be
different to the ones who want to be college or high school teachers, their
approac es and t e types o groups t at t ey will be acing…
Additionally, participant Miguel says that the evaluation is polemical and it is
everywhere in our lives; it is part of human beings.
There are PhDs in assessment and evaluation and they do not have answers, the
evaluation is quite subjective, very controversial. It is everywhere in our lives. We
evaluate relationships and we evaluate jokes. It is inherent to the relative,
subjective and changing character of the human being.
Given these points, the perceptions, ideas, proposals and even criticism from the
teachers are highly needed to understand the role that the standardized tests are playing
in the English language B.A. Now, there is a piece of evidence, which may help to face the
difficulties that might arise the next years. As can be seen, this research has presented
some issues that have been hidden and, hopefully it might bring about the changes that
are needed for the sake of the students and the B.A. itself.
CONCLUSION
The main objective of this research was to know the teachers’ perceptions about the
English standardized tests that are administered in the Language School. The findings
show that teachers think tests have many advantages and are beneficial for students.
198
However, some areas should be improved. They also show that teachers have negative
perceptions of exams and they believe that tests are not as good as they should be. They
also said that the tests have many limitations. The structure is not accurate and exam
results do not reflect the real language abilities of students.
In the same way, teaching and learning are affected having a negative backwash
effect; teachers seem to be forced to teach for the test. In other words, they must cover the
contents of the books and there is not enough time to enhance productive skills such as
writing and speaking. In consequence, students do not improve all the skills properly and
they fail in the evaluation. Additionally, students’ performances are affected by other
factors, such as motivational, emotional and economic problems, which are not considered
in this type of tests.
For those reasons, teachers think that standardized tests today are out of context
and other methodologies should be implemented to promote students’ autonomy and
maturity. They also suggest the use of other media and resources from the internet.
Another relevant issue discussed was the scale used to grade the tests. Teachers think
that it is not appropriate and some of the aspects considered in the criteria to evaluate
students should be revised. Despite the result obtained, some limitations can be
mentioned, for example, for the literature review. It was difficult to have updated
information as there are not many studies about the standardized tests used in language
schools. Second, it was difficult to contact participants whose teaching experience in the
B.A could be useful for our research, but many of them had busy schedules.
As a last comment, this research should be complemented by looking at other
areas that help consider whether the use of standardized tests to measure students’
abilities is appropriate for this program. It also might be necessary to consider some
modifications to the exams and the criteria to evaluate to ensure meaningful learning.
Evaluation is a huge issue that researchers, teachers and students should be aware of. It
is necessary, then to continue studying this phenomenon and including students’ opinions.
This way, there might be more valid information to take action to improve this situation.
REFERENCES Bachman Lyle F. (1990) Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. Oxford:
Oxford University Press. Canadian Evaluation Society. (2015). What is evaluation?. Retrieved from
https://evaluationcanada.ca/what-is-evaluation
DiCicco‐Bloom, B., & Crabtree, B. (2006). The qualitative research interview. MEDICAL
EDUCATION, 40(2006), 314-321. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02418.x/full
Draper, A. (2010). The principles and application of qualitative research. Proceedings of
the Nutrition Society, 63(2004), 641-646. doi: 10.1079/PNS2004397
199
Educational Testing Service. (2015). Guidelines for the assessment of English language
learners. Retrieved from https://www.ets.org/s/about/pdf/ell_guidelines.pdf Fulcher, G., & Davidson, F. (2007). Language testing and assessment. London, England:
Routledge. Garrison, C., & Ehringhaus, M. (2010). Formative and summative assessment. Retrieved
from http://standardslearning.pbworks.com/f/Formative+and+Summative+Assessments+in+the+Classroom.pdf
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers (2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge
University Press. DifferenceBetween.Com. (2011). Difference between exam and test. Retrieved from
http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-exam-and-vs-test/ Kizlik, B. (2017). Measurement, assessment, and evaluation in education. Retrieved from
http://www.adprima.com/measurement.htm Kohlbacher, F. (January, 2006). The Use of Qualitative Content Analysis in Case Study
Research. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 7(1), 89 paragraphs. Retrieved from http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/view/75/153
Mora, I. (2012). From interviews to Narratives. In I. Mora & D. Goodwin (Eds.), Alternative methods for undertaking qualitative research (pp.39-64). Guanajuato, M xico: Universidad de Guanajuato.
O’Sullivan, B., & Weir, C. (2011). Test development and validation. In B. O’sullivan (Ed.),
Language testing: Theories and practices (pp. 13-32). England, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Richards, K. (2003). Qualitative inquiry in TESOL. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Sánchez, O. (2009). The backwash effect at the English B.A. (Master’s thesis). UV,
Facultad de Idiomas, Xalapa, México. School and Child Care Search Service. (2013). Pros and cons of standardized Testing.
Retrieved from http://worklife.columbia.edu/files_worklife/public/Pros_and_Cons_of_Standardized_Testing_1.pdf
Seidman, I. (2006). Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in
education and the social sciences (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Teachers College. Sensation and perception. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://www.alleydog.com/101notes/s&p.html
Sharman, A. (n.d.). Perception: Meaning, definition, principles and factors affecting in perception. Retrieved from
200
http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/perception/perception-meaning-definition-principles-and-factors-affecting-in-perception/634
The Progressive Magazine. (2015, January 16). Calls to action: Noam Chomsky on the dangers of standardized testing [Video file]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9JVVRWBekYo
Weaver, K. (2011). Standardized testing measuring the academic success of students.
Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED525158.pdf What is the difference between assessment and evaluation?. (n.d.). Retrieved from
https://arc.duke.edu/documents/The%20difference%20between%20assessment%20and%20evaluation.pdf
THE AUTHORS: OLGA LIDIA SÁNCHEZ CRUZ specialized in Language eac ing, aster’s Degree in Teaching English as a Foreign Language for the Universidad Veracruzana, C1 certification by the University of Cambridge. Professor of the BA in English of the Universidad Veracruzana. She is currently teaching English among other subjects, and coordinating the English Academy. [email protected] [email protected] DANIELA JERÓNIMO GARCÍA has just graduated from the English B.A. and is currently enrolled in her second B.A. in Sociology at the Universidad Veracruzana. She has been teaching English freelance and at a public school during her teaching practices as well as her social service. She has an active participation in some women rights movements. [email protected]
201
APPENDIX 1: INTERVIEW GUIDE
Research sub-questions Follow up questions Spanish
To what extent are they satisfied with the results that these exams present?
How long have you been teaching here in the U.V.?
What levels of English do you usually teach?
How long have you been teaching these levels of English?
What is your opinion about the evaluation in general? What do you think of the standardized tests? Do you think that standardized tests influence your teaching? In what way?
¿Cuántos años tiene de servicio aquí en la U.V.?
¿Qué niveles de inglés imparte? ¿Por cuánto tiempo ha impartido estos niveles de inglés?
¿Qué opina sobre la evaluación en general? ¿Qué opina de los exámenes estandarizados? ¿Cree que los exámenes estandarizados influyen en su forma de enseñar? ¿de qué manera?
How much do they agree with their students’ results as passing or failing?
What about the layout of the tests? What do you think of its design? Do you think they can be improved? What aspects?
Would you like to say something else?
¿Qué piensa del diseño de los exámenes? ¿qué piensa de su estructura? ¿Cree usted que se pueden mejorar? ¿en qué aspectos? ¿Le gustaría comentar algo más?
Do they agree with the marking scale used to grade students?
What is your opinion about the scale used to grade the tests?
¿Qué opina de la escala que se usa para calificar los exámenes?
202
SECCIÓN III: FORMACIÓN DE PROFESORES DE LENGUAS
203
ANALYZING THE EFFECTS OF EFL TEACHERS’ CONTINUING
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT ON THEIR PRACTICE
Cecilio Luis de Jesús López Martínez
Claudia Estela Buenfil Rodríguez Universidad Veracruza
SUMMARY
Language teachers’ continuing professional development has undergone a constant
dynamic which has become evident in the offer of a wide variety of professional training
workshops. The question to this phenomenon is whether these courses have an impact
on teachers’ daily practice and help them to become more efficient ELT professionals.
This inquiry aimed at examining the effectiveness of in-service training courses. A
qualitative approach was used to study the impact of in-service training courses on the
teachers’ professional development by analysing teachers’ insights on workshop
participation. The findings that emerged from the data collected from interviews and
researchers’ journals revealed that the effectiveness of the above-mentioned courses is
perceived as limited. In spite of some worth mentioning pedagogical implications, a
realistic view of practices and a positive sense of teachers’ self-efficacy, there is also
evidence of dissatisfaction as well as some difficulties to fulfil professional expectations.
Consequently, a series of suggestions to enhance satisfaction and guarantee the
achievement of expectations are given.
Key words: CPD (Continuing professional development), practice, professional teacher,
satisfaction and training.
INTRODUCTION
In the recent decade, public universities have made the effort to professionalise their
teaching faculties. One way of accomplishing such objective is through the planning and
implementation of courses to keep teachers updated in their knowledge fields as well as
to help them contribute to their own contexts in a positive way (Rogoff, 2003).
Nevertheless, examining the effectiveness if EFL (English as a Foreign Language)
training courses has become of paramount importance in different countries as they may
have a significant impact on their professional daily practice (AL-Wreikat & Abdullah,
2010). Given that the EFL is a rich field, some universities offer development courses at
the end of every term. Teachers at the University of Veracruz are invited to take a wide
variety of courses in different areas that can contribute to the improvement of their
professional practice. Teachers can enrol in up to two different courses twice a year.
However, the offer and evaluation of the effectiveness of these courses depends
exclusively on a particular Department of the UV and there seems to be a lack of
research conducted on this phenomenon. This study was focused on identifying teachers’
perceptions towards those continuing courses. The concepts of professional development
204
courses, teachers’ training courses and continuing training for teachers are used
indistinctly along the report.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
In this section we present the research questions that led our study: What do teachers
think about the benefits and challenges of professional training courses? How does
participation in professional training courses benefit and challenge teachers’ current
professional practice?
OBJECTIVES
The main objective of this study was, then, to identify the benefits and challenges of
teachers’ professional training courses according to the teachers who have taken them. To
achieve the before-mentioned aim, it was necessary to analyze the way in which the
implementation of such professional training courses has influenced teachers’ current
practice.
CONTEXT
In recent years, public and private institutions have taken actions to professionalise their
teachers continuously; the University of Veracruz (UV) is one of them. At the Language
School, teachers have been offered a wide variety of courses that aimed at encouraging
their professional growth (Caena, 2011). The UV course offer is open to all teachers. This
study was focused on identifying how language teachers perceive the development
courses they have enrolled in.
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: TEACHERS’ DEVELOPMENT
This section has been divided into six subsections: The importance of development;
Defining Perceptions; Advantages and Disadvantages (of taking development courses);
Personal Dissatisfaction; Personal Satisfaction; Daily Practice improvement and Lifelong
Learning Perspective.
The importance of Continuing Professional Development
Continuing professional development (CPD) courses are an important aspect of school
improvement. School improvement is based on staff competence and on relevant training
sessions where novice and experienced teachers can learn, clarify, evaluate, reflect on,
create and propose alternatives to improve daily teaching and learning practices. In this
respect, Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) interpret teachers’ professional development as
“structured professional learning” (p. 2) that is based on the increasing acquisition of new
knowledge as well as innovative practices in their field that enhance and improve their
students’ learning outcomes. They relate structured professional learning to the teaching
205
and learning professional growth. This may have a positive impact on their students’
learning process.
Altun (2011) agrees with what Darling-Hammond et al. state regarding CPD as he
affirms that this type of courses helps teachers fulfill their different professional roles in
their ever-changing teaching and learning contexts in which they work. However,
according to Altun (2011), these change processes are not always successful, as teachers
may find them irrelevant and tend to forget most of what they have experienced. This
means that the concept of “development” is a two-side-road. On the one hand,
development is seen as the fact that any teacher has some expertise to share with her/his
colleagues through coaching (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; McAleavy, 2016). On the
other hand, if leadership and motivation in general fail in the search for teachers’ high-level
training and development, the benefits of CDP will be limited (Altun, 2011; McAleavy,
2016). In sum, development may be understood as the constant improvement of teachers’
daily practice and performances through adequate and relevant training to overcome
never-ending challenges.
Defining Perceptions
To this inquiry, the term “perception” is employed as teachers’ opinions and views on their
role as trainees in professional development courses. This definition is based on the
interpretation Carless (2006) gives of perceptions in education; these may be interpreted
as people’s viewpoints in social contexts. In addition, McDonald (2012) affirms that
perceptions are unique individualized experiences. Furthermore, these can only emerge
from the knowledge people attain from their surrounding world. Thus, perceptions may be
interpreted as teachers’ opinions and views in their roles as professionals and in the
different contexts in which they perform as such.
According to Lopez (2008), perceptions give rise to attitudes. In addition,
perceptions as well as misperceptions may allow individuals to construct a reality, which
may eventually evolve. Yilmaz and Aydin (2015) add that perceptions can be positive or
negative and may be influenced by different motives. Then, teachers’ attitudes towards
professional development courses in their field may vary depending on an endless series
of factors. As Lopez states through the views and opinions (Attitudes) teachers have
about the relevance of professional training courses, the impact these courses may have
on “the teachers’ roles, work patterns, status and identity” (Factors) may be identified
(Ibid: p.8). Obviously, such impact may bring out some advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages & Disadvantages
When referring to Continuous Professional development, it seems important to identify
advantages and disadvantages of taking teachers’ professional courses. On the one
hand, through professional training courses, teachers are given ideas on how to improve
their teaching practice. Continuing courses intend to enable teachers to gain more
206
knowledge and change their practice for the benefit of their learners (Bando & Li, 2014).
However, in addition to updating courses, teachers need to cope with administrative
duties, work overload and lack of relevant professional development workshops
(Sandlund et al., 2016). That is, if the contents and practices of the continuing course do
not relate directly to the elements teachers are in contact with at work, teachers are not
likely to enrol in them. Teachers might see those courses as a waste of time and
experience personal dissatisfaction.
Personal Dissatisfaction
A factor that administrators might not like to listen is when training courses do not fulfil
teachers’ expectations. According to AL-Wreikat and Abdullah (2010), some teachers
particularly refer to their disappointments regarding the relation between the title of a
training course and its content. Teachers also highlight the importance of receiving more
direct feedback from trainers. In addition, some teachers find it difficult to get rid of
previous schemes in order to try new ones as they hardly count on mentoring support
(Hobson et al., 2009). This means that in spite of being interested in taking courses to
continue their professional development and become up-dated, at the end, teachers
seem to rely on safer traditional teaching techniques rather than try more learner
centeredness pedagogy (Juhasz, 2015). Teachers seem to prioritize their work safeness
over their personal and professional satisfaction.
Personal Satisfaction
Professional training courses are apparently an opportunity for teachers to enhance
collaboration. According to Caena (2011), professional training courses may also
increase teachers’ learning, satisfaction and effectiveness. A teacher who feels satisfied
with the quality of work s/he is delivering is more likely to be a more productive teacher.
This sort of teacher also has a better perception of her/himself (Tschannen-Morana &
Hoy, 2007), and this can have a positive effect on their students’ learning process. In this
respect, Calderhead (1996), Day (2002) and Hargreaves (2005), amongst others, agree
that teachers are usually perceived as experts both in their field and pedagogy and they
are constantly looking for efficacy either for themselves, or their students. They also
suggest that most teachers are likely to be looking for job satisfaction and confidence,
which may be acquired in training courses. Thus, they may adopt a cooperative and
professional attitude, which facilitates the development of tasks and their participation in
training courses. This may benefit the school community in which they work as such
courses can contribute to the improvement of the teachers’ daily practice.
Daily Practice Improvement
On the one hand, teachers’ desire to professionally improve in their daily practice is linked
to their willingness to accept innovation, ability to control stress and commitment (Karimi,
2011). Teachers’ development as in CPD can also be enhanced by their own experiences
207
in the classroom (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011) day after day. Thus, when teachers produce
and observe satisfactory results in the short term, they improve; a healthy circle is
created. Nevertheless, teachers find difficult to apply what they have learnt in training
courses (Kurihara & Samimy, 2007). There might be several reasons for this: teachers
have a tight syllabus to cover in a limited time, they work in unsuitable or poor conditions,
and they do not have enough support from the institution to apply new ideas, among
others. Therefore, the whole effort to implement the learnt innovative ways of working
relies entirely on the teacher, who must find the way to incorporate what s/he learns in
courses. In this way, teachers will be able to observe that training course do help them in
improving their performance as EFL instructors (AL-Wreikat & Abdullah, 2010). This
makes evident that teachers should not only focus on ways to encourage students’
lifelong learning, but on their own lifelong learning as well.
Lifelong Learning Perspective
Teachers need to visualize professional development in the long run term. They need to
see this type of courses as a way to adapt to constant changes rather than compulsory
academic events (Caena, 2011). They also need to consider different factors such as
teachers’ experiences and generational differences (Juhasz, 2015). It is, therefore, of
paramount importance that teachers have a positive attitude towards the suggestions
they may receive in courses and be tolerant and patient with their own acquisition pace
process to gradually incorporate that new knowledge into their daily practice. This has to
be done in such a way that this learning practical application can continue along their
professional career ensuring personal and professional satisfaction. In this respect,
Estrada et al. (2016) suggest the development of a friendly atmosphere considering
teachers’ professional development and emotions as essential factors at training courses
to ensure agreements. Consequently, the perceptions on the impact teachers’
professional training courses have on their daily practice needs to be more documented
and more deeply analysed.
METHODOLOGY: RESEARCH PROCEDURE
This research was qualitative, based on a case study method. When conducting qualitative
research, data is often obtained through open-ended questions and observations of the
individuals that give information about their own work and views (Harrell & Bradley, 2009).
These techniques were chosen as they are enough to triangulate the information, among
other different techniques stated in the qualitative paradigm. In this particular case, we
analysed how teachers perceived their professional development based on the training
courses offered by an institution of higher education and qualitative research is appropriate
to explore perceptions. This section has been divided into three subsections: Case study,
context and participants and data collection techniques.
Case Study
208
We conducted a case study within the qualitative paradigm because it allowed us to
obtain the reasons why a phenomenon took place as well as the processes it followed;
thus, we used ‘why’ and ‘how’ research questions (Lopez, 2016; Stake, 2010; Yin, 2003)
in order to ask our participants about their perceptions regarding the benefits of taking
training courses. For the purpose of this case study, language school teachers were
asked to express, in their own context (Yin, 2003), their views regarding the development
courses they are offered to take at the end of each term.
Context and Participants
This study was carried out at the Language School of the UV. The Language School
offers a BA in English, a BA in French, a BA distance program in ELT, an MA in French
and an MA in English. For the purposes of this study, four academics from the BA in
English and two from the distance program were chosen (aged 35-54; three male and
three female; one English and five Mexicans): most of them have been interested in
attending professional training courses; in fact, they have all been peers of the
researchers of this study in these courses. Some of these participants are experienced
and others novice teachers who work for the Language School in different areas of
knowledge related to ELT. Participants’ characteristics should only provide a general
impression of the way teachers perceive training courses, regardless of their years of
experience or nationality.
Data Collection Techniques
We, the researchers of this study, played the roles of participant-observers (Adler & Adler,
1987; Yin, 2003) in a recent course taken by us and other teachers. The participant-
observer’s role demanded deep contact and intimacy, so we became involved in the
setting and observed it. We, as participant observers, observed our colleagues during the
course and then asked some of them to participate in this study at random. We arranged
appointments to conduct interviews with those colleagues who openly expressed their
points of view regarding the relevance of the training courses they had taken in an informal
chat. In the meantime, we were able to keep journals of the observations we made during
the development course lessons.
Data Collection Processes
First, we kept journals of observations we conducted during different training courses in
the past year and during the training course we took with the participants who were
interviewed for this study. We kept a record of our observations in a journal: participants’
attitudes, views and opinions about the course. This observation notes were used to
confirm what participants had expressed during interviews (Lopez, 2012). The interviews
were the main source of data. They consisted of open-ended questions to explore the
participants’ opinions about CPD courses in which they had been recently involved.
209
After, we carried out the interviews with six colleagues. We reached a saturation
point as there was nothing else to record (Kvale, 1996, p.102). Finally, the data was
analysed and organised into categories. For ethical reasons, we used initials to protect
the identity of the participants (Cohen et al, 2000). Through the analysis and comparison
of our participants’ opinions and the notes in our journals, we explored, triangulated and
tried to make sense of what the whole data reflected.
FINDINGS: TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS
This section has been divided into five subsections, which correspond to the categories
that emerged from the analysis of the data. The most salient categories that emerged
were: ercei ed ad antages o teac ers’ training courses; Observed teac ers’
professional development benefits on students; ercei ed disad antages o teac ers’
training courses; Suggested ways for training courses improvement and Recognized
teac ers’ de elopment Impact.
ercei ed d antages o eac ers’ raining Courses
The most recurrent answer regarding the benefits of professional development courses
were the ones referring to teachers being up to date in their field. They wanted to acquire
new and more specialized knowledge on teaching and learning methodologies to improve
their daily practice as it can be observed in the following two extracts. In addition, values
such as responsibility, commitment and partnership also emerged as factors enhanced by
this kind of courses. Therefore, teachers’ interest in knowing and experimenting with new
pedagogies was because they were concerned and aware of their duties when playing
the role of trainee.
001
These courses help us to be updated regarding all the teaching and learning
umbrella; that is, professional development courses enhance teachers'
responsibility. Us teachers are committed to education and want to cover
every single student's need. Plus, by taking these courses, we might be able
to share information on what is happening in our classrooms with other
colleagues; it could be beneficial to share teachers' pedagogical knowledge.
(INF/LS)
In addition to the moral matter, participants were also concerned on how to sort
out the constraints their students may face when learning a foreign language, and
therefore, they needed to evolve and improve their subject matter as well as the
pedagogies they could use in the EFL context. Today, students are encouraged to
overcome different issues (lack of economical support, inflexible timetables, traffic or
commuting problems, among others) and keep a constant learning along their lives: they
have to become autonomous; however, teachers also need to continue developing
professionally speaking in order to cope with new challenges, implement new teaching
210
techniques and provide students with more tools in the EFL context, as expressed by the
following participant:
002
Professional development is essential not only for teachers but for everyone
who does want to keep up with the new trends in our specific areas. This
professional development would be of great assistance when we find specific
issues to solve. I really think that humans are always in need of change and
looking for new aspects of our professional lives would be part of that change.
Thus, it is important to take advantage of all the professional development
courses we can enrol in and try to make the most of it.
(INF/LC)
In extract 002 we can see that participants may become more conscious of the
roles they are expected to play during change if they reflect on what it is missing in their
professional development. According to Ben-Peretz et al (2003), the exposure of gaps
between the realities of teachers’ professional lives and their perceived images of
themselves is important for the promotion of awareness concerning the nature of teaching,
their roles and the impact of teachers’ training courses in their daily practice. On the
contrary, a less romantic view could be the fact teachers also want to upgrade their
qualifications to be more competitive in the labour market as expressed next.
003
Professional development courses allow teachers the opportunity to develop
and update their knowledge and competencies, which helps them improve
their practice. They provide knowledge on relevant topics. They also help
teachers’ CV’s, which in turn help them have more job opportunities. Finally,
they provide a space for teachers to interact, to bond with each other and
collaborate.
(INF/BN)
As observed above, participant BN agrees on the fact that training courses allow
professional development to happen as they may increase teachers’ expertise and
competency; however, s/he also identifies a more instrumental advantage in taking
development courses as they may improve teachers’ qualification to obtain a better post
or even job. What is more, s/he also considers there is a collaborative element that may
occur during this course; this is very useful for the institution as teachers from different
knowledge areas can benefit each other through this interaction. Although the following
participant gives flow to the narrative that has been expressed by others, s/he makes
once more the connection between values and professional development in the
educational setting when s/he expressed that training courses are an opportunity to listen
to practical forms to sort out students’ real learning constraints. During the observations,
211
we listened to teachers sharing their views and opinions about institution requirements
such as taking development courses.
004
If it is about "improving" our approaches to teaching, I'd rather go for
"developing" our skills for teaching. In this respect, workshops are a good
opportunity for teachers to come up with ideas and discuss teaching and
learning phenomena.
(INF/LS)
This participant also brings us back to the fundamental reason why teachers take
professionalisation courses, which is to improve their daily teaching practice, but it also
adds the element of using training courses to analyse what is happenig in their teaching
context and find alternatives together. S/he seems to be leading us to the fact that
teachers’ professional development should be benefial for their students’ learning
process.
Exploring Teac ers’ ro essional De elopment ene its on Students
Participant LS considers that a positive impact that his/her professionalization can have
on her/his students is to model an example of professionalism to follow. In addition,
teachers are able to prepare students for facing real life situations avoiding a negative
back wash effect. This last remark underlines the fact that students are not only prepared
to take an exam but to deal with real life events.
005
It (impact of professionalization) has favoured their (students’) communicative
skills, willingness to work, motivation and to a certain extent, they are more
focused on lifelong learning than being successful at passing
standardised exams.
(INF/LS)
Furthermore, teachers notice the importance of creating a positive rapport with
their students because this is something they will try to create in the future in case they
become teachers. They will also develop certain aptitudes such as being collaborative,
creative and critical thinkers, among other characteristics, as they develop competencies
to sort out communicative as well as social issues. Providing feedback to students can
have a two-sided impact: on the one hand, teachers may become encouraged to give
each other peer assessment (Sandlund et al., 2016); and, on the other hand, through
their own experience on the topic, teachers may enhance ‘peer assessment’ among
students.
212
006
There are four main aspects in which teachers’ professional development
courses benefit students: First of all, by helping learners develop more critical
thinking and problem-solving skills; secondly, by building rapport with them and
among them; thirdly, by helping them collaborate and learn from everybody.
Finally, these courses tend to foster peer feedback.
(INF/CT)
Collaboration, then, emerges as a key value that can be encouraged at teachers’
training courses, which in turn may have an impact on students’ development. This
element also helps teachers to prepare students for working with other people regardless
of their backgrounds and personal differences, which actually happens in any given
context. They may become more sensible to evaluate alternatives to sort out problems.
We do not always work with the people with whom we feel more comfortable. However,
training courses may also bring some disadvantages.
ercei ed Disad antages o eac ers’ raining Courses
Although teachers expressed their interest in participating in professionalization
courses, they also described negative aspects in relation to those courses. The
aspect most teachers mentioned in the first place was time management. The time
factor is with no doubt crucial nowadays as teachers may easily get worn out due to a
constant increase in roles played inside their educational setting and in the duties
these roles bring along:
007
Time is one of the disadvantages of teachers’ professional development
courses. We are overwhelmed. We've got a lot of roles to play as teachers this
day. One of the disadvantages of these courses is that they might be time
consuming. Professors can invest time and effort on their training, but planning
and the different teacher's roles could be impacted negatively. I sometimes
have to miss lessons in order to attend conferences, forums, courses and
other events in order to train myself in the field and students complain about it.
I have had to keep a balance among all the different roles I play, but to be
honest; I've always focused my energy in the classroom.
(INF/VR)
The extract above is rich in expressing the disadvantages that training courses
may have. Participant VR is concerned with the work load teachers need to face along
with taking the courses because the school administrative and academic demands and
processes do not stop. They have even increased. Teachers must decide whether to
comply with their duties or miss a good course that might not necessarily be offered the
following term. In addition, if the teacher were able to find the time to attend a course, this
course might not be as fruitful as expected. Therefore, administrators need to organise
213
the courses well ahead to guarantee not only the effectiveness of the content but the
availability to take it. The following participant also highlights the importance of facilities.
008
Sometimes the equipment is not available, and/or the classroom is not
appropriate or well suited for the courses.
(INF/CT)
The informants do not speak openly about dissatisfaction as expressed in the
written literature regarding professional development courses; however, they do underline
the fact that they feel frustrated. Frustration is caused by the lack of time, a wider variety of
courses offered, the subject matter and even the teacher’s lack of skills, or even knowledge
to transmit relevant information.
009
We do not have much time to take such courses; not as many as we need
though. Another issue has to do with the topics covered in these courses.
Sometimes we feel that we need a specific course, and that one is not offered.
A third issue (touchy subject, I may add) is the facilitators of the courses. We
may be well-versed in our specific areas, but that does not necessarily mean
that we can pass on the knowledge to others. I mean, picture a course about
specific software; the facilitator of the course may explain everything as if we
are experts in this field, but the truth is we aren’t. So, we feel kind of frustrated
because we don’t get the most of the course, and when we have to do the
tasks we can feel at a loss.
(INF/LC)
The participant-teachers identify some disadvantages of training courses offered
by the institution such as the need for specific courses and specialized instructors (009). It
is important to say that they intend to take them in the future though. It would appear that,
professionals as they are, these teachers think they can still benefit from the courses
offered at some extent. Teachers even gave suggestions for improving the courses in the
following section.
Suggested Ways to Impro e eac ers’ Training Courses
Participants pointed out that course contents should be related to different knowledge and
or subject matter areas. This can interest more teachers because, recently, courses have
apparently been focused on aspects related to the new educational model and have been
imposed by the institution. Thus, training courses must to be based on teachers’ needs,
which may involve a wide range of topics and also vary from one teacher to another.
Finally, disseminating information about the course is essential.
214
010
An important improvement would be to generate more courses on a variety of
areas of interest and to make the information available to all teachers.
(INF/BN)
The above participant agrees on the idea of having a wider variety subject matter
courses and adds that teachers should also be given more time to participate in different
courses. It may also be convenient to attend several courses at the same time, so
teachers could explore the area in which they might be more interested in gaining
expertise or extra knowledge.
011
I need to give myself the time and opportunity to explore different courses. I
think it is important to be well-versed in our area of expertise, but it is as
important to give us the chance to know new things.
(INF/LC)
Teachers seem to be well-aware of what they need from courses; they need
more specialised and varied courses, perhaps offered in both shifts – morning and
afternoon – to have more opportunities to attend them; teachers recognise the importance
of their taking risks when it comes to working with different areas of knowledge. This can
be very useful as some of them say that they have been pleasantly surprised when they
have taken courses that do not seem to be so interesting or so related to their areas
(OBV01). While observing classes, teachers constantly expressed their interest in
acquiring new teaching methodologies and in getting involved in more collaborative work
(Hargreaves, 2005). Furthermore, they think the institution should provide optimal
technical and physical conditions for the courses.
012
By upgrading the equipment (Update) and by providing appropriate spaces for
the courses (e.g. a conference room).
(INF/CT)
Up to now, teachers have expressed their concern regarding their continuous
professional training. This teachers’ interest was observed and expressed openly in the
courses and in interviews; however, what participants express orally seems to have more
impact as when they referred to advantages and disadvantages. They mentioned that
there are advantages and disadvantages as teachers may become more aware of their
teaching context and their students learning process in order to be up to date regarding
the final content, which refers to the competencies developed in students as well as solid
moral values. However, the fact that any process demands steps is highlighted in the
following section.
Recognized eac ers’ De elopment Impact
215
Participants ward the importance training courses have had in their professional
development. They are able to apply new methodologies as they probably take those
courses which they believe will help them to improve their teaching practice or will help
them to sort out a particular situation in which they are not being as successful as they
would like to. It would appear that teachers who take constant training courses may be
more interested in their professional development.
013
The impact these courses have had on my teaching has been the most
meaningful outcome I can tell during the last five years. I think I've learnt and
developed techniques to employ in my context.
(INF/DN)
Nevertheless, if teachers want to respond to new teaching and learning
methodologies, they need to be more skilful handling technology. This is something
administrators should take into account. Training teachers in the use of technology to
respond new world demands, to be up to date and to make the best of materials to cover
different students’ interests, needs and learning styles. Using technology should not be
seen only as a way to answer exercises but as a way to support students in gaining
expertise in productive skills such as writing.
014
I think all of them (training courses) have given me something I have used in
my classrooms. However, if I have to mention courses that have had an impact
on my practice, I would say the ones regarding the use of technology, the ones
that have to do with the writing skills, and the ones that have to do with
research processes.
(INF/LC)
Furthermore, a novice teacher may see professional training courses as a way to
reinforce their sense of belonging to the academic community. This may be linked to the
idea of having a social representation as a teacher. This involves interpretation and
construction of social reality, the construction of individual and group identity and, finally,
the direction of behaviours and social relations. Researchers involved in professional
identity explain that it refers to two things: on the one hand, the way teachers perceive
themselves as teachers and what factors contribute to these perceptions. On the other
hand, the characteristics that make teachers members of a defined group (Beijaard et al.,
2000, Huberman, 1993) as expressed by the following informant.
015
I have only taken one course but it had a very positive impact on my identity as
a teacher and on my engagement in the profession.
(INF/CT)
216
As part of the teacher’s individual and professional development, the following
participant affirms that her/his development impacts her/himself and her/his students
positively. This participant even suggests that individual professional development should
be as a topic for future research. This particular interest brings to light an issue that is
shared by a community: fostering lifelong learning for teachers.
016
Lifelong learning is supposed to be the objective of each professor regardless
the branch of study. I'd say that my professional development has enhanced
students' awareness of what learning a language really implies: time,
commitment, responsibility, discipline. Furthermore, they seem to be aware of
the way they learn because I always try to trigger their curiosity. As a matter of
fact, I would have to do research in order to discover the real impact my
professional development and performance has on students.
(INF/BN)
In sum, professionalization courses were found to be directly interwoven with the
development of the teacher as a whole. We thought of this as the teacher’s development
triangle where three dimensions would appear to interact simultaneously: teacher’s
professionalization, which includes all the knowledge a teacher can obtain through
different sorts of courses; teacher’s emotions, which can occur every single moment of
teacher’s work (Yin, 2015); although the term emotion per se does not appear in the text,
they are implicitly expressed by teachers especially when they referred to satisfactions
and dissatisfactions; furthermore, teacher’s values, which result from all his experiences
along her/his career (Yin, 2015). Therefore, it can be concluded that the whole teacher
requires triangulating her/his professional development, emotions and values as
explained in the following diagram.
Figure 1. Teachers’ Development Triangle.
Professionalization
(lifelong learning)
Emotions Values
217
(satisfaction and dissatisfaction) (responsibility, commitment and partnership)
The diagram above intends to represent the fact that teachers’
professionalization is in constant synergy in their careers. Thus, teachers’ lifelong learning
in their subject matter must respond to their needs, which are shaped by the changes in
technology, education and society in general; however, this professionalization must be
grounded on the teachers’ recognition of their own perceptions of their surrounding world,
emotions and values.
CONCLUSIONS
Teachers’ in-service training is thought to be embedded into teachers’ professional
experience. Results demand an in-depth analysis of teachers’ daily practice to avoid
simplifying relevant academic issues. This demands responding to challenges based on
the benefits of in-service training. On the one hand, professional training courses must
be based on teachers’ real needs as this is essential to overcome particular issues such
as what they and their students need regarding their interests and the demands of a more
complex educational system; on the other hand, teachers need to be supported to count
on better distributed academic tasks so time stops being a constraint and turns into a tool
to help teachers manage their various responsibilities such as a continuous lifelong
learning in their areas of interest to overcome new challenges; moreover, the varied
phenomena expressed by teachers can have resonance in other classrooms and must be
explored and disseminated within a community of teachers with a growing shared identity.
Finally, a teachers’ needs analysis to respond to teachers’ more specific and more
realistic professional development interests has to be conducted by the department in
charge of analysing and approving the training courses within the university.
Consequently, exploring trainers’ points of view is suggested as further research.
REFERENCES
Adler, P. & Adler P. (1987). Membership Roles in Field Research. London: SAGE
Publications.
Altun, T. (2011). INSET (In-Service Education and Training) and Professional
Development of Teachers: A Comparison of British and Turkish and Cases. USChina Review, pp 846-858.
AL-Wreikat, Y. & Abdullah M. (2010) An Evaluation of Jordanian EFLTeachers’ in Service
Training courses. Teaching Teachniques Effectiveness. Canadian Center of Science and Education.Vol. 3, Num. 4. Pages 18-27.
Bando, R. & Li X. (2014). The Effect of In-Service Teacher Training on Student Learning
of English as a Second Language. Inter-American Development Bank: Office of Strategic Planning and Development Effectiveness. III. Title. IV. Series. IDB-WP-529. Pages 1-55.
218
Beijaard, D., Verloop N. and Vermunt J.D. (2000). ‘Teachers’ perceptions of professional identity: an exploratory study from a personal knowledge perspective’. Teaching and Teacher Education, 16 (7). Pages 749-764.
Ben-Peretz, M., Mendelson N. and Kron F. W. (2003). ‘How teachers in different
educational contexts view their roles’. Teaching and Teacher Education, 19. (2). Pages 277-290.
Caena, F. (2011). Education and Training 2020. Thematic Working Group. Professional
Development of Teachers. European Commission.
Carless, D. (2006). Studies in Higher Education. Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2006, pp. 219-233
Cohen, L., Manion L. and Morrison K. (2000). Research methods in education. London:
Routledge.
Calderhead, J. (1996). Understanding teacher education: case studies in the professional
development of beginning teachers. London: The Falmer Press.
Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E. & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective Teacher Professional
Development. Palo Alto, CA: Learning policy Institute.
Day, C. (2002). School Reform and Transitions in Teachers’ professionalism and Identity.
International Journal of Educational Research. Volume 37. 8 (1). Pages 677-629.
Dörnyei, Z. & Ushioda E. (2011). Teaching and Researching Motivation. Great Britain:
Pearson 2nd edition.
Estrada, G., Lopez C. & Scholes B. (2016). Processes to achieve agreements when
grading oral presentations. (Eds) Perales, M. & E. Hernandez. In Lenguas Modernas: Investigación y Praxis. Chetumal: UQROO. Pages 40-50
Hargreaves, A. (2005). Extending Educational Change. The Netherlands: Springer.
Harrell, M., C. and Bradley M. A. (2009) Data Collection Methods: Semi-Structured
Interviews and Focus Groups. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation. Pages 24-28 Retrieved from: http://www.rand.org/pubs/technical_reports/TR718.html
Hobson, A. J., Malderez P. & Tomlinson P. (2009). Mentoring Beginning Teachers: What
we know and what we don’t. Teaching and Teacher Education, 25. Pages 2017-216.
Huberman, M. (1993). The lives of teachers. New York: Teachers College Press.
Juhasz, D. (2015). EFL Teacher Trainer Beliefs and Practices at a Hungarian University –
Validating Instruments for a Pilot Study. WoPalP, Vol 9. Pages 58-81.
Karimi, M. (2011). The Effects of Professional Development Initiatives on EFL Teachers’
Degree of Self Efficacy. Vol 36 Issues 6. Pages 49-62.
219
Kurihara, Y. & Samimy K. (2007). The Impact of a U.S. teacher training program on
teaching beliefs and practices: A case study of secondary school level Japanese teachers of English. JALT Journal, Vol. 29, No. 1. Pages 99-122.
Kvale, S. (1996). Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing. London:
SAGE Publications.
Lopez, C. (2008). Teachers' awareness of their roles when confronted with innovation.
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Canterbury Christ Church University, Canterbury, UK.
Lopez, C. (2012). An adjustable research approach. (Eds) Mora I. & D. Goodwin. In
Alternative Methods for Undertaking Qualitative Research. Guanajuato: Universidad de Guanajuato: Pages 171-190.
McAleavy, T, Riggall, A & Fitzpratick, R. (2016). Rapid School Improvement. Education
Development Trust: Reading, Berkshire.
McDonald, S. (2012) Perceptions: A Concept Analysis. International Journal of Nursing
Knowledge, Feb; 23 (1) pp. 2-9
Mora I. & Goodwin D. (2012) Alternative Methods for Undertaking Qualitative Research.
Guanajuato: Universidad de Guanajuato.
Perales, M. & Hernandez E. (2016). Lenguas Modernas: Investigación y Praxis. Chetumal:
UQROO.
Rogoff, B. (2003). The Cultural Nature of Human Development. Oxford University Press.
Sandlund, E., Sundqvist P. & Nyroos L. (2016). Researched-based professional
development workshops for EFL teachers: Focus on oral interaction and assessment. Nordic Journal of Modern Language methodology, 4 (1). Pages 24-48.
Stake, R.E. (2010). Qualitative Research: Studying How Things Work. UK: Guilford Press.
Tschannen-Morana, M. & Hoy A. W. (2007) The differential antecedents of self-efficacy
beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23. Pages 944–956.
Yilmaz, H. & Aydin S. (2015). A brief review on literature on EFL teachers’ perceptions of
course books. International Journal ofTechnical Research and Applications. Special Issue 30 (August). Pages 110-114.
Yin, H. (2015). The effect of teachers’ emotional labour on teaching satisfaction:
moderation of emotional intelligence. Teachers and Teaching, 21(7). Pages 789-810.
Yin, R. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: SAGE: Publications.
220
THE AUTHORS CECILIO LUIS DE JESÚS LÓPEZ MARTÍNEZ is a full-time professor at the School of Languages of the University of Veracruz (UV). He has a PhD degree in Language Studies awarded by t e ni ersity o Kent, K. Dr. Lopez is currently coordinator o a aster’s program in TESOL at the UV as well as leader of the Research group: Educational Processes (UV-CA-365): [email protected] CLAUDIA ESTELA BUENFIL RODRÍGUEZ is a full-time professor at the School of Languages of the University of Veracruz (UV). Ms. Buenfil has an MA degree in TEFL awarded by the University of Veracruz, Mexico. Ms. Buenfil is an active member of the Research Group (UV-CA-365): Educational Processes: [email protected]
221
FORMER IMMIGRANT STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES VS. THEIR
SUBSEQUENT EXPERIENCE AT THE BA IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Enrique Vez López
Andrea Velázquez Gutiérrez
Universidad Veracruzana [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This qualitative research explores and examines former immigrant students’ expectations
and experiences concerning their learning process at University, studying the BA in
English Language. This study was carried out at the school of languages of a public
autonomous university in southeast Mexico. The school has a flexible curriculum that
encourages autonomy on the part of the learners who may choose from a wide range of
languages to learn, in addition to their degree. The research study took place over a period
of 22 weeks in the spring term. The participants were a group of former immigrant
students who had attended school in the U.S. and who are currently studying a BA in
English Language in Mexico. The data provided by the interviews suggests that the
participants are aware of the advantages that having acquired English as second
language, gives them. They assume they are capable and motivated students. However,
they face cultural, social, linguistic and academic challenges that need to be overcome if
their expectations of success at school are to be met.
Key words: Immigrant students, return migration, cultural shock, expectations, challenges.
INTRODUCTION
According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (2010), 17 of every 100
immigrants who resided in the United States, have returned to Mexico in the past twelve
years (2012). In fact, owing to various causes, more Mexicans have returned to Mexico
than migrated to the United States in recent years (Linthicum, 2016). When these families
return to their native country, they often bring their children back with them. These children
have formerly studied in the United States and are likely to have a sound command of
English. Therefore, when they arrive in Mexico it may seem sensible to take a BA in
English Language as their chance of being successful at it is assumed as a foregone
conclusion. However, when these students begin their BA studies, they may face
difficulties such as the realization that their expectations were unfounded, cultural shock,
social challenges and weak skill development, as it is assumed wrongly that being fluent in
the language is enough be proficient. Proficiency implies more than speaking. In other
words, in addition to the linguistic challenges that mastering a foreign language poses, the
students may face social challenges as well; they may also have difficulties with
adaptation and integration; and consequently, motivation may decrease or be lost
222
completely if the students’ expectations are not fulfilled. Therefore, it is important for the
student to succeed and overcome the cultural and linguistic barriers in order to maintain
his/her motivation. This qualitative research explores and examines former immigrant
students’ experiences and expectations concerning a BA language learning process.
RATIONALE
For a former immigrant student arriving back in Mexico from the United States, studying an
English B.A. appears to be the right thing to do since they are already fluent in English.
However, when you have spent a large part of your life living abroad, clinching a degree in
English language implies much more than speaking the target language well. It involves
fitting back into a culture whose social norms, education system, history, and even
language may not be familiar to someone who has just come back and needs to readapt to
a culture they only knew when they were young children.
Not surprisingly, there is little research on these former immigrant students. This
is likely due to the prevalence of a view of Mexico as a country that sends, rather than
receives, students (Hamann, Zúñiga, Sánchez, 2010). These students are largely invisible
because both the American and Mexican education system, as well as other government
agencies have conceptualized international migration between the two countries as largely
from Mexico to the United States (Hamann et al., 2010).
There is a limited number of articles and publications on the subject of reverse
migration. Besides, research available only deals with Unites States-born Mexicans.
Former immigrant students coming back to Mexico are scarcely taken into account. Brittain
(2005) states that:
The experiences of Mexican students in the United States have been well-
documented throughout the years, but the bulk of the studies have failed to
recognize the importance of the sustained links some of these students have
with Mexico. Most of the current research on immigrant students has focused
on the experiences that are directly related to the cultural and linguistic
discontinuities they experience with the American mainstream culture. (p.1)
It may be safely assumed that former immigrant students have potential for
developing fully as university students; yet, teachers do not know how to exploit that talent
because of the cultural and linguistic barriers students sometimes have trouble breaking.
At the BA in English Language this study focuses on, there is not much awareness of the
different types of students the school has and their previous backgrounds, which might
hold back students’ full potential. Therefore, this research seeks to give voice to former
immigrant students. This might encourage teachers to become aware of their students’
situation and help them cope efficiently with the learning process at university.
223
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Return migration is a growing movement. Owing to this, the term transnationals (similar to
immigrants) shifted meaning to include a variety of people (workers and students),
experiences, and connections. Transnational students have many similarities with
immigrant students and are a key factor in this investigation. Return migration is defined as
the movement of immigrants back to their homelands to resettle (Gmelch, 1980).
According to Gmelch (1980), the topic of migration, in general, should be treated as a
system, in which “both stream and counter streams” (p.136) should be studied. In other
words, research should be carried out on the two societies (Gmelch, 1980). However, it
appears that not much has been researched about people who return to their homeland.
Instead, studies are mostly concerned with what happens in the receiving country, which is
usually well developed, instead of the sending country, which is often rural and less
developed (Gmelch, 1980). Gmelch (1980) observes that most of the migration scenarios
focus on people who originally migrated to industrialized countries, notably northern
Europe and northeastern North America, who have returned to their less developed
homelands. A case in point that appears to be very common is that from the United States
to Mexico.
Despite the fact that Gmelch’s work (1980) was written almost forty years ago,
migration is a still an ongoing and growing movement. In a more recent study, Brettel and
Hollifield (2000) point out that the United States has one of the highest waves of migration,
representing 9.8% the U.S. population, which is 26.3 million people. Things have not
changed much since the year 2000. According to the International Migration Report
(United Nations, 2013), almost 60% of the 232 million international migrants lived in the
developed regions. Likewise, 60% of originated from a developing country. Moreover, the
report (United Nations, 2013) also highlights that “between 1990 and 2013, Northern
America recorded the largest gain in the absolute number of international migrants” (p. 2).
Brettel and Hollifield (2000) state that, almost 14 million children under the age of 18 who
live in the United States are immigrants or have immigrant parents.
Gmelch (1980) points out that there can be many causes that lead immigrants to
return to their homelands. Villegas Torres and Mora Pablo (2017) points out that generally
immigrants return to their countries for personal or economic reasons while some others
simply get deported. Migrants generally move from small places to a more developed
society. Although, their desire to move is their free choice, it is strongly motivated by
financial issues, unemployment and other related causes. However, their decision to return
is not always self-originated; for example, deportation seems to be a subject of great
importance in the United States today. Marshall (2016) states that, between 2009 and
2015 more than 2.5 million people have been removed because of immigration orders,
which does not include the number of people who returned voluntarily. Gmelch’s research
(1980) suggests that a large amount of migrants return to their homelands because of their
families. Migrants also give other reasons that motivate them to return such as, “love of
224
homeland” (Gmelch, 1979, 1980). Whatever the reason immigrants return to their
homeland, the fact is that migration in general, and return migration as well, is a
phenomenon that is growing day by day and affects both sides of the border. Since 2005,
thousands of them are coming back to Mexico, and those who were born in the United
States are coming for the first time to their parents’ homeland to register in Mexican
schools (Zuñiga, 2013). Transnationalism has thus become a key factor in
comprehending migration (Kilinc, 2014). Additionally, Kilinc (2014) states that migration is
a continuing phenomenon, hence the relevance of carrying out research on this matter.
