jäschke - tibetan grammar

8/3/2019 Jschke - Tibetan Grammar

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TRUBNER 'S COLL ECT IONOF

S~MPLIFIED CRAMM.ARSOF THE PRINCIPAL

ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.EDITED nv

REINHOLD R,OST,LL.D., PH.D.

VlI.TIBETAN.,

BY H. A. JASCHXE ' .


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, ' l ' R O B N E i j , I S C O L L E C T I O N O F S I M P L I F I E D . G I l , A . M M A B S O F .. T H EP l f f i { C I P A t .A S I A . T I C A l f f i E U R O P E A .N L A N G U A G E S ., .' '

'E~lTED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D.,. piI.n.I.

HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN,AND ARABIC.By THE LATE E. H; PALMER, .M . A .

P r ic -e 5 s.II.

HUNGARIAN.By I. SINGER.Pria 4s.6d.

III.BASQUE.

By W. VAN Eys.Price 3s, 6d.'IV.

MALAGASY.By G. W. PARKER.

P ric e 5 s.v,MODERN GREEK.By E. llL GkLUART, M.A.

Price 2s 6d.VI.

ROUMANIAN.By R. TORCEANU.VII.TIBETAN.B y H. A. JA sCHKE .

. Grammars of tIlefollowing an in. frepara#un:-Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, BUTTIlese , Chinese . Cymric and Gael ic , Danish, F inni sh, Hebrew, Malay, Pal i, Poli sh, Russ ian ,Sansk ri t, Serb ian , Siamese, Singha lese , Swedi sll, Tu rk ish.

LONDON: TROBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL.

. '

, '

SECOND EDITIONl 'REPARED BY

DR. H.WENZEL.

LONDON:, TR 1 J'BN 'ER & CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL .

1883.[All' rigl~fi reserved.]. . . .

/II. . ' , ,


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Preface.' ' f h e present new edition of Mr. JXSCHKE'S Tibetan

Gr8iIDmar scarcely needs It word of apology, As the firstedition which was lithographed atKyeiail in 1865 in a limitednmnber' of copies has long been out of print, Dr. ROST'l1'I'gea the author to revise his grammar for the purpose of" bring~g it - out in an improved form. The latter, prevented

1 l Y ' ill-health from undertaking the task, placed the matterin my hands, and had the goodness to make over to me~is own manuscript notes and additions to the originalwork.' Without his personal, cooperation, however, Iwasunable to make any but a very sparing use of these, add-ing onlJ.: a few remarks from Gyalrabs and Milaraspa, withsQmefurther remarks on the local vernacular of WesternTibet.' Indeed, special attention has been paid through~ut ,to thi;; dialect; it is the one with which the author-duringhis long residence at Kyelan had become most familiar,and with which the English in India are most likely to .bebrought into direct contact,

Besi'des the above mentioned additions, I have takena number of examples from the Dzanlun, to make ClearerSome o~the, rules, and, with the same view, I have altered, 'here' a n a there; the wording of the lithographed editi6~.


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Preface. - Abbr('viations.The order of the paragraphs has been retained throughout,and onlY' o ne (23.) has been added for completeness' sake.

The system of 'transliterasion is nearLy the. same as int h e Dictionary, onl;r for ny, it is used, and instead 6 , a(respectively ~) has been thought to be a clearer-represen-tation of the sound intended. For the niceties of pronun-. ciation the reader is referred to the Dictionary, as in thisGrammar. only the general rules have been given.

Finally I must express mywannest thanks to Dr. Rosn-,to whose exertions not only the printing of this Grammaris solely due, but who also rendered me much help in thecorrecting of the work.

Mayence, May 1883.

act . = = active.C or CT = Central Tibet, espe-cially the provinces of n andTsan.

ef, := confer, compare.Dzl, = Dzaillnn.e . g. =: exempli gratia, for in-stance: -ET = East Tibet:.fut, := future.imp. = imperative._info := infinitive.i.o, = instead of.Kopp. = Koppen.

Abbrev ia t ions .

H. WENZEL.-

Kun. := Kunawur , province under'English protection.

Ld. ~ Ladak, province.Mil . =: Mila-raspa.neutr, := neuter verb.perf. or pf, = perfect,pres. := present.S. = see.term, = terminative case.Tbgy. = Thar - gyan, scientifictreatises.

v, :: ;;vide, see.vulg. = vulgar e-lpression.W 01' WT = Western Tibet.

Contents .,II. Phonology.

1.2.3.4.5.6,7.S.9.10..

, 11.12.13 .

n. Etymology.. I. Art ic I e .I!ectil ianties of the Tibetan Article

Difference of the Articles . . . .T h e Indefinite Article ~ ~ ~ . .II. S u h s t. ant iv e.14 .

15." ' . III. Adj e e tiv e.1 6. R ! 'l l! o~ o p. to t he Substantive. . . . .17. Com:~a.rison. . .

ia19.20 .~1.22 .23 .

h IV.E :m .'uin a:l 'n um erals .Ol'~tll numerals .Rep;lark~. . ". .if;lisliiib,]ltiiVeu~erals4dvm-bih l numerals .Fliaet , iona} numerals

N nmer al s.

Pogo13345 I67111214

171819

2021

252 6

283131333333


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34B e3 137383840414243454647484 9505154656774. 767 178

s o81~. ~,

.' 8283

8692~9

V. P r o.n 0 U n B.,24. Personal pronouns . . . ,~5. Possessive pronoun~. .26 . Reilectiv,e pronouns. .~7. Demonstrative pronouns2 8 . Thterrogative pronouns2 9 . Belative pronouns.

VI. Ve r b..30. Thtrodudion3 1 . . Inflection32: Infinitive. .3 3 . Participle ., 3 4 . FiniM Verb35 . Presenta s . PrHllrit .37. Future3 8 . ' Imperative39. Intensive .4O.Substanti\'e Verbs. 4 1 . Gerunds .and Snpines42. VII; A d v e r b. .M s . VIn. P ostP 0 sit ion .44. IX. Co nj un o tion45. X. I n t e r j e c t ion .X L Ir er I 'v-a tion :46. Derivation of Substantives47 . Derivation of Adjectives .

III. S~,II tax,,48. Arrangement of Words49 . Use 9f the Cases50. Simple Seutenees51. Compound Sentences

Appendix.Phrases ...Reading Exercise.Verbs. . . . .

Errata.

4, "4, e,1 ,4,

, " 4, "4 ;,5," 7"

P~ge 3, line 13 read at ig.stead of in.2 " respeotively:7 which instead of whom.9 un d er- particular.H !i~ instead of lU_r9.

2{l ex ertion.21 dele to.

'7 , "7 , 8, "

" 8,."" .8, J8," 8, e8, "" 9,10," 11, , 12,

~ 13," 13,I' 14, 20 , ,20,

", 20,'! 21, ."

5 dele down.4 read. sue c es s ion instead of conjunction.5 " each instead of either.11 " subscribed instead of subjoined.11 " foot for food.12 sub scr ib ed for subjoined.16 homonyms .19 " language.23 ' over instead of a bo ve ..24 n oonsonantB.10 case.4 ". Judgment.'.9 except.21 it instead of is.1 ~ which serve to denote..7 prec e ding.6 " exclamation.S indiscriminately .5 superseded.19 But.5 adds.


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2. Remarks. 3. Yowels.i. The Alphabet.It is seen from this table that several signs have been

added to express. sounds that are unknown in Sanscrit.The sibilants i' # : ; g ' evidently were differentiated from thepalatals. But as in transcribing Sanscrit words the Tibetanssubstitute their sibilants for the palatals of the original (as


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4'.' 4, Syllables.following . The special vowel signs are " , ~., =:, ""prononneed respectivily as e, i,o, u are in German, Italianand ~ost other European languages, viz. ~ like ayin say,or e in ten j ,c-,' like. iin ma.chine, tin; ... ..-'ike 0 in' 80, on;'" .Iike u in rule, pull. It ought to be specially remarkedthat all vowels, including e and (unlike the Sanscrit vowelsfrom whom they have taken their signs) are' short, sinceno long vowels at all occur in the Tibetan language, exceptparticular circumstances, mentioned below (s, 9. 5 ,_ 6).2 . When vowels are initial, ij9 is used as their base, as isI in Urdu, e. g. ~"~" ama , ,mother'. 3. ~ is originallydifferent.from ~", as the latter denotes the opening of thepreviously closed throat for pronouncing a vowel with thatslight explosive sound which the Arabs mean by,1 ( iU _ _ , _ . j ) ) ,as the a in the words: the lily,. an endogen, which wouldbe in Tibetan cha[ 'u~ters 1 i l ' r l . l ' ~ ~ " ; ~ " on the contrary isthe mere vowel without that audible opening of the throat

e-, e-,(as Arabic Iwithout .), as in Lilian, ( ; l , r r : : l r a . . ~ "In EasternTibet this difference. is strictly observed; and if the vowelis, or u the intentional exercion for avoiding the sound of@ . r makes it resemble to wo and wu: ~~" ,the milk' , al-most likewo-ma, ~ t : l ' ] . t . f . ,the owl' = 'wug-pa. In westernTibet this has been obliterated, and r ; , ' is there spoken justlike ~'

4. Syllables. The Tibetan language is monosyllabic,that is to say all its words consist of one syllable, only,which indeed may be variously eomposed , ,though the

o . Final consonants. 5.cpmporiend parts cannot, in every case, be recognised intheir individuality. The mark for the end of such a syllableis a dot, called ;E~'{seg, put at 'the right side of the upper,part of the closing letter, such as 'l the syllable ka . T11is(8eg.must invariably be put down at the end of each written'syllable, except before a sa d ( 10), in which case only1 ; : , " ri a retains its {seg. If therefore such a dot is found aftertwo 0'1' more consonants, 'this will indicate that al l of them,

. so me 'way or other, form o n e syllable with only one ~owel,in it: 1"~a-ra, 1~"ar (cf. 5. 8).

5 . F in al c on son an ts . 1. Only the following ten; t i l " C ::~~~"~r~"~"~" r .l. j" ~ . (and the four with affixed ~,, v, ,i5 ) occur at the end of a syllable. 2. It must be observed,thl:\,t t : l ' ] . l" tr as finals are never pronounced like the Eng-ti.s4'fli d,/b in leg, b ad , c ab , but are transformed differentlyin I:he different provinces. In Ladak they sound like k, t,Pe. ,g. ,~r = sock, E t f ~ "= got, ~ . = top. 3. In all Central'tibet" moreover, final'::;' and ~', sometimes even r.l.j ', modi-fy,'the'sOlmd of a proceeding vowel: a to ii (similar 'tothe English a in hare, man), into g (French eu in,ieu),u into'(I (French u in mu1'). In most of the other provinces~. and iare uttered so indistinctly as to be scarcely aud-,I'iMf',s0'that ~tIl ' , E l f . : : ; " become 80',g5'. In Tsang even final~issca.rcely perceptible, and final t : l ' ] ' , particularly after 0,is a\niost dissolved into a vowel sound = a: ~r.l.j.z:::r w . . , w ,


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6 u . Diphthongs~~"",as~kon-clwa. *) 4. Final ~. is sounded as 8 onlyin. Northern Ladak; elsewhere it changes intp 'i ordissappeara entirely, prolonging, or even modifying at thesame time the preceding vowel. Thus the following words:~~. .barley', - i 9 ~ ' .know', ~~" ,figure', ~. ,religion', t ? ; l ' ~ ..body', are pronounced in Northern Ladak: n a s , ses, ris,co s, IU s; in Lahoul: nai, 8 h e i , 1'1, C O , Iu ; in Lhasa, andconsequently by everyone who wishes to speak elegantly:n q " s e , 1'1, i f Q , W . 5. In some words final ~" occurs asa second closing letter (affix), aftert:f]' t : : :1 ' ;,r, as in~t:f]~r ,forest', : : t ] t : : . ~ . ,glacier-ice', E!t:f~" .meaus', ~~~.,indigo'; these are pronounced in N.Ladak: nach, gallB, taps,'J"am8, elsewhere nack (in tr : nti), gaii (El' ghang), fap, ram.6. ~. before:J" and ~ .. is especially in ET very often pro.,nounced = . e.g.~Q iia'm-pa,~.q Td;m-pa,~~::r nmn-pa.

6. Dip thongs. 1. They occur in Tibetan writing onlywhere one of the vowels i, 0, U have to be added to a word'ending with an other vowel (s, -15.1; 33.1 ;45. 2). Theseadditional vowels are then always written r . l \ " , C ( " , ~ ',never t R I etc. (cf. 3.3); lind the combi~ations ai, o i, ui(as in t:f 'Tj~', 5 ; J i f j ' ~ ' , . s ~ " ) art) pronounced very muchlike (f,- .Q , ff, so that the syllables ~ a . . . " , 2 f rt~ a , ' ,~ q ; ' ,.r * ) This is the forminwhich the word, chosen by the missionariesto express the 8hristian.Go'a" (d. dict.) , has found its way intoseve~aipopular works.

