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Foundations of

Individual Behavior


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Chapter Learning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to: Contrast the two types of ability. Define intellectual ability and demonstrate its relevance to OB. Identify the key biographical characteristics and describe how

they are relevant to OB. Define learning and outline the principles of the three major

theories of learning. Define shaping, and show how it can be used in OB.

Show how culture affects our understanding of intellectualabilities, biographical characteristics, and learning.


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Ability An individuals capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.Made up of two sets of factors: Intellectual Abilities

The abilities needed to perform mental activities.

General Mental Ability (GMA) is a measure of overall intelligence. Wonderlic Personnel Test: a quick measure of intelligence for

recruitment screening. No correlation between intelligence and job satisfaction.

Physical Abilities

The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength,and similar characteristics.


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Dimensions of IntellectualAbility


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Nine Basic Physical Abilities

Strength Factors Dynamic strength Trunk strength Static strength

Explosive strength Flexibility Factors

Extent flexibility Dynamic flexibility

Other Factors Body coordination Balance Stamina


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Biographical Characteristics

Objective and easily obtained personal characteristics.Age Older workers bring experience, judgment, a strong work ethic,

and commitment to quality.

Gender Few differences between men and women that affect job

performance.

Race (the biological heritage used to identify oneself) Contentious issue: differences exist, but could be more culture-

based than race-based.


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What is Personality?

The dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to hisenvironment. - Gordon Allport.

The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts andinteracts with others, the measurable traits a personexhibits

Measuring Personality Helpful in hiring decisions Most common method: self-reporting surveys Observer-ratings surveys provide an independent

assessment of personality often better predictors


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What is Personality?What is Personality?Personality

The sum total of ways in which an individualreacts and interacts with others.

Personality TraitsEnduringcharacteristics thatdescribe an

individuals behavior.

Personality

Determinants Heredity

Environment

Situation


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Personality Traits

Enduring characteristics that describean individuals behavior The more consistent the characteristic and

the more frequently it occurs in diversesituations, the more important the trait.

Two dominant frameworks used todescribe personality: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI ) Big Five Model


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Personality Traits Relevant to Organizations


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The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Most widely used instrument in the world. Participants are classified on four axes to determine

one of 16 possible personality types, such as ENTJ.

Flexibleand

Spontaneous

Sociableand

Assertive

Quiet andShy

Unconscious

Processes UsesValues &Emotions

Practicaland

Orderly

UseReasonand Logic

WantOrder

&

Structure


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The Types and Their Uses

Each of the sixteen possible combinations has a name,for instance: Visionaries (INTJ) original, stubborn, and driven. Organizers (ESTJ) realistic, logical, analytical, and

businesslike. Conceptualizer (ENTP) entrepreneurial, innovative,

individualistic, and resourceful.

Research results on validity mixed. MBTI is a good tool for self-awareness and counseling. Should not be used as a selection test for job candidates.


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The Big Five Model of PersonalityDimensions


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Personality TypesType As

2. Are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly3. Feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place4. Strive to think or do two or more things at once5. Cannot cope with leisure time6. Are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how

many or how much of everything they acquire

Type Bs2. Never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying

impatience3. Feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or

accomplishments4. Play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any

cost

5. Can relax without guilt


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Other Personality TraitsRelevant to OB

Core Self-Evaluation The degree to which people like or dislike themselves Positive self-evaluation leads to higher job performance

Machiavellianism A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends

justify the means. High Machs are manipulative, win more often, and persuade more than

they are persuaded. Flourish when: Have direct interaction Work with minimal rules and regulations Emotions distract others

Narcissism An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration. Less effective in their jobs.


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Self-Monitoring The ability to adjust behavior to meet external, situational

factors. High monitors conform more and are more likely to become

leaders. Risk Taking

The willingness to take chances. May be best to align propensities with job requirements.

Risk takers make faster decisions with less information.