Transnational and immigrant students
Students who have attended school in the U.S. and are now studying back in Mexico are
known as transnational students. Transnational students are those who return for long
periods of time and may eventually return to the United States. These students find
themselves frequently traveling from one country to the other (DeWitt, 2016). In Cave’s
opinion (2012), whether the student is a transnational or a former immigrant, there are high
chances they will return to the United States in the future. Therefore, it is important to
understand these students’ perceptions of their own situation because their education
and/or job opportunities may have an impact on both countries (Borjian, Muñoz de Cote,
Dijk, & Houde, 2016; Dreby, 2010).
Many researchers have coined other terms to refer to transnational students. For
instance, according to Pollock and Reken (2001), transnationals may be similar to “Third
Culture Kids”: “a person who has spent a significant part of his or her developmental years
outside the parents’ culture” (p.19). McCaig (1992) developed a similar concept named
“Global Nomads” or “Domestic Nomadas”. According to Stultz (2003), domestic nomads
are people who have not left their country, but who live inside different cultures at the
same time. These groups have thus been labeled as a result of the huge migration flow
into the United States. It may be safe to assume that what all these groups, including
former and immigrant students have in common is that the majority share the same needs
and face similar challenges (Stultz, 2003).
Hamann (2001) developed a different category for transnational students:
sojourners. Hamann (2001) defines sojourner students by comparing them with students
who have come to settle for a long time. Sojourners are noticeable because they stop
attending school because of relocation (Zúñiga & Hamann, 2009). A similar issue happens
with immigrant students who study in the United States; they suddenly disappear because
they return to their native countries. Transnationals, like immigrant students, face the
challenge of reintegration when they arrive to the new country (Zúñiga & Hamann, 2009).
Zúñiga and Hamann (2009) state that there are many children who attend school
and are involved in the transnational movement of people between the United States and
Mexico. Weiss and Chaltelt (2011) state that Mexico is seen as a country of origin, transit
and destination for different types of migrants with different backgrounds. Each year
225
millions of people, including young students, come and go over the border (legally and
illegally) making Mexico and the United States one of the busiest border crossing in the
world (Weiss & Chaltelt, 2011). Jang (2010) states that “transnational students live a cross
cultural and highly mobile lifestyle” (p. 137), as “we interact deeply with various cultures
and relocate frequently between more than one country and cultural environment”
(Shields, 2009, as cited in Jang 2010, p.137).
Reverse cultural shock
We as a society like to be thought of as being part of something. As a whole, humans are
social by nature, belonging is fundamental (Levett-Jones & Lathlean, 2007). When an
immigrant travels to the United States, they take their culture with them and their children,
who are at a young age when they start to acquire a sense of belonging to a culture. As
children grow up, they begin to acquire language and culture (Grosjean, 2013). Culture is
one factor in the way a person identifies within society or within the world (Stultz, 2003).
According to Jang (2010), it can give a person “identity, confidence, and belonging”
(p.140). When a person has lived among a culture for several years, they can start to
display similar behaviors and associate similar ideas (Jang, 2010).
There is a growing number of school-aged children who grow up in more than one
country and culture (Jang, 2010). When arriving to a new country, the challenge goes
beyond becoming fluent in the language of their new country; they need also to relearn
cultural norms (Zúñiga & Hamann, 2009). Jang (2010) expresses the view, giving her
personal experience as an example, that when a person comes to a new country, their
scenario of culture, societal standards, and way of life, is different. Likewise, when a
person has lived for many years outside their homeland, they may face another cultural
shock, better referred to as reverse cultural shock, when they return.
As Gaw (1999) states, “reverse culture shock is the process of readjusting,
reacculturating, and reassimilating into one's own home culture after living in a different
culture for a significant period of time” (p.83). Reverse culture and cultural shock come
natural when you arrive to a different culture (Jang, 2010). When former immigrants return
to their home culture, their perceptions have changed; they have acquired a second
culture (Jang 2010). The immigrant student tries to merge two cultures into one, which is
not easy (Matlick 2002). An example of this is provided by Enloe (1986, as cited in Gaw,
1999), who points out that reverse culture shock is something that a group of children
experienced while returning to their homeland in Japan. Problems such as “school phobia,
adjustment to home country social expectations, social rules, customs, fear of rejection,
ridicule for being “foreign'', and performance anxiety” (Gaw ,1999, p. 88). These students
lived in the United States and had very little contact with their original culture. In a similar
research paper that discusses Japan′s returnees and other transcultural challenges of the
late 20th century, Willis, Onoda and Enloe (1994) state that:
Where a person went, the type of education they received, the degree of
acceptance they had abroad, and the degree of their integration and as
226
simulation in joining the foreign culture all make for a kaleidoscope of
individuals. Moreover, the numbers of returnees in any given situation (are
there many? Are there few?), their academic ability if they are students, and,
perhaps most important, their class background, are all important cues for
understanding specific impacts that are taking place. (p.111)
In other words, there is not one single individual identity but multiple ones
that are shaped by our experiences in life, our interactions with others, and our
openness and willingness to be part of a foreign social groups. When considering the
issue of return migration, several factors—these different identities, their level of
education, the social class they identify with, and whether it is just one, a few, or a
large number of them—that must be taken into account to determine the effects that
they will have on the returnees themselves
Educational Shock
Education is seen as a universal right and a key element in society (Bárcenas, 2015).
According to Hamann, Zuñiga and Garcia (2010) and Booth (1941), Mexican schools form
a society, meaning that during education, students share more than a classroom. School
becomes the students’ new environment, where they interact with classmates and learn
through experiences (Dewey, 1990). Mexican schools not only prepare students for the
future, but also instill national pride and loyalty to the country, which may help them form
an identity later on (Hamann, Zuñiga & Garcia, 2010). In a similar way, American schools
also promote patriotism and loyalty to their country. Students pledge allegiance to the flag
and are taught parts of the constitution, thus making the US one of the most patriotic
counties (De Greco, 2014). Hamann, Zuñiga and Garcia (2010) advance the view that it
can be confusing for students who have lived on both sides of the border to deal with
patriotism while belonging to two cultures.
However, the American and Mexican education systems are not the same in other
aspects. According to Ruiz-de-Velasco, Fix and Clewell (2000), in schools, the American
educational system focuses on helping children develop English language and literacy
skills, good study habits, shared understanding about academic expectations, and
appropriate student behavior. In middle school, students are divided into blocks where
they study up to eight classes per day. The structure of most American schools has not
changed since the 1950s (Ruiz-de-Velasco et al., 2000). Whereas in Mexico, the main
purpose of the education system is to help students achieve a high degree of study,
pursue a degree and give students’ vocational training (Hopkins, Ahtaridou, Matthews,
Posner, & Toledo Figueroa 2007).
Hamann et al. (2010) asked 72 Mexican born students who had had U.S. school
experience how they would compare US schools to Mexican schools. 64% answered US
schools (in general) seemed better. Villegas Torres and Mora Pablo refer that, in their
study, the return immigrants’ perception of Mexican schools was described as negative
227
when compared with American schools. However, in Brittan’s research (2005), Mexican
children shared that they perceived American schools were easier than those in their
countries of origin. Some children had negative perceptions about the quality of education
in the United States because they felt they were not learning anything new; they also said
they felt American schools were “easy” (Brittan, 2005). Either way, it may appear that an
educational mismatch leads to difficulties for former immigrant students. American schools
are not the same as Mexican schools, thus, there is an education mismatch (Hamann et
al., 2010).
Zuñiga and Hamann’s (2009) findings show that Mexican teachers claim students
who have had former US school experience have literacy problems in Spanish. Teachers
claim these students have problems with phonetics, writing, and expressing their ideas.
They also have difficulties with Mexican history and geography (Zuñiga & Hamann, 2009).
In other words, student who have had previous US school experience seem to face an
educational shock. Former immigrant students have to adjust to different teacher profiles,
teaching techniques, schools environments, schools subjects and classmates.
Acculturation
Redfield, Linton and Herskovits (1936) defined acculturation as “those phenomena, which
result when groups of individuals having different cultures come into continuous first-hand
contact, with subsequent changes in the original culture patterns of either or both groups.
(pp. 149-150)
According to a research study conducted by Prieto, Sagafinejad and Janamanchi
(2013), acculturation is a “process of becoming” (p. 290) used to a different culture,
through different types of practices which may build new character traits and ideologies.
According to a more recent view by Berry (2005), acculturation is both a “cultural and
psychological change” (p. 698) which alters behavior at an individual level and involves a
collective state of mind at a group level.
Acculturation happens when a person is exposed to and surrounded by a
dominant culture other than their own. Acculturation can be developed in different places
but mostly in schools. Schneider, Stevenson, and Coleman (1993) explain in their
research how schools are the dominant social context for young people of school age.
McCarthy’s (1998) results suggest that the process of both adaptation and acculturation
occur in schools were cultural norms are portrayed. Research by Prieto et al. (2013)
suggests that an immigrant‘s acculturation level is associated with the amount of time
spent in the host society and experience gained in the American education system. Nieri
(2012) points out that inside schools students interact in different ways. Some interactions
are by choice, for example during recess, lunch-break or on playgrounds. Others are
established by school when students share a classroom or are assigned a class
assignment in a pair or group. Even if the students have made an election over the social
228
context they wish to be part of, the interaction with other already acculturated students is
unavoidable (Nieri, 2012). Nieri (2012) adds that:
When a less acculturated youth attends a school with a large group of more
acculturated students, he or she may become more acculturated to American
culture and do so more quickly than a similar youth in a school with a large
group of less acculturated students. (p. 463)
Nieri’s (2012) research suggests that immigrants tend more to adapt to English
rather than reinforce their native language. Furthermore, Nieri (2012) suggests that:
Less acculturated youths will have less opportunity to practice their language of
origin and more opportunity to use English through their interactions with the
more acculturated youths, who by definition prefer English. The larger the more
acculturated group, the more its members will interact with each other,
reinforcing their level of acculturation—that is, their preference for English. (p.
464)
In other words, the younger you are when you are immersed in the new
culture, the faster and easier the process of acculturation will be. This is the result of
richer interaction with peers and more contact with the target language.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
One main research question was established:
How do former immigrant students’ expectations relate to their subsequent experiences at
the BA in English Language in the specific context of the school of languages where this
study was carried out?
In order to answer this question, three sub questions were designed:
- What were the students’ expectations before entering the BA?
- What difficulties did the students face during the B.A?
What advantages or disadvantages does the students have regarding their former
immigrant experience?
OBJECTIVES
This research aimed to explore students’ responses to the experience of studying a BA in
the English language. Furthermore, it analyzed the students’ different encounters with
obstacles, such as cultural shocks, skills development (their strengths and weaknesses),
social challenges and social response.
229
METHODOLOGY
This research study employed a qualitative approach. A qualitative approach was
considered to be more appropriate owing the fact that it was important to understand the
participants’ perceptions, expectations and experiences. This is exactly what qualitative
research studies. Its main purpose is to interpret social interaction and behavior (Aneas &
Paz Sandín, 2009). It explores a phenomenon that is new and has not been studied
(Ospina, 2004). To build a new meaning, the researcher must be subjective (Johnson &
Christensen, 2008). Qualitative data adds rich detail and illustrates (Ospina, 2004). This
methodological framework analyses beliefs, experiences, values, feelings and perceptions
(Manson, 2002). It attempts to understand a specific situation rather than explain it
(Ospina, 2004). It is aware of social reality (Manson, 2002) and seeks to discover how
students see reality and make sense of the world; in other words, it aims to understand the
experiences, attitudes and interactions of people (Pathak, Bijayini & Sanjay, 2013). In
addition, quantitative research has a natural approach (Johnson & Christensen, 2008).
Lincoln and Guba (2000) state that “this means that qualitative researchers study things in
their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of
the meanings people bring to them” (p.3).
Data collection and analysis
Semi structured interviews were used to obtain specific information regarding the students’
expectations and subsequent experiences on the English B.A. They allowed the
researcher to obtain credible information in a standardized manner (Harrell & Bradley,
2009). Through the interviews opinions and perceptions of the interviewee were gathered
(Alshenqeeti, 2014). By means of interviews, the researcher attained a more personal
relationship and was able to ask direct questions to the interviewees (Harrell & Bradley,
2009). It also allowed the interviewee to give direct explanations as the participants had
the opportunity to narrate their direct experiences (Alshenqeeti, 2014). I carried out seven
interviews in total, one with each participant. All of the interviews were individual and were
recorded, subsequently transcribed and analyzed.
By means of the interviews, different perceptions of the participants’ own lives
were collected and analyzed. The narration of a persons’ life became natural in this
inquiry. Interviews offered an opportunity to obtain specific information directly from the
students’ words (Harrell & Bradley, 2009). The interview style was somewhat
conversational. If at any time during the interview the researcher felt another question was
pertinent or redundant, the question was adapted as necessary. This method turned out to
be appropriate as the interviewer had the opportunity to talk face to face with the
interviewees and explore their former experiences and present reality.
230
The analysis approach was based on aspects of Grounded Theory. Grounded
Theory is based on coding followed by constant comparative analysis (Willig, 2013). The
main characteristic of coding, in general, is that it is very descriptive (Willig, 2013). Coding
consisted in adding descriptive labels to certain words or phrases that came from the
interviews (Willig, 2013).
The second main feature in Grounded theory is constant comparative analysis. At
this stage, the researcher must be able to identify the differences between the categories
in order to see if there are subcategories (Willig, 2013). By means of constant comparative
analysis, not only did the researcher have to create subcategories, but also re-order them
and put them into smaller chunks of meaning (Willig, 2013).
Context
This study was carried out in a Mexican School of Languages. The city where it is located
has a large population of foreign students. The population of students is characterized by
its diversity. The school is home to many exchange students, as well as foreign teachers
who are native speakers of English. The university educational system is based on
flexibility to achieve full development. The students are able to select the time schedule
and contents, according to their professional interests and personal characteristics.
Participants
For this research seven students were selected and given pseudonyms to protect their
identities: Melissa, Victor, Erika, Mario, June, Sally, and Nelly. They all lived and studied in
the United States at an earlier stage in their lives and have spent a significant number of
years in the United States. Their ages range between 21 and 23.
Melissa is a twenty-three year-old student currently registered in one of the
advanced English courses, spent eleven years living in the US. She was taken to
live in the United States at the age of five. She studied elementary, middle and part
of high school there.
Victor is a twenty-two-year-old student currently registered in one of the last
elective courses, spent three years living in the US, where he studied fourth and
fifth grade at elementary school and sixth grade at middle school.
Erika is currently studying her eighth semester on the BA, she is twenty-four
years old. She had lived seven years in the United States before returning to
Mexico.
Mario is a twenty-one year old student, currently studying the eighth
semester, lived almost seven years in the United States where he attended part of
Elementary school, all of middle school and part of high school.
June is a nineteen-year old student, currently registered in one of the
advanced English courses. Her family left Mexico when she was five. She spent
231
around nine years living in the US, where she studied kindergarten and all of
elementary and middle school.
Sally is a twenty-one-year-old student spent eight years living in the US.
She arrived at the United States at the age of six and returned at the age of
thirteen. There, she studied elementary school and up to seventh grade in middle
school.
Nelly is nineteen years old and currently studying an advanced English
course on the BA. She was born in Mexico, but was taken as a baby to live in
Canada for 10 years.
As can be observed, at the time of this study, they were all studying a BA in English
language and were very close to completing their degree. Thus, they could all talk from
experience as they had spent at least three years in school and had lived through different
incidents they could share. It must be highlighted that they all have a sound command of
English (certified B2 level).
FINDINGS
In this chapter, the findings of the research are presented. The data from the interviews
conducted with the seven students, at the time studying the BA in English Language, have
sorted into five categories: Cultural problems when arriving to Mexico, Students’
expectations before taking up the BA, Social Challenges in Mexico, Difficulties students
face during the English BA and Students’ current expectations.
Cultural problems when arriving in Mexico
Most of the participants indicated that when they came back to Mexico, they disliked
returning to their native home. They had made up their mind that their home was in the
United States and not in their native country. The participants had been living a significant
period of time in the US; thus, when returning, they claim, they were not familiar with the
Mexican culture. According to most of the students who were interviewed, they were
unfamiliar with certain cultural aspects such as language, history, education system,
certain behavior traits and the environment in general.
Victor, who did part of middle school and high school abroad, pointed out that his
problems were mostly language related. Even though Spanish is his first language, he felt
he lacked some important knowledge of grammar points in Spanish, and his pronunciation
sounded different from that of others,
They said I had a funny accent.
232
Erika, whose experience living in the United States comprises high school and
middle school, stated that she was unaware of important Mexican historical events and
behavior traits in Mexico:
Things like the wars… everything that has to do with history and geography, I
really didn’t get any of it… the first time I remember there was this one lady…
when you say “hi” you usually shake hands in the US… but here everybody
comes and hugs you and kisses you on the cheek…it’s my personal space.
The data suggest that since the participants lacked certain cultural elements when
they arrived back to their hometowns; this could have made them feel they did not belong
to their homeland. Some participants felt as if they lacked a sense of identity because of
the mixture of the two cultures. They do not feel identified or more comfortable with either
culture. Mario, lived a third of his life in the United States where he completed practically
all of his basic education, shared the following:
I don’t have a lot of …knowledge of the history of Mexico, maybe that would be
like something that makes feel I don't have an identity with my country. I don't
feel like that identified with another culture but I feel like I'm not very very…
patriotic… very nationalist …compared with other people here.
It may be safe to assume that the participants faced reverse cultural shock when
they reintegrated back to their native culture. The participants were unfamiliar with the
basic cultural aspects of their own culture. In the interviews conducted during the research,
6 out of 7 participants said they had difficulties adjusting to the new culture. The only one
who did not face such difficulties had lived less time in the United States in comparison
with the others. The length of time they experienced in the United States led to an
acculturation process. The participants were immersed in the American culture, so they
adjusted and integrated to that new society.
Students’ expectations be ore taking up t e
The data point out that the participants are aware that English is not their first language but
they feel more comfortable using it. According to some of the participants, when it comes
to everyday tasks such as doing homework or even just reading simple instructions, they
feel they understand them better in English. Exposure to the language took place at a
young age for them, so they feel English comes easier for them.
Melissa, who spent more than half her life living and studying in the United States,
explained she was raised around English natives since the age of five, went to Elementary
school where all of the classes were in English, and everything that was explained to her
was in English. Thus, she feels she understands it better than Spanish:
233
Sometimes I have considered English to be my first language even though it´s
not, because I guess it was more what I was raised on… Sometimes when I
buy things, like electronics or something and I want to know how to use it, I
read the Spanish instructions… I´d rather turn it to the English side because I
feel I can understand it more.
In the case of something as important as choosing a degree, most of the
participants were aware of their high level of English; thus, they felt a BA in English would
be a no brainer. In addition, the participants were aware that as their time goes by in
Mexico, they will start to lose some of their English pronunciation and fluency, owing to the
fact that they do not practice as much here as in the United States. Erika is aware of the
fact that has started to get confused with both languages or forgets the meaning or
pronunciation of a word she already knows:
You usually don’t speak English in the streets … because people stare… If you
don´t practice it, it just disappears… sometimes I lose the pronunciation of
words.
It appears that another reason why the participants chose this BA is that they
wanted to conserve and exploit the language they had already acquired. Victor explains:
I didn’t want to lose the language, I realized that when I got to Mexico, I didn’t
have the same amount of opportunities to practice the language as I did back
there… so that’s why I chose to study the BA because I knew that here I was
going to have the opportunity to keep on practicing the language.
In addition, the participants believed that at BA in English they would find people
like them who had also lived in the United States. This would make it easy to relate to their
classmates. This is the case of June, who completed all her basic education, from
kindergarten to middle school across the border:
I also thought, there is going to be more people that also speak English, so,
why shouldn’t I go there and meet them, and probably feel more comfortable
around people that have lived a life like you.
The expectations regarding the BA appear to have been high for the participants:
they expected to be able to speak English all the time inside and outside the classroom,
and with classmates. In addition, they also believed that their command of English would
open future job opportunities would open to them, a perspective they share with all their
other classmates. As Victor stated:
I chose it because of the job opportunities that it had to offer, it looked like
something good.
234
Social Challenges in Mexico
When arriving in Mexico, it seems that the participants faced different types of social
challenges. The data revealed that the participants felt they were treated differently
because of their origin. During English exams, the former immigrant students were asked
to sit away from the other students so they were not able to copy from them. Teachers
also asked them questions to make sure their own answers were correct. This kind of
behavior made them feel different. Conversely, the data show that sometimes the
participants felt ignored in English class. Erika said that her English teacher knew she had
studied in the United States and assumed that she knew English well, so she was not
asked to participate:
Teachers ignore you because they think you already know… all these rules I
did learn them at some point but I forgot them… to be in the BA you need to
know all these rules …because you need to be able to explain them to
someone else.
In addition to teachers treating former immigrant students differently, it appears
that these students, occasionally, face bullying from other classmates and teachers. Sally
left Mexico being a child and came back as a teenager. She shared that she faced serious
verbal abuse from a teacher because he could not accept he was sometimes wrong:
I had problems with an English teacher… he started stalking me in school…
my mom… went to the SEP. The problem I had was an activity… he said it was
wrong… I talked to another teacher and she said we both were right. Everyone
knew I lived in the United States and I think he got mad because I told him it
was wrong.
Others were bullied by teachers because they did not know certain aspects of
Spanish. Melissa stated she was bullied by a teacher because she had grammar problems
in Spanish:
She told me how could I have studied this career if I didn’t know my own
maternal language, how would I expect to be a good professional…I think
instead of telling someone you can’t do it, you should be like “Oh, look, you
should do this and be better at this” … maybe they should actually support
students instead of bringing them down.
The participants were also made fun of by their peers. Because of their American
accent. Juno shared that her classmates teased her because of it, and the way she
pronounces and writes some Spanish words.
235
People are like “Oh no, you don’t even know how to speak well” and they used
to make fun of me because I didn’t know how to write Spanish very well… I felt
very bad and cried sometimes.
Nelly, who was taken to Canada in her very early years and stayed there for a
decade, faced a similar situation:
I’ve had some bullying for how I speak Spanish because sometimes I forget to
conjugate words…when I do they all laugh.
Sometimes speaking English in a Spanish speaking country can be considered as
an act of gloating or showing off, as if you knew more than a person who just speaks
Spanish. Some participants stated that they were afraid of letting their classmates know
they had lived in the United States because they would be teased. Melissa shares that
when she arrived at the BA, she did not want anyone to know she could speak English, but
it was noticeable owing to her accent:
When I first got here I didn’t tell anyone I knew English, I didn’t want to
because I didn’t want to be treated differently…I didn’t really want anyone to
know because… there is people that are like “oh, she’s a showoff”… there was
girl in my class… when her little group heard me speaking… they started acting
meanish.
Erika experienced a similar situation. When asked where she had lived, she
would stay quiet in order to avoid people treating her differently. In addition, she limited her
participation in class. For example, she did not volunteer answers to some questions even
though she knew them in order not to appear as a “showoff”
They said I was pretending to be better than them because I knew English. I…
zip my lips and stay quiet until I’m asked directly.
Teachers and classmates can be annoying, the participants expressed, because
they are frequently asking English related questions and using them as examples. Nelly
complained:
They think I know everything but I am not a walking dictionary.
Juno pointed out that being asked frequently to translate something can be
stressful:
There’s a point where people keep and keep asking and asking you and asking
you, that gets on your nerves …and it just gets you like pissed, “…why can’t
you just open up a dictionary and look up the word.
236
Juno is definitely annoyed by the fact that her classmates and teachers
often seemed to make little effort to try to find things out by themselves. They could
not be bothered to look words up in a dictionary and they found it much easier to just
pester her with questions every time they had a chance.
Difficulties students face during the English BA
The data revealed that the participants faced challenges with certain subjects related to
grammar and academic writing. The participants acknowledge that this is due to the lack of
contact with Spanish. Mario is aware that speaking Spanish is not the same as knowing
about the language:
Grammar in Spanish, because… I didn’t learn Spanish like others did… I had
problems with… the grammar in Spanish…you’re going to learn another
language but if you don’t know your own language, how are you supposed to
learn another one? I lived in the United States for seven years and… I was
never taught Spanish as a native… we never saw those type of rules…
Erika states she gets confused with both languages. She finds herself using
Spanish structures in English sentences:
Spanish, Spanish and Spanish… grammar was really difficult…I’m very bad at
grammar. Spanish because I wasn’t really used to the language… I was used
to hearing it, not to writing it… and everyone knows it, but I don’t…Grammar
because I haven’t been in contact with this writing grammar a lot because
when I went to this Mexican system school… its getting confusing now
because of the structures, Spanish… the structures of the sentences are in one
way and then in English, it’s in another way.
Melissa states that she had difficulties when she was introduced to the Mexican
education system. When asked why, she said:
I think is because of the same reason that I didn’t grow up here… because
obviously living in Mexico when you go to Elementary or Middle school, they
are not going to teach you English punctuation or grammar, they’re going to
focus on what you speak which is Spanish and the same thing happened in the
US, all I learned was in English so when I came here I was like “what is this?”
When studying in the United States, the curriculum focuses on English and
American History. There are some things in common with the Mexican education
curriculum, e.g., Mathematics and Science. However, it is those subjects dealing with
social studies and language that can be stressful to anyone not growing up and
studying in Mexico as they are unfamiliar with them.
237
Students’ current expectations
The data suggests that, in spite of it all, the participants are satisfied with their experience
at the BA. The participants expected to learn cultural aspects and they have. They feel the
BA promotes cultural richness regarding the Anglo-Saxon culture. However, some of them,
like Melissa, feel that the BA needs a bigger variety of disciplines:
I expected a little bit more…at first I thought that translation was going to have
to do something with interpretation… I heard some other classmates “…this BA
needs more” … other classes or other choices.
Mario feels his expectations have been satisfied, but he also feels there could be
more options:
I think there should be more subjects in the field of interpretation.
The participants feel they have some advantage in certain aspects of English:
they have acquired a native-like pronunciation; they also have greater fluency and good
speaking skills; they are able to speak English in a natural manner similar to a native, their
listening skills are already fully developed, and they have been practicing their writing skills
from a young age. Melissa, for one, shares she feels at an advantage because of the
writing abilities that she has been practicing since elementary school:
We started with things like writing short stories… writing for me is not difficult at
all… I used to see other classmates and they would be like “we have to turn
this paper in”… one day before I would write everything.
Some of the participants were also able to advance to higher levels because of
their knowledge of English. That is the case of Sally:
I didn’t take all of the English classes…I had that opportunity since I knew the
language.
Since they are aware of the advantages they have, the participants may be more
motivated to pursue a degree in English as they feel that having acquired the target
language in an immersion environment offers them some benefits.
CONCLUSION
Most of the participants, former immigrant students, were taken to the United States when
they were very young—Nelly was only a baby, Melissa and June were five years old, Sally
was six, and the others were school children. Even at that age, they were aware of the
238
difficulties they had living abroad and had to struggle through the same phase of
adaptation while arriving again to their homeland. Likewise, they are also aware of the
challenges they have to face, and the difficulties they have to overcome in order to
succeed in their BA.
The participants at first had the impression that studying a language they were
familiar with would be easy. Although, the participants are aware of the abilities they have
concerning English and feel motivated to keep on studying their degree, they have come
to realize that to be fully proficient in a language is not enough to speak it and understand
it. They have also become aware of the fact that in order to speak a second language, it
might be necessary to first learn their own. Cultural and academic points can be essential
in order to master a language.
The participants faced reverse cultural shock as they were not familiarized with
their own culture. It may also be true that they faced an educational shock. They were
used to different types of subjects in the American education system; entering the Mexican
education system without any proper academic knowledge of Spanish might have
produced that shock. The data show that former immigrants who spent the most time out
of their native country had a more difficult time adapting than those who had only spent a
few years in the United States.
This research paper focused only on Mexican returnees coming back from the
United States, but migration is a worldwide phenomenon, happening in different countries.
We knowledge the fact that this study has some limitations due to the small number of
participants that contributed to this case study. We must warn the readers that our findings
cannot be generalized and may not be applicable to other contexts. Different participants,
methodologies, and environments may yield different results. Therefore, more research is
needed in order to help return immigrant students adapt to our educational system, learn
more about themselves and others like them. Increasing awareness of these students’
background, perceptions and experiences will also help teachers understand them better;
not only their skills but also their needs. Academic institutions might also benefit from this
because they would have a great understanding of former immigrant students and the
diversity they can bring to the academic institution. Inserting former immigrant students’
experiences into the research agenda may help future generations cope better with the
struggles they might face at school.
REFERENCES
Alshenqeeti, H. 2014. Interviewing as a data collection method: a critical review. English Linguistics Research, 3(1), 39–45. Retrieved from: http://www.sciedu.ca/journal/index.php/elr/article/view/4081.
Aneas, M. A., Sandín, M. P. (2009). Intercultural and Cross-Cultural Communication
Research: Some Reflections about Culture and Qualitative Methods. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung 10(1). DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17169/fqs-10.1.1251
239
Bárcenas, C. (2015). Transnational Students and Public Schools in Mexico. Voices of
Mexico, 100, pp. 12-16. Retrieved from: http://www.revistascisan.unam.mx/Voices/pdfs/10003.pdf
Berry, J. W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. International Journal
of Intercultural Relations 29(6), 697–712. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013
Booth, G. C. (1941). Mexico’s schools-made society. Nueva York, Greenwood Press. Borjian, A., Muñoz de Cote, L. M., Van Dijk, S., Houde, P. (2016). Transnational Children
in Mexico: Context of Migration and Adaptation. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education 10(1), 42-54. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2015.1084920
Brettell, C. B., & Hollifield, J.F. (2000). Migration Theory Talking across disciplines. New
York: Routledge. Brittain, C. (2005). De Paisano a Paisano: Mexican Immigrant Students and their
Transnational Perceptions of U.S. Schools. San Diego, CA: University of California, San Diego. Retrieved from: http://ccis.ucsd.edu/_files/wp119.pdf
Cave, D. (2012). American children now struggling to adjust to life in Mexico. New York
Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/06/19/world/americas/american-born-children-struggle-to-adjust-in-mexico.html?_r=0
De Greco, J. (2014). El 87% de los estadounidenses se siente orgulloso de su país.
Retrieved from: http://www.teinteresa.es/mundo/EEUU-patriotismo_0_1172284911.html
Dewey, J. (1990). The school and society. Chicago. IL: The University of Chicago Press. DeWitt, P. (2016). Who are Transnational Students? Education Week. Retrieved from:
http://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/finding_common_ground/2016/08/who_are_transnational_students.html
Dreby, J. (2012). How Today’s Immigration Enforcement Policies Impact Children,
Families, and Communities. Center for American Progress. Retrieved from: https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/immigration/reports/2012/08/20/27082/how-todays-immigration-enforcement-policies-impact-children-families-and-communities/
Gaw, K. F. (1999). Reverse culture shock in students returning from overseas.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 24(1), 83-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00024-3
Gmelch, G. (1979). Return Migration and Migrant Adjustment in Western Ireland. Annual
Review of Anthropology, 9(1980), pp. 135-159.
240
Gmelch, G. (1980). Return Migration. Annual Review of Anthropology, vol.9, pp.135-159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.001031
Grosjean, F. (2013). Professor François Grosjean – on bilingualism, language mode and
identity. Multilingual Parenting. Retrieved from: https://multilingualparenting.com/2016/04/27/prof-francois-grosjean-on-bilingualism-language-mode-and-identity/
Hamann, E. T. (2001). Theorizing the Sojourner Student (with a Sketch of Appropriate
School Responsiveness). University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Retrieved from: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1071&context=teachlearnfacpub
Hamann, E. T., Zúñiga, V., Sánchez García, J. (2010). Transnational Student’s
Perspectives on Schooling in the U.S. and Mexico: The Salience of School Experience and Country of Birth. In M. O. Ensor & E. M. Goździak (Eds.) Children and Migration, at the Crossroads of Resiliency and Vulnerability (230-252). Nueva York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Harrell, M. C., Bradley, M. A. (2009). Data Collection Methods Semi-Structured Interviews
and Focus Groups. California: RAND Corporation. Hopkins, D., Ahtaridou, E., Matthews, P., Posner, C., Toledo Figueroa, D. (2007).
Reflections on the Performance of the Mexican Education System. London Centre for Leadership in Learning and Institute of Education, University of London. Retrieved from:http://www.acosoescolar.sep.gob.mx/work/models/sep1/Resource/93128/5/
Mex_PISA-OCDE2006.pdf Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. (2010). Censo Nacional de población y
vivienda 2010. Retrieved from: http://www.beta.inegi.org.mx/temas/migracion. Jang, J. (2010). Transnational Student Identity Development through the Cosmopolite
Lens: Benefits and Challenges of Straddling Cultures. The Vermont Connection, 31 (1),136-146. Retrieved from: http://scholarworks.uvm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1100&context=tvc
Johnson, B., & Christensen, L. (2008). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and
mixed approaches. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc. Kilinc, N. (2014, November). Second-Generation Turkish-Germans Return ‘ ome’:
Gendered Narratives of (Re-)negotiated Identities. University of Sussex. Retrieved from: https://www.sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=mwp78.pdf&site=252
Levett-Jones, T., Lathlean, J. (2007). Belongingness: A prerequisite for nursing students' clinical. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/5561522_Belongingness_A_prerequisite_for_nursing_students'_clinical
241
Lincoln, Y. S., Guba, E. G. (2000). Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions, and Emerging Confluences. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.) Handbook of Qualitative Research. London, Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publication Inc.
Linthicum, K. (2016). Nearly half a million U.S. citizens are enrolled in Mexican schools.
Many of them are struggling. Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from: http://www.latimes.com/world/mexico-americas/la-fg-mexico-return-migration-schools-20160913-snap-story.html
Manson, J. (2002). Qualitative Researching (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publications Inc. Marshall, S. (2016). Obama Has Deported More People Than Any Other President. ABC
news. Retrieved from: http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/obamas-deportation-policy-numbers/story?id=41715661
Matlick, J. (2002). Educating and Understanding the Immigrant Student. Michigan State
University. Retrieved from: https://msu.edu/user/mclainje/immigrant.html McCaig, N. (1992). Birth of a notion. The Global Nomad Quarterly, 1(1), 1-2.
McCarthy, K. (1998). Adaptation of immigrant children to the United States: a review of the
literature. Center for Research on Child Wellbeing. Retrieved from http://crcw.princeton.edu/workingpapers/WP98-03-McCarthy.pdf
Nieri, T. (2012). School context and individual acculturation: how school composition
affects latino students’ acculturation. Sociological Inquiry, Vol. 82, (3), 460–484). DOI: http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2012.00423.x
Ospina, S. (2004). Qualitative research. In G. Goethals, G. Sorensen, & J. McGregor
(Eds.), Encyclopedia of Leadership. London: Sage Pathak, V., Jena, B., & Kalra, S. (2013). Qualitative research. Perspectives in Clinical
Research, 4(3), 192. Retrieved from: http://doi.org/10.4103/2229-3485.115389 Pollock, D. C., Van Reken, R.E. (2001). Third Culture Kids: The experience of growing up
among worlds. London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing. Prieto, L., Sagafi-nejad, T., Janamanchi, B. (2013). A Bourdieusian Perspective on
Acculturation: Mexican Immigrants in the United States. Administrative Sciences 2013, 3(4), 290–305. Retrieved from: http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3387/3/4/290/htm
Redfield, R., Linton, R., & Herskovits, M. J. (1936). Memorandum on the study of
acculturation. American Anthropologist. 38(1), 149–152. Retrived from: American Anthropologist Association.
Ruiz-de-Velasco, J., Fix, M., Clewell, B. C. (2000). Overlooked & Underserved: Immigrant
Students in U.S. Secondary Schools. Washington, D.C: The Urban Institute Press.
242
Schneider, B., Coleman, J. S. (1993). Parents, Their Children, and Schools. Boulder. CO: Westview Press.
Stultz, W. (2003). Global and domestic nomads or Third Culture Kids: Who are they and
what the university needs to know. Journal of Student Affairs, 12, 6-11. Retrived from:https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/758a/210d4b4c810fb4c92536b7ebc808a5a1af3f.pdf
United Nations United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
Division. (2013). International Migration Report 2013. New York, NY: United Nations. Retrieved from: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/migration/migrationreport2013/Full_Document_final.pdf#zoom=100
Villegas Torres, P., & Mora Pablo, I. (2017). El migrante de retorno y su profesionalización
como maestro de inglés. Jóvenes en la ciencia, 3(2), 1161-1165. Weiss, T. L., López Chaltelt P. A. (2011). México, políticas públicas beneficiando los
migrantes. Organización Internacional para las Migraciones Misión México. Retrieved from: http://oim.org.mx/Discursospdf/politicaspublicasbeneficiandoamigrantes.pdf
Willig, C. (2013). Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology (3rd ed.). NY: McGraw-
Hill Education. Willis, D., Onoda, E., Enloe, W. (1994). Kikokusha: Japan's Returnees. Transnational,
Transcultural Challenges of the Late 20th Century to the Traditional Japanese Cultural Identity. Retrieved from: file:///C:/Users/PC01/Downloads/AN1011857X_19940300_1105.pdf
Zúñiga V., Hamann E. T. (2009). Sojourners in Mexico with US school experience: A new
taxonomy for transnational students. University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Faculty Publications. Retrieved from: http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1078&context=teachlearnfacpub
Zuñiga, V. (2013). Migrantes internacionales en las escuelas mexicanas: desafíos
actuales y futuros de política educativa. Sinéctica, (40), 1-11 Retrieved from: https://sinectica.iteso.mx/index.php/SINECTICA/article/view/50/845
THE AUTHORS
ENRIQUE VEZ LOPÉZ. B. A. in English Language, University of Veracruz (1983). M. A. in Education, Eastern Mennonite University (2006). Ph. D. in Language Studies, University of Veracruz (2013). Currently: Faculty, School of Languages, University of Veracruz (2008-to date), Xalapa, Ver.
ANDREA VELÁZQUEZ GUTIÉRREZ. Estudiante del último semestre de la Licenciatura
en Lengua Inglesa de la Facultad de Idiomas de la Universidad Veracruzana. Se
desempeña como maestra de inglés en institutos de inglés y en escuelas bilingües de la
ciudad de Xalapa, Veracruz.
243
UNA MIRADA A LA PRÁCTICA DOCENTE: EXPERIENCIAS DE UN
PLAN DE ESTUDIOS
Hiroe Minami Doi
María Guadalupe Garza Pulido Eleazar Morales Vázquez
Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco [email protected]
RESUMEN
Un plan de estudios es el documento oficial donde se plasman las concepciones
filosóficas y pedagógicas que orientan la formación de los estudiantes en un determinado
programa educativo. La Licenciatura en Idiomas de la Universidad Juárez Autónoma de
Tabasco planteó una investigación con el fin de cotejar la relación entre lo establecido en
el plan de estudios y la práctica docente. El estudio fue descriptivo con una orientación
mixta, tomando en consideración el programa de la asignatura, el encuadre y horas clase
video-grabadas de tres profesores del campo disciplinar de Lengua Inglesa. Se analizaron
los dos primeros elementos según sus posturas teóricas en el aprendizaje de segundas
lenguas: conductista, cognitivista y constructivista. La práctica áulica fue analizada en
términos del grado de centralidad asignada al docente y al alumno en el proceso de
enseñanza-aprendizaje así como la contribución al desarrollo de la competencia
comunicativa. Como resultado, se registró la congruencia entre el programa y los
encuadres con tendencias predominantemente constructivistas. No obstante, se encontró
una discrepancia entre lo estipulado en los documentos y lo que se observó en la
implementación en el aula. Las prácticas áulicas de los profesores mostraron una
orientación tradicional conductista que se reflejó en el papel dominante del docente en el
tiempo de habla y el modo de interacción así como el énfasis en los elementos lingüísticos
y la exactitud en el uso de la lengua. Por ende, se concluyó que las metas del Plan 2010
no se estaban concretando al nivel más importante, que es en el salón de clase. La
exploración de la congruencia entre estos tres elementos arrojó información valiosa para
comprender parte de lo que acontece dentro de la marcha del Plan 2010.
Palabras clave: práctica áulica, teorías de aprendizaje de segundas lenguas, enfoque
basado en tareas, alineación curricular
INTRODUCCIÓN
Para la Educación Superior la calidad de sus programas es una exigencia derivada de las
políticas educativas tanto nacionales como internacionales. Las instituciones superiores
tienen el compromiso de formar egresados capaces de responder a las necesidades
sociales con una formación integral y competencias profesionales indispensables,
incluyendo el manejo de las tecnologías de la información y la comunicación,
conocimientos de la propia y otras culturas así como el dominio de una segunda lengua.
244
Estas exigencias han obligado a las instituciones a replantearse sus propios modelos
educativos y establecer estrategias para lograr la calidad. Según Arríen (1995, p. 5), “La
calidad de la educación se hace realidad en los aprendizajes cualitativamente relevantes,”
lo que ha cambiado el paradigma de enseñar para convertirlo en el de aprender, en otras
palabras, una educación más centrada en el estudiante. Tünnermann (2006), otro
estudioso de la educación, argumenta que además de centrada en el aprendizaje, la
educación de calidad precisa de un currículum contextualizado y la participación de los
actores en el proceso educativo.
Ante este panorama, la Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco (UJAT) ha
asumido el reto de adaptarse a los nuevos tiempos y a partir de 2004 cambia su modelo
educativo y lo funda en tres ejes estratégicos: formación integral del estudiante, centrado
en el aprendizaje y currículum flexible. A su vez, el Modelo (UJAT, 2011) estipula la
necesidad de un seguimiento y evaluación de sus planes y programas que sirva como un
acto responsable de una institución educativa, lo cual provee retroalimentación para su
mejora.
La Licenciatura en Idiomas es uno de los programas educativos de la UJAT, que
inició en 1990 y a la fecha ha formado a sus estudiantes a través de tres planes de
estudio. El último de ellos, el Plan Flexible 2010 rescata de los anteriores la formación de
estudiantes con un excelente manejo de los idiomas extranjeros que se imparten: inglés y
francés o italiano, que pueda ser comparado y reconocido a nivel internacional mediante
la directriz del Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las Lenguas: aprendizaje,
enseñanza y evaluación (MCER) (Consejo de Europa, 2004). En concreto, los estudiantes
del Plan 2010 de la Licenciatura en Idiomas requieren alcanzar el nivel B2 (usuario
independiente) del mismo documento al momento de egreso. Dada la importancia de
lograr esta meta, se organizó una comisión para dar seguimiento al desarrollo de la
competencia comunicativa del idioma inglés.
La Tabla 1 muestra las metas a alcanzar en el campo disciplinar de Lengua
Inglesa de la Licenciatura con base en los contenidos de los programas estructurados de
manera que los aprendizajes pudieran ser equiparados con los niveles del MCER. Tabla 1. Equivalencia entre las asignaturas y los niveles del MCER
Asignaturas Nivel Número de horas de
instrucción requerido
1. Introducción al inglés A1 Approx. 90 - 100 horas
2. Inglés Básico A1-A2
3. Inglés Pre-intermedio A2 Approx. 180 - 200 horas
4. Inglés Intermedio A2-B1
5. Inglés Intermedio-avanzado B1 Approx. 350 - 400 horas
6. Inglés Avanzado B1
7. Perfeccionamiento del Inglés B2 Approx. 500 - 600 horas
245
El seguimiento al desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa del inglés en los
estudiantes se llevó a cabo mediante la aplicación de los exámenes estandarizados de la
Universidad de Cambridge, Inglaterra, en dos momentos: después de acreditar la
asignatura de Inglés Básico con el fin de verificar si los alumnos habían alcanzado el nivel
A2 y al final de la asignatura de Inglés Avanzado para conocer si habían logrado el nivel
B1. De esta manera se intentó constatar el logro de las metas establecidas en el Plan
2010. Los resultados de la primera generación fue que sólo el 31% de los estudiantes
aprobaron el primer examen y el 61%, el segundo examen.
Estos resultados alarmaron a la comisión y al mismo tiempo les llegaban reportes
de una fuerte disparidad en las prácticas de los profesores de inglés en términos de horas
clase concretadas, contenidos cubiertos, actividades realizadas y formas de evaluación.
JUSTIFICACIÓN
En búsqueda de un camino para comprender cómo se estaba materializando el Plan 2010
en marcha, lo que primeramente orientó a la comisión fue el señalamiento de Stern
(citado en Johnson, 1994) sobre la necesidad de examinar lo que acontece en el aula
para entender cómo y porqué una lengua se aprende o frecuentemente no se aprende. Al
mismo tiempo, la comisión consideró la postura de Long (1984) quien critica aquellas
investigaciones cuyo objetivo es solamente conocer el resultado del aprendizaje de los
alumnos sin estudiar el proceso de cómo lo establecido en el plan de estudios y el
programa fue implementado en el aula. Ésta a su vez se orientó de Lynch (1996) que
expresa la importancia de cotejar lo establecido en el plan de estudios oficial y la práctica
docente de los profesores para verificar la congruencia entre estos elementos del proceso
enseñanza-aprendizaje. Asimismo, hace resaltar la significatividad de separar una
planeación de una ejecución, ya que lo que se planea no necesariamente coincide con lo
que sucede en el salón de clase.
Entendiendo que es el docente quien interpreta el plan de estudios y ejecuta su
plan de clases, se hizo necesario estudiar a los profesores de inglés de la Licenciatura, en
otras palabras, conocer cómo ellos entendían los objetivos y metas de los programas y
qué actividades concretas implementaban para el logro de dichos objetivos. Así la
comisión emprendió al estudio para explorar la relación existente entre el programa de
estudio y la práctica áulica de los profesores del inglés dentro de la Licenciatura en
Idiomas. Al mismo tiempo, se consideró otro elemento intermedio, el encuadre como un
producto de la planeación del docente. Es una práctica instituida en la carrera la
elaboración del encuadre y la presentación del mismo al grupo al inicio del programa con
el fin de que el docente y sus alumnos construyan la aceptación y el compromiso en
relación a los lineamientos del curso (Zarzar Charur, 2003).
Como el objetivo principal, el estudio sobre la práctica docente intentó explorar si
el programa de estudio de inglés, los encuadres y la práctica áulica de los profesores de
inglés eran coherentes o en caso negativo, cómo se relacionaban esos tres elementos.
246
Además se esperaba que el estudio arrojara las posibles causas que originaban el
resultado no satisfactorio en el aprendizaje de los alumnos, así como daría a conocer las
necesidades de desarrollo profesional de los docentes en términos de sus conocimientos
teóricos, metodológicos, instrumentales y actitudinales que les permitirían orientar su
práctica docente dentro del aula. Aparte, el estudio cobraría importancia en el sentido de
ser una primera aproximación a las prácticas reales de los profesores de inglés en el
marco de la Licenciatura en Idiomas desde su creación.
