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Lazr Avram

EELLEEMMEENNTTEE DDEE MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTTUULL FFOORRAAJJUULLUUII

EELLEEMMEENNTTSS OOFF DDRRIILLLLIINNGG MMAANNAAGGEEMMEENNTT

Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti

2011

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Copyright2011 Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti Toate drepturile asupra acestei ediii sunt rezervate editurii Autorul poart ntreaga rspundere moral, legal i material fa de editur i tere persoane pentru coninutul lucrrii.

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei AVRAM, LAZR Elemente de managementul forajului / Lazr Avram. - Ploieti: Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti, 2011 Bibliogr. ISBN 978-973-719-435-0

622.24

Control tiinific: Prof. univ. dr. ing. Mihai Pascu Coloja ef lucr. dr. ing. Mihaela Oprea Ciopi Redactor: Prof. univ. dr. ing. Mihai Pascu Coloja Tehnoredactare computerizat: Prof. univ. dr. ing. Lazr Avram Traducere: Lector dr. Loredana Ilie Lector dr. Diana Presad

Coperta: Mihail Radu Director editur: Prof. univ. dr. ing. erban Vasilescu

Adresa: Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti Bd. Bucureti 39, cod 100680 Ploieti, Romnia Tel. 0244-573171, Fax. 0244-575847 http://editura.upg-ploiesti.ro/

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ROMN

CCUUPPRRIINNSS Cuvnt nainte 5 1. ANALIZA STRII ACTUALE A INDUSTRIEI EXTRACTIVE DE PETROL I GAZE 7 2. PARTAJAREA DOMENIULUI OFFSHORE 27 3. FORAJUL N APE ADNCI I ULTRA ADNCI GENERALITI 33 4. ACTIVITATEA DE FORAJ 41

4.1. Generaliti 41 4.2. Structura general a procesului de forare a sondelor 44

5. ELEMENTE DE EFICIEN ECONOMIC N ACTIVITATEA DE FORAJ 47 6. CALCULUL CAPACITII DE PRODUCIE NTR-O UNITATE DE FORAJ 57 7. METODE I TEHNICI DE MANAGEMENT 63

7.1. Tabele de decizie 64 7.2. Msurarea riscului 75 7.3. Metode i tehnici de prognoz 81 7.4. Metode moderne de programare a produciei 86

8. FUNDAMENTAREA RAPORTULUI PRODUCIE REZERVE METRI FORAI (GAZE) 97 9. EFICIENA INVESTIIILOR N INDUSTRIA EXTRACTIV DE PETROL I GAZE 107

9.1. Generaliti 107 9.2. Indicatorii eficienei economice a investiiilor 108 9.3. Metoda Discount Cash Flow (DCF) de estimare a investiiilor, cheltuielilor i veniturilor 123

BIBLIOGRAFIE SELECTIV 135

ENGLEZ

TTAABBLLEE OOFF CCOONNTTEENNTTSS Abstract 5 1. ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT STATE OF THE PETROLEUM AND GAS EXTRACTION INDUSTRY 7 2. OFFSHORE DOMAIN SHARING 27 3. DRILLING IN DEEP AND ULTRA DEEP WATER GENERAL PRESENTATION 33 4. THE DRILLING ACTIVITY 41

4.1. General Presentation 41 4.2. The General Structure of the Well-Drilling Process 44

5. ELEMENTS OF ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF DRILLING OPERATIONS 47 6. CALCULATING THE PRODUCTION CAPACITY IN A DRILLING UNIT 57 7. MANAGEMENT METHODS AND TECHNIQUES 63

7.1. Decision Tables 64 7.2. Risk Measurement 75 7.3. Forecast Methods and Techniques 81 7.4. Modern Methods of Production Scheduling 86

8. ESTABLISHING THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG PRODUCTION, RESERVES AND DRILLED METERS OF GAS 97 9. THE EFFICIENCY OF INVESTMENTS IN THE PETROLEUM AND GAS EXTRACTION INDUSTRY 107

9.1. General Presentation 107 9.2. Economic Efficiency Indicators of Investments 108 9.3. The Discounted Cash Flow Method (DCF) of Estimating

Investment, Expenses and Revenue 123 SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY 135

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CCUUVVNNTT NNAAIINNTTEE Cercetrile actuale din domeniul managementului se

axeaz pe gsirea de noi modaliti care s asigure eficiena economic a activitilor, n condiiile unor schimbri relevante pe plan intern i internaional. Globalizarea, criza economic, dezvoltarea durabil, competitivitatea, sigurana energetic sunt doar cteva din conceptele ce guverneaz economiile actuale care au determinat noi orientri n abordarea managementului ca tiin i activitate practic.

Managementul activitii de foraj este domeniul care impune o atenie deosebit n instruirea teoretic i practic a specialitilor, astfel ca formarea acestora s le permit adaptarea ct mai rapid la cerinele tot mai complexe ale pieei muncii.

Lucrarea de fa are ca obiectiv principal cunoaterea i nelegerea principalelor concepte, principii, metode, tehnici i instrumente ale managementului activitii de foraj. Prin exemplele abordate, cartea ofer o serie de informaii utile privind modalitile prin care pot fi aplicate aceste metode pentru a asigura succesul organizaiilor din industria petrolier.

Lucrarea este structurat pe nou capitole i i propune s abordeze ntr-o succesiune logic, coerent, problematica complex cu care se confrunt managementul activitii de foraj.

Capitolul 1 intitulat Analiza strii actuale a industriei extractive de petrol i gaze, rspunde la o serie de ntrebri legate de evoluia acestei industrii inndu-se seama de rezervele existente, incertitudinea previziunilor i efortul depus de companiile petroliere n descoperirea de noi zcminte.

n capitolul 2 se delimiteaz domeniul offshore ca reprezentnd o surs potenial de rezerve care ar putea fi explorate ntr-un viitor apropiat de ctre investitorii pionieri.

AABBSSTTRRAACCTT

Current research in the field of management focuses on finding new ways to ensure the economic efficiency of activities in terms of relevant local and international changes. Globalization, economic crisis, sustainable development, competitiveness, energy security are some of the concepts which govern current economies and which have led to new guidelines in the approach of management both as science and as practical activity.

Drilling management is an area that requires special attention in the theoretical and practical training of specialists in order to allow them to sharply adapt to the ever growing requirements of the labour market.

This paper has as a main objective the knowledge and understanding of the key concepts, principles, methods, techniques and instruments of drilling management. Through the examples taken into discussion, the book offers a series of information concerning the manner in which these methods may be applied in order to ensure the success of petroleum industry organizations.

The book is divided into nine chapters and aims to address the complex issues of drilling management in a logical and coherent sequence.

Chapter 1, entitled "Analysis of the current state of oil

and gas production industry", gives answers to a series of questions about the development of this industry taking into account the existing reserves, the uncertanty of predictions and the effort made by oil companies to discover new deposits.

Chapter 2 identifies the offshore area as a source of potential reserves that could be explored in the near future by "pioneer investors".

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Capitolul 3 analizeaz operaiile i necesarul de echipamente pentru forajul n ape cu adncimi mari.

n capitolul 4 se dezvolt problematica organizrii n derularea activitilor de foraj, care impune constituirea de echipe cu caracter multidisciplinar din ingineri chimiti, ingineri geologi, ingineri de foraj, economiti etc.

Eficiena tehnico-economic a activitii de foraj se apreciaz cu ajutorul unor indicatori specifici, prezentai n capitolul 5.

n capitolul 6 se exemplific modul de calcul al capacitii de producie ntr-o unitate de foraj.

Metodele i tehnicile de fundamentare a deciziilor specifice industriei extractive de petrol i gaze, prezentate n capitolul 7, sunt exemplificate prin probleme i studii de caz.

n capitolul 8 se prezint modelarea deciziei de fundamentare a raportului producie rezerve metri forai, care impune determinarea unui volum optim economic al produciei de gaze extrase i efectuarea unui calcul de optimizare a creterii rezervelor, n sensul alegerii variantei optime ntre posibilitile de cretere ale acestora.

Baza economic a ntregii activiti de foraj este dat de eficiena investiiilor msurat prin indicatori specifici, prezentai n capitolul 9.

Lucrarea se adreseaz cu prioritate studenilor de la specializarea Management n industria petrolier, dar poate fi utilizat i de ctre manageri, ingineri i economiti implicai n derularea proceselor din industria extractiv de petrol i gaze.

Prof. dr.ing. Cornelia Coroian-Stoicescu

Chapter 3 analyzes deep sea drilling operations and equipment.

Chapter 4 dwells on the issue of the organization of drilling activities, which requires building a multidisciplinary team consisting of chemistry engineers, geologists, drilling engineers, economists, etc.

The technical and economic efficiency of drilling is estimated by means of specific indicators, presented in Chapter 5.

Chapter 6 illustrates the calculation of the production capacity in a drilling unit.

Different methods and techniques substantiating the specific decisions of oil and gas production industry are presented in Chapter 7. They are also exemplified by problems and case studies.

Chapter 8 follows a model of substantiating a decision for the ratio between production - reserves - drilled meters, which requires the determination of an economically optimum volume of the extracted gas and the performing of a calculus to optimize the increase of reserves in the sense of the optimal choice between the possibilities of their growth.

The economic basis of entire drilling activity is given by the efficiency of investments measured by the specific indicators presented in Chapter 9.

This paper is intended especially for students attending courses in Oil industry management, but it can also be used by managers, engineers and economists involved in the development of oil and gas production industry.

Prof. dr.ing. Cornelia Coroian-Stoicescu

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1.

