listen to their silent cry: the devastated lives of...

社会医学研究．第 31 巻 1 号．BulletinofSocialMedicine,Vol.31（1）2014

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Summary: 　Nuclear power plant (NPP)workers and their families, especially those in the coastal area ofFukuiPrefecture,havebeendeprivedof thebasicconditionofsurvivalandreproduction formanygenerations. It isnoexaggerationtosaythat theyhavebeenpaid fortheirexposuretoradiation,not for theirworkinghours.InJapan,national regulationsstipulate thatworkersexposure toradiationshouldnotexceedcertain levels.Thelimitofexposureis100mSvinfiveyearsand50mSvperyear.However,thelimitisnotappliedtofemaleworkersexpectingchildren,despitethefacttheworkingenvironmentisextremelydangerous.InsomeNPPs,thelegallimitpermitsworkerstoworkonlyforshortperiods.WhileNPPsutilizefreelylocalworkersabundantlyaccordingtoemployers’needs,thosepeoplewhoearnameagreincomehavebeendiscardedmercilessly.ⅰ）

　ThemajorityoftheNPPworkforceconsistsoftemporaryworkerswhoaremultiplyexploitedincomplicatedlabourrelations.Theatomic-industrycomplexisamultiple-exploitationsysteminwhichtheliabilityofemployersis shiftedontoworkers themselves.Theexploitationsystemrunsnotonlyvertically,butalsohorizontally:pipingworkisdoneby‘smallcompanies,’eachconsistingofonlyafewday-workers;primarysubcontractorsconsolidatethosesmallcompaniestocommissionconstructionjobstothem.ManyoftheworkersemployedbythesesmallcompanieshavenotreceivedaNoticeofEmploymentConditions.Therearealsomanycaseswhereemployerswhodosubstantiallythesameworkashiredworkershavenocontracts.　Allemployersare legallyandethicallyobligedtosecureasafeworkingenvironment for theiremployees.Workingconditionsforfrontlineworkersintheindustryhavenotimprovedinthepastthirtyyears.ⅱ）Inthecaseofaccidents, theseworkersarenotalwayscompensatedappropriately.Multiplecontractingsystemsandunstableemploymentwithambiguouslabourcontractsenableelectricpowercompaniesandprimecontractorstoavoidliabilityforlabour-relatedaccidents.

　Keywords：nuclearpowerplants,NPPworkers,workerdispatching,radiation-exposedworkers,work-lifeissues

原　著

ListenToTheirSilentCry:TheDevastatedLivesofJapaneseNuclearPowerPlantWorkersEmployedbySubcontractors

orLabour–brokeringCompanies

末端原発労働者の労働・生活実態について―下請け事業主や派遣元事業主に雇われて

原子力発電所で働く労働者の就労・被曝実態―

TakakiKazumi髙木和美

GifuUniversity岐阜大学


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Introduction　Thispaper summarises the resultsof surveys Iconducted fromJuly1986 throughSeptember1987on localworkers (and their families)whoworkedinNPPs located in theWakasaBayareaofFukuiPrefecture.Thepaper includes the results ofmyongoing inquiry intotheworkingconditionsofNPPworkersandlocalresidents inthesameareawhichbeganonJanuary2012.Map1showsdistributionofmanyNPPs inJapan.WakasaBay iscrowdedwithNPPs

（Tsuruga,Fugen,Monjyu,Mihama,Ohi,Takahama).　MostNPPworkers in Japanhesitate to speakoutabout theirworkingconditions.Restraintsputupon thembyelectricpowercompaniesand theircontractorspreventtheworkersfromtalkingabouttheir jobsevenwith their families. It ispresumedthat employers feardisclosureofgraveproblemssuchasrecruitmentmethods,workingenvironment,NPP inspection results , accidents and theirhandling,andworkers’ illnessesanddisabilities. Ifworkersspeakoutwithoutrestraint, thestructuralvulnerabilitiesofNPPscouldbeexposed,aswellasinformationaboutworkerswhohavebeen illegallyemployed and several cases of illness and deathpossibly causedby radiation exposure.AlthoughtheFukushimanucleardisasterexposed long-termproblemssurroundingNPPs, theharshemploymentandworkingconditionsofNPPworkersⅲ）andtheirserioushealthproblemsremain largelyhiddenfromthepublic.ⅳ）