MARCO TEÓRICO
Esta investigación sobre la práctica docente se consideró como parte de la evaluación
curricular ya que permitía determinar cómo se desarrollaba un proceso educativo con sus
avances y logros del currículo mediante el proceso enseñanza aprendizaje a nivel del
documento, el proceso y los resultados (Díaz Rojas, 2013). También, es en parte un
análisis de la alineación curricular, que es la relación entre el currículo escrito, el impartido
y el evaluado (Olivo Rodríguez, 2010) aunque el caso particular del estudio sobre la
práctica docente no trataba la parte correspondiente a la evaluación. Según Mohammed y
Sidek (2015, p. 120), “cada currículum está basado en la orientación teórica particular
sobre la enseñanza y el aprendizaje de la lengua, por lo que la consistencia entre los
componentes curriculares se infiere a través de examinar el alineamiento de la orientación
teórica en el currículum diseñado, implementado y logrado”. El estudio en cuestión
intentaba analizar este alineamiento entre la fundamentación teórica del currículum, el
enfoque en el programa, y los actos instruccionales con la premisa de que los elementos
de distintos niveles en un currículum deben relacionarse coherentemente para lograr la
meta de este último.
Para la revisión de los documentos, el programa de inglés y los encuadres de los
profesores, se consideraron tres orientaciones teóricas en el aprendizaje de segundas
lenguas: conductista, cognitivista, y constructivista con sus indicadores. Éstas se
conceptualizaron quedando establecidas de la siguiente manera:
Conductista: El alumno aprende por medio del acondicionamiento. Responde a
los estímulos realizados por el profesor. El alumno participa poco en el desarrollo de sus
estrategias para aprender, en iniciar una interacción o negociar el significado de los
aspectos de la lengua que está aprendiendo (Lightbown & Spada, 2013; Richards &
Rogers, 2014).
Cognitivista: Esta teoría considera de vital importancia los procesos mentales que
intervienen en el aprendizaje, en este caso de una lengua. El conocimiento parte de las
experiencias previas y el alumno es un participante activo en el proceso de aprendizaje
con el uso de las estrategias. (Lightbown & Spada, 2013; Richards & Rogers, 2014).
Constructivista: Desde la perspectiva constructivista, el aprendizaje se da
mediante la construcción de conocimiento por parte del aprendiz quien participa
247
activamente en este proceso dinámico que comprende la dimensión cognitiva y la social.
En la primera el aprendiz reorganiza la información nueva con base en el conocimiento
con que él cuenta y en la segunda, interactúa con otros para la solución de problemas.
Este enfoque enfatiza el aprendizaje centrado en el estudiante. En la postura
constructivista social, resalta la importancia de la interacción en el aprendizaje de la
lengua, que se deriva del diálogo entre el aprendiz y el otro que cuenta con el
conocimiento superior al aprendiz. Este proceso de interacción conocido como andamiaje
se da en el caso del salón de clase entre un alumno con el profesor o con sus
compañeros que tienen un mejor nivel de manejo de la lengua (Richards & Rogers, 2014;
William & Burden, 1997).
Alineado con el Modelo Educativo de la institución, el Plan de Estudios 2010 de la
Licenciatura en Idiomas se fundamenta principalmente en la teoría constructivista del
aprendizaje. En el mismo documento, las prácticas relacionadas a la enseñanza y el
aprendizaje del idioma inglés en la Licenciatura requieren apoyarse en el enfoque basado
en tareas. Es un enfoque instruccional que se desarrolló a partir del enfoque comunicativo
(Plews & Zhao, 2010; Richards & Rogers, 2014). Varios autores han definido el concepto
de tarea (Van den Branden, 2006) y coinciden en los puntos que es una actividad cuya
atención primordial radica en el significado (meaning) y es para lograr un producto o
propósito de comunicación (Willis & Willis 2013). Otros autores expanden el concepto
base con sus contribuciones como Ellis (2009) quien enfatiza el uso propio de los
recursos lingüísticos y no lingüísticos por parte del aprendiz. Skehan (1996) agrega su
idea de que la tarea es aquélla que se relaciona con las actividades reales en la vida de
los estudiantes.
Algunos autores distinguen dos modalidades del enfoque: la versión fuerte y la
débil. En la primera los contenidos instruccionales de un programa están organizados en
el formato de las tareas con el propósito comunicativo mientras en la segunda las tareas
son parte importante del curso; sin embargo, están insertadas en su programa,
permitiendo así la integración de los contenidos estructuralistas con el uso de tareas (Ellis,
2009; Skehan, 1996). En la Licenciatura en Idiomas, la práctica apoyada en el enfoque
basado en tareas debe entenderse como aquella enseñanza integrada con las tareas
como unidad organizacional para la planeación de lecciones de clase, en lugar de que su
programa esté diseñado con las tareas como unidades de organización.
El enfoque basado en tareas se fundamenta en las teorías de aprendizaje de la
lengua como la hipótesis de la construcción creativa, la teoría interaccional, y el
constructivismo. Es un enfoque centrado en el estudiante (Van den Branden, 2012). Se
considera que el aprendizaje es un proceso creativo de los involucrados, en donde los
errores son vistos como parte del aprendizaje. En la comunicación se privilegia el
significado. El aprendizaje se da mediante la interacción entre el trabajo conjunto de los
alumnos que se prestan a la negociación del significado y a una serie de modificaciones
que se dan con la intención de lograr la comunicación entre los sujetos. Como se explicó
248
anteriormente, así se da el andamiaje entre los participantes que tienen distintos niveles
de conocimiento.
Cabe mencionar que las prácticas de la planta docente de la Licenciatura
muestran las características de una variedad de enfoques y corrientes metodológicas de
la enseñanza de inglés. Por lo tanto, para el estudio de la práctica docente, se
consideraron dos posturas para facilitar el proceso de análisis de datos: la práctica
centrada en el docente y la práctica centrada en el estudiante.
La primera muestra las características del conductismo, o sea el aprendizaje se
da a través de la transmisión de conocimientos estables y predeterminados. Por lo que la
experiencia de aprendizaje gira alrededor de los hechos, conceptos y contenidos tipo
enciclopédicos. Se presentan los elementos lingüísticos aislados, se practican uno por
uno desde lo fácil hasta lo difícil como recomienda el libro de texto. La memorización la
repetición de los diálogos y las oraciones tienden a dominar en las clases. El docente
juega un papel dominante en el proceso pedagógico en donde los estudiantes asumen un
papel pasivo de recipiente de información. Se corrigen frecuentemente los errores
cometidos por los alumnos, ya que se prioriza la exactitud más que una interacción con
sentido. Les permite a los estudiantes experienciar solamente una variedad limitada de
tipos de discurso, entre los cuales el más común es Iniciación/Respuesta/Evaluación
(IRE) en donde el docente dispara una pregunta, un alumno le responde y el docente
proporciona una evaluación a la respuesta. El discurso escrito es para practicar los puntos
gramaticales específicos en lugar de atender a los contenidos (Lightbown & Spada, 2013;
Nunan, 1999).
En la práctica centrada en el estudiante, el conocimiento es una construcción
personal y así el estudiante juega un papel protagónico, quien tiene su propia motivación
de aprender, por lo tanto muestra su iniciativa en y control sobre el proceso. Las
experiencias de aprendizaje se basan en la identificación del problema y la búsqueda de
su solución a través tanto del trabajo individual como colaborativo. La relación docente-
alumno no es uni-direccional sino al profesor le permite jugar distintos papeles según las
necesidades derivadas de la clase y de los alumnos. Su rol principal es aquél que facilita
el aprendizaje de sus estudiantes. El docente y los estudiantes tienen una responsabilidad
compartida en el proceso del aprendizaje (Alzubi, 2013).
El lenguaje de entrada es modificado para que sea más simple y comprensible
para los alumnos con el uso de apoyos lingüísticos y no lingüísticos. El significado es más
importante que la forma. Se prestan a la clarificación del mensaje, la negociación del
significado, uso del trabajo en pareja y grupal en busca de una mayor cantidad y variedad
en la producción de la lengua. Mediante la inclusión de anécdotas, trabajo colaborativo,
materiales auténticos como periódicos y programas televisivos, se introduce una variedad
de tipos de discurso. En caso de trabajar con materiales auténticos, el docente acude a
las estrategias instruccionales para que sus alumnos comprendan el sentido aunque no
logren entender todas y cada una de las palabras o estructuras gramaticales. Además de
los contenidos lingüísticos, los alumnos practican un rango de características
249
sociolingüísticas y funcionales de la lengua a través de la interacción (Lightbown & Spada,
2013; Nunan, 1999).
PREGUNTAS DE INVESTIGACIÓN
¿Cuál es la relación que mantiene el programa oficial de inglés del Plan 2010 de la
Licenciatura en Idiomas con los encuadres y las prácticas reales de los profesores que
están a cargo de las asignaturas de inglés en términos de las tendencias teóricas?
METODOLOGÍA
El estudio se realizó de julio 2013 a diciembre 2015 y fue descriptivo con una orientación
mixta, enfocado a los profesores del campo disciplinar de Lengua Inglesa. Inicialmente se
contemplaron aquéllos que se encargaban de Introducción al inglés, Inglés Pre-intermedio
e Inglés Avanzado. Sin embargo, sólo se limitó a trabajar con tres profesores de Inglés
Pre-intermedio, de quienes se logró conjuntar los tres elementos necesarios: programa de
la asignatura, encuadre y horas clase video-grabadas.
Ante la necesidad de llevar a cabo el análisis del programa de estudio y los
encuadres, se determinaron los indicadores de las tres posturas teóricas en el aprendizaje
de segundas lenguas anteriormente mencionadas: conductista, cognitivista y
constructivista. Esto se logró tras la revisión bibliográfica con la colaboración de cinco
investigadores, cuatro especialistas en el área de enseñanza de inglés y una experta en
educación.
Asimismo, el proceso de análisis inició con la búsqueda de palabras, frases u
oraciones que concordaran con los indicadores distintivos de las tres posturas teóricas.
Los investigadores trabajaron individualmente como primera fase, registrando las
unidades lingüísticas como evidencias de la tendencia de la teoría de aprendizaje. Se
terminó con la identificación de la teoría más dominante a la menos representada. En
seguida, los investigadores compararon los resultados del análisis con sus evidencias
para alcanzar un consenso. El proceso de análisis consistió en las etapas de codificación,
categorización, comparación y conclusión (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007).
Para analizar la práctica docente de los profesores, se optó por el uso de la
observación de clase. Según Allwright (2014, p. xvi), esta técnica “es esencialmente un
procedimiento de registrar lo que sucede en el salón de clase para que después pueda
ser estudiado, sea por motivo de la capacitación docente o la investigación”. Al mismo
tiempo, la observación fue indirecta con el uso de video-grabadora debido a que el hecho
de dejar el instrumento en los salones de clase sin la presencia invasiva de los
observadores incrementaba la posibilidad de captar la ejecución de los profesores de
manera más natural (Reid, 2012). Aunado a lo anterior, la observación permitía al
investigador registrar lo que el docente hacía en lugar de lo que él decía que hacía
250
(Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007), y de esta forma elevar la validez y autenticidad de los
datos.
Dicha observación fue semi-estructurada, teniendo un marco con las
características: la práctica centrada en el docente y la práctica centrada en el estudiante,
sin predeterminar las categorías sistematizadas de análisis. Por lo tanto, se buscaron
aquellos criterios que posibilitaran operacionalizar las características de las corrientes
teóricas a lo observable en el salón de clase de inglés. Se consideraron los siguientes
ejes, los cuales fueron indicadores para valorar el grado de centralidad asignada al
docente y al alumno en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje así como la contribución al
desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa (Wajnryb, 1992):
i.El tiempo que el docente (teacher-talking-time) y el alumno habla (student-talking-time)
Para determinar el tiempo de habla del alumno, se tomó en cuenta el lapso en el cual éste
utilizaba el inglés en las actividades. No se incluyeron aquellos momentos donde los
estudiantes respondían a las preguntas del profesor para revisar sus conocimientos
previos. Entendiendo que en el aprendizaje de lenguas, es el alumno el que debe estar
activo utilizando la lengua en lugar de que el docente domine la clase con su exposición
limitando así la participación de los aprendices.
ii.El propósito de la actividad
Al observar los videos de los profesores, se valoró la orientación que muestra cada una
de las actividades realizadas durante las sesiones clase en término de su propósito, en
otras palabras si una actividad era para promover la exactitud (accuracy) o la fluidez
(fluency).
Cabe aclarar que para el desarrollo de la producción oral, se necesita enfocar
tanto la exactitud, o sea qué tan correctamente se produce la lengua como la fluidez, que
tiene que ver con la velocidad y la carencia de pausas, titubeos y repeticiones
innecesarias. Para que los alumnos lleguen al estadío en donde puedan expresarse
natural y fluidamente, ellos requieren de prácticas considerables a través de actividades
que les permitan trabajar con los otros para lograr el propósito de la comunicación.
Además estas actividades son consideradas más efectivas para el desarrollo de la
competencia comunicativa mientras más interacción promuevan en término de la
negociación del significado.
iii.El modo de organización
En este eje se identificó en quién recae el protagonismo de las actividades realizadas, o
sea si una actividad estaba controlada por el docente (teacher-directed) o llevada a cabo
por los alumnos (student-directed). Para que se logre el aprendizaje de lenguas en el
salón de clase bajo el enfoque más actual como el comunicativo, el alumno necesita tener
251
la libertad de tomar la iniciativa y el control del proceso de aprendizaje en lugar de
responder solamente a las instrucciones del docente.
iv.El tipo de actividad con el modo de interacción
Las actividades, al mismo tiempo, fueron analizadas en término del modo de interacción,
tales como docente-grupo, estudiantes en pareja o equipos, etc. Las actividades requieren
de una organización adecuada. Si se trata de una exposición, el docente se dirige al
grupo entero mientras el role-play se maneja comúnmente en parejas o tríos. Se
considera que los trabajos en parejas o equipos pequeños producen más oportunidades a
los alumnos de iniciar y controlar la interacción y desenvolverse en la negociación del
significado.
El análisis de la práctica docente se llevó a cabo sobre las clases video-grabadas
correspondientes a una unidad del programa, la cual llegó a sumar 22 horas clase en
total. Primeramente, se realizó el análisis individual por cuatro investigadores del área de
enseñanza de segundas lenguas. En la segunda fase, los investigadores se reunieron
para comparar los resultados del análisis, corroborar las evidencias proporcionadas por
cada uno para fundamentar su decisión y finalmente alcanzar un consenso.
RESULTADOS
En el resultado del análisis del programa, se concluyó que la tendencia más presente fue
la constructivista. En el programa existía un gran peso en las actividades comunicativas,
dando énfasis a la práctica de interacciones significativas y la práctica de prototipos de
intercambios sociales. Asimismo, existían actividades significativas por descubrimiento,
mediante las cuales el alumno llegaría a la comprensión y construcción del conocimiento.
La segunda fue la teoría cognitivista con una influencia menor. El programa contenía
algunos aspectos cognitivos como el aprendizaje de estrategias para aprender y la
integración de conocimientos declarativos y procedimentales. No se encontraron
evidencias que avalaran rasgos característicos de la teoría conductista. En el análisis de
los encuadres de los profesores, el resultado fue el mismo que el del programa. Es decir,
la tendencia más pronunciada en los encuadres fue la constructivista, la segunda fue la
teoría cognitivista y la tercera y última fue la teoría conductista.
En cuanto al análisis de las prácticas áulicas, la Tabla 2 muestra la duración de
cada sesión de clase en minutos y segundos, el tiempo en el cual los alumnos utilizaron el
idioma en minutos y segundos, el porcentaje que ocupó este tiempo dentro de la sesión
total, y el promedio de porcentaje asignado al habla de los alumnos por profesor. Se
registró que el porcentaje del tiempo de clase en el que los alumnos tuvieron oportunidad
de hablar y llevar a cabo las actividades por su cuenta tuvo un rango del 0 a 57% de la
totalidad de clase. El promedio del tiempo asignado a los alumnos por profesor osciló de
14.5% a 22.3%.
252
Tabla 2. Tiempo de habla de alumnos
Total de sesión
(mins. / segs.) Tiempo de
habla de
alumnos (mins.
/ segs.)
% del tiempo
de habla de
alumnos en
cada sesión
% del tiempo
de habla de
alumnos por
profesor
Profesor A 20.4
Sesión 1 100.12 23.21 23.3
Sesión 2 78.54 15.43 19.9
Sesión 3 80.07 14.21 17.9
Profesor B 22.3
Sesión 1 102.19 7.02 6.9
Sesión 2 96.18 9.25 9.8
Sesión 3 84.53 12.57 15.3
Sesión 4 89.01 50.44 57.0
Profesor C 14.5
Sesión 1 81.10 10.28 12.9
Sesión 2 81.04 28.35 35.3
Sesión 3 80.41 19.39 24.4
Sesión 4 82.01 0 0
Sesión 5 81.21 0 0
Cabe aclarar que el elevado porcentaje del tiempo de habla de los alumnos en la
Sesión 4 del Profesor B se debió a una actividad en donde 13 grupos de alumnos hicieron
role-play entre un vendedor y compradores en una tienda y mientras un grupo actuaba, el
resto de la clase solamente lo escuchaban. Si se eliminara esta sesión como inusual, el
porcentaje de habla de los alumnos en las sesiones observadas habría sido de 0 a 35.3%.
Así, el promedio del tiempo asignado a los alumnos por profesor se modificaría a un rango
de 10.7% a 20.4%.
Referente a los tipos de actividades, los tres profesores tenían tendencia de
seguir paso por paso las que el libro de texto proporcionaba, en lugar de organizarlas por
su cuenta. Dentro de la variedad de actividades observadas en los videos, una de las más
comunes y prolongadas fue la enseñanza de un punto gramatical que llegó a ocupar el
71.5% del tiempo total de una clase del Profesor C. Otra fue la enseñanza del vocabulario
para describir lo que la gente vestía. El Profesor B dedicó su Sesión 3 completa a esta
actividad con un mínimo de explicación pero con numerosos ejercicios en donde los
alumnos respondían y revisaban las respuestas con la conducción del docente.
Una etapa de clase observada frecuentemente en los videos fueron las preguntas
de exploración (eliciting) de los conocimientos previos de los alumnos, sean de índole
personal, experiencial o gramatical. Particularmente el Profesor C fue quien más las
253
utilizó, un máximo de 16 minutos en su Sesión 1. Además, las instrucciones para las
actividades y los ejercicios fueron largas con mucha información y frecuentemente
confusas por falta de precisión.
En término de la interacción, la más frecuente fue el docente dirigiendo a la clase.
Se pudo generalizar que excepto el tiempo de habla de los alumnos, todas las sesiones
fueron manejadas por el docente en control del grupo entero. Por ejemplo, durante la
Sesión 4 y 5, el Profesor C utilizó este modo de interacción durante toda la clase.
La enseñanza del punto gramatical fue compuesto de un patrón de interacción
con tres tiempos: la explicación o instrucción del docente, la realización de ejercicios
gramaticales por parte de los alumnos y la revisión de las respuestas por ambas partes.
En algunas clases como la Sesión 4 del Profesor C, este patrón de interacción se repitió
varias veces en el 71.5% del tiempo total de la sesión.
A pesar de que los profesores seguían al libro de texto que contenía una
variedad de actividades con la intención de atender tanto la exactitud como la fluidez en el
uso de la lengua, ellos mostraron una fuerte inclinación a los elementos lingüísticos al
nivel de palabra u oración, dando énfasis a la exactitud en la producción de los alumnos
aun en los momentos de las actividades menos controladas.
En la actividad diseñada para el desarrollo de la fluidez en donde los alumnos
serían guiados hasta producir un discurso individual, ésta no fue explotada respetando la
intencionalidad del libro sino fue tratada como parte de una secuencia de ejercicios. Como
esta actividad, se observó que a los profesores les interesaba cumplir con los ejercicios
del libro de texto y del libro de trabajo sin que dieran un tratamiento propio para convertir
las actividades en más comunicativas y significativas para los alumnos.
Cuando el docente preguntaba al alumno sobre los sucesos de su vida personal,
estos momentos también terminaron por ser dominados por el docente y se convirtieron
en la sesión de pregunta y respuesta corta, sin que cobraran las características de un
dialogo más libre y conducente a la promoción de fluidez.
Con base en los resultados, se identificaron tres aspectos significativos en el
desempeño de los profesores estudiados.
a) Práctica centrada en el docente
Las prácticas áulicas de los tres profesores mostraron una tendencia tradicional
conductista dado el papel dominante del docente en el tiempo de habla, el modo de
interacción y la naturaleza de las actividades que se orientaban a los elementos
lingüísticos y la exactitud en sus usos.
254
En la clase tradicional donde el docente dirige la instrucción, se presume que la
participación de los alumnos ocupa una tercera o cuarta parte de la sesión (Bailey, 2001).
Bajo esta asunción, las clases implementadas por los tres profesores resultaron ser más
centradas en el docente. En las clases video-grabadas, se observaba el protagonismo del
docente, quien daba las instrucciones, hacía las preguntas de revisión, decidía qué
alumno respondía, explicaba los puntos gramaticales, organizaba los grupos de trabajo, y
revisaba las respuestas de ejercicios una por una. Él se mantenía muy activo y provocó la
reducción de las oportunidades en donde los alumnos pudieran practicar el uso de la
lengua que aprendían. Barua (2008, p. 2) recomienda que “el tiempo de habla del docente
dirigiendo al grupo entero depende de los factores como el tipo de estudiantes, el horario
de clase y el tema de la lección; sin embargo, no se debe rebasar el 30% de una sesión ni
no mayor de 10 minutos seguidos”.
En estos videos, fue dominante un solo patrón de interacción, el docente dirigía al
grupo. Casi siempre quien iniciaba la interacción era el docente. Las pocas veces que el
alumno la iniciaba eran para hacer preguntas de gramática o vocabulario. La interacción
entre el docente y el alumno siempre fue uni-direccional del docente hacia el alumno sin
ser expandida a una más cercana a la conversación. El discurso predominante en las
clases fue del nivel palabra u oración.
Para lograr el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa en los alumnos, se
espera reducir el tiempo de habla del docente y promover la participación de los alumnos
(Hall, 2011), así como crear una variedad de interacciones para que los estudiantes
comuniquen y negocien significados (Tsui, 2001). Allwright y Bailey (1991) opinan que la
interacción en el salón de clase la crea el docente junto con el grupo de estudiantes, ya
que sus contribuciones son cruciales para que dicha interacción se de exitosamente y una
lección logre su propósito como un evento social. No obstante, las prácticas observadas
mostraron características discordantes a lo que se recomienda en el área de la
enseñanza de inglés. No es infundado pensar que una escasa cantidad asignada al habla
de los alumnos, la interacción constantemente controlada por el docente, un ambiente de
una mínima posibilidad de intercambiar discursos con un sentido propio a los hablantes
serían obstáculos para el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa de los alumnos.
b) Práctica basada en el libro de texto
En la Licenciatura en Idiomas, se tiene seleccionado un libro de texto para la instrucción
de las asignaturas del campo disciplinar de inglés. El libro de texto ejerce un papel
predominante en los contextos educativos de todo el mundo y todos los niveles a pesar de
que ya existen materiales audio-visuales y la tecnología de información y comunicación
(TIC) (Rahimpour & Hashemi, 2011; Tok, 2010). Es una herramienta extremadamente útil
para los docentes en muchos sentidos. Les permite organizar los contenido de un curso
considerando todos los aspectos de la lengua (Çakır, 2010). Les provee los materiales
necesarios para la clase, tales como imágenes, fotos, ejercicios, listas de vocabulario,
materiales de audio o video (Tomlinson, 2001). Por lo que le ayuda a funcionar en el salón
de clase aunque no tenga tiempo de preparar la clase. Aparte, apoya a los alumnos en su
255
estudio independiente. Entre los profesores de inglés en la Licenciatura, la adopción de un
libro de texto es una manera de uniformar los contenidos de enseñanza cuando interviene
un número considerable de docentes en la misma tarea de enseñar el inglés a una gran
cantidad de alumnos.
A pesar de los beneficios que brinda el libro de texto, las clases implementadas
por los tres profesores mostraban el lado negativo de su uso: enseñar el libro en lugar de
una lección. Se observaron frecuentemente clases basadas en actividades del libro de
texto sin que ellas fueran convertidas por el docente en más comunicativas y significativas
para los estudiantes.
Retomando la relación identificada entre el programa de inglés, los encuadres y
la práctica real de los profesores mediante este estudio, se logra obtener parcialmente el
proceso de cómo se concreta el planteamiento del programa oficial en el salón de clase. A
pesar de que los profesores elaboran sus encuadres siguiendo estrechamente al
programa, sus prácticas están distanciadas de su planeación plasmada en los encuadres.
El hecho de haber encontrado la información tomada literalmente del programa en estos
escritos puede ser un indicio de que los profesores no necesariamente elaboran sus
encuadres con base en una reflexión e interpretación propia de la intencionalidad del
programa, sino su prioridad es cumplir con la obligación institucional. Puede que esta
situación no les ayude a reconocer una incongruencia entre su planeación y ejecución.
Çakır (2010) explica que los profesores, muchas veces, son renuentes a adaptar
el material didáctico como el libro de texto a las necesidades de los alumnos debido a la
falta de tiempo provocado por la carga excesiva de trabajo por una parte y por la otra, el
libro de texto les da la seguridad de que su instrucción cumple con los requisitos
pedagógicos y administrativos. De esta manera los maestros ya no asumen la
responsabilidad de tomar decisiones diariamente sobre qué enseñar y cómo enseñar,
dejando dicha responsabilidad a mano de los escritores y las editoriales del libro de texto.
Esto negativamente afecta la calidad del trabajo docente e inhibe el desarrollo profesional
de los profesores. Tomlinson (2008) argumenta que los libros de texto no siempre
contribuyen a proporcionar las oportunidades para desarrollar y adquirir el idioma como se
espera. De alguna manera estos libros inducen al profesor a enfocarse simplemente a los
elementos lingüísticos.
A diferencia de las clases que se basaban únicamente en las actividades del libro
de texto, se registró una con la idea original del docente para lograr un propósito:
descubrimiento de un punto gramatical por los alumnos con la guía del docente. En la
primera etapa de la actividad, a cada alumno del grupo le fue entregada una palabra y
tuvieron que encontrar a otros tres compañeros para armar una oración, seis oraciones en
total en el grupo. Los alumnos trabajaban conjuntamente comunicándose en inglés para
lograr la meta de la actividad, no para practicar una unidad de la lengua. Al final de la
primera etapa, el docente organizó la información de los elementos constituyentes
funcionales de la oración en la forma del patrón sintáctico.
256
En la segunda parte, el docente guiaba al grupo con sus preguntas para que los
estudiantes descubrieran la regla de reordenamiento de las palabras, que fue el tema
gramatical central de la actividad. En las contribuciones de los alumnos para encontrar
dicha regla, se percibió el elemento de la construcción colaborativa entre los estudiantes
en donde el docente participaba en este proceso de construcción, en lugar de imponer su
conocimiento del tema. Fue una muestra de que la enseñanza del punto gramatical puede
lograr más participación, más oportunidades para practicar el idioma y más ánimo de los
estudiantes, que una actividad comunicativa implementada sin planeación y creatividad
del docente.
c) La relación entre lo oficial y la realidad
El estudio sobre la práctica docente intentó analizar la congruencia entre el programa
oficial del Plan Flexible 2010, los encuadres de los profesores y su práctica áulica. Los
resultados mostraron que existía congruencia entre el programa y los encuadres; ambos
tenían la tendencia predominante de la teoría constructivista. En otras palabras,
promueven un aprendizaje donde los alumnos adquieran la lengua a través de actividades
comunicativas y donde la construcción de conocimiento mediante el análisis y reflexión de
los contenidos es primordial.
No obstante, existió una discrepancia entre lo estipulado en los documentos y lo
que se observó en la implementación en el aula. Las actividades en clase no reflejaban
las características acorde a la teoría constructivista. Mostraron una tendencia tradicional
conductista. En otras palabras, no se estaba materializando en la práctica real los ideales
enunciados en los documentos oficiales, o sea la promoción de un aprendizaje centrado
en el alumno y el desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa.
El estudio de la práctica áulica se limitó solamente a tres de los profesores de
inglés que imparten clases en la Licenciatura y así los resultados no se pueden
generalizar a la planta docente en su totalidad. Sin embargo, se prestan a la sospecha de
que una práctica similar a la de ellos sea más frecuente de lo que se imagina, como en los
contextos reportados en numerosos estudios (Kirkgöz, 2008; Orafi, 2013, Zheng & Borg
2014). Ellos reportan la discrepancia entre el planteamiento oficial y la práctica real,
puntualizando la enseñanza tradicionalista y la resistencia al cambio de los profesores de
inglés en distintos contextos como Turquía, Libia, y China.
Al mismo tiempo, los resultados del estudio coinciden con los de otros estudios
que se enfocaron a la relación entre una nueva disposición oficial en la enseñanza de
inglés a nivel nacional o institucional y su implementación en el aula. Ellos reportan una
variada práctica distante a las intenciones oficiales, que no están produciendo el cambio
esperado (Mendoza Valladares & Puón Castro, 2013; Okoth, 2016; Zhang & Hu, 2010).
En el caso de la Licenciatura en Idiomas, los resultados obtenidos del estudio
evidencian que los cambios en la práctica docente no se generan solamente con la
257
actualización de los documentos oficiales. Se requieren además implementar estrategias
para orientar las prácticas reales de los profesores de inglés. Éstas deben promover el
uso del inglés como medio de comunicación y de interacción social, la participación activa
de los alumnos y la transición del papel del profesor hacia un rol de facilitador.
CONCLUSIÓN
Este estudio fue la primera aproximación a las prácticas reales de los profesores de inglés
en la Licenciatura en Idiomas desde su creación. Arrojó información valiosa para
comprender parte de lo que acontece dentro de la marcha del Plan 2010 de la
Licenciatura en Idiomas. Se puede resumir que las metas del Plan 2010 no se estaban
concretando al nivel más importante, que es en el salón de clase. Las prácticas áulicas
observadas en el estudio dan cabida a la posibilidad de que los resultados no favorables
en las pruebas de inglés aplicadas a los alumnos podrían ser en parte atribuidos a las
clases implementadas por los profesores de inglés en la Licenciatura.
No obstante, el estudio se limitó a enfocar solamente a tres de los profesores de
la Licenciatura, por lo que los resultados no posibilitan poder hablar de la planta docente
en general para afirmar alguna causalidad entre la práctica docente en este contexto y el
grado de desarrollo de la competencia comunicativa de los estudiantes o por ende el logro
de la meta del Plan 2010. Por lo tanto, vale la pena continuar con otros estudios que
respondan a la naturaleza de la práctica de otros profesores o que se focalicen a la
relación entre la práctica docente y el aprendizaje de los alumnos.
Finalmente, los resultados plantean un reto más a la comunidad académica de
Idiomas para un cambio innovador en el ejercicio de la práctica docente y la mejora en el
proceso de la formación de los alumnos. Por todo lo anterior, hay necesidad de un
desarrollo profesional continuo de los docentes hacia la reorientación y la innovación de
sus prácticas a través del fortalecimiento de sus conocimientos teóricos, metodológicos,
instrumentales y actitudinales para lograr una coherencia entre los ideales de los
documentos oficiales, la planeación del curso y la práctica real a nivel de salón de clase.
REFERENCIAS
Allwright, D. (2014). Observation in the Language Classroom. New York, USA: Routledge.
Allwright, D. & Bailey, K. M. (1991). Focus on the Language Classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Alzubi, (2013). The Difference Between the Learner-Centred Approach and the Teacher-
Centred Approach in Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Educational Research International, 2(2). 24-31.
Arríen, J. B. (1995). Reflexiones sobre la Educación, Managua: Instituto Nicaragüense de
Investigación y Educación Popular (INIEP) y UNESCO.
258
Bailey, K. M. (2001). Observation. En R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (pp. 114-119). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Barua, S. (2008). Putting Our Words to Work: Rethinking Teacher Talking Time. Stanford
Journal of English, 8, 1-14. Çakir, I. (2010). The Frequency of Culture-Specific Elements in the ELT Coursebooks at
Elementary Schools in Turkey. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language), 4(2), 182-189.
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education (6th ed.).
Abingdon: Routledge. Consejo de Europa (2004). Marco común europeo de referencia para las lenguas:
aprendizaje, enseñanza, evaluación. Recuperado de https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf
Díaz Rojas, P. (2013). Evaluación Curricular. Revista Educación Médica Superior, 27(2),
158-159. Ellis, R. (2009). Task-based language teaching: soring out the misunderstandings.
International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19(3), 221-246. Hall, G. (2011). Exploring English Language Teaching: Language in Action (2nd ed.).
London: Routledge. Johnson, R. K. (1994). Second Language Curriculum. Cambridge. Cambridge University
Press. Kirkgöz, Y. (2008). A case study of teachers’ implementation of curriculum innovation in
English language teaching in Turkish primary education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 1859–1875.
Lightbown, P.M., & Spada, N. (2013). How Languages are Learned. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Long, M. H. (1984) Process and Product in ESL Program Evaluation. TESOL Quaterly,
18(3), 409-425. Lynch, B. (1996). Language Program Evaluation: Theory and Practice. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Mendoza Valladares, J. L., & Puón Castro, Y. (2013). The Challenge of Teaching English
in Public Schools: Beyond Academic Factors. MEXTESOL Journal, 37 (3), 1-11. Mohammed, L. A., & Sidek, H. M. (2015). EST Reading Curriculum & Instruction: An
Alignment Analysis. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 6(1): 120-128. Nunan, D. (1999). Second Language Teaching & Learning. Boston, Massachusetts, USA:
Heinle & Heinle.
259
Okoth, T. A. (2016). Challenges of Implementing a Top-down Curriculum Innovation in
English Language Teaching: Perspectives of Form III English Language Teachers in Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(3), 169-177.
Olivo Rodríguez, C. M. (2010). Alineación curricular de estándares y expectativas con la
guía del programa de español de tercer grado del departamento de educación de Puerto Rico. Universidad Metropolitana. Recuperado de http://www.suagm.edu/umet/pdf/biblioteca_tesisedu_olivorodriguezc2010.pdf
Orafi, S. M. S. (2013). ELT Curriculum Intentions and Teachers’ Classroom Practices:
How to Bridge the Gap. Proceeding of 3rd International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (pp. 227-236). Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina: Language Institute Thammasat University. Recuperado de https://s3.amazonaws.com/academia.edu.documents/45922974/elt_intensions_and_teachers_practices.pdf?AWSAccessKeyId=AKIAIWOWYYGZ2Y53UL3A&Expires=1507929922&Signature=KZrxAK4OmooTnwfK8BoJFHjbfT8%3D&response-content-disposition=inline%3B%20filename%3DELT_Curriculum_Intentions_and_Teachers_C.pdf
Plews, J. L., & Zhao, K. (2010). Tinkering with tasks knows no bounds: ESL Teachers’
Adaptations of Task-Based Language-Teaching. TESL Canada Journal, 28(1), 41-57.
Rahimpour, M., & Hashemi, R. (2011). Textbook Selection and Evaluation in EFL Context.
World Journal of Education, 1(2), 62-68. doi:10.5430/wje.v1n2p62 Reid, E. (2012). Observation in Foreign Language Pedagogy Research. En S.
Pokrivčáková, S. et al. (Ed.), Research in Foreign Language Education (pp. 29-61). Brno, the Czech Republic: MSD.
Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Skehan, P. (1996). A Framework for the Implementation of Task-based Instruction.
Applied Linguistics, 17(1), 38-62. Tok, H. (2010). TEFL textbook evaluation: From teachers’ perspectives. Educational
Research and Review, 5(9), 508-517. Tomlinson, B. (2001). Material development. En R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.), The
Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (pp. 66-71). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tomlinson, B. (2008). Language Acquisition and Language Learning Materiales. In B.
Tomlinson (Ed.). English Language Learning Materials. A Critical Review (pp. 3-13). London: Continuum.
260
Tsui, A. B. M. (2001). Classroom interaction. En R. Carter & D. Nunan (Eds.) The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (pp. 120-125). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tünnermann C. (2006). Pertinencia y calidad de la educación superior. Lección inaugural.
Guatemala. Recuperado de http://biblio2.url.edu.gt:8991/libros/leccion%20inaugural2006texto.pdf Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. (2010). Plan Flexible de Idiomas 2010.
Villahermosa, Tabasco, México: Autor. Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. (2011). Modelo Educativo. Villahermosa,
Tabasco, México: Autor. Van den Branden, K. (2006). Task-Based language teaching in a nutshell. En K. Van den
Branden (Ed.), Task-Based Language Education From theory to practice (pp. 1-16). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Van den Branden, K. (2012). Task-based language education. En A. Burns & J. C.
Richards (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to pedagogy and practice in second language teaching (pp. 132-139). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Wajnryb, R. (1992). Classroom Observation Tasks. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. William, M., & Burden, R. (1997). Psychology for Language Teachers. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. Willis, J., & Willis, D. (2013). Doing Task-Based Teaching – Oxford Handbooks for
Language Teachers. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zhang, Y. F., & Hu, G. W. (2010). Between intended and enacted curricula: three teachers
and a mandated curricular reform in mainland China. In K. Menken & O. García (Eds.), Negotiating language policies in schools: Educators as policymakers (pp. 123-142). New York: Routledge.
Zarzar Charur, C. (2003). Habilidades básicas para la docencia. México, D.F.: Patria. Zheng, X., & Borg, S. (2014). Task-based learning and teaching in China: Secondary
school teachers’ beliefs and practices. Language Teaching Research, 18(2) 205–221.
HIROE MINAMI DOI. Licenciatura en Estudios Británicos y Americanos por la Universidad Prefectural de Aichi, Japón. Maestría en Enseñanza del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera por Canturbury Christ Church College, Universidad de Kent. De 1989 a la fecha se desempeña como profesora investigadora en la Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. [email protected]
261
MARÍA GUADALUPE GARZA PULIDO. Licenciatura en Enseñanza de Inglés como Lengua Extranjera por Canterbury Christ College, Universidad de Kent. Maestría en Enseñanza de Inglés por la Universidad de Aston. De 1984 a la fecha se desempeña como profesora investigadora en la Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. [email protected]
ELEAZAR MORALES VÁZQUEZ. Licenciatura en Idiomas y Maestría en la Enseñanza del Idioma Inglés por la Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. De 2007 a la fecha se desempeña como profesor investigador en la Universidad Juárez Autónoma de Tabasco. [email protected]
262
CHALLENGES FACED BY NON-NATIVE EFL STUDENT
TEACHERS FROM THE UV ENGLISH BA PROGRAMME DURING
THEIR PRACTICUM
Stephany Cortés Rogel Luz Edith Herrera Díaz
Universidad Veracruzana [email protected]
ABSTRACT
This study attempted to investigate the challenges that eleven non-native EFL Mexican
student teachers experienced during a twelve-week teaching practicum carried out as part
of their academic preparation in a TEFL BA. The aim of investigating this topic was to
obtain information that would allow the identification of the challenges faced, as well as
their possible source or reason. This research, carried out as a Case Study, intended to
answer two questions: Firstly, what challenges do non-native EFL student teachers from
the UV TEFL BA programme face during their practicum? Secondly, what might contribute
to these challenges faced by the participants, from both, their own perspective and the
researcher’s view? Based on these research questions, this study served two purposes: to
identify the challenges faced by non-native EFL student teachers from the University of
Veracruz English BA programme during their Practicum, and to investigate the reasons for
these challenges. Preliminary results from the data analyzed revealed that the three major
types of challenges that preservice teachers face during their practicum are: 1) Classroom
management and organisation; 2) Implementation of the teaching knowledge in real
scenarios; 3) English proficiency as a barrier for teaching and communication.
Key words: Challenges, EFL student teachers, non-native EFL student teachers,
practicum.
INTRODUCTION
The present paper is the report of a case study which sought to make a contribution to the
literature regarding the challenges that English BA student teachers from the University of
Veracruz face during their practicum, as well as the possible reasons behind them. That is
to say, this case study, as a replication-extension of Gan’s research (2013), was designed
to identify the major challenges that non-native EFL student teachers may experience in
their specific teaching practice context.
This exploratory study also intends to address the existing gap in EFL teacher
education research, since even though there is noticeable amount of research on teacher
learning and development in the general education field, there is less information
regarding the practicum experiences undertaken by non-native EFL student teachers. As
263
above mentioned, this case study is a replication-extension of Gan’s research (2013), in
which the author used a phenomenological case study to identify the difficulties that
preservice ESL teachers faced during their teaching practicum as part of their Bachelor of
Education in English Language in a university of Hong Kong. Following Numrich (1996),
who was a pioneer on investigating the challenges that preservice ESL teachers faced in
real teaching scenarios, Gan’s research (2013) shows that it is usual for ESL student
teachers to encounter challenges when they face actual teaching settings for the first time.
In the same vein, Viafara (2011) and Phairee et al. (2008) comment on similar challenges
but in EFL scenarios.
Unlike Gan’s (2013) and the just mentioned above authors’ studies, this case
study is concerned on understanding both, the challenges and the reasons that bring up
those difficulties faced by student teachers during their preservice teaching, but this time in
a Mexican EFL setting. Furthermore, within the extension of this study, we considered
class observation as another source of data and not only interview and reflective journals,
as Gan (2013), Viafara (2011) and Phairee et al. (2008) did. Therefore, this study is an
exploration and collection of eleven student teachers’ beliefs and perceptions regarding
the challenges they face and the possible causes that trigger these difficulties in their
practicum.
Thus, the ultimate goal of this research was to obtain and generate knowledge
that could be integrated into the BA subjects related to teacher training and teaching
practice, so that the curriculum could be enriched and the student teachers could raise
awareness of the real teaching scenarios they might face during their practicum.
JUSTIFICATION
As mentioned before, this case study attempted to investigate the challenges that eleven
non-native EFL Mexican student teachers experienced during a twelve-week teaching
practicum carried out as part of their academic preparation in an English Language
Bachelor of Arts. The intention of investigating this topic was to obtain information that
would allow a classification of the challenges faced as well as their possible source or
reason.
The target readers of this study are professors and students of any English
Teaching BA who could benefit from its findings in order to improve their teaching practice
both as teacher educators and student teachers. Our ultimate goal was to obtain and
generate knowledge that could be integrated into the BA subjects related to teacher
training and teaching practice. This way, student teachers would raise awareness about
the reality of the teaching scenario they might face during their practicum, in the first
instance, and eventually, during their teaching practice when they start working.
As shown in Gan’s (2013) and Viáfara’s (2011) case studies, it is common that
preservice teachers face different challenges when they are first exposed to real teaching
264
scenarios. Although the challenges may vary depending on several aspects related to the
EFL/ESL school context and the academic background of each student, a good number of
student teachers struggle to implement the knowledge they have learnt in their major
(teaching career).
The intention of replicating this study in a local EFL context was to attain
knowledge that could provide teacher educators and student teachers of English language
degrees with better and more effective tools that could help them in the transition between
the BA theoretical context and the real teaching situations found in the practicum and field
of work.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Despite the constant increase of theoretical development of English language teaching
and learning, little attention has been paid to the practical preparation of future language
teachers. However, as mentioned in the introduction of this paper, previous case studies
that have been carried out on this topic, claim that it is common for preservice teachers to
face different challenges when they are first exposed to real teaching scenarios (Gan,
2013; Viafara, 2011; Velez-Rendon, 2002). In order to have a theoretical background for
the present study, we are here presenting some relevant information regarding the
practicum and the studies underlying it.
The role of the practicum
As Farrell (2007) explains, the practicum has emerged as a common feature of ESL or
EFL teacher preparation programs. During the practicum, student teachers are expected
to apply, in real school contexts, all the theory and training previously acquired and taken
in their university education. Nevertheless, as Velez-Rendon (2002) claims, the practicum
frequently becomes a complex process in which student teachers might show concerns
regarding their teaching skills and strategies.
Carrying out the teaching practicum not only serves the purpose of allowing
student teachers to put into practice their university-acquired knowledge, but it also
functions as a way for them to confirm whether they have chosen or not the right career
(Phairee et al., 2008). As Gonzalez and Fuentes (2011) point out, the practicum is an
important feature in the process of teacher education and it represents an excellent
opportunity for student teachers to learn about the teaching profession.
The practicum has been recognised as one of the most important features of the
language teacher education programmes, and according to Richards and Crooks (as cited
in Farrell, 2007) “many preservice teachers assume that they will be able to neatly
translate what they have learnt in their theory into practice” (p. 193), which seems not to
be the case in real teaching contexts. The practicum has also been described as a
265
privileged space to analyse both, the knowledge about teaching and the knowledge
required for teaching, in order to make a reflection on what and how teachers know, how
and who prepares them and how knowledge is spread from theory to practice (Gonzalez &
Fuentes, 2011).
Farrell (2007) has also commented that by the time that student teachers do their
practicum, they have spent more time in the classroom as students than as teachers,
therefore, preservice second language acquisition teachers attribute their initial beliefs to
their own experience as language learners (Busch, 2010). In this regard, Farrell (2007)
claims that these experiences could be more influential on how information on teaching is
integrated into classroom practices during their preservice teaching than what they have
been exposed to in the language teacher education programme. The formal preparation
that student teachers receive in their training courses does not match with the actual
challenges that the real teaching context or setting demands. This situation leads
preservice teachers to disregard the teaching theory while looking for shelter in the
teaching practice routines that help them mitigate the worries and difficulties faced
(Gonzalez & Fuentes, 2011). Numrich (1996), who was a pioneer researcher regarding the
difficulties ESL student teachers face during their practicum, also identified, from the
student teachers’ perspective, this disconnection between theoretical knowledge and real
teaching practice by claiming that “what we may think novice teachers need to learn as
they first set out to teach and what they see as most relevant to their needs may be two
different things” (p. 137).
This idea of the interaction between the practicum and the knowledge obtained by
student teachers during their teacher preparation courses is also mentioned by Stoynoff
(1999), who proposed the first integrated TESOL practicum model in the United States. He
considers that with the purpose of preparing self-aware and skilful teachers who can
perform an effective teaching practice, the academic and field experiences must be
interrelated and complementary parts of a whole, in which ESL or EFL students
simultaneously engage.
According to Stoynoff (1999) there are five main features of a TESOL practicum.
First, the practicum needs to be integrated into an academic programme. Second, the
practicum highlights a team approach which includes the collaboration of mentor teachers,
university supervisors, language programme coordinators and student teachers. As a third
characteristic, the practicum is expected to provide intensive modelling and coaching,
which is closely related to the fourth feature that entails the integration of systematic
observation in an extensive way. Finally, the practicum experience has to be evaluated
through student teachers’ portfolios which show their cumulative development during the
practicum.
As Velez-Rendon (2002) claims, the above mentioned characteristics of a TESOL
practicum described by Stoynoff match the two core approaches to second/foreign
language teacher education. The first approach has to do with promoting the
266
familiarization of prospective teachers with classroom techniques and skills. The second
approach relates to fostering an environment where the student teachers can develop their
own ideology of foreign language teaching in order to reflect on their own learning-to-teach
processes. In the same context, Borg (2011) claims that teacher education programmes
have a considerable impact on teacher’s beliefs because during the classroom practices
they are prone to experience shifts in prior beliefs regarding language teaching and
learning.
Although the relevance of the teaching practicum stage is recognized in ESL/EFL
teacher education programmes, reviews of literature on second/foreign language teaching
and learning by Freeman (2002) and Chiang (2008) indicate that there is a lack of
research specifically concerning the beliefs and experiences of student teachers regarding
the challenges they face during their practicum, as well as their opinion about the causes
that may trigger those challenges.
Prior studies
Some of the papers on this topic are case studies, which focus on the importance of the
practicum on the teaching education process of ESL or EFL student teachers. As well,
there is some specific research concerning the challenges that student teachers face when
performing their preservice teaching or practicum. Most of the qualitative studies on
ESL/EFL student teachers’ practicum experience have been carried out by using the
narrative inquiry as a data collection method. They have been conceived as part of a
phenomenological case study approach, which enables the emphasis on the subjects’
perceptions and beliefs, along with the meanings they construct from the phenomena
under scrutiny.