AANNAALLIIZZAA SSTTRRIIII AACCTTUUAALLEE AA IINNDDUUSSTTRRIIEEII

EEXXTTRRAACCTTIIVVEE DDEE PPEETTRROOLL II GGAAZZEE

ntr-o economie din ce n ce mai globalizat,

strategia energetic a unei ri se realizeaz n contextul

situaiilor, evoluiilor i schimbrilor care au loc pe plan

mondial. Obiectivele principale ale strategiei noastre

energetice sunt conforme cu Noua Politic Energetic a

Uniunii Europene, adoptat n anul 2007: sigurana

energetic, dezvoltarea durabil i competitivitatea.

n ceea privete sigurana energetic, trebuie

precizat de la bun nceput c cererea total de energie n

2030 va fi cu aproximativ 50 % mai mare dect n 2003,

iar cererea de petrol va fi cu circa 46 % mai mare. Mai

mult, dependena de importul de petrol din UE se ateapt

s creasc de la 82 %, la ora actual, la 93 % n 2030 [1-

5]. n acest context se caut, desigur, surse alternative,

1.

AANNAALLYYSSIISS OOFF TTHHEE CCUURRRREENNTT SSTTAATTEE OOFF TTHHEE

PPEETTRROOLLEEUUMM AANNDD GGAASS EEXXTTRRAACCTTIIOONN

IINNDDUUSSTTRRYY In an increasingly globalized economy, the energetic

strategy of a country is determined by the context of the

situations, changes and evolutions that are taking place all

over the world at present. The major objectives of our

energetic strategies comply with the New Energetic Policy

of the European Union.

As regards energetic safety, we should specify from

the beginning that the total energetic demand in 2030 will

be approximately 50 % higher than it was in 2003, and the

demand for petroleum will increase by about 46 %. In

addition, our dependence on the import of petroleum from

the EU is expected to increase from 82 %, as it is today, to

93 % in 2030 [1-5]. In this context, it is obviously necessary

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care s reduc dependena fa de unul dintre furnizorii

principali i cel mai puin previzibil: Federaia Rus.

Legat de dezvoltarea durabil trebuie remarcat, n

primul rnd, faptul c la nivelul UE, sectorul energetic este

unul dintre principalii productori de gaze cu efect de ser.

Emisiile de CO2, la nivel planetar, sunt enorme: de ordinal

a 25 miliarde de tone /an. n termeni de volum, emisiile de

CO2 reprezint aproximativ 80 % din emisiile mondiale

(aproximativ 70 % dintre acestea provin din rile

industrializate [8]).

Alte gaze care absorb razele infraroii emise de

Terra provin din rejeturile aferente unor activiti umane,

mai cu seam n rile puternic industrializate: metanul,

oxidul nitros, compuii fluorai etc. Dei emisiile de CH4

sunt relativ reduse, comparativ cu cele de CO2

(aproximativ 10 % din volumul emisiilor totale),

contribuia lor la procesul de nclzire global este de 21

de ori mai mare dect cea a dioxidului de carbon. Oxidul

nitros N2O, a crui putere vizavi de nclzirea global este

to seek alternative resources that should reduce dependence

on one of the major and the least reliable suppliers: the

Russian Federation.

As far as sustainable development is concerned, we

should principally note that the energetic sector in the

European Union is one of the main generators of the

greenhouse gas effect. The worldwide CO2 emissions are

enormous: around 25 billion tons per year. CO2 emissions

represent approximately 80 % of the volume of world gas

emissions (70 % of these emissions are generated by the

industrialized countries [8]).

Other gases that absorb infrared radiation emitted

from the Earth are generated by household waste,

especially in industrialized countries: methane, nitrous

oxide, fluorine compounds, etc. Although the CH4

emissions are relatively low compared to those of CO2

(about 10% of the total emissions), their contribution to

global warming is 21 times higher than the one caused

by carbon dioxide. Nitric oxide N2O, whose

contribution to global warming is 310 times higher than

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de 310 ori mai mare dect cea a dioxidului de carbon,

provine din ngrmintele cu azot, consumul de energie

din transporturi i din cadrul unor procedee industriale

specifice. Ponderea N2O din cadrul emisiilor globale este

de aproximativ 13 %. n fine, compuii fluorai corespund

unor emisii reduse ca volum, dar impactul lor asupra

mediului ambiant este deosebit, dat fiind nocivitatea lor

cu mult superioar celei aferente dioxidului de carbon.

n ceea ce privete competitivitatea, piaa intern de

energie a Uniunii Europene asigur, principial, stabilirea

unor preuri corecte i competitive aferente energiei,

stimuleaz economisirea de energie i atrage investiii n

sectoarele specifice. Obiectivele cuprinse n Noua Politic

Energetic a UE se refer, n principal, la:

- reducerea emisiilor de gaze cu efect de ser cu 20 %

pn n anul 2020, n comparaie cu cele din anul 1990;

- creterea ponderii energiei regenerabile n totalul

consumului energetic de la aproximativ 7 % n anul 2006,

la 20 % n 2020;

- reducerea consumului global de energie primar cu

the one generated by carbon dioxide, comes from nitric

fertilizers, energy consumption resulting from transport

and some specific industrial processes. N2O represents

approximately 13 % of the global emissions. Finally,

fluorine compounds correspond to low volume

emissions, but their impact on the environment is

considerable because of their much more harmful effect

than the one of carbon dioxide.

As regards competitiveness, the internal energetic

market of the European Union, in principle, establishes

correct and competitive prices related to energy, stimulates

energy saving and attracts investments in specific sectors.

The objectives included in the New Energetic Policy of the

European Union mainly refer to the following:

- reducing the greenhouse gas emissions by 20 % by

the year 2020, in comparion with the emissions of 1990;

- increasing the share of renewable energy in the

overall energy consumption from approximately 7 % in to

20 % in 2020;

- reducing the global consumption of primary energy

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20 %, pn n anul 2020;

- creterea ponderii biocombustibililor la cel puin

10 % din totalul combustibililor utilizai n anul 2020 etc.

n ceea ce privete Romnia, privitor la strategia

energetic se au n vedere urmtoarele obiective:

promovarea unor proiecte multinaionale care s

asigure diversificarea accesului la resursele energetice de

materii prime, n special de gaze i petrol (proiectul

Nabucco i conducta de petrol Constana Trieste);

creterea capacitilor de nmagazinare a gazelor

naturale;

interconectarea Sistemului Naional de Transport Gaze

Naturale cu sistemele similare din rile vecine: interconectarea

cu Ungaria pe relaia Arad-Szeged; interconectarea cu Bulgaria

pe relaia Giurgiu-Ruse; interconectarea cu Ucraina pe relaia

Cernui-Siret; interconectarea cu Moldova pe traseul Drochia-

Ungheni.

Crizele din anii 1973 i 1978-1980, ca i creterile

de preuri din 2004 i 2005, ca s nu mai vorbim de

nspimnttoarele dereglri din anii 2008 i 2011, ne

by 20 % by the year 2020;

- increasing the share of biofuels to at least 10 % of

the total amount of fuels used in the year 2020, etc.

As far as Romania is concerned, the energetic

strategy aims at the following:

Promoting certain multinational projects able to

diversify the access to raw material energetic resources,

especially gas and petroleum (the Nabucco project and the

Constana Trieste oil pipeline);

Increasing gas storage capacity;

Interconnecting the National Gas Transport System with

the similar systems in the neighbouring countries: interconnection

with Hungary via Arad-Szeged; interconnection with Bulgaria

via Giurgiu-Ruse; interconnection with Ukraine via Cernui-

Siret; interconnection with The Republic of Moldova via

Drochia-Ungheni.

The crises in 1973 and between 1978 and 1980, as well

as the price increases in 2004 and 2005, leaving aside the

frightening oil market dysfunctions in 2008 and 2011, again

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readuc n fa temerile justificate legate de viitorul

industriei extractive de petrol. Valoarea real a rezervelor

disponibile, ca i funcionarea ca atare a pieelor mondiale,

suscit, firete, neliniti. Evoluia tehnic a altor sectoare

energetice gaze naturale, crbune, energii rennoibile,

domeniul nuclear, hidrogenul .c.l. aduc cu ele i o

nedisimulat speran pentru viitor.

i totui, n ciuda pesimismului multor observatori,

acel temut peak oil final - moment de dinaintea declinului

final al produciei de petrol i gaze nu reprezint o

ameninare imediat.

Desigur, nainte de a prezenta situaia actual a

produciei de petrol din lume, trebuie s admitem c exist

numeroi parametri i numeroase incertitudini legate de

rezervele de petrol ca atare.

a. Care este credibilitatea real a informaiilor

legate de rezerve? Rezervele probate reprezint informaii

strategice att pentru companiile petroliere ct i pentru

rile productoare, att sub aspect etnic ct i financiar.

b. Care sunt progresele realizate n ceea ce privete

bring to the fore the well-grounded fears related to the future of

the petroleum extraction industry. The real value of the available

oil reserves, as well as the functioning of the global market as

such, surely causes worries. Technical development of the other

energy sources - natural gas, coal, renewable energy, nuclear

field, hydrogen a.s.o - bring with them an unconcealed hope for

the future.

Nevertheless, despite the pessimism of many

observers, that feared final peak oil - the moment before the

final decline of oil and gas production - is not an immediate

threat.