7. Compound consonants, 7:,~~: can only in some vulgar dialects be distinguished from" ' those mentioned in 5.4. 2. Theothers a o, e o, W , 00, ito,'~~ eu, iu (t :f'T j? \, ~ , .q~, ~~r.(, ~~)' t:f]~.,9~',m " ) are pronounced in rapid conjunction" but~iiher vowel is distinctly audible. Inprosody they are ge-nerally regarded as one syllable, but if the verse shouldrequire it they may be counted as two.

7. C om p ou nd consonants . 1. They are expressed in\vriting by putting one below the other, in which caseseveral change their original figure., ,\ Subj oined consonants. 2. The letter y subjoined.t o another' is represented by t-he figure:., and occurs in.eohnection wit.h the three gutturals and Iabials, and withtn, th~s ~" 6 " : ; J " ~rS ' ~r~rThe forJ?ler three have'preserved, in most cases, their original pronunciation /eya,M y ~ , gy a (the latter in ET:ghya s. 2. 6). In the Mongo!',pronu~ciation of'Tibetan words, however, they have been'cortl).pted into C , c , J respectively, a well known instance ofwhich is the common pronunciation KanJu'J ' i. o. kangyur ,or: eleg. ka-gyur (q'Tj~'~~~'). ~r,~r, 9 : are almost" ' "eJlywhere spoken without any difference from - 0 , a; , g" ( except in the Western dialect before e and i, where the '! J' . i s d~opped and q, Z ( f , t: f alone are pronounced). ! S issP 9ken ny =7 . 3. r occurs at the foot of the gutturals;de:tittals, labials, of ~) ~, ~, and " 7 , in the shape of -1'I'll S p : r , n e parts of the country, as in Purig, these eombina-


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8 8. Compound consonants.Dens are pronounced literally, like kra, kkra etc" but by,f!Jorthe most general custom is to sound them like the In-

, - ' Idian cerebrals , viz . , ' X l , ~ , : 1 ' indiscriminately =~,j l = J ,! 1 , ~ =' (h; ~, ~. S =S (in CT: It) ; only in thecase of : J the literal pronunciation b r is not uncommon.In ~'and < s both letters are distinctly heard; ~ sounds like8M in ~.hrub,and so does J generally. In Uthis r is droppednearly in all cases: thus, ~ pa, ~ sa etc. 4. Six lettersare often found with an r . . f beneath; ~. s r a r ~ . 5 r ' ~ ';in these the r l . l alone is pronounced, except in r S j ' , whichsounds da. 5. The figure but,


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1 0:rlf W: jd-mo, C : [a-mo,hen.~.t:.~. W:. iia-rian, C: -nan,llilsery.' ! l ( ; q ' t am , cabbage.e-,f - l o : . r ~ ' fim(s), judgement.tTlt:.'~ W :g ,ar i-mo, C : r-

. . ; . J cold.~.tll'~'tug-gu, child,~ ~~ r t ' o : . r sloan-ma, sl"ein-ma,'1 _ pea.g r la, wages.@ 1 : ,_ ' Cq) lun(-po), wind.;!'.q' da-iea (s. 11 note),r .l l moon.J d : : q . non-po, C: ngm-po,"Yl sharp.~ t : : f : : rjan-lCu (Ld. W ), green,'"~~r (8)kom, thirst.- - -' (8)gO , door.~.:::q'(s)gyur-wa, to alter,~ turn.~~' W: (s)pin, C: an, glue.- -~' te-u; La: 8re-u, monkey .~a' W: ,(s)man, 9: man,~- 1 medICIne.-

Examples .~'~rW: be-ma, C: j"e-ma,;! sand.~ ' : : ' J ' f i .U1 ' -du , quickly.I=lr.l.[ fa~ tax.& r W: i, (l:i (Pur: gl'i),.:.j knife.' : : : : I : , _ , q : w: ~an-po, C: if,~ straight .= 1 t l J ' (lag, d:ag (braq), .rock,~~'q.sl'ul-po, ragged.'" .' S r o : . r ' lei-rna, priest._ .~ ' o : . r ' la-ma, easy.IfF.q ka:n-pa, foot.~';:' W: eun; C: ds.~In, lie,",'\ untruth.~'::::'~ ta~mo (Ld. lt~), C:., , ta -m o , spectacle.~'- W ' ") 0 h .' I : l : sror), ~ta, air,

~rta (vulg ::I'a), sound.voice,~' (s)pu, small hair," '"~.::::'.q',W: (s)eod-pa, C: eo'-a \ p a , to behave.lEr.l.l' W: (sb)1 'Ul , C: q,ul ,. ~ snake.~,:r~rW: flOn-pa, C : n! !n "lfl pa, mad.

*) The concurrence of superadded ~' with a consonant alr~ady'

S. Prefixed letters. 11,;. . 8 . P refixed leH ers. 1 The five letters t l J ' ~ . ,q ' 0 : .) " ' ~ 'frequently occur before the real, radical initials of other,:words, but are seldom pronounced, except in similar cases, as 7. 6. t l J ' occurs before - 3 " ~ ' C Y ' ~ ' 5 1 ' ~ ~ ' ,3' tN '~'~r; ~ before the gutturals and labials with exceptionof the aspiratae; q' before l' t l J ' , the palatals, dentals andpalatal sibilants with the same exception as under - = : . , then

I

~. ,3' .... - t f ~ '; o : . r before th e gutturals, palatals, dentalsand palatal sibilants, excepted the surds; ! : \ before the as-piratae and sonants of the five classes. In 0.1'., to pro-nounce them in any case, is considered vulgar. 2. Theambiguity which would arise in case of the prefix standingbefore one of the 10 f inal consonants, as single radical, thevowel being the unwritten a, - e. g. in the syllable ~ t l J ' ,which, if ~ is radical, Has to be pronounced dag, if prefixedgii, - is avoided by adding an r : : r in the latter case: thus,~ t T \ o . . . ' . Other examples are: % : f ] ~ 'gad (gii') aud 9~~'da; q~' bas (bq, Ifq) and q~Q: sa; ~~. mad (met) ando : . r ~ ~ : da ; o . . . t l J ~ ! la , This~' is added, though the radicalbe not one of the mentioned letters; as, .q1~' ka . 3.~'as a prefix and .q'as first radical annul each other, so that. ?ruy the following sound is heard, as will be seen in the,~omponnd produces in W.T some irregularities, which cannot all be',specified here (see the diction. The custom of C. ' 1 ' . , according to

, which the ~' is entirely neglected is in this instance easier to befoHowed,


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1 2 9. Word; Accent; Quantity.

fono~ng examples (l.q~ etc.). 4. Another irregularityis the nasal pronunciation of the prefixed r . r in compounds. . . . . . . . . . . 'after a vowel, which is often heard e.g. = ; : : : T r Q ; : : : ; ~ ' pronounced" " " 'fjfm-dun, gen-dIcn, but eleg.: ge-dyn, .clergy"; . q ~ Q : ~ 5 ! ~ 'kam-bum, eleg. ka-bwm; ,the 100000 precepts' (title of abook). - Note. With regard to the aspiration of the softconsonants in. ET the prefixed letters have the same in-fluence as the superadded ones 7.9,

E xa m pIe s,9 ~ t l l yag, bos grunniens. : : : ; ' T 1 ~ . q . kd,'r-po, white.:::q;a;" pe-ca (Ld: spe-ca);1 book.q . = ~ : : : : f z(ili-po, good .~qq"r bab-pa, to descend.: : : ; . q ~ 'an,vulg. C: a - n , power.: ; ; : : r ~ r u . Da~e _ o f the Lhasa\',:\ .. , distri ct.~.2j~"r enpa, solitude.~:::;sq~ryib(s) , ib, figure.

: : : ; ~ r ' f r ; ld-wo, enemy.- -; . J c : : . . : : , ' ~ '?ia'1'-mo, sweet.q;t'qS' Cub-ii, eleg. c t f r z i ,~ '-I fourteen.~ 5 ! ' u, resp. head.: : : C ! l : : : n ~ r ug(s) , 6: ug, a, f1 > . 3 I b reatho: : : ; s ' : : " r r r ' ya'I'-ka, summer. ,.,

: : :; S '. q :. ye - w a , e - w a , diffp,rence.9. W ord; Accen t ; Quantity. 1. The peculiarity of the

Tibetan mode of writing in distinctly marking the word-syllables, but not the words (d. 4) composed of two' ormore of these, sometimes renders is doubtful what is to heregarded, as one word. 2. There exist a great number of,

9. Word;_ Accent; Quantity. . 13small monosyllables, which serve for denoting differentshades 'of notions, grammatical relations etc., and are post-poned to the word in. question; but never alter its originalshape, though their owo initials are not seldom influencedby it.s final consonant (cf. 15). 3. Such monosy Uablesmay conveniently be regarded as terminations, formingone word together with the preceeding nominal O r verbalroot. 4. The accent is, in such cases, most naturally givento the root, or, in compounds, generally to the latter partfLL ~ ~ ~o we composition, as; . ; . J t l l " mig, ,eye', " ' I t l l " t l l ' mig-gi, ,ofthe eye'; r l . ! t l ' ] . lag, ,h,nnd', r l . ! t 1 l . . q q ~ ' lag~8ub(8), .haud-

....."covering, glove'. - 5. Equally natural is, in W.T., thequan ti ty of the vowels : accentuated vowels, when closingthe syllable, are comparatively long (though never so longas in th e English words b e e , stay, or . Hindi L ~ t _ ) etc.),otherwise short, as ~. m'[ .mau', ~"rl.l" mi-la .te the man',but ~J::,' mCt l ' , ,butter'. - In CT, however, even accentuatedand closing vowels are uttered very shortly: mi, m/-la etc.,and -long ones occur there only in the case of 5, 4. 5.- and8, 2., as Ill~" l( f ,work'; ~r' ~(7 ,religion'; ~:::;~: da.arrow'j t 1 ' ] . = ~ : sa ,planet'; and in Lhasa especially: ~::f]~:

:::. e-, ,nit .forest' ~ l" ' l t l ' j~"r le-pa .good; '::'::f]~' 11: .class, sort';- -l l t l ' j~" ls ,side'; e J t l l ~ " lu .manner'. - In Sanscrit words. the long vowels are marked by an Q : beneath the conso-nant, as: ~.~. (wmr) .called', , ; . f ' r l . ! ' (lIii) ,root' (s, 3).

I ' : l . . r; ...."' "

I,

f


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14 ' ,10. Punctuation.10 . Punc tua tion . For separating the members ofa longer

period, a vertical stroke: h called "'9~'sad (sa'), is used,which corresponds at once to our comma, semicolon andcolon; after the closing of a sentence the same is doubled;after a longer piece, e.g. a chapter, four sads are put. Nomarks of interrogation or exlamation exist in punctuation. -2. In metrical compositions, the double sad is used for se-parating the single verses; in that case the logical partitionof the sentence is not marked (cf. 4).

A lis t o f a fe w us efu l w ords .r r r . : : , " or c : r . : : , ka- ra , lta-l'a, I "1~ 'W: kun , C: lr: i in, all., 1 1 sugar: I " " ' > . : >f l l : , ' q " l~art-pa, house. F l : , ' h:uit, hole.'": n l : , - W:gari, C: gait,'I which? z : r r = = . : : : n . . . . 'V:ga--'l'U,gar,1 ~ 01'1--" C: fI' where?t T J . l \ W: g u " , C: g U 1 ' , tent." " ' > . : > ~ ~ . , . , . lian-pa, C: nam-pa,t : : 1 l f " 1ial , fatigue. .....-\~ bad,~ " O i , what? , a ; c . ~ c m i , beer.a ; : : : ' z : r W: < cad-pa, C: cd'- a;'::"q' (fdr-ZJa, rain.1 pa , punishment.a;1:,'q' Culi-wa, little.'='E : W: }a, C:' .fa, tea.,,,~.~. -iii-ma, sun; day.~;.rntin-ma, turnip." " "~t:I'~!lf'tib-ril, tea-pot,kettle.

~~''fc'en-po, great.~" ria, fish.~'.::r 'nun~va, little,' few." " "~ .~ i l . e - r n o, ncar.~ .~ wg-tse (W), hoe.

~~'q' tag-pa, rope.' f " z : , r W : ' tod-pa, C ': (o'-pa,1 skull.

~ c . ' da f t , (fait, and; with.~ t T l q .nag-po, black.~ . n 01 ', wealth, property.Z< : f ' ; : ' q ' p'an-pa, pa:m-pa, use,~1 benefit.'1 ' ba, lia, cow.~ 0 0" liu, SOD.~. me, fire.~~. med, mi!', there is not.c E l : , o : . t(sa'n-ma, whole.Z f z o , 80 , curdled milk.7:(~'o d, q I)O ', light, shine.t N ~ yi-ge, letter.a r ~ 'yod, yo', am, is, are.~, . 1 \ ' ri, hill, mountain.1 l . 1 ' la, rmountain-pass.~ t T J lug, sheep.

Useful words, 1 5 1 1 : , " (dli, the plain.~. W: da, C; da, now.~~.q'dud'pa, d ' U ' -pa, smoke., " '"~~. nad; nli', disease.q . : : , . o : . t " pd1'-ma, a printedbook.~ t T J : ( ' ~ p u g -J 'o n , - 1 'g n , dove.. q O . . ! " bal, {Jal,wool.