In the same vein, Gonzalez and Fuentes (2011) carried out a case study in the
field of general education in Spain, titled Practicum in the Learning of Teaching
Professionals. In their conclusions they observe two main points: firstly, the professional
knowledge that student teachers gain through the practicum is an ideal framework to
evaluate the integration of both, academic and practical knowledge. Secondly, future
teachers face the complexity of learning to teach during the practicum because that is the
moment when they experience the challenge to merge their preconceptions about
teaching with the knowledge acquired in their teaching training programme and with the
practical knowledge observed from their teachers. These three convergent elements need
to be harmonized while paying attention to the requirements of the teaching environment
they are immersed in. The former makes it a challenging task for preservice teachers with
little or no experience as educators.
Another interesting case study related to the practicum in an EFL environment
was carried out by Phairee et al. (2008), who examined the EFL teaching practicum that
occurs in Thailand in three different settings: the first one was a four-year BA programme
that offers an additional period for teaching practice; the second one was a regular BA
267
programme at a public university, and the last one was a short TESOL certification course
targeted at foreign people who wanted to become EFL teachers.
In their research, Phairee et al. (2008) point out that the most commonly
mentioned difficulties during the practicum have to do with the student teacher’s anxiety
about their limited English skills and the large class sizes they encounter; although, as a
positive feature, they are usually satisfied with the help provided by their classroom
supervisors and with the amount of time dedicated to lesson planning and preparation.
Other important findings from their study were that students seemed to enjoy teaching in
both contexts, with and without the close supervision of expert teachers, but they believed
that too much of either is counterproductive for their teaching development. Also, teacher
students would normally prefer practical feedback of their teaching performance from the
classroom teacher-supervisors than theoretical knowledge from the university supervisors.
This fully relates with the previously mentioned lack of connection that student teachers
perceive between the theory studied in their programme and the teaching practice carried
out in real school contexts.
Viáfara (2011) also carried out a case study aiming to understand how student
teachers in Colombia face the specific challenge of using English as the language for
instruction in public school classrooms. In relation to the struggle of using English in class
and learning motivation, Viáfara (2011) states that student teachers face the challenge of
using English to communicate with their students in class as some of them believed that
the learners would only understand if Spanish were used for giving instructions or
explanations. According to the participants in the study, when using only English, they felt
lost and as a consequence their interest and motivation in class might fade away.
An additional relevant case study was conducted by Numrich (1996), who carried
out an analysis with novice ESL teachers undertaking a practicum course in a TESOL
master’s degree programme in a public university of the United States. He found out that
other common challenges faced by these student teachers in their preservice were: time
management, giving clear directions, responding to students’ needs, grammar teaching,
and assessing students’ learning. In this study, the participants did not mention the use of
English language as a challenge because the study was conducted in a native English-
speaking context. However, it is important to notice that most of the challenges that novice
teachers deal with are similar regardless of their academic level and background.
The original study
The original case study, from which the present research is a replication and extension,
was carried out at a public university in Hong Kong by Zhendong Gan in 2013, under the
title Learning to Teach English Language in the Practicum: What Challenges do Non-
Native ESL Student Teachers Face? In his study, Gan investigated the challenges that
sixteen non-native preservice teachers from a Bachelor of Education in English Language
programme experienced during an eight-week teaching practicum.
268
His case study collected qualitative data from semi-structured interviews and
reflective journals of the sixteen student teachers, with the purpose of obtaining a detailed
description of the participants’ perceptions of their field-based practicum experiences. As
well as in this study, Gan’s research attempted to answer two research questions: the first
one had to do with the challenges that a group of non-native preservice ESL student
teachers experienced during the teaching practicum; and the second one related to the
possible issues that contributed to the challenges experienced by the participants. In his
findings, Gan (2013) states that the practicum was characterized by a reality shock that
occurred as a result of the difficulties in using the pedagogical practices that student
teachers were taught in their bachelor’s programme, and the lack of classroom
management strategies. As the researcher mentions, “this reality shock could destabilize
the already anxious student teachers and have adverse effects well beyond the eight-week
teaching practicum” (p. 92).
The challenges these ESL student teachers faced were largely related to the use
of innovative teaching practices, learning motivation, classroom management, discipline
problems, and using English as the language for instruction and communication.
According to Gan (2013), when the practicum started, the majority of the student teachers,
after having spent more than three years with theoretical preparation, felt properly
equipped to teach. However, after the first few days, they realized that it was difficult for
them to put into practice the teaching methods and theory they had learnt, and
simultaneously deal with the amount of workload that lesson planning meant, especially if
they had a class with discipline issues. Certainly, Gan’s findings coincide with the results
from the different case studies mentioned above. Thus, we can infer that: student teachers
seem to face similar challenges during their practicum regardless their academic
background, location and school context.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES
Having gathered information concerning the topic that intrigued us, the questions that
guided the present study are:
What challenges do non-native EFL student teachers from the UV English
BA programme face during their practicum?
What might contribute to the challenges faced by the participants from both,
their own perspective and the researcher’s view?
Accordingly, the objectives of this case study are:
To identify the challenges faced by non-native EFL student teachers from
the University of Veracruz English BA programme during their Practicum.
269
To investigate the reasons that contributed to the appearance of these
challenges
METHODOLOGY
In this section, the research method used, as well as the context of the research and the
participants of the study are described.
Research Design
In order to select the appropriate methodology for this research project, three aspects
were taken into consideration: the topic of investigation, the aim of the research project,
and the type of data to be collected. For this reason, the phenomenological case study
design was chosen because it is a suitable approach to obtain knowledge regarding not
only the subjects’ beliefs, opinions and perspectives, but also the reasoning behind the
problems encountered.
According to Merriam (as cited in Gan, 2013), a case is “a phenomenon that is
inherently bounded, with a finite amount of time for data collection or a limited number of
people who could be interviewed or observed” (p. 97). The focus given to this research
topic perfectly fits with a case study because its length was determined by the duration of
the preservice practicum of eleven student teachers who were interviewed and observed
as part of the data collection cycle.
As Creswell (2014) explains, a case study approach allows the researcher to
gather information from different data collection instruments and sources. Therefore, by
considering this approach, I was able to obtain specific and detailed information about the
eleven participants interviewed and observed with the purpose of analysing the data
obtained from all the cases. Hayes (2000) mentions that educational case studies mainly
use typical representatives of groups, but they may also provide information on the unique
features of particular individuals. For this reason, the participants are classified as a group
case study but they could also be analysed as a person case study.
As Richards (2003) mentions, a qualitative approach has the advantage of being
a person-centred task and it is therefore particularly appropriate in the field of language
teaching. The intention of performing this case study was to generate knowledge based on
the experiences and views that student teachers have about the challenges they faced
during their practicum.
According to Nunan (2010), case studies involve selecting an instance from all the
possible objects and phenomena to investigate, and they are a well-known approach in
second language acquisition research. Along the same lines, Shulman (1992) describes
270
them as a third-person narration which portrays the observations made on the subject
given. He also states that case studies can be either registered or displayed events or a
set of occasions with the boundaries delimited.
Besides the great advantage that case studies provide when researching about
perspectives or documenting events, they also have a relevant pedagogical value. As
stated by Shulman (1992) “cases and case methods are employed to teach (1) principles
or concepts of a theoretical nature, (2) precedents for practice, (3) morals or ethics, (4)
strategies dispositions and habits of mind, and (5) visions or images of the possible” (p.2).
Taking Shulman’s statement into account, the value of the present case study is related to
“precedents for practice” and “visions or images of the possible”, because the knowledge
obtained from the experience of eleven student teachers could function as a precedent to
other people immersed in the field of English language teaching. Furthermore, the purpose
of it is to make use of that knowledge in order to set the basis for a possible improvement
plan in the language teaching practice area for those involved in English Language
Teaching degrees whether they are student teachers or teacher educators.
Hence, the present research was entirely a qualitative case study because its
main objective was to investigate the perceptions that a group of student teachers had with
regard to both, the challenges they faced during their practicum, and the possible reasons
behind them. It was carried out from February to May 2017, and it was developed counting
on the participation of student teachers who were doing their practicum as part of their
English Language degree in a Mexican public university. The three data collection
methods used in this investigation were observation, interview and document review due
to the fact that they reflect the perspectives, beliefs and opinions of the subjects with
respect to the focus of study.
Context
This study was carried out in a group of the four-year Bachelor of Arts in English Language
Programme from the School of Languages of the University of Veracruz. The curriculum of
this programme was introduced in 2008 and comprises General Education, Discipline
Studies (e.g., English language courses, Spanish and English comparative linguistics,
English literature, English culture, grammar, phonology, among others) and Professional
Studies targeted to teaching and translation (e.g., language learning theories, EFL
teaching methodology, teaching practice, translation and advanced literature courses).
In this programme, the students take a mandatory course named Teaching
Practice Planning, which requires them to carry out a twelve-week preservice practicum as
part of their coursework assessment. The practicum can be done at the school of their
choice and it is intended as a platform for students to accomplish two goals: to put into
practise the knowledge acquired during the previous courses and to develop awareness of
the English language teaching and learning in either public or private schools at any
educational level from kindergarten to university in Mexico. That is, the purpose of the
271
practicum is to provide student teachers with a link to a real teaching context where they
can practise their language teaching skills in front of a group under the supervision of
classroom teachers and the professor in charge of the Teaching Practice Planning course.
The twelve-week teaching practicum is performed during the third year of their degree and
it is directly linked to previous subjects such as language learning theories, EFL teaching
methodology and assessment.
Participants
The participants of this study were eleven student teachers, who spoke Spanish as their
native tongue, and were enrolled in an English Language BA programme at a Mexican
university. Nine out of the eleven participants were female. Pseudonyms were used to
protect the anonymity of the participants, except for those student teachers who stated, in
the consent form, that their given names could appear on the paper.
At the moment when the present case study took place, all participants were
studying the fifth semester of their degree and they had been trained in English language
with an emphasis on EFL teaching. Their English BA programme mainly focused on
English language and culture during the first two years of the curriculum, and afterwards,
they took subjects specialized in English language teaching as well as courses related to
literature and translation.
Once we had explained the purpose and procedure of this study, all the students
signed a consent form to participate in the three stages of data collection: interview, class
observation and submission of their reflective journal, which functioned as document
review. All participants completed the interview and reflective journals, but only six of them
were randomly selected to be observed during two sessions of their practicum.
Data collection instruments
As mentioned before, the present research is a phenomenological case study with a focus
on qualitative data. As Burns (2010) claims, qualitative data collection requires direct
interaction with the participants either on a personal basis or within a group. For this
reason, the data collection methods chosen were observation, interview and document
review. For each method, one instrument was created in order to obtain as much data as
possible, and with the intention to triangulate the information gathered.
In the original case study (from which this is a replication and extension) by Gan
(2013), only two data collection instruments were used: a semi-structured interview and a
reflective journal. However, this case study integrated class observation as an additional
tool to explore further the challenges that student teachers face not only from their own
272
perception, but also from an observer’s perspective, that is, the researcher’s interpretation
of what she observed.
Data was collected during the twelve-week practicum, in a schedule arranged with
the student teachers and based on their teaching hours and availability. In the following
sections, each method and instrument is described separately.
The class observation log
One of the data collection methods utilized was the non-participant observation, through a
class observation log. Durepos, Mills and Wiebe (2010) state that non-participant
observation refers to observing subjects without actively participating in the setting and it is
used to understand a phenomenon by accessing the community studied, while remaining
apart from the activities under observation. As Liu and Maitlis (2010) mention, non-
participant observation is frequently applied along with other data collection methods, and
can offer “a more nuanced and dynamic appreciation of situations that cannot be as easily
captured through other methods” (p. 610).
Only six out of the eleven participants were randomly selected to be observed in
two different teaching sessions, with a timespan of three weeks between the first and the
second observation. The first observation was carried out in the fourth week of their
practicum, whereas the second one was done on the seventh week, closer to the end of
their preservice teaching.
With the purpose of scheduling the class observations, student teachers were
required to confirm the session with the observer one week in advance. This means that in
both class observations, the participants knew beforehand when the observation would
take place, so that they could ask for permission from the administrative staff of the school
they were teaching at, and make all necessary arrangements. Furthermore, the researcher
was also in charge of asking for the necessary authorizations in advance.
The class observation log was created as a simple and flexible format in which the
observer could register all the information collected using both, descriptive and focused
observation. As Liu and Maitlis (2010) claim, “in a descriptive observation, researchers
carry out broad scope observation to get an overview of the setting while in focused
observation they start to pay attention to a narrower portion of the activities that most
interest them” (p. 612).
Based on these two types of observation, in the class observation log the aspects:
class profile, school environment, lesson planning, and class development, along with the
student teacher’s language performance are part of the descriptive observation. This gave
273
space to the focused observation of the challenges that the student teachers seemed to be
facing during their class session as well as the possible reasons for they occurrence.
For the purpose of collecting information from the observation in the most
accurate and complete possible way, the class observation log was filled in throughout the
class, and as soon as the class ended I recorded any further comments based on the
notes taken.
The semi-structured interview
For this case study, the data collection started with the class observation and it was
followed by a semi-structured interview. As Bernard (1988) mentions, semi-structured
interviews are often preceded by observation in order to allow the researchers to develop a
better understanding of the topic of interest necessary for developing relevant and
meaningful questions.
According to Richards (2003), in a qualitative interview the researcher needs to go
deeper and to pursue comprehension in all its forms regardless how complex or elusive
the communication can be; and to obtain this, it is necessary to establish a relationship
with the participants with the purpose of understanding their perception of the context
studied.
Particularly related to semi-structured interview, Given (2008) defines it as a
qualitative data collection strategy in which the researcher asks informants a series of
predetermined but open-ended questions. She also claims that the advantages of using
this type of interviews are: on the one hand that the researcher has more control over the
topics of the interview than in unstructured interviews; and on the other hand, the research
themes can be expanded as much as needed, in contrast to what occurs in structured
interviews. Therefore, a semi-structured qualitative interview was selected as a research
instrument with the purpose of obtaining a first-hand description of the perceptions and
beliefs that each student teacher had regarding the challenges faced and their possible
origin. The justification and validity of this semi-structured interview are based on the fact
that the eleven participants are a representative sample of the context of this case study:
EFL student teachers from the English Language BA carrying out their practicum. As
Patton (2015) explains, a sample is any part of the fully defined population and to make
accurate inferences, the sample has to be representative. Thus, a representative sample
is one in which each and every member of the population has an equal and mutually
exclusive chance of being selected.
The semi-structured interview guide contained nineteen questions divided into the
following four topics: school context; expectations and school environment; difficulties
encountered throughout the practicum, and lastly, academic preparation and ways to
overcome challenges (Fig. 1). The first topic mainly contained open questions and its
purpose was to obtain as much background information as possible about the school
274
where the practicum was carried out. On the other hand, the next three topics were open
questions, which mainly required the description of events, by using a lead question along
with multiple probe questions used or dismissed according to the answers given. The
interviews were conducted in a one to one basis to the eleven participants, and all of them
were recorded and had an estimated duration of 50 to 60 minutes each. They were
scheduled three weeks in advance based on the availability of the participants; and with
the purpose of creating a friendly atmosphere for the participants so that this encouraged
them to have a more direct interaction with the interviewer, they took place in a small café
near the Languages School.
Questionnaire for semi-structured interview
This semi-structured interview has the purpose of obtaining information that answers the two research questions by analyzing the research issue through four topics.
Topic 1: School context
1. Name: _______________________________________
2. School you are teaching at: _______________________________________
3. What type of school is it?
A) Preschool( ) Elementary School ( ) Secondary School ( ) High School ( ) University ( ) Language Centre ( )
B) Public ( ) Private ( )
4. How many groups do you have?
1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( )
5. How many students do you have in each group?
Topic 2: Expectations and School Environment
1. Mention the expectations you had before you started the practicum.
2. Describe how you feel during your practicum
3. Tell me about the relationship you have with the people you work with: students, teachers, school principal, administrative staff, and any other people you meet.
Topic 3: Difficulties encountered throughout the teaching practice
4. Describe the teaching method you are currently using.
5. Describe the topic of your last class and how you taught it.
6. Have you experienced any difficulties with your lesson planning and all the preparation ahead of lessons?
275
Group 1: ____ Group 2: ____ Group 3: ____
6. What age are your students?
Group 1: ___ to __ Group 2: ___ to ___
Group 3: ___ to ___
7. Days and hours when you teach:
Days: M ( ) Tu ( )W ( ) Th ( ) F ( ) Sa ( ) Su ( )
Time: from _________ to ___________
8. How did you obtain a place to do your preservice in this school?
7. Think of the challenges that you have encountered when teaching.
8. From the challenges you mentioned, which is the most difficult to face?
Topic 4: Academic preparation and overcoming challenges
9. Mention the subjects from the BA that have been more useful to your practicum.
10. Do you think that the teaching training you have received until now in your BA is sufficient to succeed in your practicum?
11. Mention some strategies that you have used or that you could use to overcome the challenges faced during your practicum.
Figure 1. Questionnaire for semi-structured interview. This figure shows the questions used during the interview with the participants.
Another important aspect to mention is that the interview guide was written in English and it was originally planned to be carried out in English due to the expected proficient level of all the participants. However, at the beginning of the interview they were given the option to be interviewed in the language of their preference, English or Spanish. The majority of them answered in English but some of them claimed to feel more comfortable using their native language. During the interview, notes of the participants’ most relevant answers were taken along with the audio recording. The participants were informed that follow-up emails or phone calls might be made later on, in case any part of their interview needed to be retaken or expanded.
The reflective journal
The last method of data collection applied was document review, being a reflective journal, an instrument derived from such method, what the participants provided to us. According to Anderson and Carden (as cited in Bretschneider & Cirilli, 2017), document review is defined as a way of collecting data by reviewing existing documents which may be internal or external to a program or organization. Besides, reviewing documents is useful for
276
answering basic evaluation questions related to the perceptions of participants. Documents may be hard copy or electronic and may include reports, program logs, performance ratings, essays, letters, funding proposals, meeting minutes or any other form of writing.
Document review was successfully included in this case study by using, as an
instrument for data collection, the electronic copy of the reflective journal (in English) that student teachers are required to submit as part of the assessment criteria for the Teaching Practice Planning subject. This reflective journal is a 1000-word essay in which they make a detailed description of how the practicum helped them in their teaching development with regard to what they have learnt, the problems faced and the solutions implemented.
Bailey, Curtis and Nunan (2001) define reflective journals as “a first person
account of a language learning or teaching experience, documented through regular, candid entries later on analysed for recurring patterns or salient events” (p. 124). The purpose of using a self-reflective journal is to identify issues or challenges that occur in class in order to carry out a self-analysis which might lead to actions to overcome such difficulties. The advantages of keeping a journal were summarized by Richards and Lockhart (1996) who claim that journals can increase the teacher’s knowledge of the way he or she teaches and they serve as a source of questions and hypotheses about teaching while offering direct record of classroom events and experiences which is undisturbed by an outside observer.
As mentioned before, this instrument of data collection already existed because it
is part of the evaluation system for the course. However, before the beginning of the course, the professor in charge of this subject allowed a few changes in the reflective journal guideline that would be given to the student teachers. Four questions, fully related to the research objectives of this case study, were added, and the amount of words to write in that specific section of the paper was expanded from 500 to 700.
These modifications to the reflective journal guidelines enabled the researcher to
obtain more meaningful information from the document review, because the participants focused a good part of their essay on the challenges encountered and the reasons of such challenges, according to them. The reflective journals were written by the student teachers in the last week of the course, immediately after the end of their practicum, and they were submitted electronically to their professor and to me.
To recapitulate, three methods of data collection were used and one instrument
was created for each of these methods: the first method was observation with a class observation log; the second one was interview through a semi-structured interview guide; and lastly, document review in the form of reflective journals written by the participants. Data analysis Once the data collection procedures had been completed, the analysis of the data obtained from all three instruments was analysed through two types of methods by using an open-coding system. The analysis process is described below. Triangulation in qualitative research
277
As mentioned before, the instruments for data collection in the present case study are: a class observation log, a semi-structured interview and a reflective journal collected from each of the eleven participants.
Based on the number of instruments used, and the sources of the information
obtained, it was decided that triangulation was a suitable method for completing the data analysis. Triangulation is defined by Cresswell (2014) as a strategy to ensure internal validity used in qualitative research that involves cross-checking multiple data sources and collection procedures to evaluate the extent to which all evidence converges.
According to Patton (1999), triangulation refers to the use of multiple methods and
data sources in qualitative research to develop a comprehensive understanding of phenomena. With regard to the teaching area, Elliot & Adelman (as cited in Hopkins, 1993) describe triangulation as a technique that involves gathering accounts of a teaching situation from three different perspectives; which in a school context could normally be the teacher, the pupils and an observer.
As Patton (2015) claims, triangulation enables to assure the validity of research
through the application of a variety of methods to collect data on the same topic, which involves different types of samples as well as methods of data collection. However, the purpose of triangulation is not necessarily to cross-validate data, but rather to capture different dimensions of the same phenomenon. In the same vein, Patton (1999) identified four types of triangulation: (a) methods triangulation, (b) analyst triangulation, (c) theory triangulation, and (d) triangulation of sources. From these four types, the methods triangulation and the triangulation of sources were the most suitable for understanding the findings achieved from analysing the data of this case study.
Patton (2015) describes methods triangulation as the use of multiple instruments
of data collection about the same topic which is frequently used in qualitative studies as it may include interviews, observation and field notes. On the other hand, triangulation of sources involves the collection of data from different types of people, including individuals, groups, families and communities, to gain multiple perspectives and validation of data. Accordingly, as it has been mentioned, this case study includes three instruments of data collection (observation, interview and document review) from two different types of people (preservice teachers and observer).
Open-coding for data analysis
As Coffey & Atkinson (2013) claim, the analysis of qualitative data start with the identification of key themes or patterns and this depends on processes of coding data. They define Coding as the process of generating concepts from and with our data in which big amounts of information is condensed into analysable units by creating categories.
Richards (2003) states that there are three different types of coding: open coding,
axial coding and selective coding. For the purpose of analysing the data collected in this case study, open coding was used because, as Richards (2003) explains, this process enables breaking down the data in order to categorise, conceptualise and compare it.
278
For their part, Strauss & Corbin (as cited in Lankshear & Knobel, 2004) describe open coding as the process of: (1) breaking down data into discrete parts, (2) examining these parts closely and comparing them for similarities and differences and (3) asking questions about the phenomena by comparing and contrasting.
Due to the fact that the purpose of analysing data collected throughout three
instruments is to look for convergent ideas and discrepancies between the observer’s field notes and the participants’ spoken and written comments, the best way to identify categories was through the use of open codes generated during the first reviews that focused on labelling and classifying the data collected.
PRELIMINARY FINDINGS
After considerable revision and refinement, the open codes that emerged during the data analysis were subsequently clustered into subcategories (subthemes) and broader categories (themes) which can be supported by theoretical framework, as well as by evidence from the data. Thus, the preliminary analysis of the data revealed three major themes, which arose from their corresponding subthemes and are numbered here. That is to say, the three major types of challenges (themes) that preservice teachers face during their practicum are:
1. Classroom management and organisation 1.1 Lack of classroom management strategies and procedures. 1.2 Students’ behaviour
The challenge that was more frequently mentioned and clearly identified
throughout the study was classroom management and organisation. Based on the observer’s field notes, most of the participants who were observed during two sessions of their practicum seemed to struggle with classroom management and organisation. This issue was also mentioned by some of the student teachers in both, the interview and the reflective journal.
Facing the challenge of classroom management and organisation is not exclusive
of preservice teachers. According to Sokal, Smith, & Mowat (2003), both novice and experienced teachers consider classroom management to be a high priority and an area of concern.
Regarding students’ behaviour, Farrell (2007) claims that the formal preparation
that student teachers receive in their training courses does not match with the actual challenges that the real teaching context or setting demands, and student behaviour is one of the topics that are not usually covered in TEFL training courses.
2. Implementation of the previous teaching practice 2.1 Insufficient teaching training and experience 2.2 Gap between theoretical knowledge and praxis
279
The second more frequently addressed challenge was the struggle from the
student teachers to implement the teaching practice they had built during the BA into real teaching scenarios. This might be because as Farrell (2007) asserts, student teachers who carry out their practicum have spent more time in the classroom as students than as student teachers.
Relatedly, Gonzalez and Fuentes (2011) point out that the practicum is a very
important feature in the process of teacher education and that it represents an excellent opportunity for student teachers to learn about the teaching profession. 3. Limited English proficiency
The third challenge has to do with the barrier that the dominium level of English
language sets for teaching and communication within the classroom. The probable cause of this challenge appears to be only one: the limited English proficiency from both, the student teachers and the learners. On the student teachers’ side, their language skills seemed to stop them to carry out a meaningful class in the target language; whereas on the students’ side it seemed to be their limited/inexistent English knowledge at times caused by their lack of interest in the target language.
Language in use as the cause of the third challenge was observed on the open
codes that emerged on this topic: language errors from the student teacher, students’ language level lower than expected and students’ reluctance to learn English.
The data also indicated that some student teachers experience difficulty in
speaking English as the main language to be used for instruction giving, class presentation or any further explanation. Most of them actually switch to Spanish in order to provide clear instructions or coherent explanations of language points. This language barrier causes therefore a challenge for student teachers because as Richards (2010) claims, language proficiency is the top skill among the ten basic components of language teaching expertise.
PRELIMINARY CONCLUSIONS
To translate the preliminary findings into practical knowledge, it was important to process all the information provided by the class observation logs, semi-structured interviews and reflective journals. Thus, some preliminary conclusions can be drawn here. Firstly, the information provided by the triangulation of sources suggests that the three challenges found (classroom management issues, implementation of the teaching practice, and limited English proficiency) are applicable to all participants regardless their practicum’s context. Secondly, it was observed that some of the abovementioned challenges faced by Mexican preservice teachers can also be found in certain English language teaching contexts portraying non-native student teachers in Hong Kong (Gan, 2013), Colombia (Viafara, 2011), Spain (Gonzalez & Fuentes, 2011) and Thailand (Phairee et al. 2008). Nevertheless, as noted in the literature review, each of those studies have a particular research focus and they do not mention the exact three challenges found in this case study. Lastly, it was interesting to find a mismatch between the observer’s and the participants’ view regarding the issue of English proficiency as a barrier for teaching and communication. While the observer made comments on the fact that some participants faced serious difficulties due to their low English level, none of them addressed this issue
280
as something to be personally improved, and they actually blamed the students’ lack of communication in English as the main cause to make them hesitant to use English for teaching and communicating.
Therefore, the findings reported in this study imply an urgent need for both, the
programme’s curriculum and the teacher educators, to discuss the challenges that student teachers face during their practicum and begin the implementation of innovative teaching practices, classroom management strategies and more effective English language learning programmes to ensure a comprehensive preparation for student teachers to succeed in their practicum and in their future teaching career.
REFERENCES Bailey, K., Curtis, A., & Nunan, D. (2001). Pursuing Professional Development The Self as
Source. Canada: Heinle ELT.
Borg, S. (2011). The impact of in-service teacher education on language teachers’ beliefs.
System, 39(3), 370-380. Bretschneider, P. and Cirilli, S. (2017). Document Review as a Qualitative Research Data
Collection Method for Teacher Research. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.
Burns, A. (2010). Doing Action Research in English Language Teaching: a Guide for
Practitioners. New York: Routledge. Busch, D. (2010). Pre-service teacher beliefs about language learning: The second
language acquisition course as an agent for change. Language Teaching Research, 14(3), 318-337.
Chiang, M. (2008) Effects of fieldwork experience on empowering prospective foreign
language teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24(5), 1270–1287. Coffey, A., & Atkinson, P. (2013). Making Sense of Qualitative Data. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage Publications. Creswell, J. (2014). Research Design. Los Angeles: SAGE Publications. Durepos, G., Mills, A. & Wiebe, E. (2010). Encyclopedia of case study research. Los
Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications. Farrell, T. (2007). Failing the practicum: Narrowing the gap between expectations and
reality with reflective practice. TESOL Quarterly, 41(1), 193-201. Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: Teacher knowledge and learning to
teach. Language Teaching, 35(1), 1–13. Gan, Z. (2013). Learning to Teach English Language in the Practicum: What Challenges
do Non-Native ESL Student Teachers Face?. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(3), 92-108.
281
Given, L. (2008). The SAGE encyclopaedia of qualitative research methods. Los Angeles,
CA: SAGE Publications. Gonzalez, M., & Fuentes, E. (2011). Practicum in the learning of teaching
professionals. Revista de Educación, 354 (1), 47-69. Hayes, N. (2000). Doing Psychological Research. Gathering and analysing data.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Hopkins, D. (1993). eac er’s Guide to Classroom Researc . (2nd ed.) England: Open
University Press. Lankshear, C., & Knobel, M. (2004). A Handbook for Teacher Research: from design to
implementation. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill International. Liu, F., & Maitlis, S. (2010 . Encyclopaedia o Case Study Researc . Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications. Retrieved from http://srmo.sagepub.com/view/encyc-of-case-study-research/n229.xml
Numrich, C. (1996). On becoming a language teacher: Insights from diary studies. TESOL
Quarterly, 30, 131–53. Nunan, D. (2010). Research Methods in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. Patton, M. (1999). Enhancing the quality and credibility of qualitative analysis. HSR: Health
Services Research, 34 (5) Part II, 1189-1208 Patton, M. (2015). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (4th ed.).Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications. Phairee, C., Sanitchon, N., Suphanangthong, I., Graham, S., Promprung, J., De Groot, F.,
& Hopkins, D. (2008). The Teaching Practicum in Thailand: Three Perspectives.
TESOL Quarterly, 42 (4), 655-659. Richards, K. (2003). Qualitative inquiry in TESOL. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Richards, J. C., & Lockhart, C. (1996). Reflective Teaching in Second
Language Classrooms (6th ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. Richards, J. C. (2010). Competence and performance in language teaching. RELC
Journal, 41, 101–122. Shulman, L. S. (1992). Toward a pedagogy of cases. Case methods in teacher education.
New York: Teachers College Press. Sokal, L., Smith, G., & Mowat, D. (2003). Alternative Certification Teachers' Attitudes
Toward Classroom Management. The High School Journal. 86(4), 8-16.
282
Stoynoff, C. (1999). The TESOL Practicum: An Integrated Model in the U.S. TESOL Quarterly, 33 (1), 145-151.
Vélez-Rendón, G. (2002). Second Language Teacher Education: A Review of the
Literature. Foreign Language Annals, 35(4), 457-467. Viáfara, J. (2011). How Do EFL Student Teachers Face the Challenge of Using L2
in Public School Classrooms?. ROFILE Issues in eac ers’ ro essional
Development, 13(1), 55-74.
LAS AUTORAS STEPHANY CORTÉS ROGEL. Licenciada en Lengua Inglesa por la Universidad Veracruzana. Maestra en Enseñanza del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera (PNPC) por la Universidad Veracruzana. Tiene experiencia como docente de inglés a nivel universitario en México, y ha trabajado como profesora de español en el Reino Unido y Estados Unidos. [email protected] LUZ EDITH HERRERA DÍAZ. Doctora en Lingüística Aplicada; trabaja en la Universidad Veracruzana como asesora en el Centro de Auto Acceso. Es profesora en el Centro de Idiomas Veracruz, en la Maestría en Enseñanza del Inglés como Lengua Extranjera (PNPC) y en el Doctorado en Sistemas y Ambientes Educativos (PNPC). Sus intereses de investigación son: la adopción e implementación contextualizada de innovaciones educativas y las modalidades de enseñanza-aprendizaje de lenguas extranjeras. [email protected]
283
STUDENT-TEACHERS EXPERIENCES ON PROJECT BASED
LEARNING IN A SYLLABUS DESIGN COURSE.
Leticia Estudillo León Sara Merino Munive
Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Initial Teacher Education in English Language Teaching, henceforth IELTE, implies a
challenge for teacher educators specifically in the Mexican context as most of the student-
teachers are very young or without any experience or education as teachers, most of the
teaching experiences they have had are related to be in the classrooms as students, thus
these experiences determine the way they perceive teaching. Additionally, student-
teachers in IELTE tend to feel particularly frustrated when the pedagogy used to teach
them does not have a practical component as it does not allow them to clearly understand
the purpose of the content subjects related to the teaching matters. Hence, the purpose of
this paper is to elucidate the experience of using Project Based Learning (PBL) with IELTE
student-teachers in a syllabus design course. Sixteen student-teachers worked in teams to
design a language syllabus by steps, they did the design within a real context reflecting on
the experience with their team, classmates and the professor, they were also asked to
write a final reflection on the experience. From the analysis of the reflection three themes
emerged 1) Working on the project of a syllabus design was significant, 2) Seeing
themselves as teachers or in the profession, and 3) Self and the others. The conclusions
drawn are that PBL in our IELTE program is an effective method. It supported learning the
matters of syllabus design as it contextualized the subject content, and the student-
teachers could realize that theory has to be interpreted according to their local educational
settings of practice. Through reflection, the student-teachers revisited the whole process
they followed when designing a syllabus, they could notice that interacting within the real
context, themselves and the others, their learning was worthwhile. Moreover,
implementing the use of PBL in designing a syllabus enhanced our cognition on how a
sociocultural approach of teacher education might support the professionalization of our
Mexican English language teachers since they are in early stages of teacher education.
Key words: Project based learning, reflection, second language teacher education,
sociocultural approach in teacher education.
INTRODUCTION
Certainly, being a professor in IELTE becomes a challenge when we try student-teachers
to construct knowledge from theory to practice. Most of us struggle trying to find suitable
approaches and techniques for student-teachers to grasp, get and use the subject matters
284
of teaching. IELTE plays a significant role in the perception of the professional and
personal lives of teachers. Entering into the reality of schools and classrooms is a shock or
the so termed "reality shock" (Veenman, 1984, p.143), what they have studied in their
IELTE programs does not make sense with what they encounter in the reality. Therefore,
there should be emphasis on the knowledge base they receive in their initial education
programs and the pedagogy used with them to connect English Language Teaching (ELT)
theory and the reality of teachers inside educational institutions.
Student-teachers do not perceive the utility of the subjects, predominantly when
they are fully lecture/theory oriented without any practical application in real context as
stated by Farrell (2016) “very few” teacher education programs are concerned with “how
teachers can put into practice what they have learned”. (p.98). Then we, teacher educators
must find ways to support student-teachers to develop real life application of pedagogical
content or i.e. “A persistent challenge for language teacher education is to create
learning/teaching opportunities that foster the development of L2 teacher pedagogical
content knowledge” (Johnson & Golombek, 2016, p.11).
One prominent construct to support our teacher education challenges mentioned
above, relates to the perspective that knowledge is situated, meaning that it takes place
when apprentices participate in the so termed communities of practice as social processes
(Lave & Wenger, 1991). The application of the former perspective to our field implies that a
community of practice provides opportunities of constructing teaching knowledge by
having the experience of being actively participating in it, as much as student-teachers
participate in the community of practice of Second Language (L2), as much as they
develop knowledge about teaching and its subjacent activities.
In this article we present the findings on using PBL and reflection as an
opportunity to foster student-teachers’ meaningful learning experiences in real context,
and as a tool for situated learning within a sociocultural approach of teacher education.
PBL has been widely used to teach languages and content knowledge and it has also
been researched and documented as a hallmark for effective learning (Thomas, 2000).
However, there is little research on using it in IELTE as useful to encourage and evaluate
student-teachers’ professional development during the process of learning the subject
matters of ELT. Additionally, this article intends to contribute to the need of documenting
studies or research on understandings about the participation of teachers in communities
of practice as stated by Freeman and Johnson (1998) in their article “Reconceptualizing
Knowledge-Base of Language Teacher Education.”
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
A sociocultural approach in teacher education
In 2009, Burns and Richards stated the need to formulate inquiry on how to educate
English teachers since English became the global channel of communication and the
285
demand of efficient teachers increased. This fact has been a challenge for language
teacher educators, leading them to formulate enquiry on the same matters as Bailey
(2001) affirms:
English is taught by a variety of people around the world-trained and
untrained teachers, native and non-native speakers. Effective English
learning depends to a large extent on appropriate teaching. Therefore,
research questions arise about appropriate initial teacher preparation
and the continued professional development of teachers throughout
their careers. (p.609)
In trying to answer the former enquiry, one of the most prevalent theories that has
been generating understandings on initial and continued teacher education, is the
sociocultural theory.
Therefore, the theory that frames this paper is related to a sociocultural approach
in teacher education, this approach focuses on the perspective on teacher learning by
Johnson and Golombek (2016), whose pedagogical stance is based on Vygotsky´s
sociocultural theory of human cognition. Within this perspective, human cognition develops
when individuals interact socially and internalize knowledge by using mediation tools. In
this line L2 teacher education sees “learners of L2 teaching through direct social
interactions (teacher-teacher educator interaction) and cultural artifacts (theory and
research, i.e., academic concepts instantiated in books, articles, curricular materials,
assessments), and through the internalization of ways of talking about language, teaching,
learning, and students” (Johnson & Golombek, 2016, p.7).
Continuing with the same perspective and from the same authors above, L2
teaching education programs are optimal opportunities for learning the teaching matters,
especially when instruction is purposeful and well organized in a way that student-teachers
can accommodate academic concepts into real-life situations and real-life situations into
academic concepts. This is possible by interacting externally in the real teaching life to
collect experiences and incorporate them to the academic concepts mediated by teacher
educators and ways for systematic learning, so the results of this type of instruction is the
production of true concepts used in teaching life. i.e. “When [student] teachers begin to
use true concepts as tools for thinking (psychological tools), they begin to see classroom
life and the activities of teaching/learning though new theoretical lenses” (Johnson &
Golombek, 2016, p.5).
Similarly a socially-situated perspective (Freeman & Johnson, 2001)
acknowledges that the process of learning to teach is socially negotiated; therefore, it has
been conceived as an endured process that is the product of participating in the
communities where learning and teaching take place. According to Lave and Wenger
(1991), a community of practice is where social learning occurs; for that, it must have three
essential components: the first, a community of practice has an identity based on the
286
specific interest, occupation or discipline of the participants. The second, it is focused on
the interactions that are established by the members of the community; such as sharing,
establishing and maintaining relationships with others, and learning from each other. The
third is that the members have to be practitioners with experiences that can be shared and
used by the participants of the community. Novices enter a community of practice and they
move further by interacting with experts there, this type of interaction is named Legitimate
Peripheral Participation (LPP), meaning that the learners move from the periphery or the
surroundings to the center of an activity or occupation.
Then, we consider that learning the matters of second language teaching is
socially constructed and negotiated in a community of practice, including situated learning
and implying that living the experience in context is more fruitful than accumulating
knowledge.
Hence, this article is framed by the sociocultural perspective (Johnson &
Golombek, 2016). Student-teachers should be early exposed to use psychological tools to
mediate their mental activity for developing lifelong learning professional abilities to
support the development of expertise on L2 syllabi design, mediated by interacting with the
existing theory, the experts and real context, named a community of practice (Lave and
Wenger, 1991). Within this framework we find PBL as a purposeful activity for engaging
student-teachers in a sociocultural approach as described next.
Project based learning
Boss, Larmer and Mergendoller (2013) define Project based Learning (PBL) as a teaching
method that promotes students effective learning of significant knowledge and the
development of 21st century competencies through the influence of deep and factual
questions to obtain precise products and learning tasks. From this definition and according
to the same author, PBL encourages high levels of engagement because students have
solid reasons to know as they are driven by the challenge to achieve a task for solving real
life problems, this resulting in meaningful and lasting knowledge.
Implementing PBL should include 8 essential elements: 1) Significant content; the
matter should be important for students and adopted from academic subject disciplines; 2)
Focusing on the development of 21st century competencies such as critical thinking,
problem solving, collaboration, communication, creativity and innovation; 3) In depth
inquiry: students have to be involved in such a manner that they create questions to be
solved by using resources; 4) A driving question that guides the students to the task they
have to complete; 5) Need to know, meaning that students need to know and grasp theory
and principles to create a product with curiosity and inspiration; 6) Voice and choice:
students are given the opportunity to decide on some characteristics of the product and
the management of the activities and the time to complete them; 7) Revision and
reflection: the students are given feedback to improve and reflect on what they are
287
learning; 8) Public audience: student should present their product to a different audience to
classmates and the teacher.
Some of the results of using PBL are that students engage in their own
community and encourage students to master academic knowledge by practicing the
following: critical thinking, valuation of sources, investigate with experts and expand their
information literacy skills.
Regarding PBL in Second Language Teacher Education, Roessingh and Chambers
(2011), describe their experience on using it at undergraduate and graduate levels, in the
Faculty of Education of the University of Calgary. They remark that PBL has been used in
this context as an approach to promote “good communication skills, creative and critical
thinking skills, and a mindset for problem solving and innovation in a world that is
increasingly complex and unpredictable” (p. 60). As a result, the implementation of PBL in
second language teacher education requires 8 principles:
1. The Instructor Requires Content Area Expertise and Pedagogical Competence.
This principle underlines that the instructor must be knowledgeable of two essential
aspects: the subject matter under study and the pedagogical organization of the tasks that
integrate a project.
2. Instructional Design is Learner Centered and Flexible. It refers to the involvement of
activities centered on activating learners’ previous knowledge and experiences which are
shared in collaboration to promote the construction of new understandings on specific
learning points required by the learners.
3. A Central Question(s) or Problem Focuses and Provides the Catalyst for
Learning. A problem or a set of questions have to be stated to generate some sort of
difficulty to motivate students learning.
4. Teaching and Learning Objectives are Explicit. The teacher and the students must
have a clear idea on the whats and the hows expected, they guide the direction for
creating the conditions of the teachers and learners’ understanding of the subject matter.
5. Learning Tasks are Authentic and Engaging. The tasks must be according to the
learners’ interest, experience and knowledge to accommodate the learning process.
6. Instruction is Mediated and Integrated. This characteristic refers to the perspective
that learning takes place from one’s cognition and from the others, at this point mediation
and support are required to construct and validate knowledge.
7. Promotes Critical Reflection and Higher-Order Thinking Skills. To achieve these
skills, learners have to be challenged by the tasks and work on reconstructing prior
knowledge to reshape it according to the context, in this manner students apply high order
288
thinking skills and develop critical thinking when they analyse, synthetize and evaluate
content related knowledge, which represents a movement from knowledge to
comprehension.
8. Continuous Assessment and Monitoring of Learning. The evaluation of projects
should include formative and summative assessment, but other forms can also be used to
evaluate what learners can do; one alternative forms is self-reflection since it supports
continuing learning.
These eight elements have guided and informed the pedagogy of PBL in L2
teacher education in the context mentioned above. Additionally, the authors report that
using PBL has been successful as it provides opportunities to develop professional
expertise within a collaborative setting where gaps in learner knowledge are addressed.
Their experience on using a PBL approach has helped undergraduate and graduate
teachers to develop knowledge, skills, competencies, and disposition to move from plain
practice to a situated practice over time.
This pedagogical approach focuses on creating opportunities for learners’
interaction to live, discuss, generate and share knowledge. Transformation of themselves
and the others occurs when learners engage in a social and academic dialogic interaction
sharing and negotiating their different perceptions of the world, culture, background,
knowledge and experiences. Dewey (1916) emphasizes the nature of knowledge as a
social activity, stating that knowledge is subjective, and it is consciously constructed and
negotiated by and for individuals according to their interpretation and their experiences in
the social world, learning is according to the culture and constructed socially. Similarly,
Freire (1970/2005) argued in favour of praxis, meaning that lived experiences serve to use
previous knowledge to display new knowledge, thus a transformation can happen
according to the perception of reality. It is that, reality is not fixed and depends strictly on
dialogical interaction within society.
Therefore, we perceive PBL as an opportunity for negotiating learning about the
activities of L2 teaching. By using PBL in the context of Initial English Language Teacher
Education, cognition may occur if student-teachers are given the opportunity to participate
in social practices or communities of practice embedded in learning teaching situations. In
fact, Johnson and Freeman (2001) argue that learning about teaching is consistently
related to the engagement of [student] teachers in communities of practice for
understanding the working context of students, classrooms, curricula, and communities.
Consequently, this paper suggests that learning to create a syllabus should be
carried out in contexts where student-teachers have the chance to live the experience of
interacting with the target population, the stakeholders, parents and the existing syllabus.
However, it is not enough to enter a community of practice to understand how student-
teachers perceive the reality they face by living the experience, it is necessary to have
descriptive accounts by means of reflection on how they acquire teaching matters
289
knowledge and how they configure that knowledge into the context of classrooms and
schools (Johnson & Freeman, 2001).
Reflection in IELTE
The work of Dewey (1933) on reflection has been largely influential in education as he
stated that meaningful experiences are essential when learning. Later in the early 1980´s
his student Donald Shön expanded Dewey’s work. Other scholars, such as Smyth (1989)
and Zeichner and Liston (1996) stated that reflection is a manner to gain understanding
from one’s experience to avoid the transfer of knowledge from others, but they go further
arguing that reflection entails the socio-political context of programs, schools and
communities. According to Farrell (2015) these theories on reflection have had a major
impact on different professions; such as medicine, law, nursing, education and especially
on second language teacher education.
Recent research on reflection in second language teacher education (Farrell,
2016) responds to the reality that teaching experiences in English language teaching are
diverse and unstable. IELTE should place emphasis on supporting student teachers
developing awareness about the issues that a diversity of teaching contexts involves. As a
result, teacher educators should prepare student-teachers developing skills in reflective
practice. Reflection should be initiated in L2 teaching education programs for student
teachers to know ways to systematize and in turn respond to the reality in their local
context.
Additionally, Zeichner (2008) argues that reflection should be a means to promote
genuine teacher development by focusing reflection not only on own teaching and
students, but also to consider the aspects that determine their work inside the classroom,
such as to participate in curriculum decisions, staff and instruction; reflection then should
be directed to explore and examine beyond the classroom.
A recent framework for reflection was developed by Farrell (2015). It is worth to
mention that the author has designed it to be used by pre-service teachers, novice and the
most experienced ones. The author presents five stages of reflection: Philosophy,
Principles, Theory, Practice and Beyond practice. Philosophy focuses on exploring the
personal background and how this influences language teachers’ personality; Principles
involve to examine assumptions, beliefs and conceptions of teaching and learning; Theory
relates to discover and examine official and unofficial theories teachers hold; Practice
addresses on what teachers do or what is called observable behaviors; Beyond practice is
about critical reflection by exploring and examining the moral, political, social issues
impacting a teacher’s practice.
These stages are interrelated and each one of them serves to explore and
evaluate the roots of teachers’ actions inside and outside the classroom. Thus, reflection is
290
a manner to understand what teachers do and the reasons behind it as seen in the
diagram below.
Diagram 1 from Farrell (2015, p.23).
For the purposes of this paper reflection represents “a process, both individual
and collaborative, involving experience and uncertainty. It is comprised of identifying
questions and key elements of a matter that has emerged as significant, then taking one’s
thoughts into dialogue with oneself and with others” (Jay & Johnson, 2002, p.76). Meaning
that by means of individual and collaborative reflection, student-teachers learn and clarify
meaningful queries through a dialogic interaction with themselves and the others.
Wright’s (2010) review, on the current forms of second language teacher
education, has resulted with an emphasis on lived experiences which need to be
described, interpreted and explained in reflective activities. Reflective practice into early
stages of teacher education is a must that student-teachers initiate by engaging in a
process of developing skills that later will support their lifelong learning professional
development i.e. language teacher preparation should place an emphasis on the student
teacher’s learning to teach and becoming a thinking teacher which in turn means a great
deal of reflective activity programmed into learning experiences.