Certainly, before presenting the current state of world

oil production, we must admit that there are many

parameters and numerous uncertainties related to oil

reserves as such.

a. What is the real credibility of the information

related to oil reserves? Proven reserves represent strategic

information for both oil companies and producing

countries, from both an ethnic and a financial point of view.

b. What progress has been made regarding the

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recuperarea rezervelor dintr-un zcmnt dat? n cadrul

industriei petroliere s-au realizat progrese considerabile n

ceea ce privete tehnicile de stimulare aferente sondelor

vechi, n activitate. Injecia de vapori de ap sau de CO2

permite s se recupereze procente de 50 % sau mai mari de

iei, comparativ cu 30 % pentru tehnicile aferente pompajului

clasic. n mod logic, prioritatea o reprezint, aadar,

creterea factorului de extracie pentru zcmintele de iei

cunoscute. Deloc de neglijat sunt, desigur, noile progrese

tehnologice.

c. Ce eforturi reale s-au depus de ctre companiile

petroliere pentru descoperirea de noi zcminte? Cum i

concentreaz actualmente marile companii eforturile, mai

ales asupra maximizrii produciei din zcmintele

cunoscute, respectiv asupra dezvoltrii cmpurilor

petrolifere identificate, teama privind descoperirea

resurselor viitoare, ca i tensiunile puternice legate de

evoluiile preurilor (vezi situaia de la sfritul anului

2008) constituie probleme la ordinea zilei.

d. Se poate prevedea, cu precizie, evoluia

recovery of oil from a given reservoir? Remarkable

progress has been made within the petroleum industry

concerning the stimulation techniques related to old rigs

that are still functioning. The injection of water vapours or

CO2 enables the recovery of 50 % or more of crude oil in

comparison with 30 % of oil recovery which is characteristic

of the classic pumping techniques. Logically, the priority

lies in increasing the extraction factor for the already known

oil reservoirs. The new technological progress should not be

underestimated.

c. What genuine efforts have been made by oil

companies in order to discover new oil reserves? Due to

the fact that the great companies are concentrating their

efforts on maximizing the production of the known

reservoirs, that is on the development of identified oil

fields, our concerns about the discovery of future

resources, as well as the strong dissentions connected to

price evolutions (see the situation at the end of 2008)

constitute vital issues today.

d. Can the evolution of the consumption of oil

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consumului de produse petroliere? Previziunile legate de

consumul produselor petroliere sufer de mari

incertitudini. n fapt, creterea anual a consumului este

strns legat de creterea economic. n ciuda puternicei

dominaii actuale a produselor petroliere n domeniul

transporturilor, carburanii de substituire, de tip

biocarburani, s-ar putea s-i pun amprenta mult mai

devreme dect ne-am atepta.

Analiznd datele din revistele de specialitate ale

ultimilor ani [5], se poate aprecia, ca o medie a rezervelor

dovedite, valoarea de 1200 de miliarde de barili. Cum

media consumului zilnic, n lume, n ultimii ani este de

ordinul a 80 de milioane de barili/zi, ar rezulta o producie

stabil de aproximativ 41 de ani, la nivelul consumului

actual. Iar dac la cele 1200 de miliarde de barili de petrol

convenional adugm aproximativ 600 miliarde de barili

provenite din resursele neconvenionale (ieiul extragreu

din Venezuela, nisipurile asfaltice din Canada etc.),

ajungem la o valoare a produciei stabile de 61 de ani, la

nivelul consumului actual.

products be precisely predicted? The forecasts related to

the consumption of oil products are rather uncertain. As a

matter of fact, the annual increase in consumption is tightly

related to the economic growth. In spite of the strong

present domination of oil products in transport, substitution

fuels, especially the biofuel type, might become popular

much sooner than expected.

After analysing the data in specialized journals in the

last few years [5], we can state that the amount of 1200

billion of oil barrels represents the average amount of the

proven reserves. Because the average world daily

consumption in recent years is around 80 million barrels per

day, we can estimate that there will be a stable production

of about 41 years at current consumption levels. And if we

add about 600 billion barrels from unconventional resources

(extra heavy oil of Venezuela, tar sands of Canada, etc.) to

the 1200 billion barrels of conventional oil, we will reach a

stable value of production for 61 years at the current

consumption level.

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La ora actual, OPEP controleaz circa 40 % din

producia mondial de petrol i deine aproximativ 75 %

din rezerve. ntrebri fireti: influena ei se va reduce n

viitor, sau din contr, va crete? Marile companii

petroliere, prevenite de primul oc petrolier, sunt oare

actualmente n stare s slbeasc menghina produciei?

.a.m.d.

rile productoare care nu sunt membre OPEP

furnizeaz 60 % din producia mondial prin intermediul

companiilor naionale sau multinaionale Exxon-Mobil,

BP, Shell, Total, ChevronTexaco etc. care se vor impune

n viitor mai ales n ceea ce privete asistena tehnic

privitoare la foraj, extracie, rafinare i distribuie.

Primul productor mondial (cifrele din paranteze, n

milioane de tone anual, sunt aproximative), Arabia Saudit

(500), continu s-i mreasc producia (cu peste 20 %

fa de 1994) i, cu siguran, va juca un rol important att

n viitorul apropiat, ct i n cel ndeprtat.

Rusia, al doilea productor mondial (300), posed

marje de producie considerabile. De fapt, rile din ex-

At present, OPEP controls about 40 % of the world oil

production and holds approximately 75 % of oil reserves.

Some simple questions: will its influence diminish in the

future, or, on the contrary, will it increase? Can we state

that the great oil companies, which were warned by the

first oil shock, are now able to weaken the vice of

production?

Producing countries, which are not OPEP members,

provide 60 % of the world production by means of the

national and multinational companies such as Exxon-Mobil,

BP, Shell, Total, ChevronTexaco, etc. These will prevail in

the future especially in terms of technical assistance related

to drilling, extraction, refining and distribution.

The worlds first oil producer (the figures in brackets,

which represent millions of tons per year, are approximate),

Saudi Arabia (500), continues to increase oil production (by

over 20 % in comparison with 1994) and will certainly play

an important role in the near or remote future.

Russia, the worlds second oil producer (300),

possesses significant production quantities. In fact, the

15

URSS, n care includem i Rusia, i pun din ce n ce mai

acut amprenta n ceea ce privete dominaia asupra

produciei mondiale. Producia lor a crescut cu

aproximativ 50 % n ultimii zece ani. Sau, mai mult,

producia s-a triplat (cazul Kazahstan). n parantez fie

spus, Rusia i asigur astzi peste 60 % din necesarul de

valut forte prin exportul de iei i gaze, mai ales n

Europa de Vest i n Europa Central, n scopul rennoirii

tehnologice a industriei petroliere i a reducerii decalajului

de productivitate fa de rile avansate [6]. Se pune,

desigur, ntrebarea fireasc: ct de pregtite sunt

companiile de petrol pentru a face fa unor surprize

inerente n ceea ce privete criza petrolului? Istoria

crizelor petroliere de dup 1973 a dovedit limpede

neputina companiilor petroliere de a face fa crizelor fr

sprijinul politic i chiar militar al marilor puteri

industrializate ale lumii (Agenia Internaional de

Energie, Rezervele Strategice de Petrol ale SUA,

Rezervele Strategice de Petrol ale Germaniei, Rezervele

Strategice de Petrol ale Japoniei etc. [6]).

countries of the former USSR, Russia being included too,

are exerting more and more influence as regards their

dominance on the worlds oil market. Their production

has increased by about 50 % over the last ten years. In

addition, production has tripled (in Kazahstan's case).

Let us mention too that Russia now provides over 60 %

of hard currency by exporting oil and gas, especially in

Western and Central Europe, with the aim of renewing

the oil industry technology and of closing its

productivity gap with the advanced countries [6].

Therefore, the natural question: How well prepared are

oil companies for coping with the inherent risks in an oil

crisis? The history of the oil crises after 1973 clearly

demonstrated the inability of oil companies to face them

without the political and even military support of the

industrialized powers of the world (International Energy

Agency, the U.S. strategic oil reserves, the strategic oil

reserves of Germany, the strategic oil reserves of Japan,

etc. [6]).

16

Iranul este al treilea productor mondial (240).

Urmeaz SUA (220) care, pentru a-i conserva

rezervele strategice, i-a redus producia cu aproximativ

15 % n ultimii zece ani. Bineneles, Statele Unite, cu un

consum de aproximativ 25 % din cel mondial (aproximativ

20 de milioane de barili pe zi), sunt de departe cei mai

mari consumatori de petrol din lume (cu titlu

informativ, partea Franei este 2,5 % din consumaia

mondial, a Germaniei 3,3 %, a Japoniei 6,4 % .a.m.d.).

Mexicul, al cincilea productor mondial (190), i-a

crescut producia cu 25 % n zece ani.

China (170), al aselea productor mondial, este de

departe primul productor n Asia (dac produciile

Tailandei (40) i cele ale Vietnamului (21) sunt n

continu cretere, cele ale Indonezei (55), din contr, au

nceput s scad). Un fenomen major care trebuie

semnalat este acela al creterii importante a consumului

de petrol din China. n anul 1994, producia chinez

acoperea consumul naional. Zece ani mai trziu, n 2004,

consumul din China era de dou ori mai mare dect

Iran is the worlds third oil producer (240).

The following one is the U.S.A (220) which, in order to

preserve its strategic reserves, has reduced production by about

15 % over the last decade. Certainly, the United States, whose

oil consumption represents about 25 % of the total world oil

consumption (about 20 million barrels per day), is by far the

largest oil "consumer" in the world (to complete the data,

Frances share is 2.5 % of the world oil consumption,

Germanys share is 3.3%, Japans share is 6.4 %, etc.).

Mexico is the worlds fifth oil producer and its

production has risen by 25 % over the last ten years.