--'~'~rbu-mo, 1;0, daughter.~t:::mv~ name.i o : . r tsam, how much?~. zag, C: sag, day.a ; ~ " o-m,a, uio-ma, milk.t N t : : ya1i, also.

yin, am, is, are (of . 39).

.::,"~. 'I"a--'l1la, goat.~~. rin, price.rll~' lam, road." 9 ' .~a,flesh, meat.


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16""= l ~ : s - t ' n , tree, wood.~. su, who?"'?~ ' - Z i . 1 ' a-pa, (vulg:) father.~~. (Ld: ras) 'r~, cottoncloth. ,~~. (~d: g os) g ti, [ jQ, cloth-

1 mg.~~~ . sen t, soul.~ . (ag , blood,~ . z : : : : r ~ rleb-pa; to arrive,.g ' W: sa , C: tsa, grass.< I~ . q . l io n -po , n g m -po , blue.t T l@ l ' z u , bow (for shooting).'"z : : : ~ r t " 1 gun : - k a, g.lf.n- ka,1",-1 winter,-d-~a;' tso, lake.

Useful words .~. sa, earth.-.~. so-ma, new. Part II.

I ~.;.r a-ma (vulg.) mother.I Z \ , ~ ' (Ld: d us) d y" fly, time.'"i1 .q~r fab(s) , means;ql:f1'~' ~: bag-p'e , C: b'ag-'I ce , flour.~ (ZO , o , wheat.i T J Z \ , q .gad-po, gii' -po, old.~'q' (s)kye-wa, to be born,"'" grow.e-,~n: : :fiin, heart.

1 " I l 3 < T ] ' 'ig, leopard, _~a(l:f1~' gyog(s)-pa (U:. Uyo-~-I pa), fast, quick,

I~ ~ . .q ' r/i-wa (bri-wa); to'\::::j write. ' , ,

, 'Il..Adiele. 1' 7"

E t Y mol 0g y.Chapter 1. The Article,

~ I ~ I1 1. P e cu lia ritie s o f th e T i b e t a n article', 1. What havebeen called Articles by Csoma and Schmidt; are a numberof little, 'affixes: ~ r : : r . ; . , r :q :f' ~, and some similarones, 'which nnght perhaps be more adequately termeddenoll;linatOl's, since their principal object is undoubtedlyto represent a given root as a noun, substantive or ad-jective, as is most clearly perceptible il l the instance of theroots of verbs, to which 1 : 1 ' or q' impart the notion oftheInfiniti,ve and 'Partleiple, or the nearest abstract alid nearestconcrete nouns thai can possibly be formed from the ideaof a : verb. These affixes, are not, however, -- except.in this case -'- .essential to, a noun, as many substantivesand' adjectives and most of the pronouns are never ac-companied by them, and even those which usually appea,.'connected with them, will drop them upon the slightestoccasion.' 2. Almost the only case in which a syntactical,use of them , like that >(j~ the English definite Article, is, .perceptible, is' that 'm~ntioned 2 0. 3; a formal one, thatof distinguishing the Gender, occurs in a limited num bel' ofwords , ,where ~ denotes th e female, q.- tb\3 masculine,Thus: ~~r'f~y'dl-p,o , k i ! l g " : ' l l r . l . 1 ~gydl:..'mo .queen', Or,

Jiischk~, ~:1'ibotanGrn~IIJa'r, I 2


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18if the w O J i in the masculine (or father 'commoll): 'gender hasno article, if is added: ~tr..~ v ,~ 8en-ge. ,Lio~', .~.~.;r.lioness'. ',3. 'In most inetaDCe~j by far, their OIil~, use isto distinguish different ,p1e~J"I1ing~,f homonymous roots, "e.g.f ~ z q ' (s)t~a (tQ1Y1'a) ,teacher'; ~.~ (s)t6n-mo(t.dn-mo) , ,fea~t'j ~F; (s ) tI !n- l ta (tgn-1 f,a ) ,autumn'. Even. this

. advacntagej however, is given up, as soon as a compositiontakes place, and then, the meaning can, only be inferredfrom the context, or known from usage: .~.~. (from I~.~) "name, feast' (given OIl the occasi~D of naming 0:1'christening an infaBt); ~'~' (from f C \ f " ) \,autumnalmonth'. 'In some instances the putting a i - omitting of thesearticles is optional; more frequently the usage varies indifferent provinces. 4. The peculiar natll;!e, of these affixesis most clearly' shown' by the manner in which the!y are''connehted with the indefinite article 13. .

N o t e . The a.:fu..es. c r 1 f are' after vowels and afterI " .theconsoIlf'nts 1 : : : : : : ; I l . r always pronounced, w a ayd WO,instead of ba and lJo;thus, ~"1~".q.a~'wa ,cljffie~lt"; ~ : : t .re-uia ,h~pe"; t l l t : . . : : t gan-wa (,qii') ,f~ll'; ~.:; : : t ~ . ZIJl'~ff(se l"-wa) )to say'; ~ [ " l . r . c : r nya l "Wa ,heW; e : : . r iO~( j (flip.;.

" 'wo) .lord, master". .,' "I, "12. Dif fe rence of the A rtic le s a m on g e ac h o th e r. 1. Tlie .

usage cif z : r . c r ~ . is the "mos~ general and ~idest of a l l ,

13. Indefin. Article., 19Rsthey OCCUI" with all sorts of substantives and other nouns., .. : : r is particularly u~ed f~)l' denoting a man who is in a&lrtain way connected with a certain thing (something like~H,and)e) in Hindustani and Persian: ~. qa ,SC)lO 0 1 ' ,< I: ; n . q . (literally: scholar) .disciple, novice'; ~. C U , ,waterQ ,< I. ~ . : : r ,water-carrier' ( ) I ! _ , J,~); ~ . ,horse', ~ . : : rhorseman';~~ .the province o~ R ', ~~~tra man from V', ~Sl O y i i u ,boy', ilf l o .year', l:f l~~'niCs) ,two', hence: e ~ _ . '" , . , .", " ~.,~.~ ,a two years' boy'. If the feminine is requiredi 5 ! " . is either added to, or - more commonly - used insteado(the former: ~~~.~. ,a woman from R'; ~ a f a r t l l ~ ~. ,')~ two years' girl'. The performer of an action, is morefrequently denoted by t : f (or, in more solemn: language,.::rtf),though, in conversation at least, ~fI~' I(an (li!gn),is,preferred; S~~tred-pa ,to do, make; doing, making':

. ' S" ,~~ ',9~tr:q-'~",~fI~,the doer, maker'. 2. Theappendic~s l' fI"' t : l f occur with a limited number of nounson~y, especially the names of the seasons, with numerals,a~d some pronouns. ( r t f seems to be a vulgar for~ ofpronunciation for 1 " ) -. ' . : ' ,1 3 :, th e i r! de fi n it e A r ti c le . Thi~ is the numeral one ( 13),

t . '"only'deprived of its prefix, viz: i S t l l , which form it retains,if ' the preceding word ends with t T f ' ~ . . : : t . , as: f 1 . : : t ~ t l l "

2*",


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2 0 14. Number.

lCab-Cig, a needle; i~is changed to J t ~ .after ~r,~,~rJ:j~r" " ' '1'as-sig, rii-Sig, a cloth; to ~~. zig (Mg) in all other cases,Some authors use ~'after any termination indisrimina-

Itely. It is, of course, always without accent. The articles" : 1 ' q' etc. are not thrown. out by the indefinite article e.g.~'~r .teacher, the te~cher', ~'q'~tlT .a teacher'. It isused 'even after a plurality: thus, ~'~~'q~~'~'~'t.q'~',there were some four wells', and even:, ~ t : : ~ t 1 f t 1 1 ~ R , : ~,there being a multitude of them' (from Mil), Very oftenit is placed after the intE!rrogative pronouns (v. 27), and.sometimes its original meaning is obscured so much that itoccurs even after known and definite subjects, where onewould expect the demonstrative (see f. i. Dzl. 25, 1. ~8,6. 128, 14).

Chapter II. The Substantive.14. T he N um b er. The Plural is denoted by adding the

word ~~~. nam, or, more rarely, = r datI (flag), t- ,or a few other words, which originally were nouns withthe common notion of plurality. Bus this, mark of the Pluta}is usually omitted, when the plurality ofthe thing in questionmay be known from other circumstances, e. g. when a nu-

e-, 5:';' '''"'meral is added: thus, ~' ,man', ~'~~~rmen', O \ 1 . t T ] ~ ~ '.three men'. W1;ten a substantive is connected with 'an ad-jective, the plural sign is added only once, viz -. a fter the

15. Declension. 2 1last of the connected words: ~'q~.q:~.;:.f~' ,the good,men'.

Note. The conversational language uses the words~.;:.f~' etc. seldom,' in WT scarcely ever (an exception s.24, Remarks), but add, when necessary, such words as: all,n;'any, some; two, three, seven, eight, or other suitablenumerals (cf, 20, 5.).

15, Dec lenS ion . The regular addition of the differentparticles or single sounds by whicb the cases are formed isthe same for all nouns, whether substantives or adjectives,pronouns or participles. Only in some cases, in the Dativeand Instrumental, the noun itself is changed, when, endingin: '~ vowel, it admits of a closer connection with the cor-~upted case-sign. We may' reckon in Tibetan seven cases,'expressive of all the relations, for which cases are used inother languages, viz: nominative and accusative, 'genitive.,instrumental, dative,: locative, ablative, terminative andvocative. 1. The unaltered form of the noun has some ofthe functions of our Nominative and those of the Accusative, and -Voc!tItive. 2, The sign of the Genitive is~' afterwords with the 'finals ~. q' ~'j J ' after ~. .;:.f' s; or,~'af~r t1'J'~and t:,"; aftervowels is simply'added by means(J:Fan'~' thus: ~", which then will forme diphthong withtlicGwel 'of the noun (cf. 6), or if, in 'versification, twosyllables ,are J;'eqaired, iappearssupporteQ. by an t . J . . r ' form-iug adistinct word. 3. The Instrumental or Agent is ex-.pressed ? y th'e particles ~~' J~"or ~~' after the re-


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2 35. Declension.5. Dec lens ion.22postpositions denote the movement to or into. 8 . The V 0-cative is not different from the Nominative (as stated above),if not distinguished by the interjection ~. o k I, mid 'can onlybe known from the context.

spectivaeoosoneate '; : \8 specified above; ,after vowels simply e-,~. is 'added, or, in verse, sometimes t.l{~.'Note. The instrumental is, in modern pronunciation,

except in Northern Ladak, scarcely discernible from .thegenitive, and there are but few if any, even among. lamas,'who are not liable tocorifound both cases in writing.

. In the language O f common life, in",WT, the differentforms of the particle of the genitive and instrumental, after

e-, e-,consonants, : . ! l ' e r etc. are never heard, but everywherethe final consonant is doubled and the vowel iadded to it,thus: ~~r,G. lU8-s i (Ld.), l ! ? - i ; ; l l f o : . T G. lam-mi; t T j ~ ' : : ' "(gold), G. 8~-1i, etc.; or, in other words, all nouns endingin consonants are' formed like those ending with t T j . (seethe example ~ q ' n . In those ending with a vowel no ir-regularity takes place.

4. The' Dative adds indiscriminately the postpositionIlf' la, denoting the relation of space in the widest sense,expressed by the English prepositions in, in to , at, on, to.5. The Locative is formed by the postposition~' n u- ,in'.6. The A~lative by ~~' nq or ,Ilf~' l0 ,from' (the latterespecially with the meaning: from among) , a11thr~e like- .wise without apy discriminating regard to the ending ~fehe noun. i. The Terminative is. expressed by the post-positions ~. or : r " . . after vowels; ~. afttjlr final % : I 'r a~d.::r,, and, in certain words, z : : . ' \ 1 lJ '; ~ . after ~'; ": geherally1 . - - - . ; ;a~r.~ . : t , . r l . ! ' and the other :fi~al consonants. All these

- E xam ples o f d eclen sio n. A s example a! the declensionof consonantal nouns we may take 1. for those in 8 (re-spectively d, b ), ~~ . Iu s, 19, ,body';. 2. for those in m (n,r, l), ( l . ' ! , ; : : r la m zway'; 3. for tho'se in 9 (n), ~ t l ' r m ig,eye', ~ of that of vocalic nouns: 4. F' lia or ka-ioa ,snow'.

Sin gul a r.2 ..

N. Ace. ~~. lus, [ii.Gen. ~~.~. l u s- k yi_ , l%~kyi ;c .. lus-st, ['I!tInst, rl:f~.~~.lus-kyis, lu,-kyi;"",:.;J IUS-Si, lij;iDat. ~~'IlJ' ~us-la, ly,-la 'Loc. ~~.~. lus -no.Abl. ~~'~~'Llus-n~Term. ~~.~' lus-su

! l . l o : . T ' lam! l . l ~ ' ~ ' lam-gyi; lam-miIlf~'g:,~ lam,-gyis_, -r!!fi;:;'J lam-mt1lf~'Ilf' lam-la.Ilf.;:.j',~'am-naIlf~'~~' lam ,-~ ,1lJ~' ' ' ' lam-du. . . . . ,

4 ,r r l ia; F o q ' lia-wa3:N . A ce. ~. m igGen. ~ t T j ' ~ r mig-g i e-, '"f ! i . \ ' l iai; F ' q C \ ' l ia-w.ai

(

"


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15. Declension. 16. Adje et i v e,24~ C ! r i T j ~ r mig-gis , -gi~'r.:f mig-la~ t I 1 ' ~ ' mig-nf !-~tfj'd\~r mig-na

F~r I ! i ! j r :r . q~ ' l!a-W0r:rr.:f ka-la; F.q'CJ..l'w : ; a1t:I'':;:' !ta-n~' 1t1;::r,:;:' !Ca-I . -1 ' r' -1 w a - n aF~~'A:a-n~; {tl'.q'd\~'

l ~a-wa" "1U lF'~','F~'A :a- ru , ! ta r ;

I Inst. Chapter III.T h e A d je ctiv e .