There are different forms to engage in reflection and most of them have been
studied and documented as ways to understand what teachers know and how they get to
know about teaching. Gebhard (2009) mentions the following forms of reflection: teaching
a class, self-observation, observing other teachers, the use of journals, or discussion in
seminars, these means of reflective practice have been useful to promote L2 knowledge of
pre-service and in-service teachers as stated in the methodology used for this study in the
next section.
METHODOLOGY
291
Design
This study was framed by the qualitative tradition by means of narrative enquiry through
reflection, several ways to reflect can be used according to the purposes of the enquiry.
Narratives are a prominent form of data collection as they represent completely lived
experiences by/from the participants, they are also framed into the socio-cultural approach
to understand contextualized knowledge in teacher education. Barkhuizen (2011) defines
narratives as “meaning making, learning, or knowledge construction that takes place
during the narrative research activities of (co) constructing narratives, analyzing narratives,
reporting the findings, and reading/ watching/listening to research reports” (p. 395). Thus,
this article reports, in the participants’ voice, the lived experience of creating a syllabus
and represents the (co) construction of student-teachers’ knowledge.
Participants
The participants were 16 ELT student-teachers aged 20-30 in a compulsory course named
Curriculum Design, this title was adapted and called in this paper syllabus design. The
experience was during the 2015 spring quarter in the Bachelor of ELT of the Benemérita
Universidad Autónoma de Puebla.
Data collection and analysis.
The data were collected with an e-report including the syllabus designed in teams, and a
final individual reflection on the process of the syllabus design. The reflection was guided
by asking students to write what they had learned through the design of the project. The
analysis of the reflections was done identifying and examining student-teachers’ outcomes
from their individual reflection on using PBL to design an English syllabus.
Location of the research.
We are teacher educators in the ELT bachelor at Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de
Puebla. This ELT program requires student-teachers take subjects related to Teaching,
Linguistics, Culture, Research, Spanish, English as a Target Language and Common core.
This study was carried out with 16 student-teachers aged 20-30 years old in a subject
named Curriculum Design (we adapted the title of the subject for a better understanding in
this paper: Syllabus design). The subject is compulsory and is programed to be taken in
the so called formative stage of the program. This course usually lasts 16 weeks, two
sessions of two hours twice per week. The goal of this course is that the student-teachers
develop the competence to create language teaching-learning syllabuses; in selecting the
shape of the syllabus the student-teachers will consider the current theories of language
teaching-learning by choosing the most appropriate option and justifying and adapting it to
the diverse contexts, philosophies and needs of language schools. Considering the
complexity of introducing student-teachers to syllabus design and the academic concepts
related, we started the experience of using PBL as described below.
292
DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIENCE OF INCORPORATING PBL IN A SYLLABUS
DESIGN COURSE.
This experience on incorporating PBL in our syllabus design course was born when we,
the professors of the course, revised the syllabus by the institutional program in ELT we
work for. The revision took two extensive weeks to decide on how to make the subject
matter of syllabus design affordable for student-teachers to get the most out of the subject;
after revising and discussing the possibilities, we decided to adapt the institutional syllabus
by incorporating PBL and reflections all along the course, doing partial presentations on
the components of the syllabus, and a final written reflection at the end of the course.
When we started the course, we introduced the adapted syllabus to the student-
teachers. The goal, the objectives, the contents, the materials, and the evaluation of the
course were stated and clarified with the student-teachers. The course was designed to
accompany student-teachers all along the process of the development of the project. The
teacher educator and the student-teachers would revise the concepts related to the
subject matter of syllabus design though activities that could guide the student-teachers to
create a syllabus by steps. The development of the project was by following the next
order.
1. Needs analysis.
2. Stating goals and objectives.
3. Designing Content and Sequencing.
4. Selection of Materials and Evaluation.
The ELT students worked in small teams, four teams of three and one team of
four, to carry out the project on designing the language syllabus. The student-teachers
decided who to work with all along the course to complete their project.
The introduction of the syllabus design course was related to identify the basic
terminology used in curriculum design. Then, the student-teachers were asked to select a
specific real population to whom design an English course, i.e. a syllabus. The unique
requirement was that student-teachers would have access to know the context of the
target population and later apply the instruments. Once they were ready with the target
population, they worked step by step using the theory on elaborating what was necessary
to complete each part of a syllabus.
Student-teachers first collected information about the target population they
selected; such information included the general context of the educational institution, the
location, the official level they wanted to design the syllabus for, and in some cases the
institutional syllabus that was being used at the moment.
Then, they read about needs analysis and instruments. The professor and
student- teachers analysed and clarified the different instruments. After that, the student-
293
teachers were able to decide on the ones that best fitted the target population. Once they
selected one or more instruments, they were adopted, adapted or created; for a better
functionality they were revised by the group and by the teacher educator. The instruments
were also piloted in the group to verify their purpose, the instructions and possibilities of
failure.
Subsequently, the instruments were applied in the real context. The student-
teachers collected the target population needs and they carried out the analysis. When
they had the analysis of the needs, the next step was to state goals and objectives. A
guide and a set of exercises on how to write goals and objectives were used to elaborate
them based on the results obtained from the needs analysis.
With the needs analysis results in mind, student-teachers explored how to decide
on the content and sequencing by revising the theory related and examining samples.
Based on the goals and objectives and with the revision of the theory and the samples
they designed the content and the sequencing according to their target population.
The final steps were the Selection of Materials and the Evaluation, which were
selected and elaborated by considering the goals, objectives, the content and the
sequence of the course.
During the process of each one of the steps the student-teachers were presenting
their advances to the whole group and the professor to discuss and reflect on improving
each one of the steps of the syllabus. Once the student-teachers finished the steps they
were asked to integrate each one of them in an e-report justifying theoretically the design,
and a final individual written reflection on the process of designing the syllabus was
required as well.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
This section presents the findings from the students-teachers reflections. From the
analysis three main topics emerged: 1) Working on the Project of a Syllabus Design was
Significant, 2) seeing themselves as teachers or in the profession, 3) self and the others.
In the following sections each theme raised by the student-teachers is commented
and exemplified by extracts from their written reflections. The extracts presented next are
the most representative of each category; a pseudonym is used in each one of them to
keep the identity of the student-teachers.
Working on the project of a syllabus design was significant.
Student-teachers started to think by internalizing academic concepts, not only following
mechanically the theory. As they were reflecting on the process of the design, they were
surprised by their achievements. They even found themselves challenged by the demands
294
of the project, classmates, and the design of the syllabus in context. Besides, they were
satisfied when they noticed their efforts and the final product, as expressed by the student-
teachers below.
Cary
I learned the steps that we need to ollow to make a syllabus, I can’t belie e it, but it’s true
I can do it. I was very stressed at the beginning of the course because I thought how it
could be possible t at we were going to design a syllabus i we didn’t a e t e pre ious
experience as teac ers to create a syllabus. ut later, I understood t at i we didn’t try
when the first try could be, I was committed and looked for information to be familiar with
the new subject terms.
Beto
The creation of the syllabus was a real challenge, we had to apply the whole information
we learned in t e classroom, and we also tried to link t e t eory: t e needs, t e loom’s
taxonomy, etc. I think it was the most difficult we did, but finally when we saw the final
product, it was very gratifying.
Betsy
I’ e ne er realized all t e work t at is be ind a syllabus, t e t eory, aut ors, and concepts
that I never heard about, but now I understand why the books are very structured and
organized, t ey depend on student’s needs.
Seeing themselves as teachers or in the profession
The experience of creating a syllabus in real context helped student-teachers to see
themselves as teachers, meaning that they situated themselves as teachers, as they
started being aware about some of the activities teachers do, and they also noticed that
teachers can contribute to change a syllabus in an informed manner, they also perceived
the complexities teachers face, as can be seen in the following extracts.
Charly
This experience was very good, we are going to be teachers and we have to prepare the
subject content. With this exercise we know how being a teacher is like.
Clara
Now I feel better because I know that we as teachers have trouble to face, but with this
kind of subject we have an idea about all the things that we have to do in our daily life. I
really enjoyed the course and I have learned a lot of things that I am sure they are going to
be useful in my professional life. Now I have the bases and the knowledge to design a
syllabus, I am able to design a syllabus or to make some changes to a certain syllabus in
295
order to adequate it to t e students’ needs, lacks and wants. nd to gi e a alid
justification showing evidence for proposing that and for convincing others that the
decisions I take are reliable and suitable.
Juan
I realized that to become a teacher is something difficult and implicates to know a lot of
t ings suc as: ow to organize students, time and t ings, I didn’t appreciate t em be ore
but with this subject and with the project I see it’s amazing ow students are di erent
among themselves and groups.
Mary
At beginning of this course, I was not sure about the utility of this subject. Today, I can see
the importance that this subject has for me as student and later as a teacher. I can say
that to know all this information will be useful and important for me because now I am
conscious that however the school gives me a syllabus, it will be important for me to know
the needs of my students and in this manner adjust the contents for them.
Self and the others
From the student-teachers’ voices in their reflections, it is evident that they
stablished a dialogic interaction with themselves and the others (Farrell, 2015) and they
used what they knew from their experiences, their interaction with theories from books or
samples we used during the course and in some cases they found themselves challenged
by the demands of the project and they had to get information from other cultural artifacts
(Johnson & Golombek, 2016). In the extracts below we can see how student-teachers
perceived their work and interaction with others.
Aldo
This work was fantastic because I learned that working in a team is much better than
working individually. Working individually is harder than if we share knowledge and learn to
accept the different kinds of thoughts from the other students.
Abi
About my team, I like to work with them, although sometimes it was difficult, when we had
to do a task, we did not have time because we had other classes. Despite I got on well
with them and I met new people, they supported me when I had doubts.
Juan
296
I found meaningful to work in teams for the design of the syllabus. It was a good way to
help each other, to clarify some doubts and it this way to make possible getting a good
final product.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR PEDAGOGY IN L2 TEACHER EDUCATION
From the student-teachers voices we know that PBL was useful and meaningful.
Furthermore, they contextualized their learning (Boss, Larmer and Mergendoller, 2013).
However, we know that learning takes time and it needs to be mediated with others, such
as the local context and internalization of academic concepts that later become knowledge
(Johnson & Golombek, 2016).
By revisiting the experience of using PBL we notice that the student-teachers
were engaged in a process of reflecting individually and collaboratively incorporating their
experiences and doubts about designing the syllabus and they were immersed in a
dialogic interaction with themselves and the others, but also they were interacting with
cultural artifacts and different sources that supported the development of syllabus design
cognition (Boss, Larmer & Mergendoller,2013; Farrell, 2015; Johnson & Golombek,
2016).
We are convinced that PBL in Initial English Language Teacher Education
programs is an effective method to support learning the matters of syllabus design or if the
case, content subjects. Teacher educators should create adequate conditions/approaches
that support the contextualized knowledge and the professionalization of student-teachers
and not to wait until they finish their studies. Moreover, we should educate student-
teachers instead of training them to follow what seems to be the best; they have to
accommodate the ELT theory into the reality of teachers’ life and the reality of educational
institutions into the theory of ELT. As a result, student-teachers would be able to start
developing their expertise on the different duties teachers are exposed to when entering
into the reality of teaching if we, teacher educators open pedagogical windows that can be
used to see how the teaching life is.
Finally, we think that this experience has given us the opportunity to reflect about
our teaching educational practices as we have had the opportunity to see that student-
teachers’ agency by means of reflection all along the course helped them to express what
they learned through.
Furthermore, this experience provided us the opportunity to understand how they
developed cognition about the matters of syllabus design. Consequently, we recognize
that the transmission approach of teacher education is acontextual or a mechanical activity
meanwhile a sociocultural approach seeks to understand the complexities that in this
specific case, student-teachers faced when they had to take decisions on what and how to
design L2 content for the learners. For that reason, we should begin exploring the role of
IELTE and the pedagogy we use with student-teachers, the appropriateness of the
297
approaches we use to deliver content and the psychological tools our student-teacher use
to develop their cognition. In this way we will be able to better understand what we are
doing and how we can contribute to contextualize IELTE in our Mexican universities or any
other teaching education programs.
REFERENCES
Bailey, K. M. (2001). Teacher preparation and development. TESOL Quarterly, 35 (4), 609-616.
Barkhuizen, G. (2011). Narrative knowledging in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly, 45 (3), 391-
414. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/41307694 Boss, S., Larmer, J., & Mergendoller, J. R. (2013). PBL for 21st century success:
Teaching critical thinking, collaboration, communication, and creativity [Kindle DX version]. Retrieved from Amazon.com
Burns, A. & Richards, J.C. (2009). Introduction. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards (Ed.),
The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education (pp.1-8). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dewey, J. (1916). Psychology and social practice. Chicago, IL: University of
Chicago Press. Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to
the educative process. Boston, MA: Houghton-Mifflin. Farrell, T.S.C. (2015). Promoting teacher reflection in second language education:
A framework for TESOL professionals. New York, NY: Routledge. Farrell, T.S.C. (2016). TESOL, a profession that eats its young! The importance
of reflective practice in language teacher education. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 4(3),97-107. Retrieved from http://www.reflectiveinquiry.ca/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Eats-Young-Farrell-2016.pdf
Freeman, D. & Johnson, K. E. (1998). Reconceptualizing the knowledge-base
of language teacher education. TESOL quarterly, 32 (3), 397-417. Freire, P. (2005). Pedagogy of the oppressed. (M. Bergman-Ramos, Trans). New York,
NY: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc. (Original work published 1970)
Gebhard, J.G. (2009). The practicum. In A. Burns & J. C. Richards & (Ed.).
The Cambridge guide to second language teacher education (pp. 250-258). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Jay, J.K. & Johnson, K. L. (2002). Capturing complexity: A typology of reflective
practice for teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education,18, 73-85.Johnson, K. E. & Freeman, D. (2001). Teacher learning in second
298
language teacher education: A socially-situated perspective. Rev. Brasileira de Lingüística Aplicada, 1 (1), 53-69.
Johnson, K. E. & Golombek, P. R. (2016). Mindful L2 teacher education: A sociocultural
perspecti e on culti ating teac ers’ pro essional development. New York, NY: Routledge.
Lave, J. & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral
participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Roessingh, H. & Chambers, W. (2011). Project-based learning and pedagogy in teacher
preparation: Staking out the theoretical mid-ground. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 23 (1) 60-7.
Smyth, J. (1989). Developing and sustaining critical reflection in teacher
education. Journal of Teacher Education, 40 (2), 2-9. Thomas, J.W. (2000). A review of research on project-based learning. Retrieved
from http://www.bie.org/research/study/review_of_project_based_learning_2000 Veenman, S. (1984). Perceived problems of beginning teachers. Review of
Educational Research, 54 (2), 143-178. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1170301
Wright, T. (2010). Second language teacher education: Review of recent research
on practice. Language Teaching, 43 (3), 259-296. Zeichner, K. (2008). A critical analysis of reflection as a goal for teacher education.
Educ. Soc., 29 (103), 535-554. Zeichner, K. M. & Liston, D. P. (1996). Reflective teaching: An introduction. Mahwah,
NJ: L. Erlbaum Associates.
THE AUTHORS LETICIA ESTUDILLO LEÓN. MA in ELT by Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla. ELT Professor and researcher in the Faculty of Languages at Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla. [email protected] SARA MERINO MUNIVE. MA in ELT by Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla. Professor and researcher in the Faculty of Languages at Benemérita Universidad Autónoma de Puebla. [email protected]
299
ANÁLISIS DEL DISPOSITIVO DE FORMACIÓN DEL DOCENTE DE
INGLÉS EN LA UAEMéx
María Estela Estrada Cortés
Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México [email protected]
RESUMEN
Como parte de la investigación doctoral, se analizó el dispositivo de formación del docente
de inglés, conformado por el conjunto de elementos institucionales, pedagógicos y
referenciales movilizados con la finalidad de crear e instrumentar el plan de estudios de la
Licenciatura en Lenguas de la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEMéx),
desde sus perspectivas diacrónica y sincrónica, así como desde sus tres funciones
esenciales: heurística, estratégica y pragmática. En consecuencia, la investigación partió
en primer lugar de un análisis documental acerca del origen de la conformación del
curriculum flexible del programa educativo, su construcción, fundamentos epistémicos y
características del contexto educativo. En tanto que la aproximación sincrónica se adentra
en el estudio del sistema de mediaciones, el marco teórico-metodológico, las relaciones
espacio-temporales determinantes, la organización de los recursos didácticos, los rasgos
del grupo y acciones de los actores involucrados en la instrumentación real del
dispositivo.
Palabras claves: dispositivo pedagógico, formación docente, modelo reflexivo, enfoque
por competencias
INTRODUCCIÓN
El diseño curricular de un plan de estudios de licenciatura debe vislumbrarse desde una
perspectiva dinámica, evolutiva, como una estructura abierta y disipativa, en tanto que el
discurso oficial de lo que se encuentra impreso, se va diluyendo con el tiempo en la
medida que las prácticas educativas internas, sus participantes y el contexto
socioeducativo va modificándose, cuando se carece del seguimiento y evaluación
sistemática del proyecto original (Casarini, 2013). De ahí que uno de los efectos más
evidentes repercuta en el alejamiento del perfil deseable del egresado.
La presente investigación surge del debilitamiento del área de formación docente
en la Facultad de Lenguas de la Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEMéx)
derivado de un problema multifactorial. El primero de ellos se ubica en la instrumentación
de los planes flexibles en la institución (López, 2001), a partir del cuales los estudiantes
elegían las asignaturas en cada periodo escolar aún cuando en algunos casos, no
siempre poseyeran los conocimientos y competencias previas, indispensables para cursar
300
alguna asignatura, derivado de la inexperiencia en la puesta en práctica del mismo. La
problemática en el caso propio repercutía en la configuración parcial o deficiente de las
competencias profesionales del perfil de egreso del Licenciado en Lenguas.
Para aproximarse al estudio del problema se asumió una visión holista que
permitiera estudiar cada aspecto del plan de estudios, desde un concepto macro que
sustentara y a su vez articulara la investigación documental y empírica de manera
transversal. El vocablo dispositivo es de origen francés y de naturaleza híbrida, atribuido a
Foucault (1994) quien lo utilizó de manera técnica como instrumento de disciplina para la
preservación del control y el poder. Posteriormente, su significado se relacionó con las
mediaciones de las tecnologías de la información y comunicaciones para la creación de
ambientes virtuales. Al cierre del siglo XX, Peeters y Charlier plantearon el término de
dispositivo pedagógico o socioeducativo como espacio de transición, de mediación de
saberes, orientados a procesos autónomos de aprendizaje:
Au fond, les dispositifs. En visant à aider l’apprenant à s’aider lui-même,
représentent aujourd’hui une tentative curieuse, celle d’une instrumentation
optimale de l’autonomie des acteurs –association paradoxale, ou tout au moins
déroutante apriori, entre instrumentation efficace et autonomie maximale. Cette
association s’illustre notamment par un déplacement de la problématique de la
connaissance, d’une logique de transmission du savoir vers une logique
d’expérience ou d’expérimentation du savoir (p.18).
Como se aprecia, desde esta visión se denota un profundo cambio de paradigma
entre el dispositivo de control que propiciaba una lógica transmisiva del conocimiento a un
proceso de empoderamiento gradual de los actores, encaminado hacia el desarrollo de la
autonomía vía la experimentación del conocimiento per sé.
De modo particular, el concepto de dispositivo pedagógico de formación docente
en esta la investigación se sustentó en los planteamientos de Yurén, Navia y Saenger
(2005), Zanatta (2008) y Montandon (2013) quienes han estudiado los dispositivos
educativos y de formación docente desde una perspectiva holística. Los primeros definen
al dispositivo como un “conjunto de elementos dispuestos de tal manera que, al ponerse
en movimiento, conducen al logro de una finalidad educativa determinada, la cual
responde o bien a una demanda social, o bien a necesidades individuales” (pág. 32).
Asimismo, Christiane Montandon (2013) y Becquemin y Montandon (2014) plantean en
forma complementaria las dos dimensiones principales de un dispositivo de formación.
Éstas son: la perspectiva diacrónica que contiene el estudio de las prácticas discursivas
que dan origen y sustentan el diseño curricular de un plan de estudios y; por otro lado, la
perspectiva sincrónica que comprende la forma en que se materializan esos discursos, y
las prácticas no discursivas derivadas de la participación de los distintos actores en la
instrumentación de un determinado currículo.
301
Derivado de las limitantes de tiempo y espacio, en el presente informe se dan a
conocer únicamente los resultados de la primera parte de la investigación, esto es de la
exploración de las prácticas discursivas del dispositivo de formación del docente de
inglés: sus antecedentes históricos, elementos curriculares centrales, referentes teórico-
metodológicos del proceso educativo y del Modelo Reflexivo de formación previsto en el
plan de estudios de la Licenciatura en Lenguas, desde el enfoque basado en
competencias.
JUSTIFICACIÓN
A más de diez años de la puesta en marcha del Currículum de la Licenciatura en Lenguas
(Mejía, 2003) en la UAEMéx, se consideró pertinente analizar las dimensiones del
dispositivo de formación profesional que estructura dicho plan de estudios. La relevancia
del estudio también se justificó en la desarticulación epistemológica entre el Modelo
Reflexivo y el Enfoque Basado en Competencias, los cuales constituyeron los referentes
teóricos del documento citado. Las deficiencias en conocimientos previos y la adquisición
parcial de las habilidades docentes básicas detectadas a través del desempeño de los
estudiantes en asignaturas correspondientes a los núcleos sustantivo e integral de la
licenciatura, pusieron de manifiesto rupturas en la secuencia didáctica del proceso de
formación y la brecha entre el perfil ideal y el real de la mayoría de los egresados.
Cabe mencionar que en la actualidad, el ámbito profesional de la docencia
encuentra una serie de demandas en los planos nacional e internacional para los
egresados, quienes no siempre cumplen el perfil requeridos para insertarse en esos
escenarios (Martínez, 2006; Klett, 2010; Richards, 2011; Moreno, 2012; UCLES, 2014). O
bien, ellos son sustituidos por egresados de otras licenciaturas con elevado nivel en el
manejo de inglés y de otras lenguas, o con mayor apertura para ejercer la docencia en
distintas modalidades y niveles educativos.
Por consiguiente, la pertinencia del proyecto encontró su razón de ser en la
necesidad de recuperar los elementos teóricos del plan de estudios a fin de promover la
participación en espacios de reflexión y análisis encaminados a la homologación de
criterios para el proceso de formación.
MARCO TEÓRICO
Como parte de este marco, se abordarán de manera sucinta los conceptos medulares que
dieron el debido soporte epistémico y teórico a la presente investigación; estos son:
educación, tipos de dispositivo pedagógico, competencias del profesorado de inglés,
enfoque por competencias, modelo reflexivo de formación y desarrollo profesional.
Educación
302
Se concibe este término como proceso eminentemente social y socializador, en el cual se
conjugan las demandas, valores y metas de la sociedad con la complejidad de la
naturaleza del propio individuo. De ahí que se considere necesario instrumentar dos
procesos dialécticos a lo largo del trayecto de formación profesional: la guía o
acompañamiento del estudiante para habilitarle en el desempeño de una tarea, o sea
educare; y de manera casi paralela, la tarea de mediación para detonar el desarrollo
intelectual y las habilidades de autogestión del alumno, i.e. educere. En la presente
investigación se reconoce la importancia de vincular ambos procesos, desde una
racionalidad múltiple, centrada en el individuo y alejándose de una orientación artesanal,
tecnicista o mecanicista.
Desde esa perspectiva, se introduce el término de dispositivo pedagógico, como
un conjunto de elementos referenciales, institucionales e instrumentales, que al
movilizarse como un todo, dentro de un ambiente intersubjetivo, se aproximan al logro de
una finalidad educativa. Derivado de la conjunción de esos elementos, se propicia la
organización, acoplamiento y movilización de los factores constitutivos del dispositivo,
tales como: participantes, objetivos, recursos, procesos de enseñanza, aprendizaje y
evaluación, entre otros. La disposición de todo ello dará por resultado cierto tipo de
dispositivo que se aproxime con mayor énfasis a uno o a otro extremo del continuum que
se ilustra en la Tabla 1.
El tipo de dispositivo pedagógico que se gestione tanto por parte de la institución,
como por parte del propio educador y del estudiante-profesor, también dependerá de la
conceptualización del proceso de formación docente de cada participante. En otras
palabras, si se percibe que dicho proceso es solo temporal, descendente, circunscrito a la
práctica casi artesanal en situaciones simuladas o semi controladas, y por ende, el logro
de la competencia profesional es el punto de llegada, garantizado por la obtención de un
303
título de licenciatura, entonces se tiene un visión prescriptiva, reduccionista, alienante y
tecnócrata de la enseñanza. De manera contraria, si se propicia un proceso continuo de
objetivización-subjetivización de la praxis, a partir de ajustes y cambios en las estructuras
previas del estudiante, la lectura académica cuidadosa y la discusión crítica de textos de
su disciplina; entonces se favorece la instrumentación de un dispositivo de formación
integral, centrado en el estudiante, de tipo ascendente, interactivo, dinámico y basado en
la racionalidad comunicativa.
Competencias del profesorado de inglés
En este rubro, se consideran los aspectos centrales de las competencias, criterios e
indicadores de desempeño establecidos en descriptores nacionales e internacionales en
torno a los conocimientos, habilidades y actitudes deseables en un profesor de inglés.
Jack Richards (2011) enfatiza que la primera competencia indispensable en un docente
de inglés es el dominio de esta lengua, como un factor para asegurar: el uso de la L2
durante la clase, el adecuado diseño y selección de recursos didácticos, la exposición
pertinente a muestras de la L2, así como para aproximarse al error del aprendiente de
manera oportuna conforme a la etapa y objetivo de aprendizaje.
Por su parte, el Marco de Cambridge contempla una serie de conocimientos y
habilidades docentes organizadas por etapas del trayecto docente, las cuales son
aplicables en diferentes contextos y niveles educativos de aprendizaje de inglés. Estas
etapas conllevan descriptores de desempeño, denominados: ‘Foundation’, ‘Developing’,
‘Proficient’ y ‘Expert’. Éstos representan un continuo que va desde prácticamente el
conocimiento esencial en algunas áreas de la enseñanza de inglés, aunado al manejo de
técnicas simples, hasta el dominio racional y reflexivo en la selección de técnicas más
sofisticadas, recursos didácticos innovadores y enfoques didácticos más complejos para
atender las necesidades del contexto educativo de manera pertinente y sustentada teórica
y metodológicamente. Su propósito es brindar una herramienta de evaluación diagnóstica
a los propios académicos y a los empleadores, con la finalidad de aportarles herramientas
para la construcción de un plan personal o colectivo de desarrollo profesional en el área a
corto, mediano y largo plazo. El marco está organizado en las áreas: 1. El aprendizaje y el
aprendiente, 2. Enseñanza, aprendizaje y evaluación, 3. Dominio de la lengua, 4.
Conocimiento de la lengua y del metalenguaje y 5. Desarrollo profesional y de valores.
Enfoque por Competencias
Delors (1996) nos plantea una serie de reflexiones en torno al papel de la educación
superior frente a las transformaciones y crisis sociales, culturales, económicas y políticas
de nuestros tiempos. De ahí que se vislumbre a la educación permanente como la “llave
de acceso” para poder transitar por la sociedad actual en convivencia con los demás,
desde una perspectiva de reestructuración personal continua, de sus conocimientos y
habilidades, en donde siempre esté presente la conciencia social para desempeñar la
propia función adecuadamente.
304
Se privilegia la universidad como centro del dispositivo pedagógico, como ‘lugar
de ciencia’, como plataforma de la educación diversificada y permanente para la
adquisición de competencias profesionales disciplinares, la difusión del conocimiento y la
promoción de la cooperación internacional. Es justamente mediante estas acciones que
las diferencias socioeconómicas de acceso a la educación pueden ser menos incisivas.
La interpretación y aplicación de esos saberes se ha realizado desde distintas
posturas metodológicas, con múltiples finalidades educativas y diversos propósitos e
intereses en los sectores público y privado. Entre ellas se destacan tres vertientes: a)
Enfoque por competencias empresarial o eficientista, b) Enfoque por competencias:
centrado en la tarea o en el desempeño, y c) Enfoque por competencias centrado en el
sujeto Se reconoce que la tercera aproximación difiere de la postura del racionalismo
instrumental implícita en el carácter técnico o énfasis en el desempeño. En consonancia
con los Pilares de la educación saber convivir y saber ser de Delors (1996), se rescata el
proceso de formación como una acción pedagógica integral que incluye la adquisición de
competencias. Cabe destacar que este enfoque centrado en el sujeto se aproxima a la
concepción de un dispositivo de formación de tipo comunicativo, instituyente, holístico y
crítico, en tanto que implica la tendencia formativa del estudiante. Asimismo, aborda la
educación desde la perspectiva de educere derivado del proceso interno que busca
desarrollar el potencial intelectual del individuo a partir de su propia naturaleza.
Modelo reflexivo de formación y desarrollo profesional
La formación docente del profesional de inglés en la UAEMéx se sustenta en el modelo
propuesto por Michael Wallace (1991) según se señala en el Currículum de la
Licenciatura en Lenguas (2005, pp.17-18). La aproximación teórica-metodológica citada
constituye un eje transversal sustantivo a todas las unidades de aprendizaje, de los
núcleos básico, sustantivo e integral, particularmente aquéllas relativas al área de
docencia de inglés. Ello pretende coadyuvar a la toma de decisiones fundamentada y a la
apropiación sistemática de los conocimientos del área.
El Modelo Reflexivo contempla tres grandes dimensiones o etapas
estrechamente vinculadas entre sí. La primera toma en cuenta los conocimientos,
paradigmas, creencias, actitudes con los que ingresa el estudiante al ciclo de formación.
Estos esquemas de pensamiento no sólo se permean en la segunda etapa, sino que
incluso interfieren positiva y/o negativamente en la ejecución del desempeño docente.
Al respecto, Maggioli (2014) sostiene que el conocimiento empírico derivado de
las propias experiencias como aprendientes de una lengua y de otras áreas de
conocimiento tiene un impacto fundamental en las preconcepciones del sujeto acerca de
lo que significa ser docente, enseñar, aprender, los roles e interacciones en el aula. De
este modo, esos paradigmas se ponen de manifiesto cuando el estudiante tiene la
305
responsabilidad de asumir el papel de profesor, soslayando periodos de formación
teórico-práctica.
El estudiante se percibe como agente primario, el cual cuenta con un enorme
bagaje de conocimientos y experiencias para aportar a su proceso de formación. Se
considera que no hay mentes en blanco, ni actitudes neutrales frente a dicho proceso. Él
toma decisiones antes y durante la clase con base en un número limitado de ideas o
creencias en torno a lo que puede considerarse como actuación profesional apropiada, las
cuales ya han sido almacenadas en su mente desde su etapa preescolar o incluso antes y
hasta su formación universitaria. En consecuencia, aun cuando el estudiante-profesor
haya cursado varias asignaturas en el área de docencia y haya aprobado cualquier
cantidad de cursos de inglés, resultará difícil que muestre una actitud reflexiva, alejada de
conceptos mecanicistas, poco racionales, si no han atravesado por una experiencia de
aprendizaje diferente. Wallace (1991) señala que esto sucede principalmente cuando: “the
subjects which a trainee is expected to study are dictated by tradition or convention, rather
than by any proven application to the competent practice of the profession” (p.12).
La segunda etapa del modelo abarca cuatro elementos: a) conocimiento recibido,
b) conocimiento experiencial o empírico, c) práctica y d) reflexión; los cuales se conjugan
y enlazan teoría y práctica a fin de proponer un arquetipo de formación docente y
desarrollo profesional.
A la luz de lo anterior se puede aseverar que, si los estudiantes de la Facultad de
Lenguas no experimentan una articulación y congruencia entre lo que se analiza en las
clases de práctica docente y el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje de sus otras
asignaturas, principalmente en el área de inglés y docencia, resultará de muy poco
provecho e impacto para enriquecer o expandir sus ideas y creencias en torno al ejercicio
crítico-reflexivo del proceso de adquisición de una lengua extranjera.
De este modo, la práctica reflexiva constituye un elemento nodular en cualquier
proceso de formación docente, dado que se reconoce la naturaleza compleja implícita en
los procesos de enseñanza y aprendizaje de la lengua meta. Las características
particulares de cada contexto educativo hacen impensable considerar un enfoque
didáctico único o idóneo para la enseñanza de una lengua. Los procesos de toma de
decisiones antes, durante y después de la práctica docente surgen comúnmente
situaciones impredecibles, no planeadas del quehacer académico en el aula. De ahí que
se requiera un conocimiento sólido teórico y metodológico de los principios subyacentes a
la enseñanza y aprendizaje de una lengua.
En síntesis, la práctica reflexiva es el hilo conductor con el desarrollo profesional,
ambos guardan una relación dialéctica e incluyente. De ahí deriva justamente la
importancia de la inclusión de la práctica reflexiva en la formación profesional de los
docentes.
306
PREGUNTA DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Con base en la problemática y referentes antes expuestos, uno de los cuestionamientos
centrales que enmarcó el horizonte de trabajo en esta investigación fue: ¿Cómo se
construyen las competencias profesionales a partir del dispositivo de formación docente
en inglés de la Facultad de Lenguas?
MÉTODO
La perspectiva epistémica de esta investigación fue de carácter fenomenológico, centrada
en el individuo para permitir la exploración y análisis del dispositivo de formación docente
en inglés con los estudiantes de la Licenciatura en Lenguas, desde su propio contexto de
referencia.
Como parte de la investigación, se analizó el conjunto de elementos
institucionales, pedagógicos y referenciales movilizados con la finalidad de crear e
instrumentar el plan de estudios de la Licenciatura en Lenguas de la UAEM, desde sus
perspectivas diacrónica y sincrónica, así como desde las tres funciones esenciales del
dispositivo: heurística, estratégica y pragmática.
El estudio de la perspectiva diacrónica consistió en un análisis documental de las
prácticas discursivas que dieron origen a la conformación del currículo flexible del
programa educativo, su construcción, fundamentos epistémicos y características del
contexto educativo.
Por otro lado, la aproximación sincrónica se adentró en el estudio del sistema de
mediaciones, del marco teórico-metodológico, de las relaciones espacio- temporales
determinantes, de la organización de los recursos didácticos, y de los rasgos del grupo y
acciones de los actores involucrados en la instrumentación real del dispositivo, mediante
el método de investigación-acción y a la luz de una racionalidad múltiple y de una visión
holística para aproximarse al contexto objeto de estudio, en la intención de captar una
realidad dinámica del proceso de formación docente, las percepciones de sus
participantes, los diferentes aspectos del pensamiento subyacente y la red de relaciones
entre esos elementos, con sustento en el principio de complementariedad en la selección
y uso de técnicas cualitativas de investigación.
En el presente trabajo solo se reportan los hallazgos centrales del estudio de las
prácticas discursivas del dispositivo de formación, las cuales se sustentaron en las
siguientes fuentes: a) Modelo Institucional de Formación Profesional, b) Currículum de la
Licenciatura en Lenguas – UAEMéx, y c) Programa de enseñanza de Práctica Docente
del Inglés. El análisis de las prácticas no discursivas y de las materializaciones quedará
pendiente para la presentación de un documento posterior.
RESULTADOS
307
Como parte del estudio del dispositivo de formación docente, se presenta un análisis del
contenido del libro Modelo de Formación Profesional de la UAEM, elaborado por Miranda,
Medina, Espinoza y Moreno (2005), a la luz de los referentes conceptuales y teórico-
metodológicos descritos con antelación.
En ese sentido, se reconocen como rasgos centrales del proceso de innovación,
la exigencia de formar profesionales ‘competentes’ y ‘competitivos’, a partir de un currículo
centrado en la “generación de conocimiento; pero sostenido por ejes transversales y
programas flexibles que favorezcan una verdadera fusión entre las ciencias y las
humanidades” (pág. 21). Se trata de un intento en el cual se consideren las demandas del
sector económico productivo del país, mediante la capacitación de personal corporativo y
manufacturero al interior de las Instituciones de Educación Superior; y a la vez, de la
profesionalización de estudiantes críticos, reflexivos, innovadores, con iniciativa propia
que puedan intervenir en procesos de crecimiento y transformación del entorno científico,
económico, tecnológico y social.
En el documento también se enfatiza la necesidad de promover una educación
integral y dinámica, la cual promueva procesos de desarrollo humano y la gestación de
proyectos de vida personales y profesionales. De este modo, la aproximación epistémica
al proceso educativo es a partir de los procesos de aprendizaje, desplazando a los de la
enseñanza para formar un individuo multidimensional apto para la comunicación, el
análisis creativo y crítico, la reflexión independiente y el trabajo en equipo en contextos
pluriculturales” (Ibídem, p. 27). Este enfoque humanista constituye uno de los ejes
rectores para la formación profesional en la UAEM. Su instrumentación prevé la inserción
de estrategias didácticas que promuevan el desarrollo de habilidades cognitivas,
reflexivas y críticas; así como el fortalecimiento de las cualidades personales y sociales.
Se le apuesta enfáticamente al aprendizaje independiente y a la comprensión y aplicación
de lo aprendido.
Los planteamientos anteriores conllevan la reorganización de los curricula de los
programas educativos que ofrece la UAEM y la transformación del proceso educativo en
términos de: la flexibilización de sus estructura curricular, la articulación entre programas y
asignaturas con la misma base disciplinar; así como respecto de la electibilidad de:
unidades de aprendizaje o asignaturas, carga académica por periodo escolar, tipo de
trayectoria académica, énfasis de formación, participación en procesos de movilidad
nacional e internacional, entre otras decisiones que los estudiantes toman durante los
estudios profesionales (Ibid, pp. 27-29).
En continuidad con la descripción de un modelo centrado en el proceso de
aprendizaje y en desarrollo de competencias académicas y profesionales para la solución
de problemas del entorno social, se vislumbra un alumno reflexivo, autogestor de su
propio conocimiento vinculado con la práctica de la investigación, portador de valores
universales, capaz de emitir juicios críticos fundamentados y de tomar decisiones para
308
formular su proyecto de vida personal y profesional. Por su parte, el docente universitario
debe ser un profesional de la educación, conocer su disciplina desde sus orígenes,
fundamentos epistemológicos, nexos interdisciplinarios y mantenerse actualizado en la
misma. También debe conocer a quien enseña, el propósito y la misión de su praxis e
identificarse con la institución, mostrando su compromiso y responsabilidad. Debe
gestionar procesos de planeación didáctica, mediante la selección de contenidos,
actividades, estrategias y recursos didácticos apropiados y relevantes, así como verificar
la claridad y fundamentación teórica y metodológica de sus exposiciones e intervenciones.
Asimismo, debe ser capaz de hacer uso de las tecnologías de la información y la
comunicación.
En síntesis, a partir de estas prácticas discursivas en el documento estudiado, se
percibe la intención de proponer dispositivos pedagógicos sustentados en una
racionalidad comunicativa, centrados en la formación integral del sujeto desde una
postura holística, crítica y polivalente, mediante la promoción de procesos dinámicos
orientados a la construcción de un individuo autónomo, reflexivo, crítico, humanista; pero
que a su vez, los autores reconocen la importancia y pertinencia de la formación inicial de
tipo transmisora y artesanal en los momentos tempranos de ésta.
Cabe mencionar que los planteamientos de Zanatta, Yurén y Santos (2011)
establecen términos muy precisos para los extremos del continuum del trayecto de
formación, en términos de dicotomías como se aprecia en la Tabla 1. Sin embargo quien
esto escribe no presenta los hallazgos bajo un esquema de dicotomías, sino más bien
procurando ubicar los rasgos del plan flexible en ese continuum, ver hacia qué extremo se
inclina el dispositivo. Esto, con el afán de vislumbrar los ajustes, las modificaciones
necesarias para buscar favorecer una formación de los estudiantes en las ciencias del
lenguaje menos alienante, más orientada hacia la práctica reflexiva y el pensamiento
crítico, más en búsqueda del desarrollo potencial de profesionales más autónomos, con
mayores capacidades de autogestión y de trabajo colegiado.
La primera distinción del continuum es acerca de su racionalidad, ya sea
‘funcional’ o ‘comunicativa’. Se aprecia que el Curriculum de la Licenciatura en Lenguas
(Mejía, 2005) se acerca más al primer extremo, pues describe con mayor énfasis los
medios y las competencias que se requieren desarrollar para conducir a los estudiantes al
logro del perfil de egreso, soslayando la importancia y efecto que se pueden derivar del
intercambio continuo de experiencias y procesos de comunicación sistemática entre los
miembros de la comunidad.
Respecto de la característica anterior, también se encuentra que el dispositivo es
más de tipo ‘alienante’ que ‘instituyente’. Si bien los marcos epistémico y
psicopedagógico, así como el perfil de egreso, señalan la importancia de promover
acciones y estrategias para la formación universitaria del individuo atendiendo a todas sus
dimensiones. En la trayectoria académica y otros apartados del currículo, se advierte un
énfasis en la tendencia transmisiva de conocimientos y desempeños específicos, que no
309
aborda con claridad la formación integral del sujeto de manera sistemática a lo largo del
plan de estudios.
En términos de los extremos ‘técnico’ versus ‘crítico’, en los objetivos de
aprendizaje de algunas asignaturas del Área de Docencia, se subraya la importancia de
que el estudiante sea capaz de contrastar las técnicas, recursos y prácticas docentes en
general derivadas del estructuralismo en oposición a aquéllas vinculadas al
constructivismo. En consecuencia, se puede aseverar que el dispositivo se aproxima en
esta tercera categoría un poco más a la formación desestabilizadora del sistema
disposicional del sujeto. No obstante, queda pendiente en la agenda analizar el cómo se
concreta esta intención en los programas de enseñanza y en los recursos seleccionados.
Finalmente, en torno a las características del dispositivo ‘prescriptivo’ ---
‘dinámico’, se encuentra cierto paralelismo con el rasgo ‘alienante’ --- ‘instituyente’. En los
planteamientos de los marcos de soporte se acentúa la importancia de sustentar la praxis
educativa al tenor del Modelo Reflexivo, lo cual le daría al dispositivo de formación de la
Facultad de Lenguas, el carácter de dinámico, de ser un dispositivo que ‘construye’, más
que ‘moldea’. No obstante, no se encuentra evidencia en el documento de la concreción
de ese objetivo, por lo cual se considera que puede propiciarse un cierto retroceso hacia
el extremo prescriptivo.
Programa de Enseñanza de la unidad de aprendizaje de Práctica Docente del Inglés
En este documento se observa un predominio de la consecución de productos de
aprendizaje para evidenciar el logro de la meta profesional. A partir de ello, ésta puede
percibirse como un punto de llegada y no como un continuum, como punto de arranque
para detonar procesos ascendentes de autogestión y desarrollo profesional (Mejía, Núñez
y Ferraris, 2007).
La relevancia de este último análisis radica primordialmente en la necesidad de
articular los referentes epistémicos, teóricos y metodológicos de las prácticas discursivas
del modelo de formación profesional y del correspondiente plan de estudios, en
vinculación con el proceso de revisión de programas de enseñanza. La evaluación de los
programas conlleva una revisión de esos referentes con la finalidad de explorar el cómo
éstos se permean o no en la puesta en práctica del plan de estudios. Como parte del
trabajo colegiado de los comités curriculares, se requiere la revisión a detalle de los
referentes epistemológicos, teóricos y metodológicos que dan sustento al plan de estudios
y articulan su instrumentación. Es importante valorar la pertinencia de los mismos y su
vigencia en el contexto escolar.
CONCLUSIONES
El presente trabajo doctoral se centró en el estudio exploratorio de la forma en que se
construían las competencias profesionales en los alumnos de la Licenciatura en Lenguas,
310
a partir del análisis del dispositivo de formación del docente de inglés. Esta noción
contribuyó a orientar el trabajo desde una perspectiva integral y holista. De manera inicial,
se analizó el currículum, el modelo institucional de formación profesional y su vínculo con
los programas de enseñanza. Una de las propuestas centrales del dispositivo, establecida
en el primer documento fue el acoplamiento el Modelo reflexivo de formación docente y el
Enfoque basado en competencias dentro del esquema institucional de flexibilidad
curricular de la UAEMéx. Sin embargo, uno de los ejemplos que evidenció incongruencia
entre los documentos oficiales citados fue que el modelo institucional se manifestaba a
favor de un dispositivo centrado en la construcción y formación crítica y polivalente del
estudiante, desde una perspectiva social, dinámica y personal de la profesión. En cambio,
con el devenir de los años, y el cambio de los participantes, el diseño de los programas de
enseñanza mostró un distanciamiento considerable tanto del modelo citado, como del
propio plan de estudios, en términos del acoplamiento del Enfoque basado en
competencias y el Modelo reflexivo. En consecuencia, la falta de seguimiento y evaluación
curricular en los últimos años redundó en la generación de una educación de tipo más
transmisiva, prescriptiva, técnica y funcional.
Entre los retos derivados del estudio de las prácticas discursivas se destaca la
necesidad urgente de articular los referentes epistémicos con su concreción en el diseño
de los planes de estudio y, principalmente en los programas de enseñanza.
Se requiere además de la promoción de la práctica reflexiva de manera
transversal, a lo largo del trayecto de formación, con sustento en el trabajo colegiado y en
el estudio independiente. La inclusión de procesos de desestabilización de los paradigmas
de los alumnos para modificación de su sistema disposicional, así como la inserción de
procesos de alfabetización académica y crítica, con la finalidad de fortalecer la
configuración integral de las competencias profesionales del docente de inglés, en los
términos que lo plantea el Modelo Institucional de Formación Profesional.
En el presente reporte se informó acerca de los hallazgos centrales del estudio
de las prácticas discursivas del dispositivo de formación del docente de inglés en la
UAEMéx. Sin embargo, la investigación exploró también las materializaciones y prácticas
no discursivas del dispositivo, cuyos resultados no se incluyeron en el presente por
cuestiones de espacio. En consecuencia, resulta indispensable consultar estos resultados
en documentos posteriores para tener una visión global de la problemática bajo estudio,
sus dimensiones, retos y alternativas de solución.
REFERENCIAS:
Ashwin, P., Boud, D., Coate, K., Hallett, F. Keane, E, Krause, K. Tooher, M. (2015). Reflective teaching in higher education. USA: Bloomsbury
Becquemin, M. y Montandon. Ch. (dir.) (2014). Les institutions a l’epreu e des dispositi s.
Rennes: Presses universitaires de Rennes. Disponible en: www.pur-editions.fr
311
Bowen, J. y Hobson, P. (2013). Teorías de la educación. Innovaciones importantes en el pensamiento educativo occidental. México: Limusa.
Brockbank, A. y McGill, I. (2008). Aprendizaje reflexivo en la educación superior. 2º
Ed. Madrid, España: Ediciones Morata. Burns, A. (2010). Doing action research in English language teaching. A guide
for practitioners. New York, USA: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Cambridge English Org. (Eds.) (2014). Cambridge English Teaching
Framework. Cambridge English Language Assessment. UCLES. CE/3007c/4Y09. Recuperado de http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/images/172992-full-level-descriptors- cambridge-english-teaching-framework.pdf
Casarini Ratto, M. (2013). Teoría y diseño curricular. México: Trillas. Castro, A. (coord.) (2013). Alfabetización académica y comunicación de saberes:
la lectura y la escritura en la universidad. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras. Universidad Autónoma de Tlaxcala. México.
Delors, J. (Coord.) (1996). La educación encierra un tesoro. Informe para la UNESCO de
la Comisión Internacional sobre la Educación para el siglo XXI. México: Ediciones UNESCO.