China (170), the worlds sixth producer, is by far the

leading producer in Asia (if the production of Thailand (40)

and that of Vietnam (21) are increasing, that of Indonesia

(55), by contrast, has begun to decline). A major

phenomenon that should be mentioned is Chinas

significant increase in oil consumption. In 1994, Chinese

production covered national consumption. Ten years later,

in 2004, consumption in China was two times higher than

its production. Consequently, China imported 3.4 million

17

producia sa. n consecin, China a importat 3,4 milioane

de barili pe zi, import provenind din Orientul Mijlociu

(37 %), Asia Pacificului (24 %), Africa de Vest (16 %) i

rile din ex-URSS (11 %). Oricum, evoluia dezvoltrii

Chinei reprezint, n viitor, un parametru decisiv al

evoluiei pieelor petroliere.

Pe locul apte pare a se situa Venezuela (160), a

crei producie a crescut destul de lent n ultimul timp.

Urmeaz Norvegia, al optulea productor mondial

cu aproximativ 150 milioane tone (Regatul Unit al Marii

Britanii, cu cele circa 95 de milioane de tone, rmne la

rndu-i un productor european important, dei n ultimii

zece ani producia s-a redus cu aproximativ 25 %). Se

poate aprecia c, n ultimii zece ani, consumul aferent

Uniunii Europene a crescut relativ puin (aproximativ

2 %), dar producia s-a redus cu circa 14 %. Dependena sa

vizavi de Orientul Mijlociu s-a diminuat dar, n viitor,

aproximativ 43 % din importurile sale sunt legate de Rusia

i de alte ri din ex-URSS.

n Africa, Nigeria, al noulea productor mondial,

barrels per day from the Middle East (37 %), Asia Pacific

(24 %), West Africa (16 %) and from the ex-USSR

countries (11 %). However, China's development will

represent a decisive parameter of the oil market evolution.

The seventh position seems to belong to Venezuela

(160), whose production has slowly grown lately.

Norway has been ranked as the eighth largest producer

because it extracts about 150 million tons of crude oil (in its

turn, the United Kingdom of Great Britain remains an important

European producer due to the fact hat it produces about 95

million tons, although its production has decreased by about

25 % over the past decade). It is estimated that, over the last ten

years, consumption in the European Union has grown relatively

slowly (by about 2 %), while production has fallen by about

14 %. Its dependence on the Middle East has decreased, but in

the future about 43% of its imports will be related to Russia and

other ex-USSR countries.

In Africa, Nigeria, the ninth largest producer, extracts

18

extrage aproximativ 120 de milioane de tone anual .a.m.d.

Date oarecum similare gsim i n lucrarea [6], n

care rezervele mondiale dovedite sunt defalcate pe ri,

printre care i Romnia (tabelul 1.1). Tabelul 1.1. Rezerve mondiale de petrol [6]

Zona [Milioane tone] SUA 3 700

Canada 800 Mexic 4 000

Total America de nord 8 500 America de Sud +Caraibe 13 600

Danemarca 100 Italia 100

Norvegia 1 200 Romnia 200

Marea Britanie 700 Alte ri 200

Total Europa 2 500 Fosta URSS 9 000

Orientul Mijlociu 92 500 Africa 10 000

Asia-Pacific 6 000 Total mondial 142 100

Precum se tie, Romnia figureaz printre puinele

ri cu rezerve de petrol dovedite din Europa, la nivelul a

200 000 tone exploatabile. Dintre acestea, 47,8 % sunt

rezerve primare, cu grad ridicat de certitudine i se pot

120 million tons annually, etc.

We may find somewhat similar data in paper [6],

where the world's proven reserves are grouped by countries,

Romania being included too (Table 1.1). Table 1.1. Global oil reserves [6]

Zone [Million tons] USA 3 700

Canada 800 Mexico 4 000

North America, Total 8 500 South America +Carribean 13 600

Denmark 100 Italy 100

Norway 1 200 Romania 200

Great Britain 700 Other countries 200 Europe, Total 2 500 Former USSR 9 000 Middle East 92 500

Africa 10 000 Asia-Pacific 6 000

World, Total 142 100

As known, Romania is among the few countries in

Europe possessing proven oil reserves, at the level of

200 000 exploitable tons. Of these, 47.8 % are primary

reserves with a high degree of certainty which can be

19

exploata prin energia proprie a zcmntului; restul,

52,2 % sunt rezerve secundare, care se pot exploata prin

suplimentarea energiei zcmntului.

Capacitatea de prelucrare a ieiului n Romnia, n

anii 89, era de circa 34 milioane tone /an. La ora actual

este funcional doar o capacitate de aproximativ 18,8

milioane tone /an, distribuit conform tabelului 1.2 [6].

Din analiza datelor aferente tabelului 1.1 putem

concluziona urmtoarele [6]:

- rezervele dovedite de iei sunt distribuite

neuniform pe glob, ponderea maxim (peste 60 % din

acestea) deinndu-o Orientul Mijlociu, urmat de America

de Sud + Caraibe, Africa, ex-URSS etc.; rezult, de aici,

dependena celorlalte zone geografice de importul de iei

din aceste zone excedentare;

- ca urmare a puternicei dezvoltri industriale i

sociale din America de Nord i Europa, ca i a ritmului

accelerat al industrializrii zonei Asia-Pacific, aceste zone

n care se consum mai mult petrol dect se produce, sunt

net importatoare de iei;

exploited through the energy of the deposit; the rest of

52.2 % represents secondary reserves, which can be

exploited by supplementing the energy of the deposit.

Romanias capacity to process crude oil in 1989 was

around 34 million tons per year. At present its functional

capacity is only about 18.8 million tons per year, distributed

according to Table 1.2 [6].

From the analysis of the data in Table 1.1, we can

draw the following conclusions [6]:

- proven oil reserves are unevenly distributed across

the Earth, the majority of them (over 60 %) being located in

the Middle East, followed by South America + Caribbean,

Africa, the former USSR, etc.; as a consequence, the other

geographical areas depend on the oil import from these

regions;

- owing to the strong industrial and social

development in North America and Europe, as well as to

the accelerated rhythm of industrialization in the Asia-

Pacific region, these areas, in which oil consumption is

higher than its production, are crude oil importers;

20

- capacitile de rafinare primar a ieiului sunt n concordan cu consumul de petrol al zonelor geografice respective, excepie fcnd Europa Central i fosta URSS, unde se constat un excedent de capacitate de rafinare a petrolului (explicaia trebuie cutat, ntre altele, n dificultile economice generate de tranziia la economia de pia).

Rezervele poteniale de petrol care ar putea fi exploatate n perspectiv sunt de aproximativ 252 milioane tone. ieiurile romneti sunt predominant parafino-naftenice, putnd fi utilizate att pentru obinerea carburanilor, ct i a uleiurilor i a hidrocarburilor aromatice [6].

Tabelul 1.2. Capaciti actuale de prelucrare a ieiului n Romnia [5, 6]

Capaciti de prelucrare [Milioane tone /an] SNP Petrom OMW: Sucursala Arpechim 3,50 Sucursala Petrobrazi 4,50 Rompetrol S.A. : Petromidia 4,00 Vega 0,45 Petrotel Lukoil S.A. 2,50 Rafo Oneti 3,50 Drmneti - Suplacu de Barcu - Steaua Romn 0,35 Astra Ploieti - Total 18,8

- primary oil refining capacities are in line with the oil consumption of these geographical areas, with the exception of Central Europe and the former USSR, where there is a surplus of oil refining capacity (the explanation must reside, inter alia, in the economic difficulties caused by the transition to the market economy).

The potential oil reserves that could be exploited in the future are about 252 million tons. Romanian crude oils are predominantly paraffino-naphthenic, being used for obtaining fuels, as well as oils and aromatic hydrocarbons [6].

Table 1.2. Current crude oil processing capacities in Romania [5, 6]

Processing Capacities [Million tons /year] SNP Petrom OMW: Arpechim Branch 3,50 Petrobrazi Branch 4,50 Rompetrol S.A. Petromidia 4,00 Vega 0,45 Petrotel Lukoil S.A. 2,50 Rafo Oneti 3,50 Drmneti - Suplacu de Barcu - Steaua Romn 0,35 Astra Ploieti - Total 18,8

21

Cantitatea de iei prelucrat astzi n Romnia este

calculat pe criterii de asigurare a consumului energetic i

numai n subsidiar pentru chimizarea acesteia. Prognoza

produciei de iei, gazolin i etan pe perioada 2008 - 2015, nu

este deloc ncurajatoare. Producia anual de iei va scdea de

la 5,8 milioane tone la 4 milioane tone, producia de gazolin

de la 167 000 t la 109 000 t, iar cea de etan de la 74 000 t la

42 000 t. n tabelul 1.3 este prezentat o comparaie ntre

produsele petrochimice de baz fabricate n Romnia i unele

ri din Europa Central i de Est [5, 6]. Tabelul 1.3. Produse petrochimice de baz n 2007 [mii

tone /an] elemente comparative [6]

ara Rusia Turcia Polonia Romnia Cehia Ungaria Serbia Bulgaria

Milioane locuitori

150 64,3 38,7 22,5 10,3 10,1 10 8,3

Etilen 2830 400 660 200 485 350/650 200 450/250 Propilen 1260 182 330 126 280 290 80 200/92 LDPE 548 180/400 155 80/40 - 120 45 71 HDPE 500 60/90 - 30 134 200 - 20

OE/MEG 250 100 110 24 - - - 100 P.S. 170 - - - 90 165 - 49 PVC 130 197 411 160 135 330 40 - PP 300 80 115 60 250 285 40 80