More Relevant PersonalityTraits


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Even More RelevantPersonality Traits

Type A Personality Aggressively involved in a chronic, incessant struggle to achieve

more in less time Impatient: always moving, walking, and eating rapidly Strive to think or do two or more things at once Cannot cope with leisure time Obsessed with achievement numbers

Prized in North America but quality of the work is low Type B people are the complete opposite

Proactive Personality Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and

perseveres to completion Creates positive change in the environment


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Attitudes

Evaluative statements or judgmentsconcerning objects, people, or events.Three components of an attitude:

TheTheemotional oremotional orfeelingfeelingsegment of segment of an attitudean attitude

The opinion The opinionor belief or belief

segment of segment of an attitudean attitude An intention toAn intention to

behave in abehave in acertain waycertain waytoward someonetoward someone

or somethingor something


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Does Behavior Always Followfrom Attitudes?

Leon Festinger No, the reverse is sometimes true! Cognitive Dissonance: Any incompatibility between

two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes Individuals seek to reduce this uncomfortable gap, or

dissonance , to reach stability and consistency

Consistency is achieved by changing the attitudes, modifying thebehaviors, or through rationalization

Desire to reduce dissonance depends on:

Importance of elements

Degree of individual influence

Rewards involved in dissonance


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Moderating Variables The most powerful moderators of the

attitude-behavior relationship are: Importance of the attitude Correspondence to behavior

Accessibility Existence of social pressures Personal and direct experience of the

attitude.


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What are the Major Job Attitudes?

Job Satisfaction A positive feeling about the job

resulting from an evaluation of itscharacteristics

Job Involvement Degree of psychological identification

with the job where perceivedperformance is important to self-worth

Psychological Empowerment Belief in the degree of influence over

the job, competence, jobmeaningfulness, and autonomy


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Another Major Job Attitude

Organizational Commitment Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while

wishing to maintain membership in the organization. Three dimensions:

Affective emotional attachment to organization Continuance Commitment economic value of staying Normative - moral or ethical obligations

Has some relation to performance, especially for newemployees.

Less important now than in past now perhaps more of occupational commitment , loyalty to profession rather than agiven employer.


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AttitudesAttitudes

Attitudes

Evaluative

statementsor judgmentsconcerningobjects,people, orevents.

Affective Component The emotional or feelingsegment of an attitude.

Cognitive component The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Behavioral ComponentAn intention to behave in acertain way toward someone orsomething.


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Types of AttitudesTypes of Attitudes

Job InvolvementIdentifying with the job, actively participatingin it, and considering performance important toself-worth.

Organizational CommitmentIdentifying with a particular organization andits goals, and wishing to maintainmembership in the organization.

Job SatisfactionA collection of positive and/or negative feelingsthat an individual holds toward his or her job.


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The Theory of CognitiveThe Theory of CognitiveDissonanceDissonance

Desire to reduce dissonance Importance of elements creating dissonance

Degree of individual influence over elements Rewards involved in dissonance

Cognitive DissonanceAny incompatibility between two or moreattitudes or between behavior and attitudes.


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Are These Job Attitudes ReallyDistinct?

No: these attitudesare highly related.

Variables may beredundant(measuring the samething under adifferent name)

While there is somedistinction, there isalso a lot of overlap.

Be patient, OB researchers are working on it!


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Emotions and Moods


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Why Were Emotions Ignored inOB?

The Myth of Rationality Emotions were seen as irrational Managers worked to make emotion-free

environments

View of Emotionality Emotions were believed to be disruptive Emotions interfered with productivity Only negative emotions were observed

Now we know emotions cant beseparated from the workplace


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What are Emotions andMoods?


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Basic Moods: Positive andNegative Affect

Emotions cannot be neutral. Emotions (markers) are grouped into

general mood states.

Mood states affect perception and thereforeperceived reality.


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What Is the Function of Emotion?