　Becausetheywanttomaintainacontinuousflowofcontractswith theNPP industry,subcontractorsnever speak out . NPP workers , who hardlyhave enough employment opportunities in theircommunity, collectively remain silent becausetheyneed jobs to feed their families,whoarealsoemployed in the industry. Persons involved incatering industries that serviceNPPworkersarealso gagged.Nogag orderwouldprevail if legalanddignifiedemploymentandworkingconditionswerearrangedforsafeandsoundlabourandif fairindustrialrelationshipswereestablished.　Workers have to receive the education for

workingsafely,beforeworkinginaNPP.Thosewhotakechargeofeducationhaveorderedorallytotellnobodywhatworkerssawintheworkplaceorwasheard.(TheinterviewbyTakakionJuly21,2013)　TheInterviewedpeople1,2,3,5,6,7,8,and10requiredofmesothatwhatitspokeaboutmightbetoldtonobody.　FromJanuary2012throughOctober2013,atleastten interviewswereconductedwithNPPworkers(including retiredpersons), their familymembers,andNPPsubcontractors.Amongthese,threepeoplewereinterviewedasecondtime.ManyNPPworkersliveintheWakasaBayarea,butitwasverydifficultto hear from some of thembecause they fearedparticipating inthesurvey.Forexample,on5May2012, an interviewee toldme,‘Everybodyaroundhere fearsNPPs even if theydon’t openly admitit,butpublicly theysaytheyhopetorestartNPPsthatwereshutdowninthewakeoftheFukushimadisaster.’ ⅴ）

1．Location of NPPs in Japan and the lack of local employment opportunities

　On27May 1964, the JapaneseAtomicEnergyCommission proposed guidelines recommendingthatNPPsbebuilt innon-residentialareas. In fact,unlike thecapital cityofFukuiPrefectureand itsneighbourhood,nolargefactoryorhousingestateforworkershasbeenconstructed in theWakasaBayarea.TheareaisnotfarfrommajorcitiesincludingKyoto,but improvementof thetrafficsituationwastherewasdelayed,andneighbouringmountainsareoverrunwithelectricpowercablesandpylonsthatleadtometropolitandistricts.ⅵ）

　As a result of pol i t ical manoeuvring , thepopulationdensityoftheareahasremainedlow.Thegovernmenthasnotgivenenoughaid to farming,and stable employment has been limited.Youngpeoplewhowantjobshavenochoicebuttobecomecivil servants (including teachers andhealth careworkers), bank clerks,Nky-syokuin (employees ofagricultural cooperatives), oremployeesofelectricpowercompanies (and theirprimecontractors).Afewhavebeenluckyenoughtoobtainsuchjobs,but


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mosthavenot.

2．Work-life issues of NPP workers in the Wakasa Bay Area in the 1980s

1）ultiple exploitation system of workers　In the 1980swhenmy previous surveywasconducted,‘multiple-exploitation system’ ofworkerswasprevalent. (SeeChart2andTable1)At the time, subcontracts, its subcontracts,and itssubcontracts (～tier- six) existed in participationof two ormore principal contractor companies.Frontlinesubcontractorsusuallyhadnooffices (oronlymakeshiftones).　Althoughmanysubcontractbusinessproprietorswerecarryingoutexploitation fromworkers, theythemselvesweredoingcontaminationlabor.Needlessto say, the scale of their exploitationmighthavebeenmuchsmallerthantheelectricpowerfirmandtheirdirectagents.　MrR., anNPPworker in his fiftieswhowasemployedbya third-level subcontractor, toldme:

‘Until1981,myemployergavemeasheetofpaperwiththeamountofmywagewrittenonit,butsince1982 a theword jirei (letter of appointment)wasadded.ThereweresubcontractedNPPworkerswho

ranked lower thanmewhoearnedabetterwagethanIdid,buttheywereexposedtohigherlevelsofradiation.Andtheyhadno“kenkhoken”.’　AsshowninChart2,mostirregularworkerswereexcluded frompublichealth insurance,althoughallemployersare legallyrequiredtocontribute to thesystem.MrR.saidhewasluckytobeenrolled.　Japanesepublichealth insurancehas twomainpil lars :‘kenkhoken’ and‘kokumin-kenkhoken(kokuho).’The former is for employeesofprivateenterprises, the latter for thosewhoare ineligibleforemployment-basedprograms. In1984, enroleesin‘kenkhoken’hadtopay10%oftheirmedicalbillsbythemselves (30%inApril,2003andafterwards);enrolees in‘kokuho’hadtobear30% .Inthesameyear,thenominalwageinJapanwas300,000yen.