Díaz Maggioli, G. (2014). “Mentor-mentee interactions in the practicum:
Whose/Who’s learning?” en Argentinian Journal of Applied Linguistics. The New School University, New York, 2. (2), 23-41.USA. Recuperado de http://www.faapi.org.ar/ajal/issues/202/DiazMaggioliAJALVol2(2).pdf
Foucault, M. (1994). Dits et écrits. Paris: Gallimard. Hernández Z. G. (2008). “Alfabetización: teoría y práctica” en Revista
Decisio. Septiembre – Diciembre 2008. Centro de Cooperación Regional para la Educación de Adultos en América Latina y el Caribe (CREFAL). Recuperado de http://tumbi.crefal.edu.mx/decisio/images/pdf/decisio_21/decisio21_saber3. pdf
Klett, E. (2010). “Formación de docentes de lenguas: trazando el futuro” en
Puertas Abiertas (6) en Memoria Académica. Recuperado de http://www.memoria.fahce.unlp.edu.ar/art_revistas/pr.4917/pr.4917.pdf
Kusumoto, Yoko (2008). “Needs analysis: developing a teacher training Program
for elementary school homeroom teachers” en Second Language Studies, 26(2), Spring 2008, pp. 1-44. Japan, University of Hawai’i - Mānoa, USA. Recuperado de http://hawaii.edu/sls/uhwpesl/26(2)/Kusumoto.pdf
Lerner, D. (2001). Leer y escribir en la escuela: lo real, lo posible y lo necesario. México.
Fondo de Cultura Económica. Martínez O. M. (2006). “Las competencias profesionales del docente de lenguas”
en Marín, Peña & Pérez (eds.) Memorias del II foro nacional de estudios en
312
lenguas (FONAEL 2006). Universidad de Quintana Roo, Chetumal, Quintana Roo, México. Recuperado de http://fel.uqroo.mx/adminfile/files/memorias/Articulos_Mem_FONAEL_II/Mar tinez_Ortiz_Maria_Guadalupe.pdf
Mejía, A. (Coord.) (2003). Curriculum de la Licenciatura en Lenguas. Estado de
México, México: UAEM - Facultad de Lenguas. ________ (Coord.) (2009). Curriculum de la Licenciatura en Lenguas. 3º ed. Estado de
México, México: Facultad de Lenguas – UAEM. Mejía, E., Núñez, P. y Ferraris, Ch. (2007). “Programa de Práctica docente del Inglés de
la Licenciatura en Lenguas – Facultad de Lenguas – UAEM. Documento de uso interno.
Miranda, D., Medina, L., Espinoza, D. y Moreno, M. (2005). Modelo de
formación profesional de la UAEM. México: UAEM. Montandon, Ch. (2002). Approches systémiques des dispositifs pédagogiques. Enjeux et
méthodes. Paris: L’Hartmattan. _________ (2013). Experimenter des dispositifs pedagogiques. Paris: L’Hartmattan Moore, T. W. (2010). Philosophy of education: an introduction. Australia: Taylor & Francis
e-Library. Moreno F. F. (Ed.) (2012). Las competencias clave del profesorado de lenguas segundas
y extranjeras. Dirección Académica del Instituto Cervantes. Recuperado de http://cfp.cervantes.es/imagenes/File/competencias_profesorado.pdf
Moreno, O. T. (2010). “Competencias en educación. Una mirada crítica” (Reseña
de Gimeno Sacristán, j. (comp.) (2008). Educar por competencias, ¿qué hay de nuevo?, Madrid: Morata.) En Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa. Scielo. RMIE. Enero-marzo 2010,15, (44), pp. 289-297. Recuperado de http://www.scielo.org.mx/pdf/rmie/v15n44/v15n44a17.pdf
López C. (dir.) (2001). Plan rector de desarrollo institucional 2001-2005 de la Universidad
Autónoma del Estado de México. Estado de México, México: UAEMéx. Peeters, H. y Charlier , P. (1999). “Contributions à une th orie du dispositif” en
Le dispositif: entre usage et concept. Hermès 25. Cognition, Communication, Politique. Paris, Francia: CNRS Éditions.
Pou A., S., Aguirre M, L. & Cordero A. G. (2009). “La práctica docente de
profesores universitarios mediante la reflexión crítica” en la Revista Electrónica Actualidades Investigativas en Educación, 9, (1), 2-26. Instituto de Investigación en Educación. Universidad de Costa Rica: Costa Rica. Recuperado de http://www.latindex.ucr.ac.cr/aie-2009-1/aie-9-1-07.pdf
Richards, J.C. (2006). Communicative language teaching today. New York,
USA. Cambridge University Press.
313
Richards, J.C. (2011). Competence and performance in language teaching. New
York, USA. Cambridge University Press. Sánchez, H. S. (2013). “A cognitive perspective on pre-service and in-service
language teaching” en Babylonia 01/13. University of Bath, United Kingdom. Recuperado de http://babylonia.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/2013- 1/Baby2013_1Sanchez.pdf
UCLES, (2014). Cambridge English Teaching Framework. Cambridge English Language
Assessment. University of Cambridge. CE/3007c/4Y09 Recuperado de www.cambridgeenglish.org/teaching-framework
Valenzuela, O. (2010). “La didactique des langues étrang res et les
processus d’enseignement / apprentissage” en Synergies Chili 6, 71-86. Vasilachis de G., I. (coord.) (2006). Estrategias de investigación cualitativa.
Argentina: Gedisa. Wallace, M.J. (1991). Training foreign language teachers. A reflective approach.
USA: Cambridge University Press. Wokusch, S. (2013). “Qu’est-ce qu’un bon enseignement des langues
étrangères? Conceptions scientifiques et conceptions de enseignant-e-s” en Babylonia No 01/13. Universidad de Lausanne, Suiza. Recuperado de http://babylonia.ch/fileadmin/user_upload/documents/2013- 1/Baby2013_1Wokusch.pdf
Wolton, D. (Comp.). (1999). Le dispositif: Entre usage et concept. Paris, Francia: CNRS
Èditions – Hermès 25. Yurén C., T., Navia, C. y Saenger, C.(Coords.) (2005). Ethos y autoformación
del docente: análisis del dispositivo de formación de profesores. México: Pomares.
Zanatta C., M.E. (2008). Formación e identidad del psicólogo en los
dispositivos centrados en competencias. Los casos de dos universidades públicas. Tesis de Doctorado en Educación. México: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Morelos.
Zanatta C, E., Yurén C., T., Santos L., A. (2011). “La formación en
la universidad: tendencias y dispositivos” en Memoria electrónica del XI Congreso nacional de investigación educativa. México: Consejo Mexicano de Investigación Educativa, A.C. Recuperado de http://www.comie.org.mx/congreso/memoriaelectronica/v11/docs/area_15/1 295.pdf
LA AUTORA:
314
MARÍA ESTELA ESTRADA CORTÉS. Dra. en Ciencias con Énfasis en Educación por parte de la UAEMéx. Maestra en Lingüística Aplicada – UNAM. Profesora investigadora de la Facultad de Lenguas – UAEMéx. Áreas de especialidad: Docencia, Formación docente, Aprendizaje y evaluación de lenguas, Investigación, Educación a Distancia, Práctica reflexiva, Diseño y evaluación curricular y Gestión educativa. Experiencia en lenguas y formación docente de más de 25 años. [email protected] y [email protected]
315
COLLECTIVE ACCOMPANIMENT FOR REFLECTIVE PRACTICE
WITH TESOL TEACHERS IN MEXICO
Patricia Marie Anne Houde Kenneth Geoffrey Richter
Universidad de Guanajuato [email protected]
ABSTRACT
Reflective Practice (RP) is the ability to reflect on actions by engaging in a process of
continuous learning informed by professional knowledge and lived experiences (Schön,
1983). Research on RP has reported positive impacts on teaching (Farrell, 2013b, 2016b),
and since the 1980’s Reflective Practice has become a component of most teacher
education programs. However, it is unclear if educational interventions focusing on RP
have been effective within the context of second language teacher education (SLTE). In
research on the impact of SLTE on pedagogic beliefs, Richter (2014) worked with students
enrolled in a B.A. TESOL program in the Language Department of the University of
Guanajuato. One of the main findings was that students in Richter’s investigation did “not
consider reflection an important aspect of teaching” (2014, p. 334). In contrast, graduates
of the LEI program exhibited “more cognitive complexity” than did LEI students and
attributed most of their beliefs to reflection on action (p. 335). This article addresses this
apparent gap in RP by introducing a Collective Accompaniment Model (CAM) (Guillemette,
2014), a bottom-up approach that encourages reflective practices. As teachers analyze
aspects of their professional lives, the collaborative process central to the CAM
strengthens and deepens reflection by allowing them to co-construct awareness about
their instructional practices.
Keywords: Reflective Practice, Collective Accompaniment Model, Professional
Development, B.A. TESOL Teachers in Mexico, Action Research.
INTRODUCTION
The following review aims to contextualize Houde’s current research on the promotion of
reflective practices (RP). The authors are primarily interested in whether “collective
accompaniment” can help to promote the development of RP among English language
teachers who have nearly completed or have recently completed a 4-year B.A. TESOL
degree. In section I, the difficulties associated with promoting reflective practices are
discussed. The authors report on Richter’s (2014) research conducted with ESL teachers
in Guanajuato, which suggests that second language teacher education (SLTE) students
tend not to reflect on their teaching. Possible reasons for this are considered. In section II,
the authors introduce the Collective Accompaniment Model (CAM) as a possible way to
promote reflection on practice among novice L2 teachers. As a prelude to this, the authors
first discuss definitions of RP, dialogic and collective ways to reflect on practices, and
316
research dealing with RP in teaching English as a foreign language. Finally, in section III,
the authors present Houde’s current research on the effectiveness of the CAM. The
authors conclude with suggestions regarding the development of reflective practices in the
Mexican context.
DIFFICULTIES IN PROMOTING REFLECTIVE PRACTICES
LEI program at the University of Guanajuato
Over the past ten years, the EFL teaching profession has grown rapidly in Mexico. Second
language teacher education programs have been established countrywide, making it
possible for prospective teachers to prepare to enter the profession. At the University of
Guanajuato, a four-year B.A. TESOL program is offered (Licenciatura en la Enseñanza del
Inglés or LEI). In order to help students make connections between their academic work
and their work as teaching professionals, the LEI program offers a number of courses
which encourage reflective practices.
Many of the students who enter the program are already practicing language
teachers; all LEI students are required to find employment as English teachers during the
course of their studies. A survey conducted by the Coordinación de Interacción con
Egresados de la Universidad de Guanajuato (2016) indicated that 97.5% of LEI graduates
worked as EFL instructors during the last year of their B.A. Since many of the students
come to the program with teaching experience or gain experience during the degree,
students often “self-train” as practitioners.
Research conducted with ESL teachers in Guanajuato
Richter (2014), in a research study on the impact of SLTE on pedagogic beliefs, worked
with six cohorts of students enrolled in the University of Guanajuato’s teacher training
program. These cohorts were each comprised of ten participants. One cohort included
teachers with no pedagogical training. Four cohorts were made up of students in different
years of the LEI program. One cohort contained graduates of the program who had
considerable experience working as English instructors. Richter’s research reported that
the untrained teachers and LEI students did “not consider reflection an important aspect of
teaching” (p. 334). Only three students out of 60 responded that their own reflection on
practice influenced their teaching beliefs. Overall, for the students participating in the
study, the LEI seemed to have little impact on shaping their views concerning the role of
reflection in second language pedagogy.
When asked to generate ideas about what constitutes best practices, neither the
students nor the graduates participating in Richter’s investigation identified reflection as
particularly important. However, when the concept of reflection was offered as one factor
among several potential factors that influenced their pedagogical beliefs, the graduates
pointed to the exceptional influence of their own reflection on practice. (In contrast,
317
students enrolled in the LEI program reported that the major source of their beliefs
concerning pedagogy was their SLTE professors.) LEI graduates exhibited “more cognitive
complexity” than did the students and attributed most of their beliefs to reflection on action
(p. 335). Graduates identified eight separate areas that were positively impacted by their
reflection on practice: the quality and variety of activities and materials; the importance of
teacher personality; the importance of continual professional development; a teacher’s
second language ability; the importance of autonomous learning; a teacher’s planning and
organization; content knowledge; and pedagogical knowledge. In contrast to the
graduates, students in the study only identified one single case where reflection informed
their practice: motivating their EFL pupils.
Possible reasons for lack of reflection
The degree to which SLTE programs help their students reflect on practice is the subject
of debate. Among many ELT scholars, there is a pronounced skepticism that teacher
training programs have any more than a negligible impact on students’ professional
practice (Burke, 2006; Kunt & Özdemir, 2010; Peacock, 2001; Urmston, 2003; Pennington
& Urmston, 1998; Von Wright, 1997). Von Wright (1997), for instance, suggests that
pedagogic training often produces separate lines of thought: student teachers learn the
nomenclature of the teaching profession but do not actually grow in terms of their reflective
abilities.
There are a number of possible explanations for the lack of reflection reported
among the less experienced study participants in Richter’s study (above). Roberts (1998)
writes that student teachers often adopt a negative attitude towards reflective assignments
because they perceive them to be “imposed course requirements, with no real meaning for
themselves” (p. 59). Such negative attitudes about reflection among student teachers may
be quite common. Smith and Lev-Ari (2005), for instance, report that more than two-thirds
of the 480 student teachers who took part in their study described the reflective teaching
journal assignment as an ineffective approach to examining pedagogical experiences. It
has been suggested that students may be resistant to sharing personal information or
negative feelings (Gunn, 2010). Reporting on her study of journal reflection, Hobbs (2007)
notes that instead of sharing their real views, many of the student teachers in her study
resorted to “strategic deception.” That is, they wrote entries they felt would please or
impress their teacher.
Another problem may simply be that many student teachers do not possess a
repertoire of teaching experiences sufficiently large as to provide them with the raw
material for reflection (Roberts, 1998). Schön (1987) proposed that experts regularly
engage in two types of self-evaluation: “reflection-on-action” and “reflection-in-action.” The
former refers to the process of critically examining past behaviors while the latter refers to
how experts monitor themselves during practice, particularly when they encounter a new
problem. These concepts are supplemented by the idea of “reflection-for-action” (Killion &
Todnem, 1991), also referred to as “reflection-before-action” (van Manen, 1991), which
318
focuses on the planning stages of teaching. All these concepts presuppose that students
already have accumulated a sufficiently ample stock of professional experiences upon
which to reflect. In many (perhaps most) cases, this may not be true. As a consequence,
“many new teachers choose not to reflect on their practice constructively and critically,
preferring to fall back on pre-conceived understandings of how they and their pupils should
conduct themselves in the classroom” (Moore & Ash, 2002, p. 112).
Students and novice teachers who hold positive views of reflection may
nonetheless find the practice challenging. First, students may not understand what
reflection is. This may be, in part, an unintended consequence of RP’s success. As
Rodgers (2002) notes, the introduction of RP into pedagogic training has been broad but
shallow and suggests that “reflection has suffered from a loss of meaning. In becoming
everything to everybody, it has lost its ability to be seen” (p. 843). Second, student
teachers may be unaware of the critical nature of reflection and believe that describing
situations and writing minute-by-minute accounts of their classroom experiences is
sufficient (Gunn, 2010).
McIntyre (1993, as cited in Bramald, Hardman, & Leat, 1995) notes that even
after SLTE has concluded, novice teachers find it difficult to reflect critically. Although
students in the LEI program are required to take courses on classroom observation and
analysis and reflection of their professional practice, as new teachers they may find it
difficult to operationalize learnings from these courses. Opportunities to reflect are
compromised by the fact that novice teachers must confront a number of professional
realities. Language teachers often receive inadequate salaries, work under contracts that
provide no benefits, have only limited access to pedagogic resources, struggle with large
classes, and are obliged to cover imposed objectives. Moreover, for many new teachers,
there are limited opportunities to talk with other professionals and reflect on their practice.
LEI students often find themselves teaching English in schools located in isolated areas.
The physical distances between EFL teachers means that many do not have easy access
to a community of practitioners to talk to and reflect with. Given these constraints and
pressures, new teachers may lack the necessary time and energy to reflect on their
teaching practices. Reflection, such as it is, often remains at the technical level, defined by
an emphasis on the attainment of narrow goals (McIntyre, 1993, p. 44). According to
McIntyre, few novice teachers will demonstrate “critical reflection” (defined by wider
ethical, social, and political concerns), a type of reflection which, the author remarks, “is
rarely practiced even among experienced teachers” (Bramald, Hardman, & Leat, 1995, p.
28).
A WAY FORWARD? A COLLECTIVE ACCOMPANIMENT MODEL FOR PROMOTING
REFLECTIVE PRACTICES
In the previous section, the authors presented evidence suggesting that student-teachers’
and novice teachers’ reflection on practice may be limited, particularly in comparison with
more experienced teachers. A number of explanations for this were proposed. In the
319
following section, an innovative approach to promoting RP is presented. The collective
accompaniment model (CAM), first suggested by Guillemette (2014), is a bottom-up
approach to developing expertise in self-analysis within a collective setting.
Definitions of reflective practice and collective process
Reflective Practice, as presented by Dewey (1910), is a systematic and rigorous process
of inquiry that helps teachers to solve problems through the “deliberate thoughtful dwelling
on a specific event, incident or situation” (as cited in Burhan-Horasanli & Ortaçtepe, 2016,
p. 372). Schön (1983) stated that RP is the ability to reflect on actions by engaging in a
process of continuous learning rooted in professional knowledge and lived experience.
Lafortune et al. (2009c) emphasize the socio-constructivist aspect of self-examination. RP
is “the act of stepping back to critically examine one’s operating modes and analyze, both
individually and collectively, the acts and actions carried out in the course of a professional
intervention” (p. 91).
Within the literature on RP, a dialogic process may be defined as conversation
both with oneself and with other people. Mann and Walsh (2013), for instance, refer to the
dialogic reflection process as a form of “discourse with self” (p. 297) but also stress the
need to discuss issues with others. The dialogic process can, then, be understood as
discourse with self and between two or more people which incorporates different forms of
understanding, including both experiential and received knowledge (Wallace, 1991; Kolb,
1984). For many researchers, the dialogic process is central to RP (Richards & Farrell,
2005; Mann & Walsh, 2013, 2015; Walsh & Mann, 2015; Burhan-Horasanlı & Ortaçtepe,
2016; Kissau & King, 2015; Smith & Lewis, 2015; Mann & Tang, 2012; Farrell, 2012,
2013a, 2015, 2016a; Banegas et al., 2013; Mercado & Baecher, 2014).
Kumaravadivelu (2012) suggests that reflection is best carried out in the company
of other teachers as “teaching is a reflective activity which at once shapes and is shaped
by the doing of theorizing which in turn is bolstered by the collaborative process of dialogic
inquiry” (p. 95). This view is supported by Rodgers (2002), who writes that while reflection
can happen in solitude, “in community with others, the learner will broaden his or her
understanding of an experience beyond where it might go in isolation” (p. 863). Mann and
Walsh (2013) point out that sharing with colleagues can greatly enhance individual
reflection since “learning from other colleagues is not the same as a co-constructed sense
of reflecting together through interaction” (p. 297).
Research in reflective practice in teaching English as a foreign language
Research on EFL RP has attracted interest since the 1980’s, and its positive impact on
practice has been reported (Farrell, 2016a). RP can increase levels of awareness,
motivate teachers to explore their practices, and challenge entrenched approaches. Farrell
(2015) highlights a number of issues which continue to frustrate research in the field of RP.
320
These include a confusing terminology and the sheer number of models, levels, strategies,
and applications of reflection. Farrell concludes by noting “how complex the concept of
reflection is and how little we know about the issues associated with RP” (p. 122).
Farrell (2015) developed a framework for conducting a reflective inquiry process
in EFL contexts which acknowledges the “inner life of teachers” (Farrell, 2016b, p. 225),
including aspects related to their intellectual, cognitive, metacognitive, moral, emotional,
and spiritual lives. Farrell’s framework is used to describe, examine, and challenge a
teacher’s embedded assumptions as it provides a lens through which to view teachers’
professional and personal lives and analyze how each “stage” or part of the framework
impacts teaching, both inside and beyond practice (2016b). It aims to develop
contemplation and raise awareness of teachers’ actions, thoughts, and values. The
framework is non-static, and the reflection process is inherently fluid and can start at any
point or phase of the framework (Farrell, 2016b). It is constructed around five non-
sequential stages or levels that promote reflection of educators’ basic teaching philosophy,
the principles teachers rely on to direct practice, the theories that are embedded in their
practice, teachers teaching practice in classroom contexts, and beyond the classroom in
terms of the sociocultural, affective, moral, political, and emotional dimensions that impact
teaching. Figure 1 presents a summary of Farrell’s framework:
1. Philosophy: Looks at how Teachers’ (Ts’) basic philosophy, personal beliefs and values, carried from childhood to pre-service, in-service and beyond teaching impact Ts’ practice.
2. Principles: Looks at the principles Ts use to direct their practice. Looks into Ts’ assumptions, beliefs, and conceptions related to their teaching practice.
3. Theory: Looks at which theories are embedded into Ts’ practice from their general approach to lesson planning, and critical incidents in the classroom.
4. Practice: Looks at what happens in the classroom by engaging in action research through class observations, video/audio recording, transcription of lessons.
5. Beyond practice: Looks beyond the classroom at how the sociocultural, moral, and emotional dimensions are impacting practice. Ts’ engage in critical reflection through dialogue with other teachers in teacher reflection groups.
Figure 1 Reflective Practice Framework for TESOL (Farrell, 2015)
The collective accompaniment model
As outlined above, there are a number of difficulties associated with the development of
critical attitudes among SLTE students and novice teachers. One possible strategy for
fostering RP includes the CAM, first proposed by Guillemette (2014). The CAM is a
bottom-up approach to developing expertise in self-analysis within a collective setting. The
CAM serves to support novice and more experienced practitioners as they analyze their
teaching and adopt positive changes by helping them to bring unarticulated concepts to a
321
level of conscious awareness (Farrell, 2013a). As the teachers who follow the CAM
analyze aspects of their professional lives, the collaborative process inherent to the model
provides a structure designed to deepen individual reflection. The goal of collective
accompaniment is to implement long-lasting changes by co-constructing awareness about
teaching practices.
Taking a socio-constructivist research perspective is essential to this reflective
process:
From a socio-constructivist viewpoint, RP presupposes interacting … and
reassessing the practices of individuals and groups who agree to challenge their
beliefs (conceptions and convictions) and experience cognitive dissonance in the
aim of achieving greater consistency between what they think, do, believe and
accomplish (practices) in their professional lives. (Lafortune, 2009c, p. 91)
As mentioned in Guillemette (2017), the CAM stems from four basic theoretical
concepts: accompaniment, analysis of practices, reflexivity, and adjustment of practices.
Each of these is considered, below.
Accompaniment is “the idea of joining the other and offering support by nurturing
each other’s potential” (Guillemette, 2014, p. 63, [author’s translation]); this is
closely tied to the current trend in research, which sees RP as necessarily dialogic
(see above).
Analysis of practices is the capacity of individuals to examine both their personal
and professional experiences as a basis for interpretation, discussion, assessment,
and ultimately pedagogic change.
Reflexivity is “a process of inquiry triggered by an interpellation (i.e., a turning
point) that emerged from lived experiences, resulting in a reconceptualization of
thoughts or a shift in perspective” (Chaubet, 2013, p. 54, [author’s translation]).
Reflexivity encourages reflection but at the same time fosters the identification of
deeper motivations that lie beneath our actions (Guillemette, 2014). It invites us to
examine our values, experiences, conceptual frames, and cognitive and affective
facets (Argyris & Schön, 1996).
Adjustment of practices is the way in which professionals implement changes in
their practice while considering the underlying motives which guide their actions in
professional contexts (Guillemette & Simon, 2014).
Phases during the accompaniment process
In the CAM, small groups of teachers are supported by an “accompaniment provider” who
facilitates, explains and guides the process. The role of the accompaniment provider is to
listen actively, take part in the questioning phase, give feedback on what was presented,
take notes, elaborate summaries, and explain theoretical concepts as well as to organize
the meetings. The researcher-facilitator must ensure that the whole process is streamlined
322
and effective. This procedure takes place within a setting where listening, questioning, and
giving feedback ensures clear comprehension of participant ideas (Guillemette, 2014
[author’s translation]). For instance, during sharing sessions, the physical space is
organized in a way to invite, conduct, and create a trusting and safe environment. The
participating members sit around a table or arrange themselves in a way in which they can
face each other, allowing for a sense of openness and intimacy.
During the group sessions, the process follows different phases: preparation,
realization, and introspection (Guillemette, 2014):
The preparation phase (at the start of each session): serves to bring participants
together at the beginning of each session. Goals and expectations are explained.
The researcher shares the procedures which will be followed during the group
discussion, distributes the summary report to validate information from the previous
session, and presents the agenda for the day.
The realization phase (during the session): is divided in four axes (1) analyzing and
problematizing the situation (2) planning actions; (3) actualizing and updating; (4)
regulating. Participants analyze their practice by identifying the gap between their
present and their desired situation. A participant discusses their teaching situation
and the other participants listen actively. During a question period, participants are
invited to ask open-ended questions which benefit the reflection process.
Participants then move toward planning specific objectives and establishing an
action research plan. The information gathered during the realization phase of the
session serves to develop the teacher’s professional intervention project (PIP). The
PIP is the most important data collection instrument to keep track of the
progression of the practitioner’s reality, to guide the initial questioning, to sustain
reflection, and to explicitly name the actions being adjusted in practice. The PIP is
gradually developed into sections allowing for the practitioner and the
accompaniment provider to keep an overview of progress, teacher’s practice, and
description of different elements and resources that play a role in the intervention
of each participant.
The introspection phase (at the end of each session): emphasizes the development
of collective awareness about events that took place during the session. First, for
integration, a collective reflection takes place where participants share their
thoughts about the way the session has affected their thinking about teaching.
Furthermore, an individual written report is completed by each participant for
individual private reflection and introspection.
The CAM phases follow the sequence presented in figure 2:
1. PREPARATION: Set Context
Group gathering
Revisit rules & ethics
Summary report
323
2. REALIZATION: Professional Intervention Project (PIP)
Axis 1: Question & Observe (10 min) description of the situation
Present the situation: one participant – active listening
Question to understand (technical questions)
Synthetize information & Verify shared understanding
Precise intention of analysis
Axis 2: Analyze & Reflect - no suggestions or solutions offered
Question for analyzing (open nonjudgmental questions)
Set hypotheses and understanding
Sustain reflection with theoretical concepts
Clarify comprehension (open & nonjudgmental questions)
Synthetize plausible actions
Axis 3: Plan of Action - until next session
Choose the steps for action
Establish an action research plan
Axis 4: Experiment, Implement & Adjust between sessions
Teaching practice between sessions – new posture
3. INTROSPECTION - INTEGRATION: Awareness level II
Collective open reflections to bring closure
Individual reflections (written individual reports)
Figure 2 Accompaniment Process (Guillemette, 2014, [author’s translation])
CURRENT RESEARCH ON THE COLLECTIVE ACCOMPANIMENT MODEL
In the above section, the CAM was proposed as a way to enhance RP with EFL teachers.
In this section, the authors consider on-going research by Houde aimed at assessing the
effectiveness of the model in the Mexican context. We will look at the general research
question, the research methodology, and Houde’s approach to data collection. Some
preliminary results are presented at the end of this section.
Previous research and general research question
In general, limited studies have been conducted on EFL RP in the Latin American context,
with most recent studies coming from Asia (Farrell, 2016a). Farrell (2016b) identified 116
studies on RP in TESOL teaching between 2009 and 2014. Only a handful of these are
from Latin America (Mercado & Baecher, 2014; Banegas et al., 2013). In Mexico, a recent
study on RP was conducted with pre-service teachers in an English Language Major SLTE
program in Quintana Roo (Dzay Chulim, 2015). In her conclusion, the author highlights the
positive effect that the process had on the participants, guiding them towards a more
profound level of RP development.
324
The CAM model has guided adjustments of educational practice in Quebec
(Canada), Belgium, Switzerland, and France (Pallascio & Lafortune, 2000; Lafortune et al.,
2009a, 2009b, 2009c; Paul, 2015; Guillemette, 2014; Guillemette & Simon, 2014;
Guillemette, 2017). However, the CAM is a very recent innovation in the Mexican and Latin
American context. Research, then, on its potential effectiveness is clearly important.
The general research question guiding Houde’s current study is the following:
How does reflection emerge through using a collective accompaniment model with EFL
teachers who have completed a B.A. in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages
(TESOL) in Mexico?
Methodology: epistemological posture for action research
In an effort to better understand the nature of teachers’ reflective practices and ascertain
the types of support that are most effective in helping teachers to engage in reflection,
Houde is currently investigating RP using the CAM proposed by Guillemette (2014). The
current research involves EFL teachers participating in a reflecting process over a period
of seven months by implementing changes to their teaching practices. Houde has been
working with one cohort comprised of nine participants since the CAM usually takes place
in small groups of eight to ten (Guillemette, 2017, p. 4). The group is led by the
accompaniment provider (in this case the researcher) who explains and guides the
process, facilitates exchanges, manages turn-taking, and organizes the sessions. This
procedure is conducted in a setting in which listening, questioning and providing feedback
ensure clear comprehension of participant ideas.
The investigation is being carried out using Action Research (AR), a term coined
by Kurt Lewin (1946). AR has been defined as:
A participatory process concerned with developing practical knowing in the pursuit
of worthwhile human purposes. It seeks to bring together action and reflection,
theory and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions
to issues of pressing concern to people, and more generally the flourishing of
individual persons and their communities. (Reason & Bradbury, 2008, p. 4)
In 1950, with the idea of implementing changes to AR, Corey introduced the
notion of concertation between researchers and educational practitioners (Anadón &
Savoie-Zajc, 2007). Along with Hall (1983, as cited in Anadón & Savoie-Zajc, 2007), the
research process in participative AR must include discussion, questioning, and analysis.
Because of the nature of AR, reproducibility of the results cannot be expected or
assumed. The goal is not to generalize or transfer the results but to understand social
phenomena focusing on change and action within the research context. Bill Torbert, who
developed the “theory and practices of action inquiry” (cited in Reason & Bradbury, 2008,
p. 706), describes full-blown AR as representing “a double-loop paradigmatic
325
transformation which interweaves action and inquiry in real time including participants as
co-researchers” (Torbert, n.d., cited in Reason & Bradbury, p. 697). The notion of change
is deeply present in AR. Reason and Bradbury (2008) suggest that “AR starts from an
orientation of change with others” (p. 1) rather than a desire to impose change on others.
Hence, the place of the participants as co-researchers is of utmost importance. Torbert
(1998), and Chandler and Torbert’s (2003) (cited in Reason & Bradbury, 2008, p. 6)
developed the concept of first, second and third-person strategies for inquiry within AR to
show the self-personal, inter-personal and outer personal posture and involvement of the
participants within the research project. They referred to first-person voice (the
researcher’s own subjective life inquiring); second-person voices (intersubjective face-to-
face interpersonal dialogues with others into issues of mutual concern); and third-person
voices (objectivity-seeking by creating a wider community of inquiry including social
movements).
Methodological approach for data collection
In order to carry out the current research, the data collection instruments are comprised of
the following:
Professional Intervention Projects (PIPs), which are shared orally during the
sessions (recorded, transcribed, and developed according to each participant for
subsequent analysis).
Participants Individual Written Reports, which are filled out at the end of each
session by each participant and which describe what was taken away, what the
participants would like to work on in the future, and what they can reinvest in their
practice.
A 24-hour post-meeting written reflection sent by e-mail from the participants who
presented their PIP during a given session.
General Summary Reports from the previous session are distributed for validation
to the group members at the beginning of each session.
A Researcher’s Journal is completed in MS Word format.
These instruments allow for data triangulation of the entire accompaniment
process. The data gathered through the research instruments is further treated for
categorization. The process of categorization and thematization is created in terms of
similarities (generic invariants) and differences (contrasts and specificities) found to make
sense of the information gathered. This allows the researcher to let the data speak about
the process of RP in order to answer the research question and objectives (Guillemette,
2014, p. 120; Paillé & Mucchielli, p. 25; Teddlie & Tashakkori, 2009, p. 253).
Preliminary results
As the data collection process is ongoing, Houde’s results are preliminary. Below, the
authors share selected pre-analysed comments offered by the participating teachers from
326
individual written reports completed at the end of each CAM session. We limit our
presentation of results to basic comments made by the teachers involved. We can say that
the levels of reflection in the participants are promising and give us better understanding
about the importance of developing models of collective reflective practice for the
adjustment of teaching practices in the Mexican context. On an individual and personal
level, participants have shared that the process of engaging in an open dialogue with other
colleagues has produced an impact on the way they privately engage in reflection about
their own teaching practice. The comments show the following types of reflection thus far:
“ earing ow 4 ad to repeat instructions and t oug sts weren’t able to ollow
them, made me think about the importance of ensure that sts get the correct
directions to per orm a task.” L
“ ow can I build a question wit out udging or gi e an answer to elp my partners
re lect upon t eir situation?” 2S
“ ow our belie s can c ange through time and experience. How our context
in luences our teac ing practice and growt .” 3
“ bout learners wit learning di erences, in my experience I a e also aced a
similar situation but at t at moment I didn’t know w at to do & it is somet ing I
regret.” 4
“W y I did not realize last year my student under medication ad a problem?
Before assuming children have a behavior problem find out more about their
background & work in close relation wit ot er sta o t e sc ool.” 5
“Continuously reflect on my own practice and consider aspects such as
instructions, w ic are ital to linking one task wit anot er.” 6I
“I learned t at one o t e best ways to begin understanding t e problems we a e
when teaching is by getting informed. Before making decisions, we need to read.”
(P7E)
“I a e to keep my essence. I eel I am a no ice teac er and I need to go to t e
next stage or step. I am alling in lo e again wit my pro ession.” 8C
“Re lecting on sts’ inclusion. dapting syllabus according to my context. Looking for
different resources, material, information, in order to deal with this kind of situation.
Preparing a professional and personal intervention plan. Disability is a reality in my
context.” 9
From a socio-constructivist point of view, the CAM is making an impact on
participating teachers, whether or not they are presenting their PIP during a given session.
Being present and participating during collective sessions allows for reflection to emerge
for all participants involved. The fact that a colleague shared some issues regarding
his/her practice, in influencing the way other participating teachers reflect on what they can
do to improve their own practice. As demonstrated by the following comments, a level of
influence on all the members of the group originates by the collective process of sharing
teaching situations:
327
“S aring experiences wit eac ot er is a ery nurturing practice. I wis t is acti ity
could be spread to more teachers. That way teaching practices would bring
bene its to education.” L
“Listening to ot er teac er experiences as elped me to prepare mysel or new
classroom situations. It also helped me to clarify the aspects that I want to improve
in my teac ing and classroom.” 2S
“I realized ow important our context is in our teaching practice, as it affects our
teaching planners, and development. I was kind of aware of mine, but I need to
open my eyes and see t e “w ole” picture.” 3
“ e s aring is ery enric ing because we can re lect on them & help me to grow
as a person & as a teac er.” 4
“Keep de eloping as a teac er by learning rom our peers in a collaborati e way.”
(P5A)
“S aring our experiences amongst peers is enric ing or e eryone, apart rom
having an opportunity to open up and some ow take a load o one’s c est.” 6I
“It was interesting or me ow teac ers w o a e read a lot about language
acquisition and learning theories in general still have troubles when seeing its
practical aspect bridging one and anot er ”. P7E)
“W en 5 asked “w at appens wit students w o understand instructions and
t e ot ers don’t? It was a great question because we sometimes, as teac ers,
don’t realize t at we a e good experiences too, and in some way, we a e t e
answer.” 8C
“I had to avoid my personal intervention and to be focused on the participant
inter ention.” 9
These results are presented as a sample of the kind of data produced by the
study of the CAM’s potential. While the investigation is still in an exploratory stage, initial
findings suggest that the CAM is useful for developing reflection among the participating
teachers. The authors hope that the collective process will produce meaningful types of
reflection which will help to foster introspection and bring meaning to the professional
practices of ESL teachers.
CONCLUSION
In the previous section, an overview was offered of Houde’s current research. The direct
expected value of this research is to provide support to EFL teachers who have completed
the B.A. TESOL program in teaching EFL at the language department of the University of
Guanajuato and who are looking for ways to enhance their teaching practice. The
discussion sessions, collective accompaniment approach and questioning techniques
used during the research process serve to support RP, develop effective teaching and
improve ESL teaching practices in Mexico. The long-term goal of the research is to create
sustainable professional support groups for the members of the EFL teacher community in
the state of Guanajuato.
328
In terms of research limitations, the operationalization of the CAM has not, thus
far, been applied to other Mexican research contexts. It is important to keep in mind that in
any enactment of the CAM, participants need to fully commit and engage in the process in
order to bring about positive results in their professional lives. Participants must travel to
the research site and organize their schedule to attend one monthly session. It is important
for the group members to feel connected for reflection to be meaningful. The group
facilitator also needs to receive training as an accompanier.
Despite the intrinsic challenges, the need to help new teachers develop reflective
practices is crucial. As Marcos, Sanchez and Tillema (2011) note, reflection is “rooted in
the understanding that teachers recognize teaching as a process that lies open to scrutiny
and deliberation which permits change in existing practices” (p. 21). Akbari (2007)
comments that as a process for the enhancement of students’ learning and effective
teacher performance, “reflection is not an end, but a means to an end” (p. 204). Freeman
(2002) argues that “teacher education must … serve two functions. It must teach the skills
of reflectivity, and it must provide the discourse and vocabulary that can serve participants
in renaming their experience” (p. 11). It is the hope of the authors of the present review
that the CAM may provide support to novice teachers. The collective accompaniment
model provides an opportunity for novice and more experienced instructors to collectively
join in reflection on their professional goals. The CAM can help suggest benchmarks for
development, provide support for implementing change to teaching practices, and calm
anxieties about initial and ongoing teaching experiences.
REFERENCES
Akbari, R. (2007). Reflections on reflection: A critical appraisal of reflective practices in L2 teacher education. System: An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics, 35(2), 192-207.
Anadón, M., & Savoie-Zajc, L. (2007). La recherche-action dans certains pays Anglo-
Saxons et Latino-Américains, p. 11-28. In M. Anadón (Ed.), La recherche participative: Multiples regards (pp. 11-30), Quebec: Presses de l'Université du Québec.
Argyris, C., & Schön, D. A. (1996). Organizational learning II: Theory, method and
practice, Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley. Banegas, D. L., Pavese, A., Velázquez, A., & Vélez, S.M. (2013). Teacher professional
development through collaborative action research: Impact on foreign English language teaching and learning. Educational Action Research, 21(2), 185-201.
Bramald, R., Hardman, F., & Leat, D. (1995). Initial teacher trainees and their views of
teaching and learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(1), 23–31. Burke, B. M. (2006). Theory meets practice: A case study of pre-service world language
teachers in U.S. secondary schools. Foreign Language Annals, 39(1), 148-166.
329
Burhan-Horasanlı, E., & Ortaçtepe, D. (2016). Reflective practice-oriented online
discussions: A study on EFL teachers’ reflection-on, in and for-action. Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 372-382.
Chandler, D. & Torbert, W. R. (2003). Transforming inquiry and action by interweaving 27
flavors of action research. Action Research, 1(2), p. 133-152. Chaubet, P. (2013). Des conditions favorables à une réflexion collective de l’expérience.
Éducation permanente, 196, 5364. Coordinación de Interacción con Egresados de la Universidad de Guanajuato (2016).
Estudio de seguimiento de egresados de nivel superior licenciatura enseñanza del inglés 2005-2012, Guanajuato: Universidad de Guanajuato, 1-126.
Dewey, J. (1910). How we think. Boston: D.C. Heath & Co. Dzay Chulim, F. (2015) Pre-service teachers reflecting on their teaching practice: an action
research study in a Mexican context. (Doctoral dissertation), The University of Warwick. http://wrap.warwick.ac.uk/77716/1/WRAP_THESIS_Chulim_2015.pdf
Farrell, T. S. C. (2012). Reflecting on reflective practice: (Re)visiting Dewey and Schön.
TESOL Journal, 3(1), 7-16. Farrell, T. S. C. (2013a). Reflective practice in ESL teacher development groups: From
practices to principles. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Farrell, T. S. C. (2013b). Reflecting on ESL teacher expertise: A case study.
System, 41(4), 1070-1082. Farrell, T. S. C. (2015). Promoting teacher reflection in second language education: A
framework for TESOL professionals. NY: Routledge. Farrell, T. S. C. (2016a). From trainee to teacher: Reflective practice for novice teachers.
London, UK: Equinox. Farrell, T. S. C. (2016b). Anniversary article: The practices of encouraging TESOL
teachers to engage in reflective practice: An appraisal of recent research contributions. Language Teaching Research, 20(2), 223-247.
Freeman, D. (2002). The hidden side of the work: Teacher knowledge and learning to
teach. Language Teaching, 35(1), 1-13. Guillemette, S. (2014). ne gestion di érenciée de l’acti ité éducati e en milieu scolaire;
a ustement de pratique: modèle d’accompagnement collecti auprès de c e s ou de directions d’établissement scolaire. Berlin: Presses Académiques Francophones.
Guillemette, S. (2017). Modalités pour le démarrage d’une démarche d’analyse de
pratique et de réflexivité selon une perspective de bienveillance. Revue de l’ nalyse de ratiques ro essionnelles, , 119-132.
330
Guillemette, S., & Simon, L. (2014). Dispositifs d’un mod le d’accompagnement collectif
qui guident la réflexivité chez des directions d’établissement en milieu scolaire. Re ue de l’ nalyse de ratiques ro essionnelles, 3, 13-27.
Gunn, C. L. (2010). Exploring MA TESOL student “resistance” to reflection. Language
Teaching Research, 14(20), 208-223. Hobbs, V. (2007). Faking it or hating it: Can reflective practice be forced? Reflective
Practice: International and Multidisciplinary Perspectives, 8(3), 405-417. Killion, J. P., & Todnem, G. Y. R. (1991). A process for personal theory building.
Educational Leadership, 48(6), 14-16. Kissau, S. P., & King, E. T. (2015). Peer mentoring second language teachers: A mutually
beneficial experience? Foreign Language nnals, 48(1), 143-160. Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall. Kumaravadivelu, B. (2012). Language teacher education for a global society: A modular
model for knowing, analyzing, recognizing, doing, and seeing. New York: Routledge/Taylor and Francis.
Kunt, N., & Özdemir, Ç. (2010). Impact of methodology courses on pre-service EFL
teachers’ beliefs. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 3938–3944. Lafortune, L., Lepage, C., Persechino, F., Bélanger K., & Aitken A. (2009a). Professional
accompaniment model for change for innovative leadership, Quebec: Presses de l'Université du Québec.
Lafortune, L., Lepage C., Persechino F. & Aitken A. (2009b). Professional competencies
for accompanying change: A frame of reference, Quebec: Presses de l'Université du Québec.
Lafortune, L., Lepage, C. & Aitken, A. (2009c). Guide for accompanying change, Quebec:
Presses de l'Université du Québec. Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. Journal of Social Issues, 2(4),
34-46. Mann, S., & Tang, E. H. H. (2012). The role of mentoring in supporting novice English
language teachers in Hong Kong. TESOL Quarterly, 46(3), 472-495. Mann, S., & Walsh, S. (2013). RP or ‘RIP’: A critical perspective on reflective practice.
Applied Linguistics Review, 4(2), 291-315. Mann, S., & Walsh, S. (2015). Reflective dimensions of CDP: Supporting self-evaluation
and peer evaluation. In A. Howard & H. Donaghue (Eds.), Teacher evaluation in second language education (pp. 17-33). London: Bloomsbury.
331
Marcos, J. M., Sanchez, E., & Tillema, H. (2011). Promoting teacher reflection: What is said to be done. Journal of Education for Teaching, 37(1), 21–36.
McIntyre, D. (1993). Theory, theorizing and reflection in initial teacher education. In J.
Calderhead & P. Gates (Eds.), Conceptualizing reflection in teacher development (pp. 39-52). London: Washington, D.C.
Mercado, L. A., & Baecher, L. (2014). Video-based self-observation as a component of
developmental teacher evaluation. Global Education Review, 1(3), 63-77. Moore, A., & Ash, A. (2002) Reflective practice in beginning teachers: Helps, hindrances
and the role of the critical other. Retrieved on January 20, 2013, from www.leedsacuk/educol/documents/00002531htm
Paillé, P., & Mucchielli, A. (2016). L'analyse qualitative en sciences humaines et sociales.
Paris: Armand Colin. Pallascio, R., & Lafortune, L. (2000). Pour une pensée réflexive en éducation. Québec:
Presses de l'Université du Québec. Paul, M. (2015). L’accompagnement: De la notion au concept. Education Permanente.
205, 21-29. Peacock, M. (2001). Pre-service ESL teachers' beliefs about second language learning: A
longitudinal study. System, 29, 177-195. Pennington, M. C., & Urmston, A. (1998). The teaching orientation of graduating students
on a BA TESL course in Hong Kong: A comparison with first year students. Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics, 3, 17-46.
Reason, P., & Bradbury, H. (2008). The SAGE handbook of action research: Participative
inquiry and practice. Los Angeles, Calif: SAGE. Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2005). Professional development for language
teachers: Strategies for teacher learning. New York: Cambridge University Press. Richter, K. G. (2014). Second language teacher education: The development of pre-
service teacher cognitions about the characteristics and practices of effective ESL instructors. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). The University of Memphis: Memphis. https://search.proquest.com/openview/af1e531687e663f522afd5a2b6883794/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Roberts, J. (1998). Language teacher education. London: Arnold. Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look at John Dewey and reflective
thinking. eac ers College Record, 4(4), 842-66. Schön, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How professionals think in action. New
York: Basic Books.
332
Schön, D. A. (1987). Educating the reflective practitioner: Toward a new design for teaching and learning in the professions. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Smith, K., & Lev-Ari, L. (2005) The place of the practicum in pre-service teacher education:
The voice of the students. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33(3), 289–302.
Smith, M. K., & Lewis, M. (2015). Toward facilitative mentoring and catalytic interventions.
ELT Journal, 69(2), 140-150. Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research: Integrating
quantitative and qualitative approaches in the social and behavioral sciences. Los Angeles: SAGE.
Torbert, W. R. (1998). Developing wisdom and executive courage in organizing and
sciencing. In S. Srivastva & D. Cooperrider (Eds.), Organizational wisdom and executive courage (pp. 222-253). San Francisco, CA: New Lexington Press.
Urmston, A. (2003). Learning to teach English in Hong Kong: The opinions of teachers in
training. Language and Education, 17(2), 112-137. Wallace, M. J. (1991). Training foreign language teachers: A reflective approach.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Walsh, S., & Mann, S. (2015). Doing reflective practice: A data-led way forward. ELT
ournal, 69(4), 351-362. van Manen, M. (1991). The tact of teaching: The meaning of pedagogical thoughtfulness.
Albany, NY: Suny Press. Von Wright, M. (1997). Student teachers' beliefs and a changing teacher role. European
Journal of Teacher Education, 20(3), 257-266.
THE AUTHORS PATRICIA MARIE ANNE HOUDE is an associate professor in the Language Department at the University of Guanajuato. She works in teacher education programs and has taught foreign languages in Canada and Mexico since 1990. She is a PhD candidate in Educational Studies in Language Acquisition at McGill University. KENNETH GEOFFREY RICHTER is an associate professor at the University of Guana uato, w ere e teac es in t e Language Department’s teac er training program. He has been involved in higher education for more than twenty-five years, working in the United States, Taiwan, China, Singapore and in Mexico.