16 . In the Tibetan' language the Adjective is not form-ally distinguished from the Substantive, so that many nounsmay be used one or the other way just as circumstancesrequire. *) The declension, likewise, follows the same rulesas that of substantives. Only two remarks may be addedHere. 1. The particle;;:r ~' q. ~ are not very strictlyused for distinguishing the gender, since 'even in the case.of human beings : : 1 ' and q.are not seldom found connectedwith feminines, e. g.: e'lfd'.f(~.q'ust as well as e'lf~er~'~',a fine girl'. 2. The Adjective stands after the

Dat.Lac.Abl.

Term. ~tfJ'? mig-flu"" Fr:: :r~' F'~"!lCa-wa-ru,' lCa-war;

- Plural.As the plural signs are simply added to the nouns,

without affecting their form, we here only give examples'of declension with the two most frequent plural particles.As example for "tIl'the plural of the pron. ~ ,that' hasbeen chosen. '. - ~ ,N. Ace. ~~.~~~' lus(l;g-)-nam(s) ~.~tfj' de-dagGen. ~~'~~~~'lus. ,nam($}.hJi- ~ ' l C ! 1 ' q , r de -dag . .[!iInst. ~~'~~~r~~~7 : y7 s ar n(s)- \~tl1.~: de-dag-gisDat. ~~'~o: . t~{(lr' l1i-nam(s)-la \~~'r- . . r


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26 1 7. C om pa nSO il.d e-, -.""signs are joine to the Adjective; ,l\'O\'fi1~''''l~' .of the high

~ ~. .hill', '~'~1f~.t:f~~~rthe hfgh hills' et~.

Or the Adjective 'may'be put in the Gen. ~efo'r-e theSubstantive: ~ 1 f d \ ' ~ q - ~ ' ,nd then the latter ~nly is de-clined: ~1f~q~;~~'l~~~~~~~r.n t~e. vulgarspeech both of Q and WT the adjective sometimes pre-serves, even in this position, its simple form e N ominative).A, third way ~fexpression, when both are joined together,without any article, as ~~'~')nstead of ~'~~'qhe driland, is rather a compound substsntive , with the samediffeienee of meaning as , highland" .and ,a high land' inEnglish,

1 ? C om p aris on . 1. Special endings~ expressive of thedifferent degrees-of- comparison, as in the Aryan langueges,do not exist in Tibetan. ,There are two particles, however,corresponding to the English than: ,q,~r,after the finalconsonants t : ; , . : : r , , '~r and after vowels (r.r~', after t f r ~ .~ . t : : r ~ . ~ . * , and ~~'; these particles follow the wordwith which another is compared (like the Hind. ..s-) and'.his then preceeds the compared one, finallyfellows theadjective in the positive: ~',q~' (or .P4~)fS~c.,q~~:.,horse - than dog SlXlaU is", just as in Hindustani:$ ll'.~ L i s ' . L5"" 0;'.>i But also the position usual in

. *) Some"Hscr. and wood-prints, however, prefer, even after theseeoiisonants; theform . q ~ ' . , - '

, '17. Comparison ..

l -I

. . < : '. . .o u r European languages occurs, thus: ~:::r7~S~'q~~. . , . , " " .,q~~~~~~::r"q~~1f.q~~Z(fc.~r;.j1fr.("the merit o f, " '" 'becoming a priest is relatively higher that mount Mera';'q~.:;~~~Cft11~~~~,q~~~the king of Tibet isgreater than the other ones'. The particle ,q~' (q~r)maY'be put, ill the same manner., aIter adverbs. Thus, ~~.. q ~ 9 ~ r ; l r , q : : r , , ~ 1 f t : : . , q ~ : : J ~ 1 f(their eyes) became more.'""'keen-sighted than before'. Or, after infinitives, 9 ~ ~ t : : . .q.q~~tf~~c.~Z(f~it is better (for "him) that his younger" .brother should go (with him) than another'. "4'~' for it-.self has the meaning of ,more than', with the negative:',not more than" ,only'; thus: t:.~~c.tf]~~fll'~1,;.r~9~,',more than two ounces Ido not want' (cf. vulg.WT: t11~~'~~.~.~~. ,there are not more than (only) three'); or ,noth-~g but'; .only', ~.~t11~'.Jf:~:,q'r. l. l~.~t11~',q'~~'there isno pleasure (for us) but hunting, h. is our only- pi'.

2., An Adverb which augments the notion of the ad-jective itself, is % '9 .q ~ ',more'; this can be added ad li-bitum: ~~q~S~t11.q.::,~t:..q&I~.

3. Another adverb, ~: means: ,more ~d more\,gra-" d Q . . a U y more', c.g . e.}e."'~c.'~' ,going nearer and nearer' , "4. ,:rhe elder - the youuger' e. g. 6f two brothers, is

2 1


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4 ~ . C f ~ ' Zi5 y ~'na6 -s s t 1 r W: < l u g , C: ijhug. . . . ,7 V .q l1' W: dun, C: < i h y , n--..; .8 /._ .q~~' W: gyad, C: g y i i '9 S~I:!f gu. . . . ,10 ;JO .qQ' c u , or .q~'Et&.1"'r eu-fam-pa11 ?? .qQ'tI']~' l:u-cig12 nqij,'t11~' e u - n i , vulg: aug-Mrs).13 ~ q~'t11~&.1" eu-sUm,vulg: l :ug-sum

2 8 18~Cardinal Numerals.simply expressed _by:, the great -:--the lit'tIe '.5. The_Superlative is paraphrased by the same means: ~~r.l.!~r

"i,:i

~.~ or ~~'-o~q~,r~'q.greater~han all'. Or it isc-, ~c-,expressed in the following manner: ~ o . . r ~ r ~ f . : r " " l~ . ~ t : . ' ~ '

~!t ' .rQ-tJF~'of (among) the kings of the country whichone is the greatest (prop. great)?'. Adverbs fer expressing


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~~

3 0 ' 18. Cardinal Numerals.30 ~ ~~rQ' sum-eu31 z t ' J ,~~rQ'E"tTJ~tlr sum-i'U-sa-l ig, ~::f]~tl'J. so-big40 ~ " " '.q@rt : !QZi-eu, vulg: zib-Cu41 ~ 'J .q~'t:!Q K t11~ " , , , ~'tTJ~' ze-Cig. ;Z 't-cu-sa-C lg , t-50 ' Y 'O ~".qQ' ,ita-eu, vulg: nab-cu51 Y ' ' J ~t:!Q"KtT]~" na-Cu-sa-Cig , c" t11%tTJ'ia-lig60 . . . s o , ,5tT]'Q"rjuri-('U, C: i/hug-l'U~61 . . . s : J ~tT]'Q'KtTJ~"' rJug-cu-sa.-Cig, ~ ' r t 1 1 .?'e-(;fg70 VO q~~'Q' dun-cu, C: dyn-eu71 VJ .q~~:QK'11~ dun-cu-sa-C i9, ~,tTJ'%tlld~~. C lg80 / . . . 0 .q~~'Q' !!1Jdd-eu, C: gya, '-Cu81 / . . . J .q~~QK'11%tTJyad~Cu-sa-Hg, ~ ' t l 1 ~ t f , r y ~ ;90 GO :=i t11' .qQ'it-cu, vulg: gub-eu >. . . . , d>9 1 (2'J ~~qQKtl'J~ gu-eu-sa-l:i;h ' ft11~~. go C ig100 q~(it~'q') gya ( fd rn- pa ) (C: g'o-Cig)' J O : -101 ? O : J . . q 1 l ~ C : 9 ~ : : r rr .q~K~~tll gya d~~ (01'. sa) C lg2 0 0 ~ " " ' ,'.fq~[ id-gya, vulg: fiib-gya,300 e = ~~.q~f sum-gya > I I ) ~'is used especially if the number countiug the hundreds, ,\

18.-20. Numerals. , 31"" '400 ~oo .q~'qS1' zi~gya, vulg: zib-gya etc.

1000 'po ~C:' (S)t01i'' }Cox> e-,10000 ! S . f! :100 o o o ,)0:-= ~e~rnun

1 000 000 ' Jooo 0:;0 ~.t,.l.,j' sa-;lja10000000

There are, as in Sanscrit, names for many more powers'of 10, but they are seldom used.

19 . O r d in a ls . ~t:::::rW: dttf i , -pa, C : d'o , the first', th e rest" "re simply formed by-adding q'to the cardinals, as; 9~~r"r,

the second etc.; ,the 21. is ~"'~rg't1l~tl'J'q' . the twenty-,oneth', not, as jn English, ,the twenty first'.

2 0. R em ark s. 1. The smaller number postponed indi-, cates, as is seen in 18,' addition, the reverse - multipli-eatiou: qQ.t1l~~' 13, ~5.rQ' 30; but in the latter case

""" ~ I r ; : o ; . . ,~he three first numerals are chn,nged to ~'J ~',~,;:r;a n d : : fQ', as the second part of a' compound after conso-r,,nants, is spelled Q " . 2. The words il~':.rafter full tens

I .,up .to one hundred), ; : r : : r r (after hundreds and thousandetj),


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32 20. Numerals,twith still greater numbers)" are optional but frequentadditions. ~'is common instead of t ; . . p . : ,and', to connect'units with tens (s. 18), but it occurs also with hundreds

, -nd thousands, and not seldom together with ~~', e.g.~~'~~.~.tTj~~',1OO~. , It is used also instead of ! 1 a : r . . : r , as :qQ',g' ten, l - : G ' . g twenty; often it is standing alone fo~'~'~'K, as: ~'tTj~~.,twenty two. This latter custota mayha~ .eaused the belief, common even among educatedreaders in C and W'T, that 6' must meantwetity, evenwhen connecting a hundred or thousand to a unit, as theywill usually understand the above mentioned number in thesense of 1022 instead of lOOi; but the, authori ty of printedbooks wherever the exact number can be verified from,,'other circumstances, does pot confirm this, which would in- ,deed be a sadly ambigqous phraseology. 3. ~radded to

, " ' "a cardinal number means conjunction: t1' j~'~'f ' '1: 'lj,e, two, "

together" oath; t1' j~~'7l1' ,the three together, ,all tl~ree etc.,t[ means either the same, or . represects the ' definite article;indicating that the number has been already mentioned, e.g.~.~,. ,q7~'~' '~'~'qq~::r~'', five, men were .sent ... T fl,e five men arriving etc. 4.":1' is used, besides

,of thousands: twenty)housands etc.: follows: thus,,~any ten-thousands'.

21.-23. Numera.ls. 3 3'f.Qrming 'Or~inals, to express the notion of ,contairiing', e . g.U).ti),~t:fj ' ' f ,that containing six. letters', viz. the famous~ "~ e-, ..... eformula: ,~;.,rfz:r~'~' om ma'fJi, padme hU1 f l ; ~~'Q'q',

, " " ,, that containing thirty (letters)', the Tibetan alphabet." '"5. Such combinations as t1' j "?~rt: f j~oq'tc. are frequentlyused in common life, so denote a number approximately,,two or three or so' (cf. 14 Note).

21.'Dis tr ibu ti ve numeral s. They are. expressed by repe-tition as in Hind: ~t:fj.~~ each time six, six for each etc.

"'-'i ~In composed numerals only the last member is repeated,-thus ~~'~'g ' t : f j~~ft1' j~~' each time thirty two.

, 22. Adver bi al numera Js , 1. Firstly, secondly etc. arefanned from the ordinals as every Ad verb is from an Ad-j~cti~e, Viz. by adding the letter '::':, ~~'q~:,1' j~~' '1' : : ' 'etc. (s. 41). 2. Multiplicative adverbs, ,once' , ,twice' etc ,

, are 'expressed by putting r-t~. ,times' before the cardinal :~~'91R')fl.l~'ti]~r, W: lan-Ci[l, lan-1ii($), C ;, liiu-Cig,l an -n i ,,once, twice' etc.; seldom a;~', , ' : : ' : , ~ ~ ~ . with thesame ~eaning as ~'\.

23; Fr~ti~njil numerals are formed by adding 05' ,part':" 1-h~s,q~'~~ ,a hundredth part' etc., hut also:t f J ~ ~ ~ ~ I : l ' } one third of the treasury'.

3


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3 .4 24. Personal Pronouns.Chapter V.Pronouns.