Ox. Alc. - 60 167 55 - - - 20 CAN 150 92 - 80 - - - 28 P.O. 50 - 25 20 - - - -

TDI/MDI 60 - 40 - - 60 - - SBR - - 130 150/40 75 - 45 35

The criteria for calculating the amount of crude oil

processed in Romania today mainly consist in ensuring energy

consumption, and only secondly in its chemical treatment. The

forecast of crude oil, gasoline and ethane production is not at all

encouraging for the period 2008-2015. Annual oil production

will decline from 5.8 million tons to 4 million tons, gasoline

production from 167 000 t to 109 000 t, and ethane production

from 74,000 t to 42,000 t. Table 1.3 presents a comparison

between the basic petrochemical products manufactured in

Romania and some countries of Central and Eastern Europe. Table 1.3. Basic petrochemicals in 2007 [thousand

tons / year] - comparative elements [6]

Country Russia Turky Poland Romania Czech

RepublicHungary Serbia Bulgaria

Million of people

150 64,3 38,7 22,5 10,3 10,1 10 8,3

Ethylene 2830 400 660 200 485 350/650 200 450/250 Propylene 1260 182 330 126 280 290 80 200/92 LDPE 548 180/400 155 80/40 - 120 45 71 HDPE 500 60/90 - 30 134 200 - 20 OE/MEG 250 100 110 24 - - - 100 P.S. 170 - - - 90 165 - 49 PVC 130 197 411 160 135 330 40 - PP 300 80 115 60 250 285 40 80 Ox. Alc. - 60 167 55 - - - 20 CAN 150 92 - 80 - - - 28 P.O. 50 - 25 20 - - - - TDI/MDI 60 - 40 - - 60 - - SBR - - 130 150/40 75 - 45 35

22

Concluzia imediat care se poate trage n urma

examinrii datelor din tabelul 1.3 este aceea c, n pofida

tradiiei, experienei i a rezervelor proprii de petrol,

Romnia se afl mult n urma unor ri care, pn mai ieri,

dispuneau de capaciti reduse de rafinare i prelucrare:

Ungaria, Cehia, Polonia, Bulgaria etc. Mai mult, ca urmare a

uzurii fizice a instalaiilor, efectului de scar (capaciti sub

limita economic), tehnologiilor nvechite, costului ridicat al

materiilor prime i al energiei, productivitii sczute etc.,

produsele petrochimice indigene sunt adesea necompetitive

nu numai pe piaa extern, dar i pe cea intern. Explicaii, de

ordin politic, economic, social .a. se pot gsi cu duiumul. Dar

o ntrebare rmne totui struitoare n contiina noastr: care

ar fi fost situaia actual a petrochimiei romneti dac ea s-ar

fi bucurat de aprecieri similare cu cele din Polonia, Ungaria

sau Cehia?

S revenim la realitate. Exportul de carburani i

creterea masiv a importului de produse petrochimice pentru

consumul intern explic gradul sczut de chimizare a petrolului

n Romnia n ultimii ani. La o prelucrare de circa 13,4

The immediate conclusion that can be drawn after

examining the data in Table 1.3 is that, despite our tradition,

experience and our own oil reserves, Romania is far behind

some countries that, not long ago, had a limited oil refining

and processing capacity: Hungary, the Czech Republic,

Poland, Bulgaria, etc. Moreover, due to the physical wear of

rigs, the scale effect (capacity below economic limit),

obsolete technologies, high cost of raw materials and

energy, low productivity, etc., indigenous petrochemicals

are often uncompetitive not only on the domestic market

but also on the external one. In order to explain this state of

affairs, we could invoke a lot of factors (political,

economic, social, etc). But a question still remains in our

consciousness: which would Romanias petrochemical

current state have been if the country had received the same

appreciation as Poland, Hungary or the Czech Republic?

Let's return to reality. The fuel exports and the

massive increase in the imports of petrochemical products

for domestic consumption explain the low degree of oil

processing in Romania in recent years. The processing of

23

milioane t de iei pe an, din care importul reprezint

aproximativ 9 milioane t/an, se obin circa 4,8 milioane t de

benzin i 4,4 milioane t de motorin, adic un total de

aproximativ 9,2 t de carburani de baz anual, din care se

export circa 4,5 milioane t de benzin i motorin, iar restul de

4,7 milioane t de carburani se consum pe piaa intern din

Romnia [6]. Este de subliniat i faptul c, din cele 9 milioane

tone de petrol importat, se export 50 % sub form de

carburani (cu un profit minor i discutabil, dac lum n

considerare creterea continu a preului ieiului care a atins pe

11 iulie 2008 pragul critic de $ 147,27 pe baril!). Dac

echivalentul n hidrocarburi al celor 4,5 milioane tone de

carburani exportai s-ar prelucra n petrochimie, s-ar putea

reduce importul de produse petrochimice care se ridic astzi la

aproximativ 1,2 miliarde Euro /an pentru produse precum:

cauciuc, amoniac, ngrminte chimice, metanol, sod

caustic, sod calcinat, lacuri i vopsele, fire i fibre

sintetice, anvelope etc. [6].

O parantez. Istoria explorrii platformei

continentale romneti a Mrii Negre marcheaz deja 34

about 13.4 million tons of crude oil per year, from which

export represents only about 9 million tons per year, means

obtaining about 4.8 million tons of gasoline and 4.4 million

tons of diesel oil, whereas the remaining 4.7 million tons of

fuels are consumed on the domestic market in Romania [6].

We should also emphasize the fact that out of the 9 million

tons of imported oil, 50 % are exported as fuel (with a

minor and questionable profit, if we take into consideration

the continuous increase in oil prices which reached a critical

threshold of $ 147.27 per barrel on the 11th of July, in

2008!). If the hydrocarbon equivalent of 4.5 million tons of

exported fuels were processed in petrochemistry, we might

reduce the import of petrochemicals amounting today to

approximately 1.2 billion per year, for products such as

rubber, ammonia, fertilizers, methanol, sodium hydroxide,

calcinated soda, paints and varnishes, synthetic yarns and

fibers and tires, etc. [6].

Let us mention now some historic landmarks of the

exploration of the Romanian Black Sea continental shelf. It

24

de ani de la nregistrarea primelor seciuni seismice i 27

de ani de la sparea primului foraj de prospeciune. Pn

n prezent au fost nsumai aproximativ 75 000 km de

seciuni seismice, acoperind o suprafa de 33 160 km2. n

acelai timp au fost spate peste 120 de sonde dintre care

aproximativ 60 de sonde de cercetare geologic.

De asemenea, obinerea n ultima lun a unor noi

posibile perimetre exploatabile, la nivelul crora sunt deja

cunoscute indicaii de hidrocarburi (structura Doina), cu debite

de pn la 200 000 m3 gaze pe zi la adncimi de mai puin de

1500 m, pe arealul de 9 700 km2 aflat anterior n litigiu, au

sporit gradul de interes pentru aceast zon. n figura 1.1 este

prezentat harta perimetrelor de exploatare petrolifer din

Romnia, cu detaliul aferent perimetrelor din Marea Neagr.

is 34 years since the first recording of seismic sections and 27

years since drilling the first prospecting well in this area. Up to

now, there have been achieved approximately 75 000 km of

seismic sections covering an area of 33,160 km2. At the same

time, over 120 wells have been drilled, out of which about 60

are prospecting geological wells.

At the same time, the interest in this area has increased

because there have been recently discovered new potentially

exploitable perimeters which already indicate the existence of

Doina structured hydrocarbons with flows up to 200 000 m3 of

gas per day at depths of less than 1500 m, in the area of

9 700 km2 which was previously in dispute. Figure 1.1 shows

the map of the oil exploitation perimeters in Romania, with

details of the perimeters of the Black Sea.

25

Fig. 1.1. Harta exploatrilor petrolifere din Romnia

Structura geologic a platformei continentale

dobrogene include aceleai uniti majore ca i uscatul

adiacent: Orogenul Nord-Dobrogean, Bazinul Babadag

i Platforma Moesic cu subdiviziunile sale, Dobrogea

Central i Dobrogea Meridional (Sndulescu, 1984).

Formaiunile sedimentare interceptate pn n

prezent aparin intervalului Ordovician-Pliocen,

formaiunile de interes pentru hidrocarburi fiind cele

Fig. 1.1. The map of oil exploitation in Romania

The geological structure of the Dobrogea

continental platform includes the same major units as

the adjacent land: the orogenic North Dobrogea, the

Babadag Basin and the Moesic Platform with its

subdivisions, Central Dobrogea and Southern Dobrogea

(Sndulescu, 1984).

The sedimentary formations discovered so far

belong to the Ordovician-Pliocene interval, while the

formations containing hydrocarbons belong to

26

aparinnd Cretacicului, Eocenului i Neogenului

(prognozat). Din punct de vedere tectonic, arealul

acvatorial continu structura uscatului, putnd fi puse

n eviden structuri cu capcane legate de existena

variaiilor faciale i a faliilor care ecraneaz

potenialele rezervoare (fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2. Arealul tectonic aferent Mrii Negre

Resursele de prognoz pot fi estimate la circa

25 000 000 t iei i circa 70 miliarde m3 gaze, dar pot

varia n limite largi n funcie de limitrile tehnologice, n

special adncimea fundului apei.

Cretaceous, Eocene and Neogen (according to some

forecasts). As concerns the tectonic structure, the sea

area continues the structure of the land displaying

trapping structures related to the existence of facies

variations and faults that shield potential reservoirs

(Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2. The tectonic area related to the Black Sea

The forecast resources are estimated at about 25

million tons of crude oil and 70 billion m3 of gas, but can

widely vary depending on the technological limitations,

particularly on the depth of the sea bottom.

27

2.