333
SECCIÓN IV: TRADUCCIÓN
334
LA IMPORTANCIA DE LAS TIC EN LA ENSEÑANZA DE LA
TRADUCCIÓN
José Cortez Godínez Noriko Estefanía Santos Sigala
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California [email protected]
RESUMEN
La Traducción Asistida por Computadora ofrece una serie de herramientas al traductor
para agilizar sus actividades y aumentar su rendimiento. Esta investigación registra las
percepciones de dos grupos de alumnos (séptimo y octavo semestres de la Licenciatura
en Traducción de la UABC-Campus Tijuana) sobre el uso de memorias de traducción
(MT), sus beneficios y utilidad en la profesión del traductor. Mediante la consulta de
diversas fuentes se enlistan las características que requiere un texto para poder obtener
la mayor ventaja al traducirlo en una MT, a la par que se describe la puesta en acción de
la subcompetencia instrumental/profesional incluida en el modelo holístico de
Competencia Traductora de PACTE (2000, 2001, 2003, 2005, 2008, 2009, 2011) y Kelly
(2002). También revisamos el perfil de egreso planteado en el plan de estudios de la
licenciatura en relación con el uso de tecnología aplicada y por último se presentan los
resultados obtenidos de un cuestionario aplicado a los alumnos para conocer su
imaginario del tema. La opinión generalizada de los estudiantes es que efectivamente es
una herramienta que beneficia al traductor, reconocen su importancia, y externan que es
imprescindible en sus actividades profesionales. Pero, debido a que sólo se utiliza un
semestre (y los profesores de las otras materias de traducción la desconocen) no la
vuelven a usar de manera regular en sus proyectos y cae en desuso.
Palabras clave: Subcompetencia instrumental/profesional, traducción asistida por
computadora, memoria de traducción, tecnología aplicada.
INTRODUCCIÓN
Actualmente, la traducción cuenta con herramientas tecnológicas para optimizar el tiempo
invertido en cada proyecto, que van desde la consulta de diccionarios y enciclopedias en
línea, hasta la gestión terminológica por medio de programas informáticos y la creación de
memorias de traducción que con cada trabajo se amplían para facilitar la conversión de
textos de un idioma origen a un idioma meta.
El presente proyecto pretende poner de manifiesto la percepción del uso de las
memorias de traducción en alumnos del séptimo y octavo semestre de la Licenciatura en
Traducción con el fin de obtener un panorama del peso que tiene esta herramienta en la
profesionalización de dicha muestra, considerando que en estos grados ya cuentan con la
335
suficiente información respecto al tema, una vez que en sexto semestre se les impartió la
materia “Recursos Tecnológicos Aplicados a la Traducción e Interpretación”.
Existen una serie de investigaciones y planteamientos que analizan las ventajas y
desventajas del binomio tecnología y traducción, y particularmente el tema de la
Traducción Asistida por Computadora (Samson, 2013; Oliver, Moré y Climent, 2008;
Olalla y Vert, 2015; Cortez, Basich y Figuera, 2013, Cortez, Figueroa, y Luna, 2015), así
como la subcompetencia instrumental/profesional, y su importancia en la formación de
traductores. Este trabajo busca aportar datos empíricos al área, así como generar
inquietudes para próximos proyectos. Además, puede brindar información que apoye la
reestructuración de la Licenciatura en Traducción y su adecuación a estos tiempos donde
la tecnología es parte importante en todas las áreas científicas1.
Ante todo, buscamos describir un caso práctico del uso de memorias de
traducción (MT en adelante) como herramienta de apoyo para el estudiante de la
Licenciatura en Traducción de la Universidad Autónoma de Baja California-Campus
Tijuana. En cuanto a referentes teóricos, este trabajo se basa en el modelo holístico de la
Competencia Traductora (CT, en adelante) del grupo PACTE (2000, 2001, 2003, 2005,
2008, 2009, 2011) y el de Kelly (2002), haciendo énfasis en la subcompetencia
instrumental/profesional. Además, revisamos los requisitos de egreso establecidos en el
plan de estudios en cuanto a las competencias instrumentales/profesionales que deberán
manejar los estudiantes al egresar de la licenciatura. A lo largo del artículo se encontrará
también la información respecto a las MT, cómo surgieron y se volvieron parte de las
herramientas de la Traducción Asistida por Computadora.
En la sección Resultados, se presenta el producto obtenido de cada uno de los
reactivos del instrumento de apoyo aplicado en la muestra y las conclusiones se
desarrollan sobre la base de la información recopilada durante el proceso de investigación
de manera documental y a través del instrumento aplicado, dando respuesta a las
preguntas de investigación.
El objetivo de este trabajo es describir el uso de la tecnología aplicada a la
traducción, específicamente de las memorias de traducción por parte de los estudiantes
de la Licenciatura en Traducción de la Facultad de Idiomas de la Universidad Autónoma
de Baja California (UABC)-Campus Tijuana.
Como objetivos específicos planteamos: a) Constatar si existe uso generalizado
de las MT en los estudiantes de séptimo y octavo semestre de la Licenciatura en
Traducción de la UABC-Campus Tijuana.
b) Identificar las características de la subcompetencia
instrumental/profesional incluida en el plan de estudios.
336
c) Constatar si es suficiente el tiempo dedicado en la currícula a las TIC
aplicadas a la traducción.
Con relación a la problemática a tratar: la memoria de traducción (MT, en
adelante) almacena segmentos de texto junto con sus traducciones y posibilitan el acceso
a esa información siempre que sea relevante. Estas son parte de las aplicaciones que
ofrecen los sistemas de Traducción Asistida por Computadora (TAC), que son
consultados por profesionales en la traducción.
La consecuencia directa de la disponibilidad de información que ofrecen estos
programas incide directamente en la productividad del traductor y, en consecuencia, en el
resultado económico que obtienen por su actividad. Si partimos de la relevancia de esta
herramienta en el ámbito profesional del traductor se observa que durante la
reestructuración de la Licenciatura en Traducción que ofrece la UABC (2006) y que aplica
también para el campus Tijuana, se plantearon los recursos tecnológicos como
herramientas que logran formar traductores de calidad, competentes, sensibles ante las
necesidades de su contexto y con la capacidad e inteligencia para resolver problemas
mediante el ejercicio constructivo del conocimiento, considerando el dominio de las
competencias específicas (subcompetencia instrumental/profesional) para la consulta de
diferentes fuentes de información, tales como diccionarios, bases de datos, memorias de
traducción, enciclopedias, textos especializados y/o fuentes vivas, apoyándose en la
tecnología más avanzada de manera eficiente.
Observando entonces que uno de los requisitos de egreso es el dominio de las
herramientas tecnológicas, y tomando para este estudio como variable a la MT surge la
inquietud sobre la información existente del uso de dicha herramienta por los alumnos de
séptimo y octavo semestre de la Licenciatura en Traducción de la UABC-Campus Tijuana,
tomando en cuenta que dentro del plan de estudios se encuentra la materia “Recursos
Tecnológicos Aplicados a la Traducción e Interpretación” en el sexto semestre
correspondiente a la etapa terminal2.
MARCO TEÓRICO
Entre otros expertos, Strandvik (2010) reflexiona sobre el uso de las MT en servicios de
traducción, y explica que, dentro de su área de trabajo, en la Comisión Europea,
representa una sexta parte del total. Señala, además, que las razones por las cuales la
Comisión Europea adoptó las MT fue por el carácter repetitivo de los textos, la
importancia de la coherencia terminológica y el aumento de la productividad
El estudioso destaca que su equipo maneja Translator’s Workbench (TWB) de
Trados y que utilizan un sistema por turnos donde primero analizan los textos recibidos
para ver si son apropiados al entorno. Una vez observado esto, le dan el tratamiento
adecuado (alineación del texto con respecto a la memoria central) y por último se envía
337
una nota a las distintas secretarías indicando el tratamiento que se recomienda en función
del resultado de los análisis efectuados. (Strandvik, op. cit.).
Dentro de su comunicación resalta el hecho de que se debe desconfiar de la
pretraducción arrojada por el TWB como de cualquier diccionario o base documental, pero
que al trabajar con la MT en modo interactivo se logran procesar los segmentos
conscientemente, así se pueden comparar las opciones y elegir si la que arroja el TWB es
la adecuada.
¨Utilizada en modo interactivo la memoria de traducción no es traducción
automática, sino traducción sistemática, lo que es muy distinto y muy valioso para
determinados tipos de textos, que (…) son más numerosos de lo que se pensaba
inicialmente¨ (Strandvik, 2010, p. 3).
Al revisar lo anterior, podemos visualizar la importancia de la utilización de las MT
en un organismo internacional que tiene relevancia por sus funciones y naturaleza. Por
otro lado, en el ámbito académico, se llevó a cabo un estudio en la Universidad de
Valencia por Ramírez y Ferrer (2010) donde describen las acciones y reflexiones
obtenidas del proyecto DocenTic (programa que va dirigido a la producción de recursos
digitales en abierto para la docencia así como el fomento de las TIC en el aula) aplicado a
su Licenciatura de Traducción e Interpretación.
Así, el trabajo parte del análisis de dos factores: la infraestructura disponible y la
enseñanza de destrezas instrumentales, bajo la coordinación docente y su constante
capacitación. En su caso, los alumnos entran en contacto con las TIC en la asignatura
Informática Aplicada a la Traducción en el cuarto año de la licenciatura.
¨La asignatura pretende desarrollar (…) competencias necesarias para manejar
las siguientes herramientas: editores de texto a nivel avanzado, navegador de Internet,
clientes de correo electrónico, clientes FTP, herramientas de análisis de corpus, gestores
de terminología y de memorias de traducción¨ (Ramírez y Ferrer, 2010, p. 30)
En su artículo, los autores hablan de algunas ventajas del uso de las memorias
de traducción que, en su opinión ¨se hacen más evidentes al aplicarse en textos
especializados, mayormente técnicos y en especial cuando se enfrenta a (…) documentos
con un alto grado de repetición (…) desde una perspectiva crítica hacia las herramientas
de las TIC¨ (op. cit., p. 29). Este proyecto es un ejemplo de la importancia de las
tecnologías y herramientas para la traducción dentro de la currícula de una universidad.
Por otro lado, Cortez, et al. (2015) hablan de un estudio comparativo desarrollado
en la Facultad de Idiomas-Campus Mexicali, en la UABC, el cual, tras hacer un recuento
de la competencia traductora, contrasta los resultados obtenidos en una encuesta
aplicada a alumnos de licenciatura en 2010 y 2013 respecto al uso de las tecnologías. Los
datos muestran que existe el uso de procesadores de texto, herramientas de traducción y
acceso a Internet mediante sus celulares y PC en el Laboratorio de Traducción. En sus
338
conclusiones advierten que si los alumnos son cada día más hábiles en el uso de la
tecnología, los profesores deben procurar, por lo menos, estar a la par en cuanto al
desarrollo de esas habilidades, y afirman que ¨(...) los planes de estudio deben
actualizarse para igualar el desarrollo técnico, científico y tecnológico que se presenta en
el mundo laboral del traductor¨ (p. 100).
Subcompetencia instrumental/profesional
Antes de analizar la subcompetencia instrumental/profesional, es necesario saber qué es
la Competencia Traductora (CT).
Uno de los principales representantes del estudio de la CT es el grupo PACTE,
cuyas siglas significan Proceso de Adquisición de la Competencia Traductora y
Evaluación, quienes desde su inicio en 1997 investigan la formación, manifestaciones y
evaluación del tema. Según su modelo holístico, se entiende por competencia traductora
el sistema subyacente de conocimientos, habilidades y aptitudes necesarios para traducir
que, como toda pericia, posee componentes declarativos y operativos, aunque es un
conocimiento básicamente operativo. Además, se considera que está integrada por
subcompetencias que interactúan y entre las que se encuentran relaciones, jerarquías y
variaciones (PACTE, 2005, p. 574).
Figura 1. Componentes de la CT según grupo PACTE. Fuente: PACTE (2003).
En este modelo holístico, que es una evolución de su modelo original (2001,
p.40), la competencia traductora engloba cinco subcompetencias que a su vez activan
una serie de mecanismos psicofisiológicos (PACTE, 2003); dichas subcompetencias, se
describen como:
* Subcompetencia bilingüe: Competencia gramatical y textual, ilocutiva,
sociolingüística.
* Subcompetencia extralingüística: Conocimientos acerca del mundo en
general.
* Subcompetencia de traducción (transferencia): Capacidad de llevar a
cabo el proceso de transferencia desde el texto original hasta el texto final, así
como conocimiento de la práctica de traducción profesional.
339
* Subcompetencia instrumental: Conocimientos y habilidades en relación
con el ejercicio de la traducción de manera profesional: conocimiento del
mercado laboral y correcto comportamiento profesional, conocimiento y uso de
las fuentes de documentación de todo tipo y de las nuevas tecnologías
necesarias para la traducción.
* Subcompetencia estratégica: Engloba todos aquellos procesos llevados
a cabo ya sea conscientes o inconscientes, de manera verbal o no verbal que
permiten resolver los problemas que se presentan en el desarrollo del proceso
traductor.
(PACTE, 2003, pp. 58-60)
Dentro de la subcompetencia instrumental/profesional se desarrollan las
habilidades del manejo de herramientas que facilitan el proceso de la traducción, es decir,
la capacidad del traductor para documentarse y hacer uso de programas de TAC en el
manejo de terminología y memorias de traducción entre otras.
Por otro lado, Kelly (2002) retomó los modelos que describen el concepto de
éxito en la traducción profesional de Jääskelainen (1990), Chesterman (1997) y Hansen
(1997), y los utilizó para el desarrollo de su enfoque didáctico, análisis y propuesta de
modelo de la CT.
La autora define la CT como una macrocompetencia que en conjunto se
constituye por “capacidades, destrezas, conocimientos e incluso actitudes que reúnen los
traductores profesionales y que intervienen en la traducción como actividad experta” (op.
cit., p. 14). El modelo, lo integra de la siguiente forma (p. 14):
* Subcompetencia comunicativa y textual en al menos dos lenguas y
culturas. Haciendo uso de las fases de la comunicación y las convenciones
textuales de las culturas a trabajar.
* Subcompetencia cultural. No sólo conocimientos enciclopédicos, sino
también las representaciones textuales de valores, creencias y comportamientos.
* Subcompetencia temática. Conocimiento sobre los campos temáticos
que el traductor trabaja.
* Subcompetencia instrumental profesional. Abarca el uso de
fuentes documentales de todo tipo, así como aplicaciones informáticas más útiles
para el ejercicio de la profesión.
* Subcompetencia psicofisiológica. La conciencia de ser traductor.
* Subcompetencia interpersonal. La capacidad de trabajar en equipo
tanto colegas, otros profesionales y cada persona que se encuentre en el
proceso de traducción.
* Subcompetencia estratégica. Todos aquellos procesos aplicados en
la organización y realización del trabajo, así como el identificar y
resolver problemas, y a la autoevaluación y revisión.
340
Figura 2. Componentes de la CT según Kelly. Fuente Kelly (2002, p.9)
Además de la conceptualización, Kelly expone los objetivos que, se deberán
cumplir en la etapa de formación de los alumnos para obtener o dominar cada
subcompetencia. Para efectos de la presente investigación, se observan los objetivos
correspondientes a la subcompetencia instrumental profesional (Kelly, 2002):
* Preparar para saber identificar, valorar la fiabilidad y utilizar las
diferentes fuentes de documentación para la traducción y la interpretación.
* Preparar para saber organizar y realizar la búsqueda de terminología,
así como valorar la fiabilidad y gestionar recursos terminológicos.
* Dar a conocer y preparar para saber manejar las principales aplicaciones
* informáticas de utilidad para la traducción y la interpretación.
* Dar a conocer y preparar para saber manejar otras
herramientas profesionales tales como el fax, el dictáfono.
* Dar a conocer las principales pautas para evaluar la calidad
de traducciones en diferentes situaciones.
* Dar a conocer el mercado local, regional, nacional e internacional de
la traducción, la interpretación, y actividades afines.
* Hacer comprender el funcionamiento del mercado profesional de
la traducción y de la interpretación en sus aspectos laborales, fiscales y
empresariales.
* Dar a conocer, y preparar para valorar y comprender la deontología de
la traducción y la interpretación profesionales, así como el papel de la
traducción en la sociedad.
* Dar a conocer las principales asociaciones profesionales nacionales
e internacionales.
(Kelly, 2002, pp. 17-18)
A nivel local Cortez, Figueroa y Luna (2013, p. 103) adaptaron a nuestra realidad
el modelo de análisis de PACTE (2003), y descubrieron que las subcompetencias
estratégica, textual y extralingüística ayudaron a subsanar las carencias en la
341
instrumental/profesional, es decir la falta de experiencia y el problema de nunca haber
traducido frente a ordenador por parte de los alumnos de séptimo semestre en 2005.
Gracias al bagaje experiencial de haber traducido más tiempo, solventaron el problema y
a pesar de sus carencias tecnológicas y su falta de entrenamiento, llevaron a buen
término la misma tarea traductora específica que los alumnos de Cuarto semestre
realizaron anteriormente usando la tecnología.
Memorias de Traducción
Las memorias de traducción son sólo una parte de las herramientas que la Traducción
Asistida por Computadora (TAC) ofrece como instrumento para la traducción en volumen
de textos, ¨…la TAC comienza a dar sus primeros pasos en la década de los 90 con la
aparición de numerosos programas y el desarrollo de proyectos ni siquiera soñados,
tiempo atrás¨ (Hernández, 2002, p. 106).
Así se pueden mencionar las herramientas de la TAC, considerando que son
éstas las que apoyan directamente al trabajo del traductor: gestores terminológicos,
herramientas de alineación de textos, herramientas de localización de software,
herramientas de localización de páginas web, herramientas de subtitulación, herramientas
de ayuda lexicográfica o explotación de corpus y las memorias de traducción (Bermúdez,
2014).
¨El concepto de MT existe desde hace décadas. La idea se originó en los años
70 (…) y las primeras implementaciones se produjeron en los años 80, pero (…) sólo
representaron una entidad comercial significativa desde finales de 1990¨ (op. cit.,
p.133).
Una MT (Hernández, 2002) es un tipo de base de datos lingüística que se utiliza
para almacenar textos originales y sus traducciones. Los textos se dividen en segmentos
cortos que a menudo se corresponden con oraciones, y la unidad de traducción:
(…) se compone de un segmento de texto origen y su equivalente traducido; de
manera más simple, una MT puede verse como una lista de segmentos de texto origen
explícitamente alineados con sus homólogos de texto destino. La estructura resultante
se denomina corpus paralelo o bitexto. Un corpus paralelo es una colección de
bitextos, siendo un bitexto el texto constituido por un texto y su traducción.
(Hernández, 2002, p. 117)
Estas unidades de traducción, agrega la autora (op. cit.), se almacenan en la
base de datos de las MT. Algunos programas de MT sofisticados utilizan la tecnología
llamada red neuronal para almacenar información. Una red neuronal permite que la
información se recupere más rápidamente que mediante una técnica de búsqueda
secuencial. La idea esencial de un sistema de MT es que permite a un traductor reutilizar
o "reciclar" segmentos previamente traducidos, lo que a veces se llama
342
"aprovechamiento". Aunque el lenguaje es dinámico, es muy repetitivo, y se suelen utilizar
expresiones similares para comunicar ideas similares en dominios determinados.
Ahora bien, una MT puede ser creada a partir de la traducción de documentos
mediante TAC, pero ¨ (…) si el traductor ya cuenta con un volumen considerable de
documentos traducidos, junto con el archivo original, es capaz de tratarlo y obtener de ahí
segmentos con los cuales alimentar una MT, para esto es necesaria la alineación de
textos¨ (Oliver, Moré y Climent, 2008, p. 64).
Además de lo antes mencionado, una MT puede contener información adicional
tal como Oliver et al. (2008) lo describen:
* Identificador del usuario que ha creado la MT.
* Identificador del usuario que ha creado o modificado determinada entrada
en la memoria.
* Fecha de la creación y modificación de las entradas de la memoria.
* Identificadores de las lenguas en las que están escritos los segmentos
e incluirá también información si los segmentos son originales o
traducciones.
* Información sobre el área temática.
* Información sobre el cliente.
* Información sobre el proyecto de traducción del cual proviene un
segmento.
* Información sobre el estado de las unidades de traducción
(aprobadas, pendientes de revisión).
Oliver et al. (2008, p. 68)
Esto será de utilidad tanto para el mantenimiento de la MT como para que el
mismo software decida cuál es el segmento más adecuado en caso de que existieran
varias opciones para el mismo segmento, ya sea considerando el área temática del
segmento o el cliente para el cual se está trabajando.
Por otro lado, se encuentran diversas ventajas que otorga la MT a los
traductores, entre ellas:
Aumento de la productividad. Dependiendo de si el texto tiene contenido repetitivo y de
la calidad de la MT.
Aumento de la coherencia. Ya que ciertos segmentos tendrán bien establecidos su
traducción, además si se trabaja en equipo y se comparte la MT, lograrán coincidir
partes de las traducciones.
Observar traducciones de segmentos específicos y si estos tienen algunas
variaciones.
343
Se puede trabajar sobre los borradores del documento a traducir, y así conforme se le
hagan ajustes se ajusta también la traducción, recuperando mediante la MT los
segmentos más importantes y que no hayan sufrido muchos cambios.
(Oliver et al., 2008, pp. 61-62)
Por su parte, López (2003, p.180), afirma que ¨la MT también es una herramienta
útil cuando sospechamos que una gran parte del texto original se ha traducido alguna
vez¨. Por lo que los textos técnico-científicos con lenguaje denotativo, son ideales para su
trabajo dentro de los sistemas de MT.
En cuanto a nuestra percepción como docentes, sobre la enseñanza de TIC a los
estudiantes de traducción, vemos su juventud como una ventaja, pues son muy abiertos y
favorables al uso de la tecnología y más entusiastas a aprender el uso de los programas,
que las personas mayores de 40 años, por ejemplo.
METODOLOGÍA
Las preguntas de investigación que planteamos son las siguientes:
1.- ¿Con qué frecuencia es utilizada la herramienta memoria de traducción por
los alumnos de séptimo y octavo semestre de la Lic. en Traducción de la UABC-Campus
Tijuana?
2.- ¿Cuál es el beneficio que se espera obtengan los estudiantes al emplear las
MT en sus actividades de traducción?
3.- ¿En qué tipo de documentos los estudiantes emplean las MT?
4.- ¿Cuántas asignaturas dentro del plan de estudios de la licenciatura apoyan el
desarrollo de la subcompetencia instrumental?
Es necesaria una ampliación de materias que aborden la enseñanza de
tecnologías aplicadas a la traducción en la Etapa Terminal (Sexto a Octavo semestres) de
la Licenciatura en Traducción de la Facultad de Idiomas-Tijuana, pues debido a la escasa
práctica por parte de los estudiantes (sólo lo hacen durante un semestre), particularmente
de memorias de traducción, hace que ese conocimiento especializado caiga en desuso.
Por lo tanto, los alumnos no egresan con su competencia instrumental-profesional en un
punto óptimo para integrarse al mercado de trabajo de una forma adecuada.
El presente proyecto se basa en un proceso de investigación cualitativa puesto
que se valorará una realidad a partir de una inquietud. Para Hernández Sampieri,
Fernández-Collado y Baptista (2006, p. 5) ¨el propósito del enfoque cualitativo es
‘reconstruir’ la realidad, tal y como la observan los actores de un sistema social
previamente definido¨.
Para esto, Hernández Sampieri et al. (2006) señalan que los estudios cualitativos
involucran la recolección de datos utilizando técnicas que no pretenden medir ni asociar
las mediciones con números ya que busca comprender su fenómeno de estudio en su
344
ambiente usual (cómo se vive, se comporta y actúa la gente; qué piensa; cuáles son sus
actitudes, etcétera).
La muestra seleccionada para esta investigación cumple con las características
para considerarse como muestra homogénea: ¨(…) aquellos sujetos que poseen un
mismo perfil o características o bien, comparten rasgos similares cuyo propósito es
centrarse en el tema a investigar o resaltar situaciones o procesos de un grupo social¨ (p.
567).
De la totalidad de estudiantes de la Lic. en Traducción, se eligieron los grupos de
séptimo (con 25 estudiantes) y octavo semestre (con 23 estudiantes), debido a que
ambos grupos habían cursado ya la materia “Recursos Tecnológicos Aplicados a la
Traducción e Interpretación” y se esperaba que tuvieran conocimiento académico sobre
las MT.
La recolección de datos necesaria para esta investigación se efectuó a través de
un cuestionario mixto que contenía preguntas abiertas y cerradas (Corral, 2010), una vez
consideradas que las condiciones espaciales y temporales eran apropiadas para dicha
actividad. Aunque algunos autores señalan que el cuestionario es más bien un formato de
recolección de datos del enfoque cuantitativo, Álvarez-Gayou (2003), estima que se es
capaz de obtener información útil para el enfoque cualitativo a través de dicho
instrumento: en primer lugar, el cuestionario tiene que elaborarse con mucha claridad del
problema y las preguntas del proyecto en cuestión. En segundo término, se deberán
diseñar los reactivos para que lleven a quien los responda a un proceso de reflexión
propia y personal, que refleje su postura ante el asunto investigado.
¨El cuestionario consiste en aplicar a un universo definido de individuos una serie
de preguntas sobre un determinado problema de investigación del que deseamos obtener
información¨ (Corral, 2010, p. 156).
Al considerar la finalidad de este proyecto, se puede apreciar el enfoque
metodológico de investigación-acción, que en palabras de Rojas:
…Su substratum básico reside en que tanto los investigadores como la
población participan a un mismo nivel como agentes de cambio, confrontando
de manera permanente el modelo teórico y metodológico con la práctica, a fin
de ajustarlo a la realidad que se pretende transformar y pueda servir para
orientar los programas de acción que se desarrollen…
(Rojas, 2006, p. 22)
Según Stringer (como se cita en Hernández Sampieri, et al., 2006, p. 708) ¨las
tres fases de los diseños de investigación-acción son: observar (recolección de datos y
bosquejo del problema), pensar (analizar e interpretar) y actuar (resolver problemas y
345
aplicar mejoras), las cuales se dan de manera cíclica, hasta que se resuelve el problema,
se logra el cambio o la mejora se introduce satisfactoriamente¨.
De la misma manera, se puede detallar el proceso a través de ciclos en espiral
donde primero se detecta el problema de investigación, se clarifica y se diagnostica; en
segundo lugar, se formula un plan para resolver el problema o introducir un cambio; en
tercer lugar, se implementa el programa y se evalúan los resultados; por último, se lleva a
cabo la retroalimentación la cual introduce un nuevo diagnóstico y una nueva espiral de
reflexión y acción (Hernández Sampieri et al., 2006).
La investigación-acción se presenta como una opción metodológica de mucha
riqueza ya que permite la expansión del conocimiento a la vez que va dando respuestas
concretas a problemáticas que se van planteando los participantes de la investigación.
Perfil de egreso
A continuación, registramos cómo la subcompetencia instrumental/profesional sí es parte
del Plan de Estudios de Licenciado en Traducción de la UABC.
El plan de estudios de la Licenciatura (UABC, 2006, p. 154) hace mención a las
competencias que el alumno deberá reforzar durante la etapa terminal de sus estudios
donde culmina su proceso formativo escolar y son:
* Transferencia
* Estratégica
* Comunicación Lingüística
* Comunicación Extralingüística
* Instrumental/ Profesional
Tras la revisión del extenso dentro del apartado de perfil de egreso, por
la naturaleza de la actividad a la que se enfrentará el futuro profesionista,
las competencias adquiridas se describen de la siguiente forma:
(…) recibirá una formación que tiene que ver no sólo con el dominio de conocimientos
lingüísticos, culturales y sociales de un segundo idioma, sino con el desarrollo de destrezas
para la aplicación de recursos tecnológicos, documentales, heurísticos y electrónicos propios
de la disciplina de la traducción, a fin de lograr ser competentes, entre otras actividades, de
utilizar conocimientos traductológicos y lingüísticos, con el fin de verificar la relación existente
entre el mensaje original y su reexpresión en la lengua meta en un ámbito profesional
específico, valiéndose de las técnicas de investigación documental y de campo, así como de
nuevas tecnologías aplicadas a la traducción (…) respetando el mensaje original y su
reexpresión en la lengua meta en un ámbito profesional específico (…) así como de nuevas
tecnologías aplicadas a la traducción; buscando a toda costa ser fiel a la idea original y a la
intención del autor del texto; actuando con responsabilidad y ética¨ (UABC, 2006, p. 189).
346
Como se puede apreciar, la enseñanza de tecnologías aplicadas a la
traducción está contemplada en el plan de estudios, sin embargo, como se verá más
adelante, los estudiantes consideran insuficiente el número de clases dedicadas a esta
especialización.
RESULTADOS Y DISCUSIÓN
A continuación, se muestran los resultados del cuestionario, dividido en reactivos, con su
gráfica correspondiente:
1.- ¿Con qué frecuencia utilizas software como apoyo en la traducción?
En este reactivo se nota una diferencia de opinión entre ambos grupos, donde las
respuestas de séptimo oscilan en mayor frecuencia del uso de software de traducción con
porcentajes de 26.3% siempre, 10.5% casi siempre y 47.4% a veces (Figura 3); mientras
que el octavo semestre muestra los mayores porcentajes en el área de menor frecuencia
de uso: 22.7% a veces, 22.7% casi nunca y 31.8% nunca (Figura 4).
2.- ¿Qué software utilizas más?
347
Se observa que ambos grupos coinciden en el uso de SDL Trados como software
de traducción con 68% (Figura 5) y 47% (Figura 6) de uso respectivamente. Séptimo
semestre hizo mención a otro software con un 32%, mientras que octavo semestre utiliza
como segunda opción Wordfast con un 35%.
Cabe destacar que SDL Trados Studio es el programa informático comercial de
apoyo a la traducción más utilizado por las empresas, seguido en preferencias por
WordFast, que es más utilizado por los traductores autónomos o freelance. Zanettin
(2016, p. 41) define a SDL Trados como ¨una de las estaciones de trabajo del traductor
más populares¨ (la traducción es nuestra).
3.- ¿Qué nivel de satisfacción te dejaron las materias en las que se vieron los
temas de Traducción Asistida por Computadora y sus herramientas?
En este inciso las respuestas del séptimo semestre (Figura 7) se dividieron: un
5% en muy satisfecho, 53% satisfecho y el 42% restante mencionó estar poco satisfecho;
en lo que respecta al otro grupo encuestado (Figura 8) las respuestas no fueron muy
diferentes: 45% satisfecho, 50% poco satisfecho mientras que un 5% se abstuvo de
responder, dejando con esto una visión media de satisfacción en lo que respecta a la
muestra total.
4.- ¿Manejas una memoria de traducción personal?
348
Esta respuesta demuestra una negativa en el uso de MT por parte de la muestra,
donde sólo un pequeño porcentaje de 9% en el octavo semestre hace mención al uso de
una MT personal de SDL Trados (Figuras 9 y 10). Aquí es patente la falta de continuidad
en el uso de las herramientas, por lo que es probable que olviden su manejo.
5.- De responder no, ¿Por qué?
Existe una variedad de respuestas respecto a esta pregunta, por un lado séptimo
semestre hace mención a la falta de interés con un 37% y otras respuestas como el que
no se les ha presentado la oportunidad de llevarlo a la práctica, ¨no dominan el tema¨ y la
¨falta de software o equipo de cómputo¨ apto para el uso adecuado de la herramienta que
349
en total suman 58% de los encuestados (Figura 11); respecto al octavo semestre, sus
respuestas con mayor frecuencia fueron la ¨falta de interés¨ con un 39% de respuesta y el
¨desconocimiento del uso de las MT¨ con 26% del total, el 22% de las respuestas se
dividen en opciones como ¨no recuerdan cómo usarla¨, ¨toma tiempo el utilizarla¨ y que
¨no les parece necesaria¨ (Figura 12).
6.- En caso de que aún no tengas claro cómo utilizar la memoria de traducción,
¿con qué tipo de material de apoyo te gustaría contar para recibir capacitación de dicha
herramienta?
De las opciones de respuesta, en ambos grupos la que tuvo mayor frecuencia fue
una guía ilustrada electrónica con 63.2% y 47.6% (Figura 13 y 14) respectivamente,
seguida en menor medida por un curso intersemestral con 15.8% y 19% de los resultados
correspondientes y una asignatura en etapa disciplinaria con el 15.8% y 23.8% de
respuesta en los grupos encuestados. Esto habla de mayores requerimientos en la
formación.
7.- ¿Con qué frecuencia utilizas tus memorias de traducción dentro de tus
actividades de traducción?
350
Este inciso arrojó respuestas por parte de los estudiantes que hacen referencia a
una baja frecuencia en el uso de las MT en sus actividades de traducción, por un lado,
séptimo semestre respondió sólo un 5% que siempre las utiliza, un 37% que a veces, otro
37% respondió que casi nunca y el 21% restante respondió que nunca las utiliza (Figura
15); mientras que en el grupo de octavo semestre las respuestas se dividieron el 23% en
a veces, 27% en casi nunca y el 50% restante respondió que nunca (Figura 16). La
tendencia es obvia.
8.- ¿En cuáles de los siguientes tipos de textos utilizas las memorias de
traducción?
351
Las respuestas con mayor porcentaje de cada grupo corresponden a textos
técnicos en séptimo semestre con 27% y 34%, donde le siguen de cerca los textos
científicos en octavo semestre (Figuras 17 y 18). Cabe destacar que séptimo semestre no
seleccionó la opción de textos literarios y octavo semestre lo considera sólo en un 3%.
9.- ¿Consideras a las memorias de traducción como una herramienta útil en tu
formación como traductor?
El grupo de séptimo semestre respondió un 89% que sí, dando razones variadas
como que reducen el tiempo de la traducción y mejoran la calidad del trabajo, el 11%
restante que dio respuesta negativa mencionó que era difícil si no se contaba con el
equipo necesario (Figura 19). Las respuestas de octavo semestre fueron similares en
cuanto a que un 94% considera útil la memoria de traducción porque hace más rápida la
traducción mientras que un 6% considera lo contrario, que no le ve ninguna ventaja real
en su uso (Figura 20).
Irónicamente, aunque su percepción sobre la importancia de las MT en el trabajo
del traductor es casi 100% favorable, la mitad de los alumnos encuestados no está
satisfecha con los conocimientos recibidos por el instructor de la materia. Lo anterior,
pudo llevar a la falta de interés (hasta 39%) y al resultado (según sus respuestas 100 y
91%) de no sentirse capacitados en el manejo de esta tecnología, y en consecuencia su
uso esporádico o nulo (37% ambos rubros) llevará a este conocimiento especializado a
caer en desuso. Sin embargo, hay unos porcentajes importantes (50 y 21%) en los grupos
que sí hicieron suyo este conocimiento y que integraron a su estación de trabajo. Quienes
no lo hicieron, mencionan que les gustaría formarse mediante manuales electrónicos, más
352
materias que aborden el tema y libros especializados. Algo a destacar en ambos grupos
es que el material más utilizado en este tipo de traducción asistida son los textos
científicos. Las respuestas recabadas nos hablan de que la metodología utilizada por los
profesores no está a la par de la importancia de este tipo de conocimiento que es
eminentemente práctico, por tanto, la desmotivación en los discentes. Hace falta una
revisión del método, pues es verdad que hace apenas 6 años el sitio web de Youtube
puso a disposición del público en general los primeros videotutoriales sobre el uso de SDL
Trados Studio, pero al ser un conocimiento muy dinámico, el instructor debe estar
constantemente actualizando sus conocimientos sobre programas, aplicaciones y gadgets
que inundan el mercado y son usados en la traducción.
CONCLUSIONES
A través de la consulta de la bibliografía existente, así como del instrumento de
investigación aplicado, se pueden llegar a las siguientes conclusiones:
Ambos grupos (séptimo: 89% y octavo: 94%), como futuros egresados de la
carrera de Licenciado en Traducción-Campus Tijuana, consideran útil el manejo de
memorias de traducción. Sin embargo, sobre la base de sus respuestas, consideran que
necesitan más acceso a la práctica y continuidad en el aprendizaje de las tecnologías
aplicadas.
Los encuestados respondieron que no utilizaban las MT de manera regular, por lo
que una manera de subsanar esa falta de práctica sería su utilización obligatoria en otras
materias tales como Traducción Técnica, Traducción Científica, Traducción Legal y las
Introducciones. Esto permitiría su uso continuo desde Sexto a Octavo semestres, lo que
sería un aprendizaje situado, tanto de traducción especializada como de tecnologías
aplicadas a la traducción.
Las razones por las que la muestra no utiliza las MT son variadas, pero las más
sobresalientes son la falta de software para realizar las actividades lo que redunda a la
larga, en una falta de interés. Esto nos dice que egresarán sin el conocimiento de las
tecnologías aplicadas, lo que en sí ya es una desventaja ante la competencia de
traductores autónomos que trabajan en línea. Lo anterior se puede remediar con el uso de
software libre, que son programas gratuitos que se pueden descargar en cualquier laptop
o PC, y que desempeñan el mismo trabajo que las licencias comerciales de 650 dólares o
más. Sin embargo, hace falta una materia especializada en ¨Memorias de traducción de
uso gratuito¨. Pero para esto se debe capacitar a los profesores de las otras materias de
traducción en el uso de las tecnologías aplicadas. Una opción viable sería crear un
DocenTic regional (Mexicali, Tijuana y Ensenada) para aumentar radicalmente su uso.
Algo que debe tomarse en cuenta en el plan de estudios de la carrera es la
necesidad de aumentar el número y la variedad de materias donde se utilicen las
tecnologías (Traducción Audiovisual, Localización, Subtitulación, Sofware libre), pues sólo
353
existe una materia dirigida a este objetivo: “Recursos Tecnológicos Aplicados a la
Traducción e Interpretación”.
Creemos que una entrevista estructurada cara a cara, hubiera arrojado más
datos sobre los motivos que llevaron a los estudiantes a formarse una expectativa
mayormente negativa sobre el uso de la tecnología en traducción. Sin embargo, es muy
positivo que un 12% de los estudiantes de octavo semestre gestione la terminología por
medio de Multiterm (Aplicación de SDL Trados para la gestión terminológica y la creación
de bases de datos). Sería interesante replicar el estudio en los otros campi de la Facultad
para conocer sus necesidades y saber si existe la misma problemática en Mexicali y
Ensenada.
Como vemos, hay un área de oportunidad para apoyar a los futuros egresados
de licenciatura en traducción y fomentar su interés en las tecnologías aplicadas a la
traducción. Debemos de ocuparnos más que preocuparnos en apoyarlos y permitirles que
egresen bien ¨armados¨, con las herramientas necesarias para desempeñarse de manera
adecuada en la profesión que buscan abrazar.
REFERENCIAS
Álvarez-Gayou, J. (2003). Cómo hacer investigación cualitativa. México: Paidós. Bermúdez, M. (2014). Aplicación de las herramientas de traducción asistida por ordenador
a la investigación en traducción. Revista Estudios de Traducción, 4, pp.129-143. Recuperado el 6 de abril de 2018, de: https://goo.gl/xGrqtF
Cortez, J., Basich, K. e I. Figueroa (2015). Subcompetencia Instrumental, vital en la
formación de traductores. En M., Beltrán, G., Garduño, C., Gómez-Pezuela, A. Sokolova y L., Monleón (Coords.), Visiones y perspectivas en torno al estudio de las lenguas extranjeras en diversos contextos de México, Encuentro Pedagógico de Lenguas en la Educación Profesional: Teorías y prácticas de la didáctica de lenguas, pp. 89-102. México, D.F.: UAMX.
Cortez, J., Figueroa, I. y N. Luna (2013). Competencia traductora y subcompetencia
tecnológica. En C., García y J. L., Solís (Comps.), Literacidad y Traducción, pp. 85-111, Estado de México: Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México.
Corral, Y. (2010). Diseño de cuestionarios para recolección de datos. Revista Ciencias de
la Educación, 36, pp. 152-168 Recuperado de: https://goo.gl/oE6u3F Hernández, P. (2002). En torno a la Traducción Automática. Revista del Instituto
Cervantes, 2, 101-117. Recuperado de: https://goo.gl/3gYGkx "http://www.infoamerica.org/documentos_pdf/troyanskii4.pdf"
Hernández Sampieri, R., Fernández-Collado, C. y Baptista Lucio, P. (2006). Metodología
de la investigación (4ª. ed.). México: McGraw-Hill Interamericana.
354
López, A. (2003). Una defensa crítica de las memorias de traducción. Revista Panace@. 4(12), pp. 180-182.
Oliver. A, Moré J. y Climent, S. (2008). Traducción y Tecnologías. Barcelona: Editorial
UOC. Olalla, C. y Vert, O. (2015). Traducción y tecnología: herramientas del proceso traductor
como actividad profesional. El punto de vista de los estudiantes. Revista Tradumàtica: tecnologies de la traducció, 13, pp. 623-640. Recuperado de https://goo.gl/NskHzj
PACTE (2011). Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model:
Translation Project and Dynamic Translation Index. In: S., O'Brien (Ed.). IATIS Yearbook 2010, pp. 317-343. London: Continuum. Recuperado de https://goo.gl/pE6nxh.
PACTE (2009). Results of the Validation of the PACTE Translation Competence Model:
Acceptability and Decision Making. Across Languages and Cultures, 10(2), pp. 207-230. Recuperado de https://goo.gl/ZphnYA
PACTE (2008). First results of a Translation Competence Experiment: ‘Knowledge of
Translation’ and ‘Efficacy of the Translation Process’. In: J. Kearns (Ed.) Translator and Interpreter Training. Issues, Methods and Debates, pp. 104-126, London: Bloomsbury.
PACTE (2005). Investigating Translation Competence: Conceptual and Methodological
Issues. META, 50(2), pp.609-619. Recuperado de https://goo.gl/7kcdvp PACTE (2003). Building a Translation Competence Model, en F., Alves (Ed.).
Triangulating Translation: Perspectives in Process Oriented Research, pp. 77-102. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
PACTE (2001). La competencia traductora y su adquisición, Quaderns, Revista
deTraducción, 6, pp. 39-45. Recuperado de https://goo.gl/DFAVmY PACTE (2000). Acquiring Translation Competence: Hypotheses and Methodological
Problems in a Research Project. In: A. Beeby, D. Ensinger, & M. Presas (Eds.) Investigating Translation, pp. 99-106. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Ramírez, L. y Ferrer, H. (2010). Aplicación de las TIC en traducción e interpretación en
la Universidad de Valencia: Experiencias y reflexiones. Revista Redit, 4, pp. 23-41. Recuperado de https://goo.gl/oqVJfL
Rojas, R. (2006). Guía para realizar investigaciones sociales. México: Plaza y Valdez. Samson, R. (2013). El aprendizaje de las herramientas informáticas en la formación del
traductor. Revista Tradumàtica: tecnologies de la traducció, 11, pp. 247-256. Recuperado de https://goo.gl/hzSVjC
Strandvik, I. (2001). Las memorias de traducción en la Comisión Europea. Revista
Tradumática, 0, 1-4. Recuperado de: https://goo.gl/moive1
355
Universidad Autónoma de Baja California (2006). Reestructuración de la Lic. en
Traducción del idioma inglés orientada al desarrollo de competencias profesionales. Mexicali: Autor.
Zanettin, F. (2014). Translation-Driven Corpora. Corpus Resources for Descriptive and
Applied Translation Studies. Routledge: New York.
LOS AUTORES JOSÉ CORTEZ GODÍNEZ. Doctor en Estudios Avanzados de Traducción e Interpretación (UGR). Lic. en Traducción (UABC). Docente en licenciaturas, especialidad y maestría. Profesor-investigador (UABC) y candidato a Investigador Nacional (Conacyt). Estudia la traducción orientada al proceso/producto y la evaluación de la Competencia Traductora. Experiencia en IC y traducción. Es miembro del Núcleo cadémico sico N de la Especialidad en Traducción e Interpretación de la Facultad de Idiomas. [email protected] NORIKO ESTEFANÍA SANTOS SIGALA. Lic. En Relaciones Internacionales (UAD). Cursó la Especialidad de Traducción e Interpretación en UABC. Actualmente cursa la Maestría en Estudios de Desarrollo Global, donde forma parte de la investigación en torno a las problemáticas educativas que involucran a los jóvenes binacionales de la Región Transfronteriza Tijuana-San Diego.
356
PERCEPCIÓN PÚBLICA DE LA IDENTIDAD SORDA EN
GUANAJUATO EN LAS PALABRAS DE INTÉRPRETES DE LSM
Rodrigo Sauceda Navarrete Krisztina Zimányi
Universidad de Guanajuato [email protected]
RESUMEN
La lengua de señas mexicana (LSM) es parte del patrimonio lingüístico de México y sus
usuarios, la comunidad Sorda, tienen derecho tanto a la información e integración de las
dinámicas sociales como cualquier otro grupo. Partiendo de una postura equitativa, a
través de entrevistas semi-estructuradas con intérpretes que trabajan o trabajaron en el
estado de Guanajuato, se realizó un sondeo sobre las condiciones de trabajo de los
intérpretes de LSM. Los resultados enfocados en la percepción pública hacia los Sordos
que se presentan aquí revelan que carencias en el conocimiento de la cultura Sorda en la
población general obstaculizan la comunicación entre los dos grupos y resultan en
percepciones negativamente distorsionadas sobre los Sordos.
Palabras clave: interpretación, Lengua de Señas Mexicana, comunidad Sorda,
percepciones públicas
INTRODUCCIÓN
El territorio del México actual siempre ha albergado una tremenda variedad de distintos
grupos de personas y culturas, con una gran diversidad cultural, lingüística, religiosa e
ideológica. Sin embargo y desafortunadamente, esta diversidad no ha conseguido
integrarse en un ambiente en el que todos gocen de los mismos derechos y obligaciones:
detrás de los promocionales turísticos, los negocios de artesanías y los discursos políticos
que muestran un México integrador y justo, en la actualidad también hay personas sin
acceso a servicios básicos a causa de que no hablan español. Aparte de los grupos
indígenas, entre ellos se cuentan miembros de la comunidad Sorda1, una minoría cuya
situación ha recibido poca atención en el discurso académico en el país.
En esta aportación, proponemos el análisis de unos hallazgos de un proyecto que
fue realizado en el estado de Guanajuato con la participación de intérpretes de la lengua
de señas mexicana. Aparte de la información sobre las condiciones laborales de los
mismos intérpretes, que era el enfoque original de la investigación (Sauceda Navarrete,
2018), las entrevistas semiestructuradas confirmaron que los miembros de la comunidad
Sorda padecen del desconocimiento de sus circunstancias sistémico entre la población
general, el tema al cual se orienta este escrito. Tras presentar el contexto federal y
estatal, plantear el marco conceptual y proveer una explicación breve de la metodología,
357
exponemos los resultados con la esperanza de contribuir al discurso emergente sobre las
lenguas de señas y la comunidad Sorda.
CONTEXTUALIZACIÓN
La normatividad federal
Actualmente, México cuenta con una serie de leyes que incluyen a y salvaguardan los
derechos de las personas con discapacidad. La primera de ellas es la Ley Federal para
Prevenir y Eliminar la Discriminación (2003), que trata de “promover la igualdad de
oportunidad y de trato”. Si bien esta ley se refiere a todas las personas que viven dentro
del territorio mexicano contra la discriminación, se específica que las medidas de
nivelación incluyen, entre otras, el “uso de intérpretes de lengua de señas mexicana en
los eventos públicos de todas las dependencias gubernamentales y en los tiempos
oficiales de televisión”, así reconociendo la necesidad de proveer apoyo lingüístico a los
Sordos.
La Ley Federal para la Inclusión de las Personas con Discapacidad (2011), a su
vez, reconoce la comunidad de sordos como un “grupo social cuyos miembros tienen
alguna deficiencia del sentido auditivo que les limita sostener comunicación y
socialización regular y fluida en lengua oral”. Al mismo tiempo, hace mención de la LSM y
declara que ésta “forma parte del patrimonio lingüístico de dicha comunidad (de sordos) y
es tan rica y compleja en gramática y vocabulario como cualquier otra lengua oral” y
promueve el reconocimiento cultural y lingüístico de la comunidad de Sordos. Respecto a
los intérpretes, precisa que su participación se hace necesaria en contextos jurídicos,
educativos y en medios de comunicación audiovisual e impulsa tanto la formación de
profesionales en la interpretación para mejores servicios de acceso a la información a
personas sordas, como la creación de un programa de certificación de estos
profesionales.