. r-" ~ Z : : : : ' r i e d ,2 4. P er so na l P ro no un s. First person ... ... na, l_n e ' ; c : - ~ 'n o s (Ld)~F ' l f I to-wo, masc., and { t f 5 f I to-mo,fem.; .q~~' d { 1 g . self ' - ,I'; Second person: G~'f ; y o d(Kyo'), S~y e d (Mye') ,thou, you'; Third person: F M o ,F ' c : : ' M o n - ,he, she, it'. - __ ,

The plural is formed by adding.~, ~~~', ~ ~~~ _or t- , but very, often, if circumstances show the meaning w : ; i t h -ffi t - tai ty the sign of the plural is altogether omitt-su clen cer am , . , .ed. The declension is the same as that of the substantives.Remarks: I:: is the most common and can be used

by every body; c . ~ 'eems to be preferred in elegant speech(s. Note); C~'is very common in modern letter writing,

I ._ WT' M z : : : :m _ ' self' when speakin,g to superiorat east lU , -! ,.j' , _ .occurs very often in books, but has disappearedpersons ..,; (m " ,._

f mon speech except IIIthe provlDce of Tsan !-aI!~rom com , - ff- _. i l ' i - ' , . . , ' '~ . in' easy con-lhurvpo) as also the following; I ' " ' ~ ,versation with persons of equal rank, or to inferiors.2 iMf.. is used in books in addressing even, . person. I~ _ .

, the highest persons, but in modern conversatIon lnly'1 ' to inferiors' ~ Z : : : : ' is elegant and respect-among equa s or , I~, .

ful, especially in books. -

24. Personal Pronouns. 3 53. person. F seldom occurs in books, where the de-

monstl'.' pron.~ ( 26) is generally used instead j ~. iscommon to both the written and the spoken language, andused, .at least in the latter, as respectful. Bu~ it must. be remarked that the pronoun of the third person isin most cases entirely omitted, even when there is aenange of subject, - Instead ofC,'i5t:fF and ~'3~rthepeople of WT use c"@j ' and 6 ' @ j '; the vulgar plural of Fis, f V ' I ' . -

To each of these pronouns may be added: ~t::'ranor"' ..~ . " '" i d , i 1 J ! ,self', and in conversational language t::::~c,',i1.1\~,F f ~ c : : ' are, perhaps, even more frequently usedthan, the simple forms, without any difference in the mean-'. ' " ' "mg. ~::;;: is more prevalent in books, except the compound" '"~'~~' fii-'l'mi, which is in modern speech the usual, ~espectfur pronoun of address, like ,Sie' in German.

I

Note. The predilection of Eastern Asiatics for asystem of ceremonials in the language is met with also inTi1.)etan. Tnere is one separate class of words, which must

, be. used in reference to the honoured person, when-spokento' a,S well as when spoken of. To this class belong, be-, sides the pronouns ~'~c", S~:,F f r . ' , all the ~esp eet-ful ,term.s by which the body or soul, or parts of the same,.and, aJl things or _persons pertaining to such a person, and

3*


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24.-25, Pron. ~ Respectful and'Ele~ant Terms. ,even his actions, must be caned. The notions, most f~e-quently occurring. have special expressions, as ~(8)ku,ID-stead of~~' Ius, l~, ,body'; " e o u, 1. o. & : I t I f go ,be:d';i 1 t T \ ~ ' luges) (rr: tU), i.o. ~~~o sem(s) ,soul', or I o N , , ";d, y'i ' , .mind"; l o N ' r yab, i.o. ~. (vulg: ~r::r). ,father';

e-,~'q~' na-za, i. o. t t f ~ g 08 , g {}, .coat', .dress'j . a;q~su, i. o. ~. (r)ta, sta ,horse'; q~lT1~"q'zug(s)-pa (U:Z'u-pa), i. o. f f , , q dod-pa, do'-pa .to sit'; ~ E ! , , : q 'dzad--pa,dzii'-pa i. o. 9 , , q jed-pa, jM'-pa .to make.' and rna,nyothers. If there is DO such special word, any substantivemay be rendered respectful by adding ~. or ~~~. re-spectively (so, f t l ~i .o. ~. ,lifetime'; Sfl~1S'.c:I"io. ~.c:r

'-:>b ddi % . , . .t : : : : . , . ,. according to 39, 1.,anger') any verb y a mg V ' i = - , - . . ,Another class of what might be called elegant terms areto be used when co~versing with an honoured person (oralso by a high person himself in "his own speech), such a sq ) , , " q g y id - p a , g y t' -p a ,to do'; 5.1~ 'q ' Cl -pa , ,to be';~'\.'\. lad-du, la'.du i. o, ~~j',for the sake of', with-.0 u t'-:>reference to the said person himself. Even ulleducate(~people know, and make use of, most of the ,res~eetf~~-t~rms, but the merely ,elegant' ones are, at least In WI,seldom or never heard in conversation.

25. Po sse ss i ve p r o no u n s. The Possessive is' si~ply

26.-27. Pronouns. 3 7expressed by the Genitive of the Personal, t : .C \', ~ .~ .etc. .His', ,her', ,its', when referring to the acting subject(suus), must be expressed by ' : : _ t : : : ~ or ~.~. ;his own';otherwise (ejus) by ~,~'~', ~ a . . ' . In C, in the lattercase, c:.'~', ~ ' i S d \ ' , F - M j ' are used.

2 6. R e fJ ec Jiv e a n d R eC ip r oc a l p ro n ou n s. 1. The Reflec-tive pronoun, ,myself', ,yourself' etc. is expressed by ~~',~', also q~~'. But in the case of the same person beingthe subject an d object of an action, it must be paraphrased,sofo,u",be. precipitated himself from the rock' must be said,h ~precipitated his own body etc.' '::'~'~"~~'; for .he re-bukiedhimself' - ,he rebuked his own soul' ~t::'~r~~~r- 2. The reciprocal pronoun ,each other' or ,one another'i~ rendered by ,one - one', as ~%::Tr9~r~~!:l.~"byone one was killed', ,they killed one another'; ~~'(lr1I1~'~~' ,to one one said', ,thp), said to each other'.

2 7 . Demon s tr a ti ve p r o no u n s. 1. ~~. di, ,this'; ~ de,dhe' ,that' are those most frequently used, both in booksand speaking. The Plural is generally formed by ~~',but also by ~5.1~' and - g . . More emphatical are' ~~''''r~~'irJ',~~."f"~~.t!f,just this', ,this same'; ~'T]' etc.;thatsame'. - The vulgar dialect also uses Z i j ' e J ' h d - m f o


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38 28.-29. Pronouns.and.... < : T ~ r pd-gyi for ,that', ,yonder', and , in WT , ~r,~tf for .this' and t . 1 " for ,that '; .t;f.~. occurs even in.books. - 2. It is worth remarking that the distinction ofthe nearer and remoter relation is, even in common lan-guage, .SCfU pulousl y observed. If reference is mad~ to, anobject already mentioned, ~. is used; if to something fol-lowing, t:\~'; e.g~ ~~~~t f~~ ,that speech 'he said",thus he said'; t:\~'~:::\~~t f~.qthis speech he said',,he said thus, spoke the following words' .

28. Interrogative pronouns. They are ~. su ;who?';9C : gait, gh. ,which?'; ~' C i ,what?'; to these the indefi-nite article ~ t . T r is often added, ~'~t.T]' etc. The two formercan also assume the plural termination "'9', ~'~9" t l ' \ t :

. . ~'~t11'. In OT tf jC: is frequently used instead of ~'29. Relative pronouns. These are almost entil ;elY'.want-

ing in the Tibetan language, and our subordinate relativeclauses must be expressed b y Participles und Gerunds, ora new independent sentence must be begun. The parti-ciple, in such a case, is treated quite as an adjective, beingput, either in the Geniti v e before the s u b st an ti v e, or, inthe Nominli,tive, after: ~rffq~tl:_'!:.r~&:l~rthe merchantswho would go (with him)'; ~'lt11'~~'qt1i~"r , the cord

, n~f'l:::,,~,...'"?F~,...'n~on which turquoises are strung; '.....J'~"'i Oj ....."l " " l l o . , "'! "l 'I

29. Relative Pronouns. 3 9,one who' gets (unto whom come) many presents'. Of. also~3, Only those indefinite sentencea whicb in English are:~treduced by ,he who', ,who ever', ,that which', ,what' etc.can be, adequately expressed in Tibetan~ by using the in-terrogativ.e pronouns with the participle (seldom the nakedroot) of the verb, or adding ~' (,if -' v. 41, A. 4,) to thelatter. Instead of ' 5 - in this case e : is written more cor-'recti ly., Thus: ~r .l . l~~.q~'~~{~~~r.q 'q~~r .l . l '~ ' .q~~'~. ,if anyDody who possesses the' good faith teach it"" ' ,me';~'N~~t::r~~'~c:'~~tTj~~' ,when those of you.who wisiLt~ -go ate, assembledt; '{~.~.~~.q.~.~~.~.~~..q~~.r~'a;~.q~: :~;~q.q~r~,this jewel (cintamo/I}i)

- '-..:;w~ll mMe come dow:ri like rain whatever' is wished for';~~~.: : . .~,~tF ' .q .qffiJ '9a;,whatever you way sa yand ask of me according to that I will act, or I will grant'you whatever you ask. '. .q~~'f l1~~~txf~'.q~: ! l ~;(~'~~.qQ~~'having scooped the:water of the sea withwhat force Ihave'; ~~'Cf~'E:~~~t1'! '~~.qC!~t1'! ' t : l . l;q~~,1'?~l~r .l . l 'I beg you to show ~e wh~t sort of jewel"' " -yon have found (got)'; t1ic:~'!~r~c:~t11~'.q~t11~%:,;~,9 5 . t ~ ~ : : ; ' ?,his footprints, in what place soever they fell

"Q

Cv.lex. ,s o v: ~~~")_, 'became gold-sand'.


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40 g o . Verb. - Introduction;, . But the; 'participle is treated as if no relative was pre".ceding, thus' 1!~.:e::~~ij~r,.q:rlt~~,~~'i j 'he did nobrecede from (recall) the w0rd he had spoken before'; vulg.,WT , t : : '~~::q~:; ; ' .q~'F=- '~~'th~ room where I sat'.

, IChapter VI.The Verb.

3 0 . I nt ro d uc to ry rem ark s. The Tibetan verb must beregarded as denoting, not an action, or suffering, or con-dition of any subject, but merely a coming to .pass, or,in other words, they are aU impersonal verbs, like taedet,mis(ffet etc, in Latin, or it suits etc. in English. Thereforethey, are d~stitute of what is called in our own laJ1lguagf/sthe, active and passive voice, as well as of the discrimi-nation of persons, and show nothing beyond a rather poorcapability of expressing the most indispensable distinctionsof tense and mood. From the same reason the actingsubject of a transitive verb must regularly appear in theInstrumental case, as:the case of the 'subject of a neutralverb, - which, in European languages, is the Nominative -'-,ought to be re~arded, from a Tibetan point of view, asAccusative expressing the object of an impersonal verb,just as ,p"oenitet me' is translated by ',I repent'. But it:will perhaps 'be easier ~o say: The snbject of a transitiveverb, in Tibets, assumes regularly the form of the in-strumental, of a 'neutral verb that of the nominative whichis the same as the ,'accusative. Thus, t : :~rS:; ; '~t:: 'spto-. . . . . ,

- I

31. Infleotion of Verbs. 4l, ,PlftIy,: s t a beating happens, ~. regarding you, t : .~.~:t'me ,,;,;I b~at you. In common 'life the object has oftenthe f o r m of the dative, ~'!lf',' t~ facilitate t h e comprehen-sion. But often, in modern talk" as well as, in the classical

I literature" the acting subject, if kuown. as such from thecon~xt, -retains its Nominative .form. Especially the verbal~quendi are apt to admit this slight irregularity.

'31. Inflection of verbs . This is done in three differentw! , -ys :

it) by changing the shape of the root. Such differentshapes are, at most, four in number, which may be called,accQf?ing to the tenses of our own grammar to which theyc~r~l\spond,the Present-, Perfect-, Future-, and Fmperative-lTO O~; ~. g. of the Present-root tfj"z::r ,to give' the Perfectroot is q ; C : : , the Future-root tfj~c::', the Imperative root~'; o( ~~'.q' ,tofilter, bolt' respectively: qiStfj~'tsag(s).:' -.s'C U , ; , t8a), qiStfj t8ag, ,~' (80g. The Present root, which.ill~p!,iesduration, is also occasionally used for the Imper-f~t (in ,the sense of the Latin and Greek languages) and:ruture tenses. It is obvious, from the above mentionedinsw.nces,that the inflection of the root consists partly illalterations of the prefixed letters (so, if the Perfect likes theprefi~ed . q , the Future will have % : f ! or retain the q),Pa.ftl~in adding a final~' (to the Perfect and Imperative),~a~tl~ in 9~angjng the vowel (particularly in the Impera-~ve). J~u~,!tJsqhe consoaants ofthe root itself are changed


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42 32. Infinitive.sometimes :so the aspirates are often converted in the Perfetand Future into tbeir surds, besides other more irregularchanges. Only a limited number of verbs, however, arepossessed of all the foul' roots, some cannot assume morethan three, some two , and a great many have only one.To make up in some measure for this deficiency:

b) some auxiliary verbs have been made available:e-,for the Present tense u.j"~', a.~tf].,llltf]~' and others, all

"\,:i -of which mean ,to be' ( 39); for the Perfect ~ :r . . _ ', ~ ',~~~; for the Future a , , ~ : r . . _ ' , ?(~',and the substantive ~." " 'c) By adding various monosyllabic affixes, the Infini-.tive, Participles, and Gerunds are formed. These affixesas well as the auxiliary verbs are 'connected partly with theroot, partly with the Infinitive, resp. its terminative, partlywith the Participle. '

Note. The spoken language, at least in WT , acknow-ledges even in four-rooted verbs seldom more than thePerfect root.