Wage schedule of NPP workers (1980―1984)May1980

（20days）June1982

（21days）November

1984

Basicwage: 100,000yen 11,300yen 157,500yen

Overtimeallowance: 7,820yen 3,316yen 1,970yen

Holidayallowance: 6,250yen（perday）

13,250yen（twodays） 0yen

Total: 114,070yen 127,866yen 159,470yen

Netincome: 100,000yen 110,000yen 140,000yen

Chart 2　NPP subcontracting system in the Wakasa Bay Area in early 1980s


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2）Daily jobs of NPP workers　Inside an NPP, water contaminated withradioactivesubstancesalways leaks,and theair isnotsafetobreath.Protectivegearcannotcompletelyprevent external exposure, andprotectivemasksarenot sufficient toguardworkers from internalexposure.　The work NPP workers perform includes:scrubbingcontaminated floorsorpipes; settingupshields to lessen exposure for valve repairmen;checking and repairing cracks or holes in pipesor tanks;welding; transporting tools,machinery,radioactive substances, andnuclearwastes; layingandremovingsheets for lorrieswhentheycome inandoutoffacilities;washingcontaminatedprotective

gear andmasks; removing filter elements (fromradioactivewasteevaporator) toclear large trash;usinggrinderstoscraprustorpeatmossofftanksinsidebuildings; inspectinggauges incontaminatedareas (whichmayentail climbinghighplaceswitha lifelinetiedaroundthewaist);andpreventingtheerosionofnuclearpilesby infusingchemicals.Mostofthese‘dirty’jobsweredonebyirregularworkers,whowereexploitedbyseveralemployersandhadno othermeans ofmaking a living.Ahandful ofsubcontractedregularemployeesalsoperformthesejobs. In a sense, it could be said that executivesofNPP-relatedbusinessesearned their fortuneattheexpenseof these frontlineworkers.However,according to informationprovidedby interviewees

Table 1　List of the survery’s subjects(in order of belonging stratum)


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1, 3, 4, and5, it couldnotbe said that the lowestsubcontractorswereinequalpartnershipwithprimecontractors,includingelectricpowercompanies.

3）People who lost their jobs or died due to disease

　AgreatnumberofNPPworkerswhohadbeenchronicallyexposedtoradiationsufferedfromcancerorheartdisease, andmanyof themdied.ⅶ）Someof thevictims’families, suchas theirwidowsandchildren,applied forpublicassistance. (SeeTable2foratradeunion’slistofdeceasedworkers.)

Table ２　List of deceased NPP workers living in Wakasa Bay Area

4）Exposure dose of regular and irregular workers　Electricpowercompanies inJapanreporteveryyear to theNuclearRegulationAuthorityonNPPworkers’ radiation exposure.These reports showa difference of exposure doses between regularand irregularworkers.On26July2012, theonlineversionofAsahiShimbunreportedthatthe‘averageexposuredoseofirregularworkers,includingpeopleemployedbysubcontractors, is four-timesasmuch

as regularworkersdirectly employedbyelectricpowercompanies.’Thearticlewenton to report,

‘Almost90percentofNPPworkersareemployedby subcontractors.Why is their exposuredose sohigh? It isbecause theyarenotproperlyeducatedonsafetymeasures.Furthermore,theytendedtobeallocatedmoredangerousduties.Itisareflectionofimproperlabourpractice.’(SeeCharts3-1and3-2.)　Even in the1980s, therewasacaseofaregularworkerwhohadallegedlydiedofradiationexposure.Theman,whodiedof leukemia,hadtoldhisfamily,

‘It isriskytoworkasasubcontractor’semployee.Theyareexposedto toomuchradiation. It isonlyrelatively safe if oneworksdirectlyunderprimecontractors.’ⅷ）

Chart 3-1　The number of workers exposed to radiation

and total dose of exposure: as to employees of

electric power companies and subcontractors

Chart 3-2　Total radiation exposure dose of NPP workers


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3．Employment and working conditions of NPP workers after the Fukushima nuclear disaster

1）NPP Subcontracting system of the Tokyo Electric Power Company (TEPCO)

　Chart 4 shows the currentNPPsubcontractingsystem. Itwas produced byWatanabeHiroyukibasedontheresultofhearingsconductedaftertheFukushimanucleardisasterin2011.Thesystemhasnotchangedmuchsincethe1980s.