PPAARRTTAAJJAARREEAA DDOOMMEENNIIUULLUUII OOFFFFSSHHOORREE

Moto: La Terre devrait plutt s`appeler la Mer Yvonne Rebeyrol

Volumul total al mrilor globului (1 362 200 000 km3)

reprezint 97,3 % din apa Planetei. Apa de mare conine,

n principal, urmtoarele elemente:

clorur de sodiu: 35/1000 - n medie; 40/1000 - n

Marea Roie; 30/1000 - n zonele septentrionale din Siberia;

magneziu: 2 milioane de miliarde tone;

potasiu: 600 000 miliarde tone;

brom: 100 000 miliarde tone;

cupru: 5 miliarde tone;

uraniu: 5 miliarde tone;

nichel: 3 miliarde tone;

argint: 600 milioane tone;

aur: 6 milioane tone.

2.

OOFFFFSSHHOORREE DDOOMMAAIINN SSHHAARRIINNGG

Moto: La Terre devrait plutt s`appeler la Mer Yvonne Rebeyrol

The total volume of the Earths seas (1 362 200 000 km3)

represents 97,3 % of the water on the planet. Sea water

mostly contains the following elements:

sodium chloride: 35/1000 - on average; 40/1000

in the Red Sea; 30/1000 - in the northern areas of Siberia ;

magnesium: 2 million billion tons;

potassium: 600 000 billion tons;

bromine: 100 000 billion tons;

copper: 5 billion tons;

uranium : 5 billion tons ;

nickel: 3 billion tons;

silver: 600 million tons ;

gold: 6 million tons.

28

Amintim c 71% din suprafaa globului (362

milioane km2) este acoperit de apele Oceanului. Din

aceast suprafa total, platoului continental i revin 72

milioane km2, pantei continentale 73 milioane km2, iar

domeniului oceanic - 217 milioane km2. n figura 2.1 sunt

prezentate cteva caracteristici privitoare la partajarea

domeniului offshore.

Conform Conveniei privind drepturile asupra mrii

(votat la 30 aprilie 1982 i semnat la 10 decembrie

1982), domeniul offshore a fost mprit n patru zone: A -

marea teritorial; B - zona de contiguitate (nvecinare); C -

zona economic exclusiv; D - apele internaionale.

Marea teritorial. Msurat ctre larg ncepnd cu

liniile de baz (basse mer), marea teritorial nu poate

excede 12 mile marine (22,22 km). Statul cotier se bucur,

n marea sa teritorial, de drepturi importante, dar nu este

n ntregime suveran (precum n cazul apelor din interiorul

rii); el este obligat s tolereze trecerea navelor strine

(nave de rzboi care posed o autorizaie prealabil).

Let us remember that 71% of the Earths surface (362

million km2) is covered with oceans. Out of this total

surface, the continental shelf represents 72 million km2, the

continental slope 73 million km2 and the ocean area 217

million km2. In Figure 2.1 there are some characteristics

regarding the sharing of the offshore field.

According to the Convention on the Law of the Sea

(voted on the 30th of April in 1982 and signed on the 10th of

December in 1982), the offshore domain was divided into

four zones: A - territorial sea; B - area of contiguity; C -

exclusive economic zone, D - international waters.

The territorial sea. Measured from side to side

starting with the baselines (basse mer), the territorial sea

cannot exceed 12 nautical miles (22.22 km). The coastal

state has important rights over its territorial sea, but it is not

entirely sovereign (as in the case of inland water); it is

forced to tolerate the passage of foreign ships (warships

which have prior authorisation).

29

Onshore Inshore Offshore Marginea continental

Prag continental Pant

continental Treapt

continental Plan abisal

Medie 65 - 100 km 15 - 30

km - Distan ir (rnd) 1 - 1200 km

15 - 100 km

0 - 600 km

Medie 133 m 1830 m -

Adncime ir (rnd) 50 - 550 m 1000 - 5000 m

1400 - 5000

Adncime medie: 3795 m

Gradient ir (rnd) 0-1 2-6 - Adncime maxim: 11304 m

Suprafa % din ocean 6,7%

11%

3,1%

79,2%

Fig. 2.1. Partajarea domeniului offshore [9]

Zona contigu (vecin). Cuprinde 12 mile marine,

de la marea teritorial la zona economic exclusiv. Statul

cotier poate exercita controale duaniere, fiscale, sanitare

sau de imigrare, poate preveni sau reprima infraciunile

conform reglementrilor n vigoare privitoare la teritoriul

su naional sau la mrile sale teritoriale.

Fig. 2.1. Offshore domain sharing [9]

The area of contiguity. It contains 12 nautical miles

from the territorial sea to the exclusive economic zone. The

coastal state can exercise customs, fiscal, sanitary or

immigration controls, can prevent or suppress crime

according to the enforcement of regulations regarding its

national territory or its territorial sea.

Uscat Linie de coast

Prag continental ccon Pant continental

Treapt continental

Plan abisal

Ape continentale

30

Zona economic exclusiv. Cuprinde 188 mile

marine, de la mrile teritoriale la apele internaionale.

Statul cotier se bucur de drepturi suverane i

exclusive asupra resurselor vii i minerale ale apelor,

solului i subsolului. El dispune, de asemenea, de

diverse drepturi care i permit s previn i s combat

poluarea mrii, respectiv s reglementeze cercetarea

tiinific pentru zona respectiv. Sunt libere, totodat,

navigaia i survolul. Cel mai adesea, 200 de mile

corespund platoului continental. Dac platoul

continental depete 200 de mile, limita sa juridic

exterioar se va fixa astfel:

fie la distana de 350 de mile (648,2 km)

(maximum) de la cot;

fie la distana de 100 de mile (185,2 km),

msurat ctre larg, plecndu-se de la izobata de

2500 m;

fie la linia unde grosimea sedimentelor

acumulate pe taluz este egal cu cel puin o sutime din

distana dintre aceast linie i piciorul taluzului

The exclusive economic zone. It contains 188

nautical miles from the territorial sea to the

international sea. The coastal state has exclusive and

sovereign rights over the living and mineral resources

of the sea, soil and subsoil. It has also various rights

that enable it to prevent and combat the pollution of the

sea as well as to regulate the scientific research for the

respective area. Navigation and overflight are also

permitted. Most often, 200 miles correspond to the

continental shelf. If the continental shelf is more than

200 miles, its exterior legal limit is established as

follows:

either at the distance of 350 miles (648.2 km)

(maximum) from the mark;

or at a distance of 100 miles (185.2 km),

measured towards the high sea, and starting from the

2500 m isobath;

or at the line where the thickness of the

accumulated sediments on the talus at least equals a

hundredth of the distance between this line and the

31

continental.

Apele internaionale. n principiu, n aceast

zon oricine poate circula liber, survola, poate efectua

cercetri tiinifice i pescui fr restricii. Totui, n

cadrul Conveniei, Zona (patrimoniu comun al

umanitii) este gerat de aa numita Autoritate.

Aceast autoritate va elibera licene de explorare

investitorilor pionieri. n aceast categorie intr, pe

de o parte, Frana, Japonia, India - sau una dintre

ntreprinderile lor publice sau private - iar pe de alt

parte, cele patru consorii internaionale n cadrul

crora societile americane, germane, belgiene,

britanice i italiene au o pondere determinant.

Observaie: Cine poate deveni, totui, investitor-

pionier? Condiiile de baz cerute presupun urmtoarele:

- s fi investit cel puin 30 milioane de dolari

nainte de 1 ianuarie 1983;

- s se gseasc, pentru consorii, printre rile de

origine ale membrilor lor, unul sau mai multe state

semnatare ale Conveniei, pentru certificare.

continental talus.

International waters. In principle, in this area

anyone can move freely, can overfly, can undertake

scientific research and fish without restrictions.

Nevertheless, according to the Convention, the Zone

(common patrimony of humanity) is managed by the so-

called Authority. This authority will issue exploration

licenses to the pioneer investors. On the one hand,

this category includes France, Japan and India or one of

their public or private companies, and on the other hand

the four international consortia in which American,

German, Belgian, British and Italian companies hold a

significant share.

Remark: However, who can become a pioneer

investor? The basic requirements are:

- to have invested at least $ 30 million before the 1st

of January 1983;

- to find, for consortia, one or more signatories of

the Convention among the countries of origin of their

members, for certification.

32

Totodat, pentru rile n curs de dezvoltare

care au semnat Convenia, condiia de investitor

pionier presupune s se fi investit, n studiul

diverselor module, 30 de milioane de dolari nainte de

1 ianuarie 1989.

At the same time, for the developing countries

which have signed the Convention, the condition of a

pioneer investor requires having invested $ 30 million

in the study of various modules before the 1st of

January 1989.

33

3.

FFOORRAAJJUULL NN AAPPEE AADDNNCCII II UULLTTRRAA

AADDNNCCII GGEENNEERRAALLIITTII

Un volum important de resurse de petrol se afl n

zonele situate n ape adnci i foarte adnci, la limita de

adncime a activitilor actuale (experiena ultimilor 10

ani ne arat c, odat atins un record de operare n ceea ce

privete adncimea apei, acesta este imediat depit -

precum n sport!).

Sunt considerate ape adnci, din punctul de vedere

al activitii petrolifere, apele cu adncimi mai mari de

400 m, iar ultra adnci cele care depesc 1 500 m (peste

1 600 m dup MMS [9]).

Operatorii din industria extractiv de petrol se

orienteaz tot mai mult ctre adncimile mari de ap

deoarece aici se afl resurse importante care asigur

producii mari. Unele sonde din aceste zone petrolifere pot

3.

DDRRIILLLLIINNGG IINN DDEEEEPP AANNDD UULLTTRRAA DDEEEEPP

WWAATTEERR GGEENNEERRAALL PPRREESSEENNTTAATTIIOONN

A significant amount of oil resources are located in

deep and very deep water areas, at the depth limit of current

activities (our experience over the last ten years shows that,

once a record for operating at a certain water depth has been

reached, it is immediately broken - as in sports!).