Do Emotions Make Us Irrational? Expressing emotions publicly may be damaging to

social status

Emotions are critical to rational decision-making Emotions help us understand the world around us

What Functions Do Emotions Serve? Darwin argued they help in survival problem-solving Evolutionary psychology: people must experience

emotions as there is a purpose behind them Not all researchers agree with this assessment


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Sources of Emotion and Mood Personality

There is a trait component affect intensity Day and Time of the Week

There is a common pattern for all of us Happier in the midpoint of the daily awake period Happier toward the end of the week

Weather Illusory correlation no effect

Stress

Even low levels of constant stress can worsen moods Social Activities

Physical, informal, and dining activities increase positive moods


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More Sources of Emotion andMood

Sleep Poor sleep quality increases negative affect

Exercise Does somewhat improve mood, especially for depressed people

Age Older folks experience fewer negative emotions

Gender Women tend to be more emotionally expressive, feel emotions

more intensely, have longer-lasting moods, and expressemotions more frequently than do men

Due more to socialization than to biology


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What Are Emotions?

MoodsMoodsFeelings that tend to beFeelings that tend to be

less intense thanless intense thanemotions and that lack aemotions and that lack acontextual stimulus.contextual stimulus.

EmotionsEmotionsIntense feelings that areIntense feelings that are

directed at someone or directed at someone or something.something.

AffectAffectA broad range of emotionsA broad range of emotions

that people experience.that people experience.


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What Are Emotions? (contd)


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Felt versus Displayed Emotions


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Facial Expressions ConveyEmotions


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Gender and Emotions

Women Can show greater emotional expression. Experience emotions more intensely. Display emotions more frequently. Are more comfortable in expressing emotions. Are better at reading others emotions.

Men Believe that displaying emotions is

inconsistent with the male image.

Are innately less able to read and to identify


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External Constraints onEmotions

OrganizationalOrganizationalInfluencesInfluences

CulturalCulturalInfluencesInfluences

IndividualIndividualEmotionsEmotions

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OB Applications of Understanding Emotions

Ability and Selection Emotions affect employee effectiveness.

Decision Making Emotions are an important part of the

decision-making process in organizations.

Motivation Emotional commitment to work and high

motivation are strongly linked.

Leadership Emotions are important to acceptance of

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OB Applications of Understanding Emotions

Interpersonal Conflict Conflict in the workplace and individual

emotions are strongly intertwined.

Deviant Workplace Behaviors Negative emotions can lead to employee

deviance in the form of actions that violate

established norms and threaten theorganization and its members.

Productivity failures Property theft and destruction


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Ability and Selection Emotional Intelligence

(EI) Self-awareness Self-management

Self-motivation Empathy Social skills

Research Findings High EI scores, not

high IQ scores,characterize highperformers.


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Emotional Labor An employees expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.Emotional Dissonance:

Employees have to project one emotion while simultaneouslyfeeling another

Can be very damaging and lead to burnoutTypes of Emotions:

Felt : the individuals actual emotions Displayed : required or appropriate emotions

Surface Acting: displaying appropriately but not feeling those

emotions internally Deep Acting: changing internal feelings to match display rules -

very stressful


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Affective Events Theory (AET) An event in the work environment triggers

positive or negative emotional reactions Personality and mood determine response intensity

Emotions can influence a broad range of workvariables


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Implications of AET1. An emotional episode is actually the result of a series of

emotional experiences triggered by a single event

2. Current and past emotions affect job satisfaction

3. Emotional fluctuations over time create variations in job

performance4. Emotion-driven behaviors are typically brief and variable

5. Both negative and positive emotions can distractworkers and reduce job performance

Emotions provide valuable insights about behavior Emotions, and the minor events that cause them,

should not be ignored at work: they accumulate


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Emotional Intelligence (EI)

A persons ability to: Be self-aware

Recognizing own emotions when experienced

Detect emotions in others

Manage emotional cues and information EI plays an important role in job performance EI is controversial and not wholly accepted

Case for EI:

Intuitive appeal; predicts criteria that matter; is biologically-based. Case against EI:

Too vague a concept; cant be measured; its validity is suspect.


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M OB A li i f E i


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More OB Applications of Emotionsand Moods

Negotiation Emotions, skillfully displayed, can affect negotiations

Customer Services Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers which, in

turn, affects customer relationships

Emotional Contagion : catching emotions from others Job Attitudes

Can carry over to home, but dissipate overnight Deviant Workplace Behaviors

Negative emotions lead to employee deviance (actions thatviolate norms and threaten the organization)

Managers Influence Leaders who are in a good mood, use humor, and praise

employees increase positive moods in the workplace.


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