Chart 4　Subcontracting system for regular NPP check-ups and others

　Nowadays , the ma in workforce o f NPPsconsists of atypicalworkers called‘haken-rdsya,’or dispatchedworkers.There are two types ofdispatchagencies (‘haken-gaisya’) for‘haken-rdsya’:oneemploysworkerspermanentlyanddispatchesthemaccording todemand fromotheremployers;theotheremploysworkers temporarilyandmakesa contract of employmentwith theworkers onlywhendemandfromotheremployersarise.Whilethelatterisrequiredtoobtainlegalpermissionfromtheauthorityconcerned, the formercanoperateonly iftheyregisterwiththeauthority.　Evenlegal‘haken-gaisha’aresometimespunishedfor illegalactivities.On26April2013, theNagasakiLabourBureau (Ministry ofHealth, Labour andWelfare) issued an improvement order to threecompanies that had illegally dispatched a totalof 510workers toTEPCO’s FukushimaDaiichi

Nuclear Power Station (FDNPS) to contain theaccident.Oneof the reprimandedcompanieswasYamatoEngineeringService (YES).According toanofficialdocument, from1Julythrough9August2011twoothercompanies,SowaKogyoandAgress,dispatched510workerstoYES.Itisallegedthatofthe510workers, 341wereemployedbyYESand169weredispatchedbyanother‘haken-gaisha’toYES.ThedispatchedworkerswereengagedinpipeworkattheFDNPS.InJapan,thetwo-folddispatchofworkersbymultipleemployers is illegal.Article44oftheEmploymentSecurityActstatesthat it isforbiddenforapersonto‘haveworkerssuppliedbyapersonwhocarriesouta laboursupplybusinessunderhis/herowndirectionsororders.’Inaddition,Article4of theWorkerDispatchingActprohibitslabour supply companies from the constructionindustry.

2）Results of TEPCO’s ‘employment questionnaire’ 　From 20th September to 18thOctober 2012,TEPCO collected employment questionnairesfrom 3,186 peoplewho belonged to 27TEPCOsubcontractors (76.1% ofwhichwere frontlineworkers; 22.6% , administrators) andwhowereworkingat theFDNPS.Theresponserate for thequestionnairewas80.2% .　Tothequestion:‘Isthecompanythatsupervisesyou thesameone thatpaysyourwage?’47.9%ofrespondentsanswered,‘No’and2.1%answered,‘Idonotknow.’Notsurprisingly, to thequestion:‘Isthecompany thatemploysyou,a subcontractorofTEPCO?’allrespondentsanswered,‘Yes’and88.4%added,thecompanywas‘afirst/second/third/fourth-level subcontractor.’One respondent evenwrotethat‘Icannotspeakoutabout illegalemploymentout of fear of losing my job.’ (See TEPCO.

‘Shuroujittai nikannsuru anketo’nikansurukekka oyobi

konngonotaisaku nituite（The questionnaire result about

the employment actual condition, and the proposal of the

measure against future）.　3December2012,Web.22March2013.　<http://www.tepco.co. jp/nu/fukushima-np/roadmap/images/m121203_05-j.pdf/>.)


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3）Tsuruga and Wakasa area people who told their experiences to the author

　I conducted interviews with NPP workers( including retirees) , their famil ies , and NPPsubcontractors from 22 January through 30September2012. Interviewswere conductedwiththefollowingindividuals:

Interview1 (conducted 22 January 2012):MrK.A. (60s), once employedby a directsubcontractorofKEPCO(KansaiElectricPowerCo. Inc.), retiredbeforeheturned60.Exposedtoradiationonthejob.

Interview2 (conducted 20 July and 31August2012):MrH.B.(50s),isnowemployedbyaprimecontractor.Exposedtoradiationonthejob.

Interview3(conducted22Juneand28September2013): Mr H.C. (60s) , an active NPPworkeremployedbythird-orfourth-levelsubcontractor.Exposedtoradiation.

Interview4 (conducted 15 July and 11August2013):MrS.D.(70s),aretiredNPPworkeremployedbysubcontractors.Exposedtoradiation.

Interview5 (conducted 21 July 2013):MrH.E.(60s), an activemanager of an NPPsubcontractorcompany (third-or fourth-levelsubcontractor).Exposedtoradiation.

Interview6 (conducted4September2013):MrH.F. (60s),aretiredregularemployeeofanaffiliatecompanyofanorderingcompany.Exposedtoradiation.

Interviewee7 (conducted12September2013):AfamilymemberofMrI.G (ageunknown).MrI.G.wasamanagerofthird-orfourth-level aNPPsubcontract company.Theinterviewee assistswith the business.Mr I.G. is currently receivingmedicaltreatment for a disease presumablycausedbyradiationexposure.

Interview8 (conducted30September2013):MrY.H. (50s),aretiredregularemployeeofasecond-levelsubcontractor.Exposedtoradiation.

