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Introduction To Ecology
Chapter 1
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Concepts
1.1 What Is Ecology?
1.2 What Important Ideas Will Emerge in Your Study of Ecology?
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Concept 1.1
Ecology is “The scientific discipline that is concerned with the relationships between organisms and their past, present and future environments, both living and non-living.” Official ESA Definition*
*August 2000 Annual Meeting of the Ecological Society of America
What is Ecology?
• Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between an organism and its past, present and future environments both living and non-living.
• Understanding these relationships will explain the patterns of distribution and abundance we see in nature.
Key words used to define Ecology
Interactions - between everyone
and everything
Organisms - all taxa are
fair game
Environment - includes
ABIOTIC and BIOTIC
factors outside the organism
Abundance - population
sizes
Distribution - where we find
organisms
Environment
• Abiotic (physical) environment– Temperature, water availability, soil, salinity,
nutrients…
• Biotic (biological) environment– Predators, prey, parasites, pathogens, symbionts…
Hierarchy in Nature
A Case Study: Snowshoe Hare Ecology
• Observations:– Coat color of a snowshoe hare
changes in spring and fall– Color change is asynchronous
among individuals– Highest mortality is observed in
spring and fall (compared to winter and summer)
• What drives coat color change?• What makes this study an
ecological study?Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
A Case Study: Snowshoe Hare Ecology
• Proximate causes– Ecological factors – Direct effects of external
stimuli; direct, immediate causes
– e.g., temperature and photoperiod
• Ultimate causes– Evolutionary factors that led to
appearance of certain traits– e.g., selective pressure from
predation
What determines a change in snowshoe hare coat color?
A Case Study: Snowshoe Hare Ecology
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Interaction is key in ecologyCan you name abiotic and biotic factors affecting ecology of snowshoe hares?
Snowshoe Hare
Ecology: A Complex
Story
Ecological Studies Often Encompass Several Levels of Organization
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Ecology Is Hierarchically Subdivided
• Organismal ecology: interactions between individuals and their environment– Physiological ecology– Behavioral ecology
• Population ecology: dynamics of a group of individuals of a single species– Population genetics, demography
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Ecology Is Hierarchically Subdivided
• Community ecology: interactions among a group of coexisting species
• Ecosystem ecology: interactions between ecological communities and their abiotic environment
• Ecosphere or biosphere: sum of all Earth’s ecosystems
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Ecology Connections
• Natural history – Observational study of plants and animals in their
natural environment– Popular in Victorian age for men and women of
wealth to spend time walking and pondering gardens, etc.
– Darwin was essentially a Natural Historian who was observant and brilliant enough to see the patterns in his observations
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
How do Ecologists, Naturalists and Environmentalists Differ?
Example: Consider the American Robin, Turdus migratorius
• Naturalist: Observes robins and paints/photographs/ writes/composes music about robins. Provides valuable “Natural History.”
• Ecologist: Asks, “What causes the robin’s singing behavior? Seeks to explain the Natural History.
• Environmentalist: Seeks action to preserve the habitat of the robin.
Ecology Connections
• Environmental science– The study of the impact of humans on the
environment– Environmental studies includes knowledge from
other fields such as history, political science, economics, philosophy
– Good Example: returning the wolves to Yellowstone National Park – keystone predator
• Lots of pros and cons; entrenched bias against predators• Decision based not just on ecological science, but other
issues such as reactions of cattle ranchers as well as public opinion were considered etc.
Ecology Connections
• Resource management sciences – Sciences devoted to managing and husbanding
resources important for human use– Wildlife management– Forestry– Range management– Fisheries biology
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Take Home Points
• Ecology is the study of the interactions between an organism and its biological and physical environment.
• Ecologists study interactions at multiple levels of organization: the organism, the population, the community, and the ecosystem.
• Natural history observations raise ecological questions and frame hypotheses.
• Other applied fields, such as environmental science and the management sciences, apply ecological principles to resources important to humans.