32 . The In f in i t ive mood , The syllables : ' 1 ' pa or, afterthe final consonants ~': ::. .. .:l,j' and vowels, .::rwa are addedto the root, wherehyit assumes all the qualities and powersofa noun. In verbs of more roots than one, each of them"can, of course, in this way be converted into a substantive,or, in other words, each tense has its Infinitive, exceptthe Imperative. From one-rooted verbs th e different In-.finit ives may be formed by the above mentioned auxiliaries:thus, the Iof. Perf., by adding t . 'q~tr to the Infinitive of'

33. Participle. 4 3~the ve~b in question, or ~"\::r, ~~'cr, ~~'.q' to theroot, and the. In. Fut. by adding ~~~'::rto the Supine

" "terminative of the infinitive, 4I.B) thus, ~ 1 f I : : ' . q : : : . . . : ' Q ~ . : : I \ . : : rvisurnm esse, visum iri, -" " - . . : >Note. The spoken language uses, in ' " V I ' almost ex-

clusively, a termination pronounced ca s in Turig and Balti,ees, ie in Ladak, c e in Lahoul etc., )a in Kunawar s e in. ' .. ,Tsan etc., the etymology of which is doubtful, as it is notto, be found in uny printed "book. Lamas in Ladak and~aib:oul spell it6~'.

S 3, T he P a rtic ip le . '1 . This is in the written languageentirely-like the Infinitive t N ~ t r ,being', ~'::r ,giving',

, o = J l j c ;: : ,' .q .,having given'. - 2. Whetber the meaning is activeand passive, however, can only be inferred from the con-


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33; Participle,3 4. T he fin ite v erb . 1. The principal verb of a sentence, .

which always closes it (48.) receives in written Tibetan inmost eases a certain mark, b y which the end of a periodIDlly be known. This is, ill affirmative sentences, the vowel 0(called by the grammarians: ~.::;:~r.cn,n interrogative. " "ones the syllable am. Before -both the closing consonant o rthe.,verb is repeated, or, if it ends with avowel, a ; and ~,;rare written. The Perfect of the verbs ending in ~. ~. flr,which formerly had a ~. as second final - ~.~~. -, as-sume 1 f and ?~'.-. These additional syllables are omitt-ed, a) in imperative sentences, b) in the iatt.el' member of

, iL double question, c) when the question is expressed al-'. ready by an interrogative pronoun or adverb, d) in eoor-di,nll-temembers of a period, with exception of the last one,~) commonly, when the principal verb is the verb substan-. t~ye ~~', a r ~ 'etc. (40. 1.).

E1Jw nples. a) ~~ . ,go I', Q . . . ~ ~ . { t l J come here!'. -b) ~lt:'t::~r~'~1f~'do you see or not,?' ._ c) ~.~.~.~~.,w.ho is there?', ~.;.r.q~.:::rwhen did (he, you etc.) arrive?'.-, d) Fr::'r~~1~'.q~~, W~6~a;c~~,\q~9~r~J,th~ houses were destroyed, the men killed, the whole townallniliilate'd'. - e) ~iScq~S~I l t ~~~o.r~? in thesl\Xld.tit' the river is gold'.

Note. In conversation the 0 is generally omitted, and

34. Finite Verb.

giver, and the. passive . to those with S ~ , as ~ 1 J C : ' S 'Oli)a,Wit J e t ~ . o. t:I ']~.q~S.q .to be given' (dandus), 9'q'~C'S'.q,~.t.tt;q'~q'to teach the things to be done and notto be done' (Tligy). -A-. In cerbain' cases, especially withverbs that mean: to say, ask etc. the Participle is .usedbefore the words of the speech, where we should use theImperfect: ~q'~It~q"the king said . .'.

Note. In the spoken language, of WT at least, theParticiple is formed by ~F.~' ,n the acti ve sense as well~s the passive (whereas in books this syllable occurs onlyin the meaning. of the performer of an action s. 12. l.}:~1ltq?C:::~F~~;.riul tari. !.san~ni rni (s. 15, Note) .theman giving the money', .q7t:~F~~%Iltthe moneygiven'. ' !- \ ~ ~ ' ~ I : f J ' E i f ~;~.q~~~F~~aJC'fthe lamawho brought a coat for sale the other day'. Er~~'q:Q'~flrSfFt:'f~~F~'~' ,the girl who had' shewn the doorto

" '"his reverence' (Mil). The future participle is represented, .just Its in English, by the Infinitive (32, Note), so that,the sheep to be killed', (in books Qj~~q~S.q~~tTlr~~~'9~~~') is expressed, in the most Western provinces,by: s ad c as -s i lug, L~cl.: s dd -c e s- si l u g, Lah. etc.: sa d Milug , Tsaii: SO'-siJ-kyi lug t:I'j~~..i9~'~'~',nd, most likethe classical la~guage,)n Kun.: s6 d 1(i lug.


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46 :

> English, ' present: ;j:.Rft::.~~t1::;t:fj,(I) am seeing" ~S~" "~ ::;~ . ,(1) ~m' writing (just now)'."

35: Present. 36. Preterit. 47the m of the interrogative termination dropped, so thatmerely the vowel a is heard, e. g. the question- a : . ) ' ' i f c : c : . a : . ) ' '.do (you) see' and the answer ~ 1 f c : . : c . : - ,(I) see', are com-monly spoken in WT:JOti-tia~ fori.3 5. P re se nt T en se s. 1. Simple Present Tense. This isthe simple root of the.;. ,v:erb, which always will be foundin the dictionary; in lVT, as mentioned above, of verbswith more.than one root, only the Perfect root is in use;if, therefore, stress is laid on the Present signification, re-course mnst be had te one of the following compositions,(s. 31. and Note). Thus, . j : . J 1 f r : : . "(I, thou, he etc.) see, seestetc. " z : : r t i ) C : . '~I etc.) give' through all persons; in the endof a sentence: ; . j ' 1 f r : : . ~ 1 z : : r t 1 ) t : . = t : :

2. C;mpound Present Tenses. a) ~"'t:fj" (s. 40, 1) is- " '"~dded to the root: ~ 1 f r : : . ' ( : l . ~ ~ ' ,(I) see', . q 7 c : . ~ : : ; t f l ,(I)~ ,~give'. This is common in the dialect of WI' especially. -

b) The Participle c~nnectec1 with &f~', a : . ) ' i f r : : . : : r ~ ~ . (1)see'. In W T this, of course, is changed to ; . j ' ~ ; . j ' F ~ U { ~ - c) One of the Gerunds (41, A) with W~or a.~t:fj,a;s. ~~1f~'~'or ~~. or~' or ~~'), ~tlJ or W - C \ , " ,(I) see,am seeing'; it must, however , be remarked that bothways of expression, b) and c), are not very frequent, -d) ~~'ar~'r a.~9is the proper form for the compound~

3 6. P re te ri t T e ns es ; 1 . Simple Preterit , Perfect or AoristTense'; _'th~$' is the Perfect root: q ? ~ ' , at the dose' of the, - - - ,sentence q ? ~ r : : . " l ,gave,' have given, was given'; in one-'

rooted verbs it has, of course, the same form as the present:a : . ) ' 1 f c : : . ' ( ~ ) ,saw, have, or was, seen '. This is the usualnarrative tense like the Greek Aorist 01' French Parfaitdenni. - 2. Compound Preterit Tenses. - a) The root. with~ ' , ' . : : : r ') c : : . . ~ c : : . 'bave given, gave, was given', ~ . l f t : : ~ c : : . '

"' ,liave' seen, 'saw, was seen'; rarely met with in books, b utin general use in the conversation-of WT. In CT S c : , ' lunI I ''"'\.: I .is ti.sed in a similar way: 6 ~ ~ t f l S c : . , the dog has bit' ..-" ' " "b ) The root with ~~. (more in books), or a 5 ~ (more incommon language), the true Perfect as the tense of aceom-:V 1 1 :slled action: q ~ ' ~ ~ ' , q 5 c : : . c 5 ~ ,have given etc.', ,thea(jij(j l~of giving is past ', ~ ' ~ r : : . ' a ; ~ . , the man has alreadylElf~. ~ c .) The Participle c on nec ted w ith ~5j' occurs m~re

, fr_~9:u:entlyin the past sense than otherwise. Rere, in theCal!lti ton talk of WT, q' is used, even in those cases where,t h e books. have = . tN'~'q1T]l lrq'&f5j'yi-ge kcil-p'a yzn,01; '" conttacted,hil-pen, - ;the letter has been sent' off', inboo.~s..: q 1 r l . r q & i ~ (s. 11, Note), even ? J J . q 7 t : . ~ r q ~ ~


31/59

48 37. Future.h s have been paid' i. o.a t ','S-'l"Ja 1 I 'I :n . t d ri s -pe n , ,t e wage .an.r ;r' . CT) .th. q , t :. '. q . t .t j ~ '. - d) Gerunds in ~. (WT) or ~~, (, WI,

W - = \ ; or (ll\~' (the same as 35. 2 . c); also (in " 0 Tsan ~lld...j . th ;y;',' the ~ 01'later books) the mere Perfect root WI ""'I' , ' 7

~~. being dropped: ~ t : . W ~ ,has gone'.3 7. F utu re T en se s. 1. Simple Future, The Fnture-ro~!>,- .' b . , 9 Compound F Q , -t I l ~ ( t : . ) ,shlin, will give, e given, - -. ,

ture. a) The auxilia~y verb ~~,::,:t:r(to grow, become)'added,to the Termi~ative case of the Infinitive: ~~ q ~

. ~. ~:oz:n~:(~,aa'~:(~) .shall, will give, be gIven', . ; : . J ~ t : . . q '~ , )- ...., . b - 'This is the most common, and,,shall, will see, e seen. . ,' . b h Simple Future and the Intensive (.39.),together WIt tel ' ,. , . .q~~i~,he only one in use ,with the ",arly classical

authors in all cases where aspeciaIFuture-,root iswanted, andwhere this exists. It dissappears, however, graduallyeven . .' 1 dbfrom:th.e literature of the later period, and IS. rep ace y

.. b ) r n t : Q t 4 : , connectedthe two following compositions. - ~ - ~lwith the root: . ; :. J 1 f t : . : T I t N ~ shall, will see', ~ ~ t N ~

, '-.:> . b tanti e mean-,shall, will give' etc, (;![ is originally a su s ve, , '~ . . the root with ? ( t : . ' oring materi.al, cause, occa8'lon). - c) .

t x t t : . ' , ~ ~ r t \ ft : . ,wil l arrive', or, i. o. the root, the Term. Inf.,~ . q ' ' l ' : x : . . ' a : ; ' t : .. - Both b) and c) are even now in common

38, Imperative, . 49use i~ C'I', ~hereas ~ WT: -,---d)tN~ connected with thej'~~t is, t~e general form: ~ 1 f t : . . t . \ t ~ .on yin, vuIg.: fMin' ,shall, will see', q7~'~~' tdtiin,shall, will give ' , q'TJr:l.j'~~'ItJdllin ; , w i l l send', ~ . t I . 1 ~ .c a yin, ca'in, c a : n ,will go'. _e) In books the Participle with t N ~ (35.2. b, 36. 2c) oc-CIlI'S sometimes also as Future.

3 8. Im p era ti ve m o od . 1, This is usually the shortest_p@ssible form of the verb, .which often loses its prefixed.lette:r:s, though in some instances a final ~. is added. In

, m~f verbs with the vowel a, and in some with e thesej I , Ivowels are c~anged into 0, besides other alterations of theoon,SOnants. Particularly often the surds or sonants of theolihet tense-roots are changed to their aspirates in the Im-periltive. ~hus,~' ,give!~, from tlJ~'!:r; f~'a: lsoe,eT: 0')ook!', from rt[q'; 1 R ' ,throw!', from' ~~q~z:r.In, .~ne-T()ot-edverbs it is, of course, like' the Present ...butii 'can always be scfficiently clistinguished by adding theP~tiCi~ ~ q r ~ . or ~~', ac~ording to 13.). This is used

. in, the' classical literature indisc-riminately in addressing thehighest and the lowest persons (or, in other words, as 'wellto COIPmand, a,s 'to pray)', but according to the moderneUl$tom. of or only when addressing servants and inferiorP C9ple. - 2. In forbidding, the PrJsent-root is used ~it'hthe negative partIcle .;r , ~ ~~ ' ,do'n~t give!', ~,~. ,d~

J I . , ; h l r . ~ , 'ril;.tan Grammar. ' : " , ' 4 ' ' :J


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50 38. Imperative. - 39. Intensives."1 k '< .r:n:t'?""'''w do not throw!' - 3. In prayingnot 00 ., ""I ,l....'''1 '. .