Interview9(conducted12October2013):Afamilymember ofMrY.I., who had been aprimecontractor’semployee.MrY.I.wasexposed to radiation, and retired earlyafterundergoingsurgery forcancer.Hediedsoonaftergettinganewjob.

Interview10(conducted19October2013):F.J(50s),anemployeeofafirst-levelsubcontractor.Exposedtoradiation.

　IntervieweeNo.3 (MrH.C.) has beenworkingatNPPs in theWakasaBayarea since1984.Thefollowingisanexcerptfromhisstory.　Myparentswere blue-collarworkers.After Igraduated from juniorhigh school, I got a job atamachinerymaintenance company as a regularworker,butmywagewasnotenough.WhenIwas26yearsold,Iquitthecompanyandgotanotherjobin a small factorydoingmechanicalmaintenance.Therewereonlymanagerandme,soitwasatwo-man company.The factory,which faced amainroad, lost customersafterawider, newroadwasconstructed. Ironically, itwasexactlyat this timethat Imarriedandmy first childwasborn. I leftthefactorywhenIwas35andgotanewjobfromasecond-levelNPPcontractorasa (third)contractor.ItwasnotdifficultformetobecomeaccustomedtoNPPworkbecauseIwasaveteranmechanic.　Onetime,mywifeandI lived inpublichousing.Inmyforties,Iboughtahousewithaloan.Ihadtoworkhard toprovide formy family.Mywifequitherjobaftermarriage.Shehasbeendoingpieceworkat homewhile taking care of us and raising ourchildren.　Iworkedanywhere, regardless of the radiationlevel. I often did one hour overtime, sometimesworkingallnightwithoutsleep.Timespentwithmyfamilydecreasedorincreased,dependingonthejob.Theexposuredoselimitsweresetbyemployers,andIusuallydidmyjobwithinthelimits,butonceIhadtofleeworkplacebecauseofexcessiveexposure. ⅸ）

Beforeworking atNPPs, I really hesitated todotheworkand I amscared todeathwhen I thinkseriouslyabout it.Youcannotseeradiation,soyou


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canignoreit.ⅹ）

　Ihaveakindofstableposition,so IhardlyhaveanycontactwithotherNPPworkerswhowanderthe country looking for work; we are strictlyseparated fromeachother. In thepast, the‘sub-sub-subcontractor’ boss collectedworkers, butnowadays,‘haken-gaisha’do it.Workerdispatchersoftensendinpeoplewhohavenoexperienceatall.　Whenanothercompanywasbusy,myemployerordered committingme in the another company.My employer does not change.And I superviseinexperiencedworkers recruitedelsewhere in thecompany, though I amnot officially adirector.ⅺ）Since theendof 2012andearly 2013, the centraland localgovernmentdirectedemployers toenroltheirworkersinsocialinsurance,andIwasdirectlyemployedbythecompany[withwhichMrH.C.hadcontractedasanindependentcontractor].InthepastthecompanyIcontractedwithdidnotenrolinsocialinsurance,but itdoesnow.While Iwasemployedregularly, I joined social insurancewithemployercontribution.The situationhas changed.Both thechain of commandat theworkplaceandmyownworkingstylehavenotchangedeventhoughIhavebecomea regular employee.The social insurancepremiumand income tax are deducted frommysalary, somytake-homepayhasdecreased. In thecompanyemployingme,thereareonlyfourregularemployees, includingme,andno irregularworkers.When themanagerneedsmoreworkers, he askshaken-gaisha for them.Haken-sha-in, or dispatchworkers,earnamere150,000yenamonth; someluckyonesearn200,000yen.ⅻ）

Conclusion　Whatare frontlineNPPworkersdoing,andwhatkind of situation are they in?Their employmentconditions andworking environment have notimprovedsince the1980s.NPPemployers,electricpower companies and theirmain subcontractorusually evade liability for labour accidents, suchas radiation exposure, hidingbehind the cover ofthemultiple subcontracting system and flexibleemployment.Furthermore,mystudy showscases

where theworkingconditionsofNPPworkersaredesperate and there is little hope that they canbe improved solely through the collaboration andcooperation of frontline subcontractors.Wemustspellouthowtoorganizetheworksystemincaseswherenuclear reactors aredecommissioned.Thepapermakesthefollowingobservations:

