* - 4

- Orthoptera- Phasmida

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

: .

* -

*, , .

*

*

*

*

* CO2 -

*

*

* ::

*

*Reflex Action

* , : - . - . - . - .

* .

*

* - ; - (-).

*

*

* Sensory organs :Gullan & Cranston

* - : - -

*- - - .

*

* ( ) TRICHOID

*

*

*Trichoid sensilla

*Campaniform :

*

*:

* - ' 90-93 GULLAN & CRANSTON ( ' 91)- , : Tympanal organs

* , . , . , .

*

* Scolopidia : , , . - , .

*

* Tympanal organs , - . - . . , , , .

*

* Chemoreception

. . .

*

*

*

*

*

*

*Turner, et al.Nature474,8791(2011).

*Turner, et al.Nature474,8791(2011).

*Turner, et al.Nature474,8791(2011).

*Turner, et al.Nature474,8791(2011).

*

*++ : -

*

*Byers, J.A. 2005. A cost of alarm pheromone production in cotton aphids, Aphis gossypii. Naturwissenschaften 92:69-72.

*Ono et al, 2003 Nature 424, 637-638 Vespa mandarinia - 2-pentanol

*+- : , .

*

*-+ : -

*

*

* Pieris brassicae ( ), ()

Trichogramma brassicae , . , ( ).

Fatouros et al., Nature 2005

*

* ""

* - ++ - +- - -+ -

* (OCCELI), ( ).

*

*

*

*

* - OMMATIDIA - . 28,000 .

*

* : :1. : CORNEAL LENS , CRYSTALLINE CONE

* 2. Rhabdom : RETINULA .CELLS .

* 3.

JR Paterson et al. Nature 480, 237-240 (2011) doi:10.1038/nature10689Anomalocaris eyes from the Emu Bay Shale. ( ~515 )

*

* UV,

*

*

* : 4.4.4 - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D2gIf1RXOh8 :

*

* ORTHOPTERA 20,000 , -: CAELIFERA

ENSIFERA

*

*

*

*

* , -

- , , -: , -. - , --- , - ; - , -

*

*

*

* PHASMIDA 2,500 ,

*

*

*

* Anopheles gambiae :1. (AgOr1) 2. ( )3. (4-methylphenol )

(Hallem et al., Nature 2004)

* Anopheles gambiae:1. (AgOr1) 2. ( )3. (4-methylphenol )

AgOr2 ?(Hallem et al., Nature 2004)

* , . . . . .*, * .* . , . - . 8-9.

* - . , , .

* , , , .* , , , . , . .

* . . . .

* . , , , .

* . .

* protocerebrum- , deutocerebrum- tritocerebrum- . subesophageal ganglion

* ( ) TRICHOID . : - , .

* , - ( , ). . , , .