In terms of oil activity, deep water refers to depths

exceeding 400 m, and ultra deep water refers to depths

exceeding 1500 m (over 1600 m after MMS [9]).

Oil extraction operators are increasingly oriented

towards great water depths because there are important

resources that ensure high levels of oil production. Some oil

wells in these areas can produce 8000 m3 of oil per day,

34

produce 8 000 m3 iei/zi, fapt care justific cheltuielile

suplimentare i riscurile asumate.

Proiectele de exploatare aferente locaiilor situate la

adncimi de ap de peste 2 000 m din Golful Mexic,

Offshore Brazilia i vestul Africii erau de neimaginat acum

15 20 de ani. n ultima vreme ns s-au forat mai multe

sonde la adncimi mari de ap, recordul de 3 050 m fiind

depit la sfritul anului 2 003, n Golful Mexic.

Noile tehnologii permit exploatarea petrolului din

zone situate la distane mari de uscat, uneori de peste 200

mile marine (circa 370,6 km). Aceasta presupune, desigur,

construcia unor platforme mari i complexe, modificarea

procedurilor de foraj existente i aplicarea unor noi

reglementri de mediu.

Ca urmare a numrului mare de prospeciuni

geologice i geofizice, atractive economic, n zone cu

adncimi mari de ap, cele mai multe instalaii de foraj

sunt contractate pe termen lung de ctre diferiii operatori

din domeniul complex al explorrii i exploatrii

zcmintelor de petrol i gaze. Creterea adncimilor de

which justifies the additional costs and risks.

Projects for exploiting the areas located at a depth of

over 2000 m in the Gulf of Mexico, offshore Brazil and

West Africa were unimaginable 15-20 years ago. Recently,

however, wells have been drilled at greater depths, the

record of 3050 m being broken in the Gulf of Mexico at the

end of 2003.

New technologies allow oil exploitation in areas

situated far away from the shore, sometimes at over 200 sea

miles (approximately 370.6 km). This implies, however, the

construction of large and complex platforms, the

modification of the existing drilling procedures and the

application of new environmental regulations.

Due to a large number of economically attractive

geological and geophysical prospecting at great water

depths, most long-term drilling installations are used by

various operators in the complex sector of oil and gas

exploration and exploitation. The increase in water depths

has entailed the re-technologization of a large number of

35

ap a condus la re-tehnologizarea unui numr important de

instalaii de foraj, ca i la construirea altora noi. Cele mai

importante schimbri n privina programelor de

construcie ale acestor sonde sunt legate att de adncimile

mari de ap, ct i de condiiile de fund, mediul ostil .a.,

n care se desfoar activitatea: valuri de peste 30 m

nlime; vnturi care ating 80 noduri (148,2 km/h);

temperaturi ale aerului de -15 C; temperatura ale apei

mrii sub 0 C; cureni marini de 3 noduri (5,5 km/h);

prezena aisbergurilor (n anumite zone ale Canadei,

Groenlanda etc.); prezena frecvent a zpezii, ploii sau

ceii etc.

n zonele cu ape adnci, activitatea de foraj se poate

realiza numai cu ajutorul platformelor marine

semisubmersibile, poziionate dinamic, i al vaselor de

foraj. Aa cum am mai amintit, cu ajutorul platformelor

ancorate, convenionale, s-a forat i n zone cu ape adnci

de 1836 m, n Golful Mexic. n alte pri ale globului,

condiiile pot fi ns diferite de cele din Golful Mexic, iar

prezena curenilor de fund face dificil managementul

drilling installations, as well as the construction of new

ones. The most important changes in the construction

programmes of these wells are equally connected with great

water depths, bottom conditions, hostile environment and

others, as well as to the conditions in which they operate:

waves over 30 feet high, winds which reach 80 knots

(148.2 km / h), air temperatures of -15 C, temperatures of

sea water below 0 C, marine currents of 3 knots

(5.5 km / h), the presence of icebergs (in some areas of

Canada, Greenland, etc.) frequent presence of snow, rain or

fog, etc.

In deep water areas, drilling activities can be

achieved only by means of offshore semi-submersible

platforms, which are dynamically positioned, and of drilling

vessels. As we have already mentioned, drilling operations

were performed in deep water areas of 1836 m in the Gulf

of Mexico by using conventional anchored platforms. In

other parts of the world, the conditions may be different

from those in the Gulf of Mexico, and the presence of the

36

sistemului de raizere. Pentru meninerea poziiei sub

efectul aciunii curenilor mari, respectiv pentru a stoca

volumul suplimentar de noroi, ca i raizerele necesare

pentru construcia sondei, sunt cerute, tot mai des,

platforme largi, cu putere disponibil suplimentar.

ntruct operaiile i echipamentele sunt diferite de

cele utilizate n cazul apelor puin adnci, regulamentele,

standardele i procedurile aferente nu pot fi aplicate direct

n cea mai mare parte a operaiilor specifice apelor adnci.

Sigurana sondei, a operaiilor, ca i testarea formaiunilor

sunt fundamental diferite n raport cu echipamentele de

fund care vor fi utilizate n zonele cu ape adnci.

Evoluia, n timp, a adncimii maxime de ap pentru

forajele de explorare i producie este prezentat n

figura 3.1.

bottom currents makes the riser system management

difficult. In order to maintain the position under the effect of

the action of high currents, namely to store the additional

volume of mud, as well as the risers necessary for the

construction of the well, more often, large platforms, endowed

with additional available power, are required.

As the equipment and operations are different from

those used for shallow water, regulations, standards and

procedures cannot be applied directly to the most part of the

operations specific to deep water. The safety of the well and

operations, as well as the testing of formations is

fundamentally different from those characteristic of the

bottom equipment that will be used in deep water areas.

The evolution over time of the maximum water depth

for exploration and production drilling operations is shown

in Figure 3.1.

37

Fig. 3.1. Evoluia, n timp, a adncimilor maxime de ap pentru forajele de explorare i producie [11]

Cteva dintre cele mai importante direcii de

activitate, care trebuie avute n vedere pentru forajul n

zonele cu ape adnci, se refer la [9, 11]: proceduri

pentru prevenirea i combaterea manifestrilor

eruptive n timpul forajului; cercetri privind creterea

rezistenei materialelor i reducerea greutii lor;

metode de control ale hidrailor ce pot apare n timpul

operaiilor la sondele care foreaz n zone cu adncimi

Fig. 3.1. The evolution over time of the maximum water depth for exploratory and production drilling operations [11]

Some of the most important directions of activity

to be considered when drilling in deep water areas refer

to [9, 11]: procedures for preventing and combating

eruptive events during drilling; research on increasing

the strength of materials and reducing their weight;

methods of controlling hydrates that may occur during

deep water drilling operations; methods of controlling

paraffins during deep water drilling operations; research

38

mari de ap; metode de control al parafinelor pentru

operaiile din sondele cu adncime mare de ap;

cercetri cu privire la integritatea conductelor

amplasate la mare adncime de ap; modelarea forelor

care acioneaz asupra structurilor i conductelor n

apele adnci; analiza comportamental n cazul

polurilor cu iei i msurile de evaluare a

manifestrilor eruptive de fund etc.

Un volum mare de informaii este achiziionat n

faza exploratorie. Acesta este legat att de natura

geologic, forajul propriu-zis i probele de producie,

ct i de informaiile legate de mediu cureni marini,

valuri, viteza vnturilor etc.

O analiz atent a sondelor forate n ape cu

adncimi mari (fig. 3.2), referitoare la ponderea

operaiile de foraj, ca durat, scoate n eviden faptul

c echipamentului de manevr i revine 55 % din

totalul operaiilor (mobilizare, manevre ale

materialului tubular, maruri, introducerea coloanelor

de burlane etc.).

on the integrity of pipelines located at great water

depths; modelling the forces acting on structures and

pipelines in deep water; behavioural analysis in case of

oil pollution and measures to evaluate the eruptive

events at the bottom, etc.

A great deal of information is acquired during the

exploratory stage. This is related to both geological

nature, that is to say drilling proper and production

tests, and the environmental information marine

currents, waves, wind speed, etc.

A careful analysis of the wells drilled at great

water depths (Fig. 3.2), which refers to the

preponderance of drilling operations in terms of

duration, points out that the operating equipment is

55 % of the total of operations (mobilization,

manoeuvres of the tubular material, trips, the

introduction of column pipes, etc.).

39

Totodat, colectarea datelor n faza exploratorie

duce la salvarea unor importante costuri n etapa de

exploatare, chiar i atunci cnd viitoarele foraje se

amplaseaz n zone ndeprtate de forajul de explorare

(pentru cele mai multe proiecte, costul forajelor de

explorare reprezint circa 50 60 % din costul total al

proiectului).

Fig. 3.2. Analiza ponderii operaiilor de foraj [12]

Furthermore, collecting data during the

exploratory phase leads to saving significant costs

during the operational phase, even when future wells

are located far from the exploration drilling area (for

most projects, the cost of development drilling is

50 - 60 % of the total project cost).

Fig. 3.2. Analysis of drilling operation preponderance [12]

40

Aceasta va constitui una dintre direciile de aciune

pentru creterea eficienei platformelor. Mai mult, seria actual

de platforme (generaia a-6-a) este dotat cu echipamente de

foraj automate i activitate dual, sisteme performante de

propulsie, modele noi de raizere etc.

This will be one of the directions of action in order to

increase the efficiency of oil platforms. Moreover, the current

set of platforms (the 6th generation) is equipped with

automatic drilling equipment and dual activity, performant

systems of propulsion, new riser models, etc.

41

4.