En cuanto a la LSM en medios de comunicación audiovisual, la Ley Federal de
Telecomunicaciones y Radiodifusión (2014) señala que las transmisiones de televisión
deben de “contar con servicios de subtítulos, doblaje al español y lengua de señas
mexicana para la accesibilidad a personas con debilidad auditiva”, cuales servicios
“deberán estar disponibles en al menos uno de los programas noticiosos de mayor
audiencia a nivel nacional”.
Aparte de las leyes emitidas, en 2001 se propuso la Ley Federal de la Cultura del
Sordo con “el propósito de defender los derechos culturales y lingüísticos de todas las
personas sordas, todas aquellas que no pueden dialogar naturalmente por medio de su
oído”, en la que se reconocía a las personas con sordera como una comunidad y se
consideraron su lengua, sus derechos a la educación, servicios de salud, acceso a la
información. Desafortunadamente, esta propuesta no ha sido aceptado, por lo cual, la
legislación que regularía la vida de los Sordos en detalle sigue pendiente.
358
Además de la legislación federal, en respuesta de las necesidades referente al
acceso a servicios públicos por miembros de la comunidad Sorda, hace casi una década,
la Secretaría de Educación Pública (2009) publicó la Norma Técnica de Competencia
Laboral de Intérpretes de Lengua de Señas a Español y Viceversa , dando resultado a la
consultación con la participación de la comunidad Sorda, intérpretes y expertos en LSM,
además del Consejo Nacional de las Personas con Discapacidad y el Consejo Nacional
de Normalización y Certificación de Competencias Laborales. La norma técnica describe
las competencias de un intérprete de LSM, las actitudes, hábitos y valores, define la
evaluación de los intérpretes y describe la clasificación de los trabajos de interpretación.
Con este código de conducta laboral finalmente se exigió el proceso de certificación para
intérpretes, incluso aquellos que ya ejercían sin ningún tipo de registro o control de
calidad.
La única pega, bastante parecida al caso de las otras regularizaciones, es que la
fecha límite la actualización de esta norma ya se venció en el 2013 y tampoco se han
renovado las certificaciones que, en teoría y según la norma, tenían una vigencia de
cuatro años, lo cual significaría que ninguno de los intérpretes de LSM conserva su estado
de formalidad. Aquí cabe también mencionar que en México no existe un programa de
formación de intérpretes de lengua de señas en ningún nivel, aunque parece que recién y
nuevamente existen iniciativas para impulsar su certificación (Romero Muñoz, 2018).
Estadísticas del estado de Guanajuato
Tristemente, las estadísticas sobre la comunidad Sorda mexicana siguen siendo
publicadas en informes sobre la discapacidad (INEGI, 2016). Según las cifras más
recientes que reflejan la situación en el 2014, a pesar de su tamaño, el estado de
Guanajuato se encuentra entre los siete estados en México con el mayor número real de
discapacitados: 4,6% de la población con discapacidad del país vive en esta entidad
federal. En términos relativos, esto se traduce a 57 personas en cada 1,000 de la
población estatal que vive con un tipo de discapacidad.
Las cifras son aún más altas en el caso de niños (0 a 14 años), ya que 12.9% de
la población infantil, a comparación con el promedio de 8.8% a nivel federal, tiene
discapacidad. La tendencia es parecida en la población juvenil (15 a 29 años) con el
11.3% frente del 9.4% del promedio nacional, entre los adultos (30 a 59 años) con el
28.3% que es bajo del 34.4% del país y en el caso de las personas de la tercera edad con
el 47.3% se acerca el porcentaje del 47.4% en todo el país.
Considerando la distribución según sexo, no se destaca de la línea nacional,
puesto que un poco más que la mitad de las personas con discapacidad en Guanajuato
son mujeres. En el 41.0% de los casos, se raiga la discapacidad en una enfermedad, el
32.1% se deriva de la edad avanzada, el 12.5% es una condición innata, el 7.6% fue
359
causada por un accidente, el 0.9% se debe a violencia y en el 5.9% se desconoce el
origen de la discapacidad.
Respecto a la calidad de vida, que 11.5% de la población estatal vive con
limitación, con una distribución según la edad y el sexo bastante semejante a las cifras
anteriormente compartidas. La raíz de la limitación se divide de la manera siguiente: el
37.9% se debe a una enfermedad, el 32.0% viene de la edad avanzada, el 10.5%
corresponde a una limitación innata, el 9.4% se produjo por un accidente, 0.4% se origina
en violencia y en el 9.8% no hay información sobre la causa.
A nivel nacional, el 33.5% de la población mexicana tiene problemas graves con
escuchar y el 19.3% tiene un grado de limitación con respecto a sus habilidades
sensoriales auditivas, aunque algunos de ellos usen aparato auditivo que le facilita la
comunicación. Además, varias de las personas con discapacidad auditiva también
cuentan con por lo menos una otra discapacidad y / o limitación. En cuanto a las tasas
discapacidad (y la limitación), el 28.9% (26.3%) se emana de una enfermedad, el 49.6%
(47.5%) se genera conforme del avance en edad, el 9.3% (6.6%) es una condición innata,
el 6.3% (7.9%) resulta de un accidente, el 0.8% (0.6%) tiene su motivo en la violencia y en
el caso del 5.1% (11.1%) no se cuenta con información sobre la causa.
De acuerdo con los datos de la ENH 2014, entre la población de 3 años
y más de edad con limitación para escuchar, sólo 4.5% utiliza algún tipo
de aparato auditivo; porcentaje similar entre hombres y mujeres. Dentro
de este grupo poblacional, 9 de cada 10 personas tienen problemas de
acceso a este tipo de ayudas y, por consecuencia, pocas oportunidades
de comunicarse y de interactuar con los demás en igualdad de
condiciones, situaciones que impactan en la integración de la población
en ámbitos como el social, educativo y laboral. (INEGI, 2016, p. 163)
Del número total de las personas con discapacidad en el estado, el 28.2% tiene
problemas auditivos graves, es decir, son completamente sordos. Otro 14.5% tiene algún
tipo de limitación auditiva, aunque es posible que use aparato auditivo. A pesar de que
estas cifras también incluyen personas con la pérdida de la capacidad auditiva con el
paso de los años, a base de los porcentajes anteriores se puede derivar que varias viven
con audición reducida por causas de una condición médica, incluso innata, o accidente,
que significa que hay un grupo de personas que no pueden participar en la vida cotidiana
al mismo grado que la población sin discapacidad.
HIPÓTESIS DE INVESTIGACIÓN
Tomando en cuenta esta última observación, la presente investigación parte de las
hipótesis que:
360
(1) Entre la población oyente, carece la conceptualización verisímil de la vida de
los Sordos.
(2) Por su relación con la comunidad Sorda, los intérpretes se identifican con los
Sordos.
(3) Por su conocimiento de la cultura Sorda, los intérpretes pueden sensibilizar a
la población oyente sobre las condiciones vivenciales de los Sordos.
(4) Entre ellas, se destaca la correlación estrecha entre la identidad Sorda y el
uso de la LSM.
MARCO TEÓRICO-CONCEPTUAL
Partiendo de una postura equitativa, la investigación se posiciona en la conceptualización
actual de la Sordera como una cultura, con la lengua de señas como el marcador principal
de identidad. En este sentido, se formula una crítica de paradigmas anteriores mantenidos
durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, según los cuales la sordera se clasificaba como una
condición médica y / o una discapacidad. En contraste, más reciente se plantea que, aún
más allá de la noción que la Sordera deslinda a los miembros de su comunidad en algún
tipo del “otro”, se ha construido un discurso sobre esta cultura completamente distinto,
que promueve el apoderamiento a los miembros y fortalece la creación de una identidad
positivamente distintiva. Esta transformación significativa en la conceptualización de la
Sordera, en teoría, debe conllevar cambios en la percepción de la comunidad y la cultura
Sorda tanto por sus propios miembros, como por la sociedad entera.
De la discapacidad a la identidad
Desde la antigüedad, la condición innata de la sordera ha sido considerada una
discapacidad suficientemente severa para considerar que las personas afectadas no son
capaces de pensamiento independiente. Aunque desde el siglo XVIII ya se reconoce la
habilidad de los sordos de aprender, continúa el rezago referente al nivel de educación de
los sordos, junto con la deprivación socioeconómica, cultural y política. Asimismo, se
considera que la estigmatización se provoca por la confusión y la carencia de información
sobre la discapacidad auditiva (Matlala, 2015, p. 2).
En Estados Unidos, por ejemplo, hasta la primera mitad del siglo XX se
consideraron los sordos como discapacitados e inútiles para trabajar, se les negó la
oportunidad de conseguir seguro social, licencia de conducir o un testamento (Burch,
2002, pp.4-5). Conforme, los líderes de los sordos, en su esfuerzo de mejorar su imagen
pública, exigieron que todos los miembros de su comunidad se abstuvieran de fumar,
inebriarse, involucrarse en actividades promiscuas, o, simplemente, ser vagos (Burch,
2002, p.149). Se manifestaron los cambios después de la Segunda Guerra Mundial,
361
cuando ya se observó la educación como un derecho civil y no como privilegio (Robinson,
2016, p. 397) y así, gradualmente se ha desarrollado el concepto de la identidad Sorda.
El turno discursivo: conceptualizaciones positivas de la sordera y la identidad Sorda
Con el advenimiento de ideologías y teorías foucaultianas y bourdieusianas de
transgresión y el desafío a discursos existentes, también se ha presentado una alternativa
en reformular las narrativas sobre la sordera. En consecuencia, la carencia o pérdida del
oído se ha convertido en una identidad diferente pero no inferior, donde, en el siglo XXI, la
sordera se considera una ganancia en cuanto a la diversidad humana (Bauman & Murray,
2017) y se reconoce la existencia de las perspectivas múltiples de las epistemologías
Sordas (Paul & Moores, 2012).
Es el mismo contexto que permite un diálogo transparente tanto sobre la toma de
decisiones y la participación en la vida social por los Sordos (Berg, 2012a) como una
réplica crítica del mismo por una intelectual Sorda (Blankmeyer Burke, 2012) y otras
contestaciones (Feltz & Abt, 2012; Mason Pope, 2012; Matthews, 2012; Moore &
Gallagher, 2012; Sadovnikoff & Jourchak, 2012; Stark & Fins, 2012; Tsai, 2012; Wahlert,
2012); todos publicados en la misma edición de la revista estadounidense de bioética
junto con las observaciones finales de la autora original (Berg, 2012b).
Otra influencia significativa, y vinculada con los pensamientos críticos de Foucault
y Bourdieu, es el surgimiento del feminismo que se ha propagado en estudios académicos
de la discapacidad en general (Hall, 2011) y en los estudios de la sordera en particular
(Kafer, 2011). Esta postura bastante sentenciosa y moral, al mismo tiempo, puede
complementarse por una actitud más facilitadora, como la de la psicología positiva
(Snyder & Lopez, 2009) o perspectivas constructivistas narrativas, como la terapia
narrativa (Epston & White, 1990) que, aparte que en sí se basa en teorías foucaultianas,
se ha aplicado a la (re-)construcción de identidades sordas (Edwards & Crocker, 2008;
Furlonger, 1999, Glickman, 2009).
Lengua de señas: el marcador de la identidad Sorda
Como ya se mencionó y también comenta Holcomb (2013), el uso de la lengua de señas
es el componente central de la identidad Sorda, en comparación, por ejemplo, con las
personas con discapacidad auditiva que a menudo equiparan su capacidad de hablar con
un componente crítico de su esencia. Para reconocer las experiencias culturales de las
personas Sordas e identificar este grupo cultural en el contexto académico, Woodward
(1972) propuso el uso de la mayúscula, una convención que fue solidifica por Carol
Padden, hija de padres Sordos, que ha sido instrumental en el reconocimiento de la
cultura Sorda (Padden, 1980, 1996; Padden & Humphries, 2005). En su artículo del 1980
sugirió que personas ,cuya manera de comunicación principal está basada en la lengua
de señas y tienen nexos con la comunidad Sorda, deben ser designadas con la
mayúscula en la Sordera (véase Holcomb, 2013, p. 45).
362
Ahora bien, suponiendo que la lengua de señas es la característica cardinal de la
identidad Sorda, debe contar con reconocimiento legal, público y académico. Ya que en la
sección anterior se presentaron las regulaciones, especialmente referente a México, y,
que este escrito se enfoca en la percepción y aceptación públicas, se queda exponer
sobre el posicionamiento escolástico de lenguas de señas. En los países más
desarrollados en cuanto a estudios sobre la comunidad Sorda y las lenguas de seña, se
comenzaron a difundirse las gramáticas y se empezó a divulgarse información sobre
varios aspectos lingüísticos.
Primero, fueron publicadas guías en el campo de la lingüística descriptiva en
distintos contextos a nivel mundial, como, por ejemplo, en Estados Unidos sobre la
morfología y la sintaxis (Padden, 1998), la sintaxis (Lidell, 1980), en Australia sobre el
lexicón (Johnston, 1989, 2001, 2003). Después estas se complementaron por
publicaciones de la lingüística aplicada, entre ellos estudios sociolingüísticos (Lucas,
1989, 1995, 2003; Schermer, 2004, 2006), pragmáticos (Wilcox, 2000, 2005) y trabajos
sobre las políticas y planeación lingüística (Schermer, 2012). Conforme con el avance de
las investigaciones y el paso del tiempo, se compilaron en gramáticas íntegras en
Australia (Johnston & Schembri, 2007), Irlanda Leeson & Saeed, 2012), Estados Unidos
(Stokoe, 1960; Stokoe, Casterline, & Cronenberg, 1965) para finalmente dar paso a las
obras contrastivas-comparativas lexicológicas (McKee & Kennedy, 2000), y generales
(Baker, van den Bogaerde & Crasborn, 2003; Sandler, & Lillo-Martin, 2006).
Lengua e identidad Sorda en México
Se refleja la misma tendencia en México donde, gracias al trabajo arduo de Miroslava
Cruz-Aldrete, se cuenta con una gramática exhaustiva de la LSM (Cruz-Aldrete, 2009),
unos aspectos específicos de la pragmática de negación (Cruz-Aldrete, 2012), la
semántica (Cruz-Aldrete & Villa Rodríguez, 2013) y la construcción de un diccionario
(Cruz-Aldrete, 2014), un manual para aprendientes de la LSM (Cruz-Aldrete, 2014), e,
incluso, consideraciones educativas y pedagógicas (Cruz-Aldrete, 2017; Cruz-Aldrete &
Cruz Cruz, 2013; Cruz-Aldrete, Garcia Bruno & Lopes Lopes, 2016; Cruz-Aldrete & Villa
Rodríguez, 2016).
En general, se ha experimentado la proliferación de información sobre la cultura
Sorda en los últimos años, por ejemplo, con informes de proyectos de inclusión en el
contexto educativo (Vidal Salgado, Isidoro Mojica & Bonilla Aco, 2012) o la inauguración
de la primera sala de Lengua de Señas en México (Cacho Carranza, 2015). Sin embargo,
todavía existen carencias, como reporta Verónica Cárdenas (2016), aunque ya se
comenzó el discurso sobre la identidad Sorda (Francisco Martínez, 2011) tanto como el
diálogo sobre los avances y las necesidades pendientes (Tecnológico de Monterrey,
2017).
Si acaso todavía no fuera manifiesto, cabe mencionar que, al contrario de la
percepción popular e igualmente equivocada, la LSM es un sistema lingüístico
363
independiente a cualquier otra, sea una lengua de señas u otro idioma oral-escrito. Es
decir, la LSM cuenta con una estructura morfosintáctica propia, por lo cual, no es una
representación en señas del español. En cambio, se denomina español signado a la
representación con señas de cada palabra del español, siguiendo la sintaxis española (de
Fleischmann, 1995, p. 19).
METODOLOGÍA
Ya que el objetivo principal del proyecto era describir las relaciones entre intérpretes y la
comunidad Sorda e identificar cuáles son las percepciones de la LSM y el trabajo de
interpretación de la misma, se optó por un enfoque fenomenológico del corte cualitativo.
De igual manera, se seleccionó la entrevista semiestructurada como instrumento para la
recogida de datos2, lo que resultó muy benéfico por la abundancia de información que
proporcionaron los participantes. Entre ellos, se incluyeron tres intérpretes de LSM de los
cuales dos (Carlos y Pascual por su seudónimo que se les asignó según las mejores
prácticas de ética) actualmente laboran y un tercero (Néstor) había trabajado en el estado
de Guanajuato. El cuarto participante (Jorge) era un historiador que ha estudiado la
educación de sordos en México y también ha trabajado con intérpretes y la comunidad
Sorda.
Una vez terminadas, las entrevistas fueron transcritas con la ayuda del software
gratuito, o de acceso libre, llamado Transcriber, y transferidas a una hoja en MS Excel por
cada participante, lo que permitió catalogar cada intervención con un código con la inicial
del entrevistado y el número secuencial de la línea en la entrevista (por ejemplo, C56 es la
línea 56 en la transcripción de la entrevista con Carlos). Así también se marcó cada
enunciado en un color según el tema principal emergente desde los datos, o
repetidamente en más que un color si se podía clasificar en varias categorías. Como se
puede apreciar en la Figura 1., por ejemplo, los temarios “formación (en general)”,
“carencia de formación en México” y “formación en el extranjero” fueron marcados en tres
distintos tonos de azul asignados al mismo fragmento. En la siguiente etapa se aplicó un
filtro que proporcionara únicamente las intervenciones de los participantes que contenían
el tema deseado, así dando paso al análisis propio.
Figura 1. Preparación de los datos para el análisis en Excel: la etiqueta de temas por colores y la aplicación
del filtro según los colores
364
ANÁLISIS DE DATOS Y RESULTADOS
La información presentada de aquí en adelante se deriva de las entrevistas realizadas con
los intérpretes, que obviamente tienen una conexión especial con la comunidad Sorda,
experiencia que les impulsó compartir su opinión sobre las percepciones y los
malentendidos del público sobre esta cultura. Por lo mismo, aunque tal vez no parezca
evidente por qué incluir las historias de cómo los cuatro entrevistados tuvieron su primer
contacto con los Sordos, las narrativas revelan el origen de su pasión por el tema y la raíz
de su activismo.
Los comienzos de la relación de los informantes con la comunidad Sorda
Dos de los intérpretes entrevistados empezaron su relación con la comunidad Sorda
desde temprana edad. Por ejemplo, Néstor comentó sobre su amistad con algunos niños
sordos.
Crecí con un grupo de niños sordos que eran hijos de personas sordas que a la
vez esos eran amigos de familiares directos míos. Estuvo conmigo en la
escuela, yo fui como su monitor y a la vez que él iba adquiriendo la lengua de
señas, me la iba enseñando. Fue de manera natural este aprendizaje porque no
hubo un programa, algo establecido, una formación sistemática. (N2)
El crecer juntos con personas sordas desde su infancia, permitió que Néstor se
socializara con la cultura Sorda y, parte de este proceso, adquiriera la LSM.
Un caso muy parecido, pero incluso más cercano a la comunidad Sorda, es el de
Pascual que creció como un niño CODA que, por sus siglas en inglés “Child of Deaf
Adults”, se refiere a niños cuyos padres son sordos.
Mira, este, yo aprendí las señas desde pequeño. Yo soy un hijo de padres
sordos. A la edad de [...] pues no sé, es mi lengua materna, básicamente esa es
mi formación. (P2)
A diferencia de Néstor, Pascual aprendió la LSM directamente de sus padres
sordos, como su lengua materna. En su caso, el haber aprendido la LSM desde una edad
precoz, también significó que todavía era muy joven cuando realizó las primeras
interpretaciones, más probable, en contextos informales que no requerían una
interpretación formalmente rigurosa.
Mi mamá me llevaba a muchos lugares a que aprendiera la lengua de señas.
Me decía que les ayudara a familias sordas que no tenían la posibilidad de
hospitales, terapias psicológicas y todo ese tipo de cosas. (P8)
365
Mi primera interpretación que yo hice fue aproximadamente a la edad de doce
años. Comencé ayudando a las personas sordas en las asociaciones [...] en
contra de mi voluntad porque no me gustaba. (P2)
En comparación con Néstor y Pascual, Carlos comenzó como intérprete y su
relación con la comunidad Sorda en un momento más delante de su vida.
En el 2 comencé m s o menos en […] este […] yo daba clases en INE a
través del servicio militar. Pero curiosamente donde me pusieron, que fue en el
Cerro del Cuarto, donde yo daba clases de INEA, a un costado estaba un
maestro sordo. […] Yo di e: “No, pues a m me interesa la lengua de se as”.
Siempre me ha gustado mucho apoyar a las personas con discapacidad.
Entonces di e: “De aqu soy, aprendo” y realmente lo aprend por obby. (C1)
En consecuencia, Carlos aprendió la LSM de manera más consciente y menos
natural que los otros dos intérpretes entrevistados.
Identidad lingüística de los Sordos: el español signado no es LSM
Como suele ocurrir en circunstancias similares, cuando se aprende la lengua de señas
como adulto, en vez de adquirir la lengua de señas local, Carlos aprendió lo que se llama
“un idioma signado”. Como ya se indicó al final de la sección sobre el marco conceptual,
en esta pseudo-lengua, no se utiliza la lengua de señas en su complejidad, sino
simplemente se muestran las señas que son “equivalentes” en el orden en que aparecen
en una oración en español.
Di como “el sopetón”, de que a me di eron todo el mundo “ ablas espa ol
signado”. C33
De modo parecido, Jorge explica que, si un intérprete no tiene habilidades
consolidadas en la lengua de señas, suele recurrir al español signado.
Cuando el intérprete no tiene un dominio adecuado muchas veces lo que usan
es español signado. (J22)
Esto es sumamente insultante a los Sordos, y Pascual opina que muchas
personas tratan de aprovechar la falta de regulaciones en cuanto a intérpretes de LSM y
desempeñan de manera inadecuada.
Hay tantas personas que se paran y mueven las manos y engañan a las
personas que los contratan y eso es una burla y un enojo muy grande para las
personas Sordas. (P79)
366
Lo mismo comenta Carlos, explicando que, pese de que se trate de un sistema
lingüístico cuya representación se hace a través de señas, no es la lengua utilizada por
los Sordos, y muchos consideran su uso como poco profesional e incluso ofensiva.
Para un sordo, a un sordo le ofende muchísimo, muchísimo cuando un
intérprete habla en español signado o cuando le habla en español signado. Se
ofenden como no tienen idea. Es como si agarraran su lengua, su idioma y lo
hicieran añicos, así. (C121)
En un principio puede parecer que las palabras de Carlos son exageradas, pero
solamente si no se recuerda que, para los Sordos, su lengua es el marcador principal de
su identidad. En pocas palabras, ignorar su identidad lingüística les priva a los Sordos de
su derecho humano de pertenecer a su propia comunidad lingüística distinta y
minoritaria.
Entonces, para nosotros el español es como una forma de comunicación. Para
el Sordo la lengua de señas no es una forma de comunicación, la lengua de
señas es su identidad ¿sí? Es más interna la lengua de señas para un sordo.
Entonces, a un Sordo, si tú ofendes su lengua, lo estás ofendiendo a él. Si tú
una persona te habla mal del español, pues te vale. Pero tú, ataca la lengua de
señas, es como si agarraras un cuchillo y apuñalaras al Sordo, porque hay
Sordos que te dicen "es que tienes que aprender la cultura de la lengua de
se as". […] Los Sordos siempre te dicen la cultura de la lengua de señas. Para
que te digan de la cultura de señas es porque para ellos la lengua de señas es
algo vivo. (C130)
A pesar de su importancia para los usuarios, la LSM no era contemplado en la
legislación, hasta que en 2005 que se promulgó la Ley General para las Personas con
Discapacidad anteriormente mencionada.
Mi experiencia es que la lengua de señas mexicana no había sido reconocida y
comento esto, porque como no era digamos reconocida la lengua, normalmente
no estaban tomados en cuenta los Sordos. Entonces, mi experiencia es que
realmente del 2005 para acá, desde que se polinizó o digamos, que se certificó
la lengua de señas. La reconocieron como patrimonio lingüístico de una
comunidad, ha tomado mucha importancia. Y realmente fue como un "boom".
(P10)
Pascual conceptualiza esta ley como un parteaguas para la comunidad Sorda, ya
que esta ley permitió que la LSM fuera vista como un idioma diferente e independiente del
español. También fue benéfico para los intérpretes que trabajan con el español y la
lengua de señas en México, porque posterior a esto se crearon certificaciones, guías y
códigos de conducta laboral que concedieron a la práctica de la interpretación de LSM
mayor formalidad. En general, se visibilizaron tremendamente la lengua de señas y a la
comunidad Sorda.
367
El papel de los intérpretes en la promoción de la diversidad lingüística
Sin embargo, la misma visibilidad no siempre se manifiesta en la práctica cotidiana.
Aunque sin enunciados sonoros, los Sordos aprovechan de otras maneras de comunicar
su desencanto con el menosprecio de su cultura y lengua. Como explica Carlos,
Ha habido veces que al estar de intérprete señando en un evento formal, los
Sordos se levantan y se van, te dejan solo. Ha habido veces que se levanta un
Sordo, interrumpe al orador, así en frente de todos. (C121)
Sin embargo, no solo los Sordos se involucran en activismo, sino numerosos
intérpretes de LSM también toman el papel de transmitir información sobre los derechos
lingüísticos de los Sordos a los miembros de la comunidad. Parece que los cuatro
entrevistados, tal vez inspirados por sus experiencias iniciales con la cultura Sorda
anteriormente expuestas, pertenecen a este grupo de abogados de la cultura, identidad y
derechos Sordos.
Ahora lo que estamos nosotros realizando también, como parte de la promoción
de los servicios de interpretación, es trabajar con las comunidades de Sordos e
informarles sobre el Código de Conducta Profesional y saber cómo deben de
trabajar con los intérpretes, porque si bien muchos Sordos o la mayoría de las
personas Sordas han visto a un intérprete y han estado en contacto con él, no
saben qué es la manera o cuál es la manera en la que se debe de conducir un
intérprete. (N36)
Esta responsabilidad social no sólo se mantiene en la difusión de la información,
también se puede ver en la práctica profesional. Pascual al ser hijo de padres sordos
comprende de cerca el reto tan grande que es para un sordo desarrollar una actividad
laboral.
Normalmente a las personas con discapacidad les cuesta un trabajo [sic – se
entiende: muy difícil] de conseguir un empleo. Entonces ¿qué aplica aquí?
Entonces aplica el altruismo, donde tu trabajo, a veces es poner, llámense
viáticos para ir a apoyarlos. Este... normalmente, yo conozco las necesidades
de los sordos, mis papás. Y es difícil las carencias dentro del hogar y como que
no tienes el corazón para abandonarlos. (P71)
Es evidente que Pascual está con toda la disposición de ayudar a las personas
Sordas porque se identifica con su aprieto, como también los otros entrevistados.
Identificación con la comunidad Sorda por parte de los intérpretes
Infelizmente, los intérpretes tienen toda la razón para identificarse con sus clientes, los
miembros de la comunidad Sorda, ya que los desprecian de igual manera que a los
mismos Sordos.
368
Desgraciadamente, las personas oyentes no entienden esa parte, como ellos no
ven, no entienden esta parte del proceso de la traducción, de la interpretación.
Ellos piensan que no es esfuerzo que nosotros solo sacamos las manitas. Ellos
me dicen “el mue e manitas”. C6
Carlos comenta sobre la forma en la que algunos de sus compañeros de trabajo
ven su labor. Tal como dice, la percepción de la gente sobre los intérpretes es aún
desinformada. Se piensa que por hablar un idioma o usar una lengua de señas se puede
realizar un trabajo de este tipo, pero la realidad es que es necesario tener una formación,
de igual manera que aceptación por la comunidad Sorda.
¿Cómo les entiende alguna persona administrativa? Llámese encargado,
llámese cualquier persona del gobierno o de las personas que los contratan...
¿cómo les entienden a las personas sordas o cómo se dan a entender entre
ellos? Eso es un gran problema (...) Por eso, a mí me interesaba mucho que
supiera lo b sico de se as para que pudieran uzgar y decir que “s eres un
comunicador y sabe se as y él es un intérprete”. orque para poder decir "soy
intérprete" yo creo que se necesita un poquito de valor. (P93)
Aparte de la exigencia de un acercamiento profesional al oficio del intérprete,
Pascual también comenta sobre la dificultad que se enfrenta por cualquier personal
administrativo que, por la carencia de información y conocimiento, simplemente no puede
comprender las necesidades de los Sordos. Sin esta conciencia, no se puede esperar que
se desarrolle comunicación significativa y empatía entre los oyentes y los Sordos.
Percepción pública de los Sordos
No obstante, la apreciación de los intérpretes, o, mejor dicho, la carencia de ella, no
compara con el desestimo de los Sordos. Como en otros lados por el mundo, por mucho
tiempo los sordos han tenido un estatus inferior que el resto de las personas viviendo en
México. Se solían considerar como discapacitados mentales y su lengua sólo se percibía
como una mímica sin estructura.
Era ista como una especie de m mica, […]. De ec o, algunas personas
uzgaban como ademanes de locos a los sordos. Y… este… realmente eran
discriminados por ese lado porque no tenían una lengua de cómo expresarse.
(P14)
Las preocupaciones que verbaliza Pascual también comparte Carlos. Porque aparte como Sordo, como lenguaje de señas, es una persona con
discapacidad y siempre han sufrido o habido bullying o desprecio. (C130)
Mientras estas observaciones generales ya parecen suficientemente inquietantes,
el fragmento más conmovedor relata las prácticas de los padres de niños sordos, porque
369
en resumen sintetiza las confusiones sobre la sordera y la carencia del conocimiento y
comprensión de qué es vivir una vida Sorda.
Generalmente cuando los padres descubren que sus niños son sordos, pues
con la primera persona que corren es con el médico y si le va bien el médico les
recomienda que ean opciones. ero bueno… ora lo que generalmente el
médico prescribe que no se le exponga al niño a la lengua de señas, porque
esto podría entorpecer el desarrollo cognitivo, cuando sabemos que tampoco es
cierto. O, por el otro lado, se van al extremo de sugerir a los padres esta opción
de los implantes cocleares. Bueno, y los padres creen que con esto… De
hecho, los propios sordos, usuarios de la lengua de señas se dividen, se
refieren, perdón, al implante coclear como la oreja biónica, justamente porque
prometen que una vez que todo el mundo esté implantado. Bueno, finalmente,
van a escuchar perfectamente, pero la realidad es que ni los propios médicos
saben si el implante va a ser funcional. Entonces, tenemos a niños implantados
que no escuchan absolutamente nada, pero pues bueno ya tienen ahí todo el
aparto conectado a sus cráneos. (J42)
Entre las preocupaciones que menciona Jorge, se destaca que la sordera sigue
siendo considerada como una condición meramente médica que, aparte, se resuelve con
intervención quirúrgica. Sin embargo, el aparato coclear conocido en la comunidad Sorda
como “la oreja biónica” no siempre tiene la respuesta, ya que no todos tipos de la sordera
se raigan en un problema fisiológico auditivo.
Lo que es aún más perturbador es que los padres, quizá por el miedo de no
poder comunicar con su propio hijo, sigan el consejo del médico que considera que el niño
no empiece a aprender a señalar. Dado que el desarrollo cognitivo se procede a través
del desarrollo lingüístico, es muy probable que si un niño no tiene acceso a ninguna
lengua, sea signada u oral, vaya a tener consecuencias negativas. Al parecer, todavía
hace falta aceptar que la lengua de señas es un idioma que cualquier otro que no solo
sirve para fines de comunicación, sino también es marcador de la identidad de las
personas que lo usan.
CONCLUSIÓN
Posicionada en el enfoque equitativo y con esperanzas de que las narrativas biomédicas
de la sordera se hayan empezado a reescribirse, el presente proyecto exploró las
percepciones sobre la identidad lingüística-cultural de la comunidad Sorda en el estado de
Guanajuato. Con base en entrevistas semiestructuradas realizadas con cuatro intérpretes
de LSM y / o proponentes de la cultura Sorda, los hallazgos confirmaron las cuatro
hipótesis:
(1) Como se observó en la última parte del análisis, aun los padres de niños
sordos siguen con creencias equivocadas sobre, por ejemplo, la naturaleza de la
sordera, lo que significa que la población oyente, que tiene todavía menos
370
información sobre estas circunstancias, carece la conceptualización verisímil de
la vida de los Sordos.
(2) Por su relación con la comunidad Sorda, ya que crecieron en la compañía de
sordos y por su propia voluntad se han involucrado en la comunidad, y a menudo
porque su trabajo tampoco se toma en serio, como los problemas de los Sordos,
los intérpretes se identifican con ellos y bien entienden sus pruebas y
tribulaciones.
(3) Por lo mismo, por su conocimiento de la cultura Sorda, los intérpretes pueden
e intentan servir esta comunidad y sensibilizar a la población oyente sobre las
condiciones vivenciales de los Sordos, por ejemplo, dándoles visibilidad en
contextos administrativos.
(4) Finalmente, las anécdotas sobre cómo el español “signado” ofende a los
Sordos, se confirmó la correlación estrecha entre la identidad Sorda y el uso de la
LSM.
Así se puede concluir que el giro discursivo sobre la sordera definitivamente no
ha llegado al contexto bajo de estudio, es decir, no se puede hablar de empoderamiento a
través de la creación de la identidad Sorda. Además, sigue manteniéndose la
desinformación sobre la lengua, cultura e identidad Sorda. Solo resta comentar que, en el
esfuerzo de cambiar los discursos existentes, la comunidad académica también debe
asumir su responsabilidad en cuanto a la investigación de la cultura Sorda y la divulgación
de información sobre ella con cautela y consideraciones éticas (McKee et al. 2013).
REFERENCIAS
Baker, A., van den Bogaerde, B. & Crasborn, O. (eds.). (2003). Cross-linguistic perspectives in sign language research. Selected papers from TISLR 2000. Hamburg: Signum.
Bauman, H-D. L. & Murray, J. J. (2017). Deaf studies in the 21st century: “Deaf-Gain” and
the future of human diversity. En L. J. Davis (ed.). The disability studies reader. (pp. 242-255). New York & London: Routledge.
Berg, J. (2012a). Surrogate decision making in the internet age, The American Journal of
Bioethics, 12(10), 28-33. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708088. Berg, J. (2012b). Response to Open Peer Commentaries on “Surrogate decision making in
the internet age”, The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), W1-W2. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.712417.
Blankmeyer Burke, T. (2012). A disability response to Surrogate decision making in the
internet age, The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 36-37. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.711899.
371
Burch, S. (2002). Signs of resistance: American deaf cultural history, 1900 to World War II. New York & London: New York University Press.
Cacho Carranza, Y. (2015). Inauguran la primera Sala de Lengua de Señas en México,
Conacyt Sala de Prensa, publicado en el México, D.F. el 30 de julio del 2015. Disponible en http://www.conacytprensa.mx/index.php/ciencia/humanidades/2297-reportaje-lengua-de-senas-mexicana-organizacion-cerebral.
Cárdenas, V. (2016). La deficiente educación que reciben los sordos en México. Cultura
Colectiva. Publicada el 22 de diciembre del 2016. Disponible en https://culturacolectiva.com/historia/educacion-para-sordos-en-mexico/.
Cruz-Aldrete, M. (2009). Gramática de la lengua de señas mexicana. Tesis de doctorado.
México, D.F.: Colegio de México. Cruz-Aldrete, M. (2012). No siempre digo no. La negación en la Lengua de Señas
Mexicana, Lengua y Habla, 16, 45-70. Cruz-Aldrete, M. (2014). Hacia la construcción de un diccionario de Lengua de Señas
Mexicana, Revista de Investigación, 38(83), 57-80. Cruz-Aldrete, M. (2014). Manos a la obra. Cuernavaca: Universidad Autónoma del Estado
de Morelos. Cruz-Aldrete, M. (2017). Reflexiones sobre la educación bilingüe intercultural para el
sordo en México, Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Inclusiva, 3(1), 133-145. Disponible en: http://repositoriocdpd.net:8080/handle/123456789/1802
Cruz-Aldrete, M. & Cruz Cruz, J. C. (2013). Integración social del sordo en la Ciudad de
México: enfoques médicos y pedagógicos (1867-1900), Cuicuilco, 20(56), 173-201.
Cruz-Aldrete, M., Garcia Bruno, M. M. & Lopes Lopes, L. (2016). La enseñanza de las
comunidades sordas indígenas en Brasil y México: ambientes multilingües e interculturales, Cadernos de Pesquisa em Educação, 43, 35-57.
Cruz-Aldrete, M. & Villa Rodríguez, M. Á. (2013). La iconicidad en la formación del lexicón
en la Lengua de Señas Mexicana, Lengua y Habla, 17, 14-33. Cruz-Aldrete, M. & Villa Rodríguez, M. Á. (2016). Manos a la hoja: Un taller de escritura
entre jóvenes sordos y oyentes, Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Inclusiva, 10(2), 167-182. doi: 10.4067/S0718-73782016000200011.
Epston, D. & White, M. (1990). Narrative means to therapeutic ends. New York: Norton. Edwards, L. & Crocker, S. (2008). Psychological processes in Deaf children with complex
needs: An evidence-based practical guide. London & Philadelphia, PA: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.
372
Feltz, A. & Abt, T. (2012). Claims about surrogate decision-making accuracy require empirical evidence, The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 41-43. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708090.
Fleischmann, M. E. S. (1995). Estrategia pedagógica para la enseñanza del español signado
de México. México, D.F.: Editorial Trillas. Disponible en
http://www.libreacceso.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/EstrategiaPedagogica.pdf.
Francisco Martínez, M. I. (2011). La construcción de la identidad del adolescente Sordo a
partir de sus interacciones sociales dentro de una escuela bilingüe. Tesis de maestría. México, D. F.: Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Disponible en http://www.cultura-sorda.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Tesis-FranciscoM-2011.pdf
Furlonger, B. (1999). Narrative therapy and children with hearing impairments, American
Annals of the Deaf, 144, 325-33. doi: 10.1353/aad.2012.0311. Glickman, N. (2009). Cognitive-behavioral therapy for deaf and hearing persons with
language and learning challenges. New York & London: Routledge. Hall, K. Q. (ed.). (2011). Feminist disability studies. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University
Press. Holcomb, T. K. (2013). Introduction to American Deaf culture. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI). (2016). La discapacidad en México,
datos al 2014. Disponible en: http://internet.contenidos.inegi.org.mx/contenidos/productos/prod_serv/contenidos/espanol/bvinegi/productos/nueva_estruc/702825090203.pdf
Johnston, T. (1989). Auslan dictionary: a dictionary of Australian Sign Language (Auslan).
Adelaide: TAFE National Centre for Research and Development. Johnston, T. (2001). The lexical database of Auslan (Australian Sign Language). Sign
Language & Linguistics, 4, 145-169. doi: 10.1075/sll.4.1-2.11joh Johnston, T. (2003). Language standardisation and signed language dictionaries. Sign
Language Studies, 3, 431-469. doi: 10.1353/sls.2003.0012 Johnston, T. & Schembri, A. (2007). Australian sign language. An introduction to sign
language linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9780511607479
Kafer, A. (2011). Debating feminist futures: Slippery slopes, cultural anxiety, and the case
of the Deaf lesbians. En Hall, K. Q. (ed.). Feminist disability studies. (pp.218-242). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Leeson, L. & Saeed, J. I. (2012). Irish sign language. A cognitive linguistic account.
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
373
Le Guen, O. (2014) La documentación de una nueva lengua indígena en Yucatán: Le
lengua de señas maya yucateca, Ichan Tecolotl, 24(283), 3-8. Disponible en: https://ciesas.files.wordpress.com/2014/03/283_ichan_marzo_web.pdf.
Liddell, S. K. (1980). American sign language syntax. Den Haag: Mouton. Lucas, C. (ed.). (1989). The sociolinguistics of the Deaf community. San Diego, CA:
Academic. Lucas, C. (ed.). (1995). Sociolinguistics in Deaf communities. Washington, DC: Gallaudet
University Press. Lucas, C. (2003). The role of variation in lexicography. Sign Language Studies, 3, 322–
340. doi:10.1353/sls.2003.0009 Mason Pope, T. (2012). Facebook can improve surrogate decision making, The American
Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 43-45. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708095. Matlala, M. M. (2013). Societal perceptions towards the hearing impaired and their
psychological implications. Tesis de maestría. Limpopo, Sudáfrica: Universidad de Limpopo. Disponible en: http://ul.netd.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10386/1206/matlala_mm_2013.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
Matthews, S. (2012). Authenticating an online identity, The American Journal of Bioethics,
12(10), 39-41. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708089. McKee, D. & Kennedy, G. (2000). Lexical comparison of signs from American, Australian,
British, and New Zealand Sign Languages. En K. Emmorey & H. Lane (eds.) The signs of language revisited: An anthology to honor Ursula Bellugi and Edward Klima. (pp.49-76). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
McKee, M., Schlehofer, D. & Thew, D. (2013). Ethical issues in conducting research with
deaf populations, American Journal of Public Health, 103(12), 2174-2178. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2013.301343.
Moore, J. A. & Gallagher, C. M. (2012). Are we prepared for surrogate decision making in
the internet age?, The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 47-49. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708093.
Padden, C. A. (1980). The deaf community and the culture of deaf people. En C. Baker &
R. Battison (eds.). Sign language and the deaf community. (pp.89-104). Silver Spring, MD: National Association of the Deaf.
Padden, C. A. (1996). From the cultural to the bicultural. En I. Parasnis (ed.) Cultural and
language diversity: Reflections on the Deaf experience. (pp. 79-98). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.
Padden, Carol A. 1988. Interaction of morphology and syntax in American Sign Language.
Nueva York: Garland Publishing.
374
Padden, C. A. (2005) Talking culture: Deaf people and disability studies. Proceedings of
the Modern Language Association, 120(2), 508-513. Padden, C. A. & Humphries, T. A. (2005). Inside Deaf culture. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press. Paul, P. V. (2009). Language and deafness. (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett
Publishing. Paul, P. V. & Moores, D. F. (2012). Deaf epistemologies: Multiple perspectives on the
acquisition of knowledge. Washington, D.C.: Gallaudet University. Perales, C., Arias, E. & Bazdresch, M. (2012). Enseñanza bilingüe y bicultural para niños
Sordos en el nivel de primaria, Revista Latinoamericana de Educación Inclusiva, 6(2), 43-63. Disponible en http://hdl.handle.net/11117/1329.
Robinson, O. (2016). Employment: Peddling. En Gertz, G. & Boudreault, P. (eds.). The
SAGE Deaf Studies encyclopedia. (pp.396-398). Nueva York: Sage Publications. Romero Muñoz, K. (31 de marzo del 2018). Impulsan iniciativa para certificar a intérpretes
de lengua de señas. Akustic Noticias. Disponible en: http://acustiknoticias.com/2018/03/impulsan-iniciativa-para-certificar-a-interpretes-de-lengua-de-senas/.
Sadovnikoff, N. & Jurchak, M. (2012). Social media as a contributor to substituted
judgment: The hazards outweigh the value, The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 45-47. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708091.
Sandler, W. & Lillo-Martin, D. (2006). Sign language and linguistic universals. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. doi: 10.1017/CBO9781139163910. Sauceda Navarrete, R. (2018). Situación actual de la interpretación de lengua de señas en
el estado de Guanajuato. Tesis de licenciatura inédita. Guanajuato: Universidad
de Guanajuato. Schermer, T. (2004). Lexical variation in sign language of the Netherlands. En M. Van
Herreweghe & M. Vermeerbergen (eds.), To the lexicon and beyond. Sociolinguistics in European deaf communities. (pp.91–110). Washington, DC: Gallaudet University Press.
Schermer, T. (2006). Sign language lexicography. En K. Brown (ed.) Encyclopedia of
language and linguistics. (2nd ed.). (pp.321–324). Amsterdam: Elsevier. doi: 10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/00231-5.
Schermer, T. (2012). Language planning. En R. Pfau, M. Steinbach & B. Woll (eds.). Sign
language. An international handbook. (pp.889–908). Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Secretaría de Educación Pública. (2009). Prestación de servicios de interpretación de la
lengua de señas mexicana al español y viceversa. Norma técnica de competencia laboral. Disponible en:
375
http://www.interpretesdeconferencias.mx/edocman/NTCL%20-EC0085%20-%20LSM.pdf.
Siess, S. & Moyer, A. (2012). Status update: The complexities of the internet age bring
urgency for deliberately making advance health care decision wishes known, The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 49-50. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708092.
Stark, M. & Fins, J. J. (2012). The self, social media, and social construction, The
American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 38-39. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708094.
Stokoe, William C. (1960). Sign language structure. An outline of the visual communication
system of the American deaf. Studies in Linguistics Occasional Papers 8. Buffalo: University of Buffalo Press. (Re-issued 2005, Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education 10, 3–37).
Stokoe, W. C., Casterline, D. C. & Cronenberg, C. G. (1965). A dictionary of American
Sign Language. Silver Spring, MD: Linstok Press. Tecnológico de Monterrey. (2017). Conferencia Cultura Sorda: Un mundo sin silencio.
Identidad Campus Querétaro. Publicado el 15 de mayo del 2017. Disponible en http://identidad.queretaro.itesm.mx/2017/05/conferencia-cultura-sorda-un-mundo-sin-silencio/.
Tsai, N. T. (2012). Considerations in surrogate decision making in the internet age, The
American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 51. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.711900. Vidal Salgado, C., Isidoro Mojica, M. I. & Bonilla Aco, S. M. (2012). La lengua de señas
mexicana en la educación de los niños sordos desde la perspectiva socioantropológica. Del modelo educativo bilingüe y bicultural. En Memorias Electrónica X Congreso Nacional de Investigación Educativa, Veracruz, 21-25 de septiembre del 2009. Disponible en: http://www.comie.org.mx/congreso/memoriaelectronica/v10/pdf/area_tematica_12/ponencias/1217-F.pdf.
Wahlert, L. (2012). Surrogate decision making 2.0: Digital evidence as clinical testimony,
The American Journal of Bioethics, 12(10), 34-36. doi: 10.1080/15265161.2012.708096.
Wilcox, P. P. (2000). Metaphor in American Sign Language. Washington, DC: Gallaudet
University Press. Wilcox, P. P. (ed.). (2005). Metaphor in signed languages. Special issue of Sign Language
Studies, 5(3). Woodward, J. C. (1972). Implications for sociolinguistic research among the deaf, Sign
Language Studies, 1, 1-7.
376
LOS AUTORES RODRIGO SAUCEDA NAVARRETE. Licenciatura en la Enseñanza de Español como Segunda Lengua por la Universidad de Guanajuato. Recién egresado. [email protected]
KRISZTINA ZIMÁNYI. Maestría en la Lengua y la Literatura Inglesa, con Capacitación para la Enseñanza en Escuelas Secundarias por la Eötvös Loránd Tudományegyetem (Universidad de Budapest ELTE), Budapest, Hungría. Maestría en Literatura Anglo-Irlandesa por la University of Dublin (Trinity College), Dublín, Irlanda. Maestría en Estudios de Traducción (Diploma Posgrado en Lingüística Aplicada y Estudios Interculturales), por la Dublin City University, Dublín, Irlanda. Doctorado en Estudios de Traducción e Interpretación por la Dublin City University, Dublín, Irlanda. Del 2015 a la fecha se desempeña como profesora investigadora en la Universidad de Guanajuato. [email protected]