Highly developed antennae containing different types of olfactory receptors allow insects to use minute amounts of odors for orientation towards resources like food, oviposition sites or mates. Scientists at the Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology in Jena, Germany, have now used mutant flies and for the first time provided experimental proof that the extremely sensitive olfactory system of fruit flies is based on self-regulation of odorant receptors. They are able to detect a few thousand odour molecules per millilitre of air, whereas humans need hundreds of millions. Odor molecules are released from wine in a glass and approach the fly nose, the antenna, which is equipped with minute smell hairs, the olfactory sensilla. These contain dendrites of olfactory sensory neurons in which odorant receptor proteins are localized. Odor molecules pass through pores in the fly cuticle and reach the dendrite surface inside the sensillum, where they briefly bind to the receptors. These consist of an odor-binding protein (here: Or22a) and the co-receptor protein Orco. Together these function as metabotropic receptors (cell membrane receptors), which activate intracellular signal systems, as well as ionotropic receptors (ion channel receptors), which form an ion channel after binding of an odor molecule. If the concentration of an initial odor puff is very low, only a metabotropic signal cascade is triggered. Binding the molecule to Or22a activates the stimulatory G protein Gs. Gs activates the enzyme adenylate cyclase, which in turn catalyzes the conversion of the nucleotide adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). This signal molecule binds to the Orco protein, which opens one ion channel pore. Na+ and Ca2+ ions can now flow into the cell. In this way the activation of the Orco channel sensitizes the receptor pair Or22a/Orco to odor molecules. If a second, low concentration odor puff reaches the sensillum, the next molecule binding to the receptor protein Or22a elicits an opening of a large pore between both proteins. The ionotropic receptor is now activated, stimulates the sensory neuron and a signal is sent to the brain. At high odor concentrations Or22a is constantly surrounded by molecules, and the ionotropic receptor, and consequently the sensory neuron, is directly activated without prior sensitization. Insect odorant receptors are thus able to regulate their own sensitivity depending on odor concentration. A puff of very low concentration odor sensitizes the system, and primes it to send a signal to the brain if the stimulation reoccurs within a certain time span. A stimulation with a higher odor concentration results in a direct signal to the brain. More information is available on: www.mpg.de/7029167/insect-odorant-receptors*Nature474,4041(02 June 2011)doi:10.1038/474040aClouds of CO2exhaled by humans are segmented by wind into a series of pulses of vapour separated by clean air. Bloodthirsty mosquitoes track humans by following these pulses upwind, a process mediated by a specific olfactory sensory neuron called cpA (b). The cpA neuron responds to CO2pulses with a brief burst of action potentials. Mimetic odorants such as 2-butanone evoke responses identical to those of CO2. Inhibitory odorants can silence the cpA neuron's response to CO2. And ultra-prolonged odorants evoke continuous cpA-neuron firing, rendering it unresponsive to the separate CO2pulses that signal human presence.*Nature474,4041(02 June 2011)doi:10.1038/474040aClouds of CO2exhaled by humans are segmented by wind into a series of pulses of vapour separated by clean air. Bloodthirsty mosquitoes track humans by following these pulses upwind, a process mediated by a specific olfactory sensory neuron called cpA (b). The cpA neuron responds to CO2pulses with a brief burst of action potentials. Mimetic odorants such as 2-butanone evoke responses identical to those of CO2. Inhibitory odorants can silence the cpA neuron's response to CO2. And ultra-prolonged odorants evoke continuous cpA-neuron firing, rendering it unresponsive to the separate CO2pulses that signal human presence.*Nature474,4041(02 June 2011)doi:10.1038/474040aClouds of CO2exhaled by humans are segmented by wind into a series of pulses of vapour separated by clean air. Bloodthirsty mosquitoes track humans by following these pulses upwind, a process mediated by a specific olfactory sensory neuron called cpA (b). The cpA neuron responds to CO2pulses with a brief burst of action potentials. Mimetic odorants such as 2-butanone evoke responses identical to those of CO2. Inhibitory odorants can silence the cpA neuron's response to CO2. And ultra-prolonged odorants evoke continuous cpA-neuron firing, rendering it unresponsive to the separate CO2pulses that signal human presence.*Nature474,4041(02 June 2011)doi:10.1038/474040aClouds of CO2exhaled by humans are segmented by wind into a series of pulses of vapour separated by clean air. Bloodthirsty mosquitoes track humans by following these pulses upwind, a process mediated by a specific olfactory sensory neuron called cpA (b). The cpA neuron responds to CO2pulses with a brief burst of action potentials. Mimetic odorants such as 2-butanone evoke responses identical to those of CO2. Inhibitory odorants can silence the cpA neuron's response to CO2. And ultra-prolonged odorants (2,3-butanedione) evoke continuous cpA-neuron firing, rendering it unresponsive to the separate CO2pulses that signal human presence.*Hyperlink to 30 s movie**Relationship between fresh weight of cotton aphid in mg and amounts of (E)-B-farnesene in ng for aphids reared in the glasshouse.

2-3-cm paired eyes from the early Cambrian (approximately 515 million years old) Emu Bay Shale of South Australia, assigned to the Cambrian apex predator Anomalocaris* 86*