　1）ThevastmajorityofmaintenanceandcontrolofNPPs, transportationofnuclear fuel andwastedisposal isdonebytemporaryworkersemployedinmultiple subcontracting system.Theworkers arecollectedinaccordancewiththedemandsofelectricpower companies and/or subsidiary companies ofplantmanufacturers(suchasMitsubishiandHitachi),and are discarded anytimewith nomercy.Notonlyworkersbutalso terminal subcontractorsareexpendable.　2） Inside the NPPs, a complicated chain ofcommandexists: subcontractedregularemployees,irregularlyemployedworkers,ordispatchedworkers(who are employed for limited period of time)work there. It isquitedoubtful thatmechanismtomaintain,control,andrepairNPPsinsystematicandconsecutivewaysisfirmlyestablished.　3）TheMinistryofLand,Infrastructure,TransportandTourism (MLIT) appeals to other concernedofficialsororganisations inorder tomoderniseandnormalise for-profit entities engaged in theNPPbusiness.The aims of theMLITare to enrol allemployees in social insurance and to guaranteepaidvacation for allworkers.As a recent trend,it is not unusual for independent subcontractorswhohaveenoughcapability tobecomeemployeesofupper–level subcontractors. In suchcases,NPPworkerswho earn the status of employees oftenloseacertaindegreeoftheir incomebecausesocialinsurancepremiumsand taxesarededucted fromtheirwages.Ontheotherhand,subcontractorsthatdirectlyemployseveralNPPworkerstendtoreducethewagesofregularworkersorrefrainfromhiringirregularworkers in order to ease theburdenofsocial insurancepremiumonemployers.Everytimea shortageofworkers occurs, the subcontractors


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collectirregularworkersfromhaken-gaisha.　4）Workinghoursaresubstantially long forbothirregularworkersemployedbyranksubcontractorsanddispatchedworkers,regardlessoftheprovisionsof theLabour StandardsAct. It usually takes along time for theseNPPworkers to travel to theworkplacefromtheirhomeorlodgings.Allthewhile,nominalworkinghoursatNPPsaresetaccordingtoradiationexposuredose,anditisnotrareforworkerexposuredoses to exceed set limits in just a fewminutes.�）

　5）ItisroutineforNPPworkerstolosetheirjobsbecausetheirlabourcontractshavebeenterminated:the reason for their termination is that theirexposuredose exceeds a certain level setby thegovernment. � ）　Asstated inNote1of thispaper,asageneral rule (with someexceptions), it is thestandardnationalpracticetorecordworkers’annualexposuredosefrom1Aprilthrough31Marchofthefollowingyear.�）

　6）NPPworkers have to remain in extremelyhotandwetplace,wherepipes twistandturn likea labyrinth. Sometimes theyhave tomoveheavyloadsbyhand.Theyhavetowearheavyandclumsyprotectivegear,includingmasks,glovesandhelmetsandeven if theyaren’texposed toradiation, thesefactorscertainlytaketheir toilontheirmentalandphysicalwell-being.Ontheotherhand,so-calledlightwork inNPPsdoesnot requireheavyprotectiveclothing,butpeoplewhodosuchworkarevulnerabletoradiationexposure.

　Mystudy is far fromcomplete; nevertheless, itismy conviction that the industry should adoptseveralmeasures to improve the employmentandworking conditions of NPPworkers. Suchmeasures include: (a) elimination of themultiplesystemof labourexploitation; (b)eliminationof‘gis-

ukeoi’(workcontract fraud); (c)prohibitionof theuseofdispatchedworkers inNPPs; (d)distributionof certificates testifying that thebearerhasbeenexposedtoradiationandguaranteeingcertainhealthcarebenefits by thenational government; (e) thelegal exemption of dispatchedworkers fromany

workthatwould involveexposuretoradiation. ⅹⅵ）;(f)creationbythegovernment incollaborationwithelectric power companies, largeplantmaker andsubcontractorsofasubstantialframeworktosecureemployment ofworkerswhohave been exposedto radiation; (g)protectionof law-abiding terminalsubcontractors fromthearbitraryactionsof large-scale firms (including electric power companies);(h) facilitationofapplication forworkers’accidentcompensation (WAC) byNPPworkers for lateradiation injury, and enlargement of the scopeofWAC to include diseases related to radiationexposure; (i) enhancement of　medical checkupsforNPPworkersand their families forwhich thegovernmentwould be responsible; (j) permanentdisclosureof informationregardingsubcontractingstructure by electric power companies, plantmakersandconstruction firms,and thecreationofenvironment inandaroundNPPsso thatworkerscanspeakout[withoutfearofreprisal].

　Thesadrealityisthatitwilltakealargenumberoffrontlineworkers,whocannottotallyescapefromradiation exposure, even if allNPP reactors aredecommissioned.