AACCTTIIVVIITTAATTEEAA DDEE FFOORRAAJJ

44..11.. GGeenneerraalliitt ii

Sistemul complex de exploatare a zcmintelor de

hidrocarburi este format din dou mari elemente definite

tot ca sistem: activitatea aferent punerii n eviden de

noi rezerve, n care forajul de cercetare geologic este

determinant i activitatea de exploatare propriu-zis, n

care forajul de exploatare constituie imput-ul. n acest

context, forajul se mparte, n funcie de obiectiv, n foraj

geologic (activitatea de cercetare, investigarea geologic i

geofizic) i foraj de exploatare.

Forajul geologic are ca obiectiv obinerea unui

sistem informaional eficient necesar caracterizrii

complete a formaiunilor traversate, att sub aspect

calitativ ct i cantitativ.

Cu ct volumul de date obinute prin investigare

4.

TTHHEE DDRRIILLLLIINNGG AACCTTIIVVIITTYY

44..11.. GGeenneerraall PPrreesseennttaattiioonn

The complex system of exploiting hydrocarbon

deposits is made up of two great elements that are also

defined by means of the term system: the activity related to

highlighting new reserves, in which geological research

drilling is essential and the exploitation activity proper, in

which exploitation drilling is the input. In this context, the

drilling activity is divided, according to the objective, in

geological drilling (the research activity, the geological and

geophysical investigation) and exploitation drilling.

Geological drilling aims at obtaining an efficient

information system necessary for the thorough

characterization of the crossed formations in terms of both

quality and quantity.

The larger the amount of data obtained from the

42

geologic (carote mecanice, probe de producie etc.) este mai

mare, cu att sistemul informaional geologic va fi mai eficient.

Sub aspect calitativ, sistemului informaional

geologic i se impun dou cerine: precizia datelor i a

vitezelor de prelucrare i de transmitere. Aceste dou

aspecte ale sistemului informaional geologic se

ntreptrund i au ca efect imediat volumul optim de

lucrri geologice, respectiv investiiile necesare

descoperirii de noi rezerve.

n condiiile forajului geologic, activitatea de foraj

nu poate fi supus unei normri riguroase, unei retribuiri n

funcie de metrul forat, deoarece necunoaterea factorului

geologic face imposibil fundamentarea tiinific a

normelor de timp.

Forajul de cercetare geologic impune i cercetarea

sistemelor tehnice i tehnologice astfel ca, prin intermediul

sistemelor informaionale adecvate, s se creeze premisele

desfurrii forajului de exploatare n condiii de stpnire

a factorului natural i de optimizare a factorilor tehnici i a

tehnologiei de lucru. Beneficiarul forajului geologic

geological investigation is (mechanical core, production

tests, etc.) the more efficient the information system will be.

Qualitatively, there are two requirements for the

geological information system: the accuracy of data and the

speed of data processing and transmission. These two aspects

of the geological information system overlap and have as an

immediate effect the optimum volume of geological works,

namely the investments necessary for discovering new

reserves.

In the case of geological drilling, the drilling activity

cannot be subjected to rigorous standardization, to

remuneration based on drilled meters, because the fact that

the geological factor is not known makes it impossible to

found time norms on scientific principles.

Geological research drilling also requires the study of

technical and technological systems so that, by means of

adequate information systems, we can create the premises

for performing exploitation drilling activities while

controlling the natural factor and optimizing the technical

factors and the working technology. The beneficiary of

43

geologul trebuie s subordoneze activitatea de foraj

obiectivului urmrit: efort minim (numr minim de locaii)

i efect maxim (creterea volumului de rezerve de

hidrocarburi).

Forajul de exploatare are ca obiectiv realizarea

unei construcii perfecte din punct de vedere

hidrodinamic, cu un cost ct mai redus, n vederea

optimizrii investiiilor aferente exploatrii propriu-

zise. O construcie perfect din punct de vedere

hidrodinamic impune o legtur de sistem ntre forajul

propriu-zis i punerea n producie a sondei. Astfel, de

modul traversrii i investigrii stratului productiv va

depinde comportarea n exploatare a fiecrei sonde,

cumulativul de iei extras i investiia aferent

construciei de sond.

Forajul de exploatare se desfoar n condiiile

unui sistem aproape deterministic, beneficiind de

stpnirea factorului geologic, de posibilitatea optimizrii

condiiilor tehnice i tehnologice, de posibilitatea unei

organizri riguroase a produciei i a muncii. Astfel,

geological drilling the geologist must subordinate the

drilling activity to the following target: minimum effort

(minimum number of sites) and maximum effect

(increasing the volume of hydrocarbon reserves).

Exploitation drilling aims at making a perfect

construction from the hydrodynamic point of view, with the

lowest possible cost, in order to optimize the investments in the

exploitation proper. A perfect construction from the

hydrodynamic point of view requires a systemic connection

between the drilling operation proper and putting the well into

production. Thus, the functioning of each well during the

exploitation period, the cumulative extracted crude oil and the

investment in the construction of the well will depend on the

way in which the productive layer is crossed/ drilled and

investigated.

Exploitation drilling is carried out under an almost

deterministic system, benefitting from the control of the

geological factor, the possibility of optimizing the technical

and technological conditions, and the opportunity to

organize work and production rigorously. Thus, the

44

fundamentarea tiinific a proiectrii construciilor de sonde

face posibil att fundamentarea tiinific a normelor de timp

aferente forajului de exploatare, ct i i programarea

riguroas a desfurrii tuturor operaiilor conform unei

diagrame de foraj (graficul tehnologic al forajului).

44..22.. SSttrruuccttuurraa ggeenneerraall aa pprroocceessuulluuii ddee ffoorraarree aa ssoonnddeelloorr

n figura 4.1 este prezentat structura general a

procesului de forare a sondelor.

Realizarea unui model matematic privind procesul

de forare a sondelor pleac de la premisa c poate fi

acceptat, pentru proces, schema structural derivat din

tabelul 4.1, iar politica economic justific adoptarea, n

principal, a costului drept criteriu de optimizare.

De asemenea, se accept c subsistemele 1, 2 i 9

din tabelul 4.1 nu sunt influenate de regimul de lucru din

celelalte subsisteme dar influeneaz, prin costul lor, costul

procesului general.

scientific base of designing well constructions enables both

the scientific base of the time norms related to exploitation

drilling and the rigorous planning of all operations,

according to a drilling diagram (technological chart of

drilling).

44..22.. TThhee GGeenneerraall SSttrruuccttuurree ooff tthhee WWeellll--DDrriill ll iinngg PPrroocceessss

Figure 4.1 shows the general structure of the well-

drilling process.

Making a mathematic model for the well-drilling

process starts from the premise that the structural scheme

derived from table 4.1 can be accepted and that the

economic policy justifies adopting the cost as an

optimization criterion.

At the same time, it is accepted that subsystems 1,

2 and 9 from table 4.1 are not influenced by the working

status of the other subsystems, but that they influence the

cost of the overall process, through their cost.

45

Tabelul 4.1. Structura general a procesului de forare a sondelor

Nr. crt.

Denumirea sistemului

Denumirea proceselor componente

1 Pregtirea locaiei Pregtirea locaiei Pregtirea drumurilor de acces

2 Montaj Transportul instalaiei i al utilajelor Montaj Probe de montaj

3 Forajul sondei Dislocarea la talp Circulaia fluidului Manevra materialului tubular Antrenarea dispozitivului de dislocare Curirea fluidelor

4 Consolidarea sondei Pregtirea pentru consolidare Tubaj Cimentare Verificarea consolidrii

5 Cercetarea geologo-tehnic

Probe mecanice i de urmrire Cercetare electro-radio-sonometric Teste de dislocare Experimente

6 Prevenirea i combaterea complicaiilor

Prevenire Combatere

7 Deschideri de strate - probe

Traversarea formaiunilor productive Perforarea formaiunilor productive Probe de producie

8 Aprovizionarea tehnic

Aprovizionare continu Aprovizionare accidental

9 Demontaj Demontaj 10

Managementul sistemului

Proiecte informare Decizii de adaptare Reglare

Scopul modelului matematic este acela de a permite

proiectarea regimului de foraj optim la forarea fiecrei

sonde de petrol i gaze. Modelul se limiteaz la sonda de

Table 4.1. The general structure of the well-drilling process

Crt. No.

Name of the system Name of the process components

1 Preparation of site Preparation of the site Preparation of access roads

2 Rigging up

Transport of installation and equipment Rigging up Rigging up tests

3 Well-drilling Bottom Dislocation Fluid circulation Trip of the tubular material Setting the dislocation system in motion Cleaning the fluids

4 Well consolidation Preparation for consolidation Casing Cementing Consolidation check

5 Geological and technical research

Mechanical and surveillance tests Electro-radio-sound level meter research Dislocation tests Experiments

6 Preventing and combating complications

Preventing Combating

7 Opening of layers - tests Crossing productive formations Perforation of productive formations Production tests

8 Technical supply Continuous supply Occasional supply

9 Rigging down Rigging down 10 System management Projects - information

Adaptation decisions Adjustment

The purpose of the mathematic model is to allow the

designing of the optimum drilling regime for drilling each

oil and gas well. The model is limited to the well and must

46

foraj i trebuie s in seama de relaiile de

interdependen dintre subsisteme.

Desigur, complexitatea sistemului va impune i

gsirea echipei optime de management al forajului

(fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1. Echipa de management al forajului

take into account the interdependencies among subsystems.

Of course, the complexity of the system requires

finding the best drilling management team (Fig. 4.1).

Fig. 4.1. The drilling management team

47

5.

EELLEEMMEENNTTEE DDEE EEFFIICCIIEENN EECCOONNO