. hi g (Precative or Optative) either the same formsor w IS I . . f r . : l . I : : : n . = : . '!"""I' t. d 1 are used or the Imperatives 0 ",.;t' ""'l , 0as un er . , . ,veome' or C('t:.' ,to come' (tbe latter, {~', of a quite diffe-rent root) are connected with the Terrain. Infin. ~ 1 f t : : : 'P : " . . .~'~' or*~'may (I, you, he etc.) s~e!~ - 4. In'" . . di t d but It IS naturalnone of the three a person IS 1II! ica e , .'

. di d forbidding the subject will be thethat Incornman mg an , .d, . ti the third person' in the precau ve alsoecon some ames ,

'the 'first person can be understood. .Note. The common language of WT, acknowledgmg

nly the Perfect-root, changes nothing but the vowel:~, . "f~om l"'Ir:;t:.'~'. ~ ~' . look!' from '?f~';" " " 1 7 . . . . . ,gwe. ....I ' ')t : : : l 1 f " l ',throw!' from . : : : t ~ t : : : l ' ~ ' (Perf. of C \ ~ t : : : l~ ' ~ ) . Insteadof ~', which is not much used, .q1ft:.' (give!) is oftenadded to the roots of other verbs (s.39), thus, ~ ' t : : : l e ; c 't o n ton ,take out!' from ~'5~' (~~''l} ,Or ~he Im-perative is paraphrased b~ " '9~'0 8 (Ld}. g . fJ , g o i .must',, ' h h: l" ' I~1::;;:, ::;;:a(~' must be' killed'.added t o the root ot t ever ..... "' 'i ' \ 1 " r ' ._ InOT the changing of the vowel seems to be USU~y

. d b t


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5 2 40. Substantive Verbs.

of connecting the attribute with its subject, as: ~'~~'Il1"1 t : f J ~ r q ' & l ~ " ,this man is a Ladakee', ~'6~;I l1t11~r~~'isit you, Sir?'. Theref~re the question ~.&j~;s to be under-'-:i stood ,who are you' or ,who is he' eto., the personal pronounbeing often let to be guessed. - t . G d \ " itself is often omittedin daily life inWI' as well as in poetry, e.g. ~'F::':~'~', ~ r: l.,~ d \ ' ~ ' .this load (is) very heavy' WI'. Negatively: o : . r t . G d \ ,~ i d \ ' vulg. ~ d \ ' , resp. ~'Il1t11~'. b ) t q ' ~ ; ~ r yad-pa,yo'-pa, eleg. ~ ~ t r 'ifi-pa, resp. q @ 1 t1 1~.~ r zug(s)-pa, U :

~zU-pa, negat.: ~ ~ , - o : . r ~~ ~ , ~ 'q @ 1 z: :t '\ ~means ,to exist ',. ""or .to be present', ,to be found at a place', therefore the

question ~W~s to be understood: ,Who is here? Whois there?' -_ W~and q ~ t : f J ~ ' z : r are in general use, ~~""" , .r . t . is seldom heard. When connected with the Dative of asubstantive it replaces the English ,to have, to have got', as:t : . r ' .r - % ! l rt q ' ~ ,1 have mo~ey'; C : : D . r a z : : t ' \ t . < f ~ ~ have pain'.In this case the respectful term is not t 1 l@ 1 t 11 ~ r q ' but>,,:;~ c : . a . .:~rna-wa : ~ D . . l t f r l. . r ~ d \ 5 : l 5 . tt : . a ; ~ 5 . t .has not the

_ 'i . . : > .King an indisposition?' ,i.e. ,is Your Majes~y ill?'. - c)~~ t 1 1 ' r . t ' . dug-pa (eleg., t 1 l ~ C \ ' q ' is seldom heard), resp." " ' -q ~ t 1 1 ~ r t . r ,,to be' present, stay, be found at a place'.;,negat:~

40. Bubstantiv Verbs. ' 53

. . .

~ ~ t T J Both ~ Q ' j ' q ' and t x f , ~ . q can be used insteadof t . G d \ " t . ! . , though not this instead of them. ~ d) ~ ~ . t . ! ~1'e'~pa'= t : \ ~ t : f J . r . t . , negat. ~.~~~ in Spiti and 0 1 ' seldom" " 1. ,in books. - e) ~'q' mod-pa, ,,';ji'--pa has ~ somewhat em-phatical sense: , to be (something) in a high degree' tob ( . ' ,. e somehow) ID -plenty', It occurs most frequently in -theGerund with ~. (41.), when it frequently has the sense of,though', but never with a negative ~ f) ~r"'M '. ilI .... ""'l nart~wa,ori~in~lly ,t~ appear, to be visible, extant', negat. ~'~~'.S9metlmeslll books, and common in certain districts. _g) In books the concluding 0 (34.) is, moreover, found toxeplle~ent the verb ,to be' in al l its meanings, and is capableof Jj(llng connected with words of all classes besides verbse.g. ~~.q?("is the ~rst' =" F : q . t . t t ~ .n a similarmanne;

, < = " -abo the \ S Q ' j ' of the Imperative (38.) implies the verb ,tobe' . . ;_ 4) The Preterit root for all these verbs is ~~. 80n: : W ~ ' .hilS been' , and besides also ,has gone, become'whichIS Its " 1 . ', orlgma meanmg. - For the use of these verbs asau~iliilrieB; s, 35. sq.. 2. ' ~. z :. .' q . . originally .to be changed, turned'into-some-t h i ng ' th. . en ,to become, to grow', auxiliary for the Futuret~se In th ld I . 1.' , e 0 o assrca language, as mentioned in 37.SInce th is can ba consid . . ." ',' , e COIlSl ered as the intransitive 01; passivenotion opp' t~~t"r., , 0S1 e to ;! 1 ~ ,to make, render',' the connection.


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54 40. Subst. Verbs. - 41. Gerunds and Supines.of ~,l\:.cr with the Term. Inf. of another verb must, m

, " "many cases, be rendered bythe passive voice in our languages.In WT the verb a;'~~r c a - c e .to go' is used in the senseof ,to become, to grow'. The Perfect root for bofu is i j ' t : : :,(went), grew, became, has become, is' (s. above). - In CTand later books C J . . . S c : : : : : r is used instead.

" " -. ,must' is expressed by ~z::f]~r.q' ,to be necessary'(s. 38 . Note). In WT this is used in a very wide sense forany possible modification of the notion of necessity: ,1 must,should, want to, ought' and even, 1will, wish, beg (for-omething)' is nothing but t : :r: : l:r~9~rto me is necessary'whioh may be, in the last mentioned case, rend ered somew batmore politely by adding ~' Zu ,pray!' ~ : : : : r l : r ~ n ~ r ~ E ! f , ~ , r ~ '

" 'o . : i . . . . . .,1 want potatoes, pray!' is as much to say as ,Will youkindly give me 'SOmepotatoes'. In books and more refinedlanguage several other verbs are used in the same sense,'"iz. ~z::f]~r.c.r,i t is right to' (usually with the Genit, Infiu.),~~'.q' ,it is meet, decent', C J . . . ~ ' . : r ,to wish, desire', bothwith the Supine; ~ t 1 l C J . . . ' . q ' ,to like' with the Dat-Inf. Thepopular substitute of the last, especially in use in WT, isl".\lR'.q', of similar meaning, added to the root.

4 1. G e ru nd s a nd S up in es , We retain these terms, em-ployed by former grammarians, but observe that they donot refer to the form, but to the meaning, as -wellas that Gerund is not to be understood in the same signification '

. . .

41. A. Gerunds. 1. 55 in Latin" but as th~Gerondif of some French gra:rp.-mariane, or what Shakespeare calls Past conjunctive parti-ciple in Hindi. These forms are of the greatest importancein Tibetan, being the only substitutes for most of those"subordinate clauses which we are accustomed to introduceby conjunctions. They are formed by the two monosyllabicappendices 5 ' (so after tbe closing consonants ~. = : ; rlf' ~;~~er ~, ~ after t T r c . : ' l : f' ~ and vowels and 3 1 : : : ( . q c . : _ .or, @ j l :, ' according to the same rule as ~. 13.), both ofw~ich are added to the root, or by the terminations men-'tioned in 15. as composing the declension of nouns, whicha ; r ~ Iadded partly to the root, partly to the Infinitive or,participle.

A. G e run d s. All the following forms can he renderedb~ the English Participle ending in ing, but the more ac-~~a~ distinctions must be expressed by various CQI; I -Junctions.

1. ~. (~' etc.), the most frequent of all these endings.It'is added to the Present-root as well as to the Perfect-root:~t;:~ ,giving', . q 7 c . : : ~ ,having given'. and stands for a~~lases beginning with when, as, since, after etc. Also i~;thtl spoken language of WT it is used most frequently. _,Examples: ~'~'~~'f$~~'.q?(-the child, having been car~ried away 'b y the water, died'; ~(lrt:fq'~~llr~~~~~~'~'q~r:.~ ,the king having died, the prince ,occupied


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56 41. A. Gerunds. 2.-4.the throne (kings-place)': ~ "~"q-~~"~"~;Ufl:\;~"a.;~rl.l"~~, " '"; ' C : r : : r .as there is a great water, we cannot go'.'" ' 2. ~t::( J f . " etc.), of a similar sense, chiefly used forsmaller clallSe~ within a large one; ~"~t11~"~t::,iS~ ,when,being displeased, he-became angry', or ,growing displeasedand angry'. Often it denotes two actions going on at thesame time, or two states of a thing existing together, andthen can only be translated by: .and', thus, .;,r1~'~~"~t::..~~1"without end and boundary'; +l'~";:a'~"F-lI:T1"~"~'z::r ,to eat flesh - and drink. blood '*). It stands also in acausal sense: ,by doing etc.', as: ,?~.q{~.~.~a;7.(-(we),live by catching fish'. These two (1. and 2.) can also, likethe closing 0, as mentioned in 40. 1.g , be added to everyclass of words, in the sense of being: ~'~I:T1~ ~'~ '~fL:f '~ ' ,as you are high (-born), being of a great family'.In conversation, ~"_ is scarcely - ever heard.

3. ~~. (from, or after, doing something) in temporalclauses with ,after, when, as'; practically it is very muchlike ' 5 ' , and often alternating with it. In most cases, inspeaking always, it is added to the root, seldom to the infi-

*) The objects of ;:a':::rand ~lft::.'.q- often assume the dative-" '"sign, cf. English ,t o feed on'.

. .

41. A. Gerunds. 4. 5. 57' .1 .T'_ l ".::! ~mtlve.- nwamp es. -I"'!.~t::,~'~~''''It:_. ,when the night hadrisen (viz. at da!break) he went'; Illt::."'l"ij"t:_.,after youwill have risen, gol' ~~~t::,~~"~~St::.~"s~r~ .when Isaw that, raising clamour, I wept'. "'"

4. ~" ,in (doing something)' again for clauses with,s,ince, when, as', but in most cases by far for ,if' and COD-, di~onal ,when': ~iff~,if, or, when (I) go, or went'; . t t .~~.~. ,when, after (be) has died', ,if he is already dead';Jf~ ,if (he) die, shoulddie', ,if (he) died', ,when (he) dies';S 1 " ~ ",i f .. do, did'; 5r~',if .. were "to.do'. Itisadded~o,. the root, seldom to the infiniti ve , and as common intallci.ng as in books., ", 5. r . l . f " is of more. various use. When added to the root,. . . : . . . .It is very much like i)t::,.,which it replaces in the conver-

t eationallanguage at C T (where the first example of 2 : wouldbe"~~I:T1~rl.lF-f~t), but does Dot 'OCcur so often excepti~ imperative -or precative sentences, when it is added tot~eJmperative root of the subordinate verb, just like othergerunds.: ~t:_'~'f~' .going look!', ,go and look!' aft::,'Or~. ,11iseand go!'. This particle, like the above-mentioned,hnplies the v~rh' ,to be', -espaoially when added to adjec-. t ives d~oting a personal qualitY'~'~I:T1'~~'6~~~,be'j~g' ugly and short'; ~q~'P~I:T1~~~~~~.;,r~~


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58 41. A. Gerunds. 5. 6.. : r ,pretty, being of a good figure and rnce t o behold'.When added to the Infinitive, it denotes: a) of course, thereal Dative, or the usual meanings of the postposition I ' l . rwith a substantive; thus, tI1~~I:.r~l9~::rto rejoice atkilling, be fond of killing' . b) nearly the same as 'i ) 0 : .as'in English, e. g. I ' l{~~.q%'j~~~~~l .qo .r~~~~q : : r : : r .as there was an idol-shrine in the middle of t he ,way, (she) alighted from (her) chariot'; ~o.rq-~~~q~,l '~ % " 'F - 1 ~ ' S ~ ' l' ~ 1 f f q ' ( lras the king went there daily tp'" '" ~bathe'; ~~:rr~~~'1~1 '~ '7:(c 'q~a . .~~i : ( t : : q~ '~~'ai l(it) does not occur in the (whole) world, what is (its) 00.-. curring here, or, how is it that is occurs here?'. Finally,'in the language of common life o. ris added to th ~ repeatedroot in order to express the English .while, whilst': C~- < 9 t l ' j ~ ' : : : P : ~ V 5 ' : r ~ ' f S \ ~ ~ r ~ ~ ' G ~ i~ s a tu b- t: Ub -la M yd d-d i. . . . , '"}I5., Note) Siri J/yon WT , or 6 l ~ ~ ~ c : : . .q ~ % " " r K Y O ' -l e y ! s i r t kut'-sog CT ,while I am cutting the meat into pieces,bring 'lou (some) wood'.