Acknowledgement　Theauthorwould like to thankMr.NakamuraYuji forhis cooperation in translating theoriginalJapaneseintoEnglish.　Thispaperwas supportedbyagrant from theJSPSAsiaCoreProgram.


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Notes

ⅰ）Total annual exposure to radiation should fallwithinacertain legal limit from1April to31Marchofthefollowingyear.However,itisresetto‘zero’onnext1April.Thiscountingsystempermits‘low-level radiationexposure’that ishazardous toworkers’ health. In the case ofnormalwork, theOrdinanceonPreventionofIonizingRadiationHazards limits theexposuredose to 100mSv in five-years or 50mSv inone-year (OrdinanceonPreventionof IonizingRadiationHazardsArticle4)and inthecaseofemergencyworkto100mSv(Article7).

Article9 states :“The employer shall checkthe results of themeasurement of the dosedue toexternalexposureunder theprovisionsofparagraph1of theprecedingArticledailyfor thoseworkerswho are suspected to beexposed to radiation exceeding 1mSv/dayin terms of the 1 cm dose equivalent. Theemployershallcalculateandrecordthedoseofradiationexposure forradiationworkers listedineachofthe following itemswithoutdelaybyusing themethodsdesignatedby theMinisterofHealth,LabourandWelfareon thebasisofthemeasurement and/or calculation resultsundertheprovisionsofparagraphs3or5oftheprecedingArticle,andkeepsuchrecordsforatleast30years.Thisprovisionshallnotapply intheeventanemployerturnsoversuchrecordstoanorganizationdesignatedbytheMinisterof

Health,LabourandWelfare,afterkeepingthemforaperiodof5years.”

Ithinkallworkersshouldbenotifiedinwritingeverydayof theirexposure levelsas indicatedbybothalarmmetresandglassdosimeters.Thesameprocedure shouldbeapplied toworkerswhosedaily exposuredose is assumed to belowerthan1mSv.

ⅱ）TheMinistryofLand,Infrastructure,TransportandTourism (MLIT) sent a letter dated 26March 2012 entitled“More Social InsuranceEnrolmentintheConstructionIndustry”tochiefsecretariesofministriesandagencies,headsofordinance-designatedcities,directingmanagersof public corporations, andmain contractors(privateentities).Sincethen,subcontractorshavebeen trying to enrol their regular employees.In this process, irregularworkers tend tobe fired, and utilization of dispatchworkersby subcontractors reappearswhenworkershortagessporadicallyoccur.

On22June2013,anNPPworkertoldmethathehadbecomearegularemployee.Hehadworkedasanindividualcontractorforalongtimebuttohisdismayhisincomedecreasedasaresultofthechange inhisstatus.Theaveragemonthlywageofregularworkerswhoareemployedbysubcontractorsandengaged inadministrationjobs atwork sites is around300,000yen, butsocial insurancepremiums (suchashealthcare,pensionand long-termmedicalcare)and taxes(incometaxandresidenttax)aredeductedfromtheirwages.

ⅲ）According to information I obtained frominterviews conducted on 21 July and 12September2013,somesubcontractorstookpainsovertheemploymentcontinuationofemployees.

ⅳ）DrMurataSaburoadvocates forNPPworkerssuffering fromradiationexposure, andheandhis co-workers have been assistingworkersin their claims forworkers. compensation toclaimcompensationfor industrialaccidents.SeeIshimaruKoshiro et.al., FukushimaNPP andRadiationExposedLabour,(Akashi-shoten,2013).


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ⅴ）ThismanisasubcontractorwhoseworkisnotrelatedtoNPPsbuthisfatherworkedinNPPs.

ⅵ）While most of the land belongs to localcommunitiesor individualresidents,pylonsandpower cables are property of electric powercompanies (EPCs).Leasecontractsof the landaredesignedtopermitEPCstousetheirtowersandcablesforalongtime.

ⅶ）Apartof“oralhistory”ofNPPworkersinearly1980swrittenbythisauthorisfoundin:TakakiKazumi,“ResearchNoteonNPPDay-WorkersinWakasaAreapart2,”NihonFukushiDaigakuDaigakuin Kenkyu-ronshu (Nihon FukushiUniversityGraduateSchool’smagazine)Issue3,1988.

ⅷ）Radiation is a kind of“light”which canpenetrate substances. Radioactivity has thecapacity to produce radiation. Radiationexposuremeansthatthehumanbodyisexposedtoradiation.Thereare two typesof radiation:electromagnetic radiation and corpuscularradiation.Radiation exposuremaybedividedinto two categories: external exposure andinternalexposure (MatsuiEisuke,Mienai Kyōfu:

Hōshasen Naibu Hibaku [Invisible Terror: Internal

Exposure], Junpo-sha, 2011: 36-37).All formsof radiation (alpha, beta and gamma) affectthebody.However, alpha andbeta radiationdisruptmolecules,soexposuretothemismoredangerous than external exposure to gammaradiation.As longasradioactivesmallparticlesremain inbodies, internal exposurecontinues.