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
What Important Ideas Will Emerge in Your Study of Ecology?
Fundamental ecological principles
Application of the scientific method to answer specific ecological questions
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Ecology is a quantitative science
Fundamental Ecological Principles
• Ecology-evolution connection– Ecosystems are a product of evolution of species
• Ecological systems are often not in equilibrium– No “ecological homeostasis” or “balance of
nature”– Both equilibrium and nonequilibrium ecological
processes are important• Human impact on the environment and on
ecological processes
Fundamental Ecological Principals
• Ecology-evolution connection– Ecosystems are a product of evolution of species
–Change in hare coat color is an adaptation– Ecological theater and Evolutionary play
Subdisciplines of Ecology
• Physiological Ecology• Genetic Ecology• Evolutionary Ecology• Behavioral Ecology• Landscape Ecology• Paleoecology• Systems Ecology• Theoretical Ecology
• Insect Ecology• Bird Ecology• Microbial Ecology• Freshwater Ecology• Marine Ecology• Terrestrial Ecology• Many more
Fundamental Ecological Principles• Early ecological views:o There is a “balance of nature” in which natural
systems are stable and tend to return to an original state after disturbance.
o Each species has a distinct role to play in maintaining that balance.
Concept 1.2
Fundamental Ecological Principles
• Ecologists now recognize that natural systems do not necessarily return to their original state after a disturbance, and seemingly random perturbations can play an important role.
• Evidence suggests that different species often respond in different ways to changing conditions.
Examples• Food webs in ecological communities• Flow of matter and energy through ecosystems• Succession – climax is not a “constant” stable state
to which communities return after disturbance.
Concept 1.2
Fundamental Ecological Principles• Scientists now recognize that ecological interactions
are more complex than previously thought.• One view that has stood the test of time: Events in
nature are inter-connected. • A change in one part of an ecological system can
alter other parts of that system.• Emergent properties of communities and ecosystems
o Can’t rely on 2 species interactionso Multiple species, multiple interactions – unexpected
outcomes
Fundamental Ecological Principles
• Ecological systems are often not in equilibrium– No “ecological homeostasis” or “balance of
nature”– Both equilibrium and nonequilibrium ecological
processes are important• Human impact on the environment and on
ecological processes
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Ecology is a Science
• Ecology uses the Scientific method– Uses tools such as
• Observation
• Experimentation
• Mathematical modelling
– Uses statistics to analyze data and arrive at• A conclusion that is unbiased, based on the data;
• A mathematically derived level of confidence in that conclusion
01_p010.jpgScience is all about testing hypotheses and rejecting the false ones.
Ecology Is a ScienceIt Uses Scientific Method
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Support the hypothesis
Which System to Choose to Study Ecological Questions? The concept of model system
August Krogh Principle
“For many problems there will be some animal of choice or a few such
animals on which it can be most conveniently studied.”
A. Krogh, 1874–1949, Nobel Laureate 1920Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Which System to Study?
The concept of a model system
• Basic biology and natural history of a species well known
• Possess specific features that allow addressing a specific question
• Amenable to experimental manipulation
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
Sarracenia purpureaModel system
Experimental Design, Statistics
• A huge part of ecology is about asking a good question and designing a study with the right kind of observations, experiments and statistics to get a reliable answer.
Experimental Design, Statistics
• Data interpretation requires the use of statisticso Data sets are often very large and complex. o Statistics allows us to express a mathematically tested level
of confidence in the outcome of a study.
Ecology Is a Quantitative Science
• Statistical analysis of the data is required– Statistics allows us to express a mathematically
tested level of confidence in the outcome of a study.
• Traditionally accepted confidence level—95%, but can vary depending on the question
• Ecological modeling– Statistical, mathematical, and computer models
Ecology: Evolution, Application, Integration David T. Krohne Copyright © 2015 Oxford University Press
What’s the overall aim?
• To recognize patterns in nature
• To explain or understand these patterns
• To predict what will happen to these patterns if conditions change
• To control or exploit populations