6. !lf~' added only to the Infinitive, literally .out of(the doing)' .. This may mean a) ,after', ~'q'~~'Il .Ic: : .. 'q ' .to rise from lying, after having lain"; l~:1 '~R1'~,~r" "\.\~~;!:lfil.!I~,,::::::,;,nr9~::after' having been three days in~ .J. T""

41. A. Gerunds. 7. 8. 59

"

the grave '(I) came out of the grave'. - b} ,w hil e', inwhich case the root of the verb may be repeated, as: ~'~ s 'q ' I : l .1 ~ S ~ : 3 '~ t l ' j l t : , ~ " 1 ~out of my walking i.e, whenwalking along, (I) met with a brahman'; t : , ' - < 9 ' z : : r v ; . c : r ~ q '~ ' I : l . 1 ~ ' ~ ' ~ ~ ' ~ ' . q ' l l ~ ' ~ ' . t f r I ' (the above :enti:ed

- . . . :>, example (s. rlf') translated in to classical language) ; c) alsothe English ,being about to' is, in books, often expressed5y this Gerund: 1 ~ ' :: : ; ' ~ t : : ' . q I : l .1 ~ 'S f ~ 5 l tfwhen (1 ) wasa:bout to enter, the "door was shut'; ",9t.'f!'lf~~~~~q~2 l ; 1 . , ~ ,when (I) was going to die, (I) was restored to life~ '7 ragain', W~ich of the three is the real meaning, will in~ost cases be clear from circumstances. This gerund is, not used in talking, at least in WT.

7. ~~' (~~' etc.) or ~. (~)" etc.),ortheI~strumentaland Genitive, eases of the root, mean a) ,by doing some-,'thing'or .beeause', e.g ' l~~~~'a . .~:~ ,we come (here),,p~cause it is necessary' . F~~' ' !Fl~'9' tN~'~t : : '~'~C'. ..,~. .since I am resolved to help you, do not be depressed!'This, originally, is a function of the Instrumental only, but Ii n . late~ times the other cases also are used in this mean-in~. - b) more Jrequ~Jltly they: are used adversatively,~tbo\l~h', especially when connected w ith . ~ ~' (40. 1. , e ) )~~~~~ ,~~% ~ tN~~~q~ '~ though (you) did

, " 0 : >..,r


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6 0 41. A.. Gerunds. 8. 9. - B. Supines.say -so, by what shall (I) believe (it)?' In other casesit may be left untranslated when the next sentence willcom~ence with ,but' : ~.q.=!~tf~~~~~.3~rir;;qr:l.r.:rJr~r~.not liking delicate food, he ate vulgar food' or. ,he did not like d. f., but preferred v, f.'. This Gerund isscarcely used in talking, at least in WT.

8. .q~' ( .q~f), the Instrumental of the Infinitive, ,by(doing something)' is, of course, the proper expression for.because', but also very often used indiscriminately fo'ri Jor ~~. only for the sake of varying the ronde of speaking:. t t~~t ' la . , .q-&t~.q~because it is very difficult'; ~~.7 t ~ . ,when (he) looked'.

9. Also ~~. the proper use of which has been shewnabove (35. 2. d.) must be mentioned oncemore as it occursin a similar sense to ~t:::,W~(l . j~a. ,~.q~~~~~tfj ,walk onpraying (preces faciendo)),; : J~.q~~~s~r.q~. "",beating (her owri) breast and weeping', I

B. Sup in es . They are expressed simply by the Ter-minative Case of the Infinitive or o f the Root, ~ifc'q~:or * . ~ .to see'. In many instances the use of either is~optional, in .others one is preferred. Their use is: with~djectives like the Latin supine in u, e.g. ~qJ~"la.,:c:r,difficult to learn'; with verbs expressing ,to go, to se~d'etc.,

41. B. Supines, 6 1 'also ,to pray' etc. like that iii. um: F . i : i ~ ' ? ~ c : , 'gotofetch',~t!l~~~~.~~.(I) beg (you) to permit, - for permission'.. . . . . . ,Tn these .cases the root is most common, but the Inf. . q~ .q '. q ~ ' , or t!l~~'q~', . i : i ~ ' . q ~may also be used.' 2 ., Anotheruse of the Supine is a) with verbs of sensation and, lessfrequently, with those ofdeclaration, where we use sentenceswith ,that' Or the Participle or Infinitive: o: . r ' r . (~ ' .q~'~1f~ ''f ' ,seeing (his) mother coming' (instead of which, how-ever, ?("~' .q 'may be said as well); . . qa :~~~ .q .q q~

, '"4~'~~'knowing that the time of ... ing had arrived'(lit: . ,that it had come down.to the time');; ~'Qa;. .~~~.

. . ZN : 2 '; '~ ~ ' ~ ~ ' ,remembering himto be the kings son' or ,thatbe was ... '. - b) in an adverbial sense, when we sax ,so'tliat', especially in negative sentences, ,so thatnot' ,without... irig', ~~.~~~~.g~q ~' ,so that nobody may (did) per-ceive it' , or ,without anybody perceiving it.'

. .

Note 1. The modern language ofWT uses in the firstinstance (B. 1.) either the simple Infinitive, .q~.q '~ 'p: r ] 'tf (or Z,t'1~tf),_.or the same with ~', .q~.q~~~fl t l ' ] ' : q ; , orwith ~rlt (for the ~.::, 'ofthe books s, 7.2.), t : I~.q '.~~SIlIF~tf;n the second either the sam~ forms, ora PMticular one, which consists in repeating the final con-


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41. B. Supines, Notes.sonant of the roof with the vowel a, to which'also (.If maybe added: thus, i 3 : t ~ . ~ . ~ c : : . ' .G ~ ~ ~ c : : . ~ ~ t I l t 1 1 ( l r W c : : . ~ ~ c : : .

- . . . : >,(1) have Come to meet you'; in the third, the direct Im-perative adding @ I ' for the .sake of civility, ",E!fc:.~'~'' ~ - . . . : >,pray permit!' '

In the case of B. 2., instead of o:.r'7.(c:.'.q~';.'f1fc::.'~~';the expression in common use will be U ' 1 ' ~ ' o : f c : : . 'or E < f c : : . '": : . ' o : . f ( c : : . ' ~ ~ ' ;nstead of ~~'I!J,c::.';.'f.~~.q~~,eit~erthesameform, , ; . r ' ; : ( ~ ' ~ ' , or the Gerund, ~;{~5.In aT thoseexamples would respectively, stand thus, .q~.q7or .q~':r

""'~ror q ~ ' : : r q a : ~ , , ; ~ r r t t 1 1 ' q - lab-tu; ldb-ba (sounding al--..:;most lii-wa), ldb-P0 (~qn-.d:ukag-po; in the third instancea peculiar word, ,rog', is used, which is said to be origi-nally the same as ,~~~, (~~') ,friend,assistant' ,and ser-ves now as the respectful substitute o~~9',Particle of the 'Impe~ative, t I l ~ c : : . : ( ' t l r,pray permit!', ~~'~tl']' ,pray give!'Instead of o : . r . ; : ( ~ . ~ .etc. the most usual form in erwillbe the simple Partic iple, ~ . 2 f ~ ~ r .

Note 2. All the forms, ,of,course, where q' or ,q' aremet with might in certain cases belong to the Participle,and n~tto the' Infinitive. ' " ' , '

, Note. 3.' The:! r eader will have "'missed Iany mention oftenses of th e elass- of Pluperfect, Past Future etc.; and,

41. B. Supines!Notes. 63indeed; there exists no form of the kind, and they can onlybe rendered by a Gerund, e.g. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : : : f 1 T J ~ ~ c : : . ',:w,hen(he) had written the letter, (he) sent (it) off'; t.tt.~.~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ q r r t t = . ! : : : ~ ~ ~ ~ WI': q " 1 r . J . r t l f ~ ,1': q r r t t = . ! ,!rtlf.~)when (he) shall have written the letter, (he) wi!!.~'s~n:t (it) off' . Neither have the Conditional or Subjunctiveai:fy special form. Thus, e.g., ~~'~'S~'~'~'~l't::("ifW; I ; J did not do that, we could not live (i.e. we cannot earn. t . h c-,c-, e-, irii:::' ~ '"quJ'S~S enancemanyot ermanner); i5~'~~.g~''=~'q''1~ .~ ,w~y should not I hear (grant) what you say (your

~ish)?"l .q~' ; . r q ~ ! r r ~ t : : , t f J 2 , ' f o : . r ~ l f c : : . ~ r t I ' J ~ ~ ~~ t f J ,if (you) had not explained it, and (we) had not seen thesigns, we would not have understood it'; ~~'~'~"i'q~.' e : ~ ~ ~ ' ~ ' ~ t l ' ] ' ~ : r r ~ "as a man .would not find it, I must~ , .

. sen~, an emanation'; vulg., WT, ~ ~ t I l - s . : r t l l ~ c : : . ~ ~ ~ ' ~ '~~~;:,~~~~arc::.t.tt~if the distance was no~ so great,tliefw-ould ~me to me (visit me),. Here may be added,that also the intention of, or attempt at, doing something. is expressed by the simple verb: ,thus, . ~ " , ~ T ~ ~ ' q " 1 9 '~"~q~ ..~~.,though I did" try to -hinder Him, I could

, " "n ? t ' ~ ~~;J~~~~ t11~~~~~~~~q ~1fS~~~~.~.~~.q~!Q;,~~'~'~~'~c::.~'~. ,as ~~. saw _~is Own disciple


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64 A Survey of the principal forms of the Finite Verb.on the point ofspringing into the water (and that he hadsprung off the bank), he held him back by the force of hismagic, so that he did not touch the water ' (s. 41. B. 2. b.).Especially the gerunds in 1l1~' (41. A. 6.) have often thismeamng: .q~tfj .~tfj . ~ r : : . 'S(J, r .q o . t~r~r fir~~r9~r~,when Iwas abo ut to be parted from life, he saved it';~1lI'~~' -T'~~~'~r~r::..qill~r~r::.~~~~rq~~~'~',the snake, having become angry, though sheintented (or:had a.t first int.) to let out her poison, reflected thus'. As~ill be seen from these examples, the action, in such cases,is thought to have begun in fact. . ,

A S urv ey o f th e p rincip al fo rm s o f t he F init e V erb .Presen t:

t T J ~ , w .q7r::.~~t.1]ive"-'i~~.c:r&' t~ ~~t:,~f lCi&' t~see intens, ~~.q~,:S~

c ~1fr::. '~'Q,~'1'or W~')"-'i .w ~~~~Q,~tTJ(or ~~'); C ~~~~~tTJ-..;; .Iam seeingPerfect:-'171::~t::: gave, have given

C ~ 1 f r : : . S c : , saw, W ~r::.~ar~c ~t:,'D{~'~ went went. q 7 r : : . ~ I have given, intens. ~~~:.q~9~.q7r::.~rtr~~has been gi~en "

42. The Adverb. 65Future:.

t f J ' 5 t . : . W .q~~~' shall, will give~~ ..q~.~. c ~*~!'rt .\f~ in tens. ~11bq~'9'

,,_ ~ _shall, will see~ . : : r u . r c : : , ~}::r.q~~r::.'will arriveImperative:

~ . W .q ? C : give! .q~'::f?~ake out! .q~~~Etf~ill!~~.~. see! intens. 5:.1~.q~S~

neca.t, ='''tn~ %"n"r-' d =iMrn. :r'% ',rl,r::'~ "'I 1/" "'1""1/. . . . 0 not give! V'f~"'" ""I,-"! : ; ; t 1

Chapter VII.The Adverb.

42 . We may clist.inzuish three classes of adverbs'1 p"' '. .. rlmltive adverbs. 2. Adverbs formed from Adjectives.3, Adverbs formed, from Substantives or Pronouns.

1. Very few Primitive Adverbs occur ' the most usu~la;re: '~' ,now', ~~. .when', ~ c : : (books ~nd 01') or if~'CWT) ,to morrow', and a few similar ones; ~t::: ,again < ', 'a~(l'the two negatives ~. and & - 1 ' , the latter of which j~ _used in h ib 't' '_ , pro 1 nuve sentences, and with a past tense as~~J;" ,(I) do not give" ~ ' t l ' J 7 ~ ',(I) shall not give', ~ut;~.~. ,did not give', ~ p : T i 5 E : ' (WT,: .;,f'~?,~] ,do D~t, Jiedlkel Tlb'.tau Grammar., " 5


40/59

42. :Adverb.

give!' The verbs t . i : t ~ , IlltTt~( ~~', ~~' have always0-) ' instead of~' before them (40.). Another particl~ ofthis kind, of a merely formal value, is

jäschke - tibetan grammar

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