（YagasakiKatsuma,‘NaibuHibaku’ (InternalRadiationExposure.InNaibu Hibaku kara Inochi

wo Mamoru (Protecting One’s Life from Internal

Exposure, Shimin toKagakunoNaibuHibakuMondaiKenkyūkai(AssociationforCitizensandScientistsConcernedabout InternalRadiationExposures(ed.),Junpo-sha,2012:81-82)

AccordingtoMatsui,internalradiationexposurehasbeen ignoredbecauseof the InternationalCommissiononRadiologicalProtection (ICRP),once themost respected institution in thefield.Matsui points out that the ICRP had

stated that theeffectsof radiation‘shouldbedeterminedbyexposedmicroarea,’and ithadadopted a standard“toestimate the averageexposuredose to eachorgan,”but it ignoredthesignificanceof internalexposure. Incaseofinternalexposure,intensifiedexposureat“microarea”matters.The ICRP’s standard ismostlybased on datawhich analysed the effects ofacuteexternalradiationexposure inHiroshimaandNagasaki (Matsui,Mienai Kyōfu, 2011: 53).Established in 1951, the ICRPonce consistedofnotonlyacommittee forexternalexposurebut for internalexposureaswell;however, thelattersoonceasedtoexist.CarlSagan,whowaselectedthefirstpresidentof thecommittee forinternalexposure, laterwrotehisobservationsinhisbookThe AngryGenie.Headmitted thatthe ICRPcouldnot escape from the reign ofthenuclear industryandwrote thathecouldunderstandwhy the institute had lost itsprestige.

ⅸ）According to interviewee 8 (MrY.H.), eachworkerhasafilmbadgeandapocketdosimetertomeasure the dose of radiation exposure,and equipment readings are compiled everymonth foreachworker. It isnotunusual thatdifferences appear between the aggregatedreadingsofthefilmbadgesandthoseofpocketmeters.Whensuchcaseshaveoccurred,MrY.H.said, only lower readingshavebeenofficiallyrecorded.

ⅹ） In1980sseveralpeopletoldmethesamething.For example, another said,‘If you could seeradiation,nobodywouldworkinNPPs.

ⅺ）Backinthe1980s,accordingtotheinterviewee8 (MrY.H.),when aprime contractor lackedengineers,employeesofitssubcontractorswerefalselyhiredas thecontractor’s employeesorplacedinotherpositionsindifferentcompanies.

ⅻ）On4September2013,anemployerdispatchingworkersposteda jobadvertisement theHelloWorkwebsiteofapublicemploymentsecurityoffice.Theemployer,based inTsuruga,Fukui,wanted tohireworkers for“security jobs in


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nuclearpowerplants”asterminableemployees.The ad said that themonthlywage of anexperiencedpersonwouldbebetween160,000and180,000yen.

�）KEPCOrestrictedworking-hourof eachNPPworker inreactorbuildingstotenhoursaday.On21July2013an interviewee toldme,“Onewouldbeexposed toradiationbeforereaching

‘hot’points. Ifyouare lucky, it takes fiveorsixminutestocheckswitchestomovenuclearfuel.Forthisprocedurealone,anexposuredoseof twoorthreemSv isunavoidable.Sometimesyouhave to check twice, so it takes twiceaslong,andtheexposuredosewouldbefourorsixmSv.”

�）Employers shouldnot fireemployeesbecausethey have reached the exposure dose limit.Employers have an obligation to retainNPPworkers.Thismeans that employers shouldsecure other employment for theworkerswhoseexposureexceeds the limit and shouldpay themasubstantialwage.Needless tosay,it isunrealistic toplaceall responsibilities asemployersontheshouldersofsubcontractors.

�）Exposure to radiation in thework place issometimesfatal.ItishazardoustoNPPworkers’health,canhaveseriousconsequenceslongaftertheworkersretire,andmightevencausegeneticdamagethatwillaffectfuturegenerations.

）On 13 December 2013, the director of theTsurugaLabourStandardsInspectionOfficetoldmethatmostregularinspectionsofNPPswerecategorizedas‘constructionwork.’Evenundercurrentregulations,dispatchingworkers todoconstructionwork is forbidden. Inmyopinion,theseregulat

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