MODAL VERBS

He wrote it himself. He must have wri

unmodalized sentence: speaker commi

semanEc vs. pragmaEc strength

pragmaEc weakening: You must have more cake.

pragmaEc strengthening: BOSS TO EMPLOYEE: You may leave.

epistemic: speakers aNtude to the truth-value, factual status of the proposiEon (proposiEonal modality)

root: non-actualized, potenEal events (event modality)

(Palmer)

epistemic < Gk. knowledge evidence of the speaker belief-sets of the speaker the speakers mental representaEon of reality inferenEal processes meta-representaEon of reality qualicaEons concerning the speakers knowledge: inference, assumpEon, speculaEon, deducEon

may: one possible conclusion, speculaEve must: evidence, deducEon, the only possible conclusion

will: general knowledge, assumpEon John may/must/will be in his oce. might/would

deonEc < Gk. binding deonEc modality: condiEoning factors are external to individual

external deonEc source dynamic modality: internal factors, properEes and disposiEons of individual

He can go now. permission: deonEc source He can run a mile in 5 minutes. dynamic, ability He can escape. dynamic: circumstances She can speak French. - ambiguous

boundary deonEc/dynamic: fuzzy

The most we can expect is a slight cut in tax. (ambiguous: no idenEable deonEc source)

modal harmony: Strange as it may seem whatever you may say must surely should probably may possibly vs. non-harmonic: It may surely have been = surely it is possible

root epistemic disEncEon: syntacEc (Picallo 1990): epistemic modals are inserted at sentence level while root modals appear under VP in the lexicon (Ross 1969, Jackendo 1971): root and epistemic modals are disEnct lexical items: root modals are transiEve predicates control verbs, epistemic: intransiEve raising verbs contextual: semanEc pragmaEc component (Papafragou 2000, Kratzer 1991)

unitary semanEc approach: common core interpretaEons: context-dependent modal expressions = proposiEonal operators which quanEfy over a set of possible worlds, idenEed by the proposiEon (the VP)

express dierent types of commitment to the truth of the p: the speakers aNtude

< contextual and pragmaEc info

a. All Maori children must learn the names of their ancestors. b. The ancestors of the Maoris must have arrived from TahiE. c. If you must sneeze, at least use your handkerchief d. The people said: Rakaipaka must be our chief.

(Kratzer 1977) the modal base: a. tribal duEes b. general knowledge c. personal disposiEon (disposiEonal must;) d. the good of the tribe modal relaEon: must = logical consequence

modal bases: CAN: poten1al, possibility

As a former champion, John can lii heavy weights. physical

As a simple guest, John can dress casually. social

As a University employee, John can get health benets. legal

As a human being, John can have conscious mental states. biological

modal operators express dierent types of commitment to the truth of the proposiEon

modal operator: context of evaluaEon modal base: inferred from the context modal expressions: system-neutral, underspecied with respect to content

Sentence: modal operator + modal base + proposiEon (VP)

ambiguity : two dierent modal domains available for one and the same sentence

I cant leave my husband penniless. Of course you can, the law allows you to!

ambiguity : two dierent modal domains available for one and the same sentence

I cant leave my husband penniless. Of course you can, the law allows you to! modal base 1: moral prole modal base 2: legal regulaEons modal relaEon: (lack of) possibility

It cant be coincidence. As a ma

core meaning: necessity: must, need, have to, have got to, should, ought to

possibility: can, may

Epistemic necessity and possibility must: logical deducEon: there is no other possibility

may: one possibility of many: strong implicaEon that p is not true

He must be all alone. He may be all alone. He must have thought of what the Silencer might say when he came to give evidence and he took a gamble on the truth.

can , need: non-armaEve

But they cant be real. Even if he does, he need not get his reward.

epistemic must, may: internal negaEon mustnt : usu. interpreted deonEcally a. ?He mustnt have done it deliberately = it is necessary that he did not b. Danny must not have heard the news. = I think he has not heard the news. c. He may not have done it = possible that he did not can, need external negaEon d. You cant have known him = not possible that... e. He need not get his reward = not necessary that..

MUST subjec1ve: pragmaEc weakening: the only explanaEon

I can think of modal semanEcally entails proposiEon, another explanaEon incompaEble with speakers set of beliefs *He must have overslept but maybe he had problems with his car. objec1ve: only possibility there is If Ed is older than Jo and I am older than Ed, I must be older than Jo.

MAY subjecEve: put forward the proposiEon as possibility

We may be out of fuel. = one possibility of many; strong implicature that the speaker does not know whether p is true objecEve: public knowledge, not speakers knowledge

He may have misled Parliament: theres going to be an inquiry.

special case of pragmaEc strengthening: concessive may

cancel implicature that p is not true may = presupposed speaker accepts p as true in order to contrast two situaEons

No ma

must, need: past reference epistemic He must have told her. ( ) He must tell her tomorrow. ( ) It must surely rain tomorrow. ( ) may: freely future You may do be

interrogaEon: limited context with epistemics: one does not normally quesEon ones own set of beliefs => rhetorical quesEons

a. Might John be a liar? b. Must John be a liar?

condiEonals same restricEons:

c. ?If John must have a high IQ, then his teachers should treat him carefully.

d. ?If that blonde may be Jacks wife, we should keep quiet about the secretary.

vs. deonEc: e. If John must leave, then I will go too. f. If money may rule, then there is no jusEce.

Epistemic NEED = interrogaEve and negaEve counterpart of logical necessity MUST a. He neednt be guilty. b. Need the quarrel with Cuba ever have

happened, and can it be put into reverse? c. GeNng married is an awfully complicated

business. Actually it neednt be.

He neednt have told her. 1. epistemic

2. deonEc

He neednt have told her. 1. epistemic: it isnt necessarily the case that he told her 2. deonEc: it was not necessary for him to tell her

Epistemic HAVE GOT TO - AmE very common Youve got to be kidding me! cf. BrE You must be joking! BrE: theoreEcal necessity, very strong Someone must/has (got) to be telling lies. suspicion accusaEon

DeonEc necessity and possibility deonEc necessity = strong obligaEon: MUST deonEc possibility = permission: MAY CAN a. The chief must cast out all failures. -> modal base: the rules of the tribe- deonEc source b. You must bring him to me. -> deonEc source: speaker

negaEon

You mustnt a

PragmaEc factors: *You may have more cake. *You may not take any noEce of him . pragmaEc weakening: emphaEc advice, invitaEon: hearer = beneciary

You must have more cake. You mustnt be too disappointed.

deonEc modality: typically subjecEve You may join us with pleasure. (my pleasure) pragmaEc weakening only in subjecEve cases:

objecEve deonEc: We must/have to make an appointment. preferred We may borrow up to six books.

deonEc: future past/present: general requirements Candidates must have completed at least two years of undergraduate study.

usituaEon-type: individual-level states force epistemic reading a. He must have green eyes like his mother. b. They may be naEve speakers of Dutch.

state predicates coerced into achievement or acEvity reading: root reading becomes available:

c. I must be the best chess player there is. d. You must be honest. e. You must believe in God or theyll burn you at the

stake. f. The new professor must be a naEve speaker of

Finnish. g. Is he my father? I must know.

HAVE GOT TO esp. AmE MUST, HAVE GOT TO vs. HAVE TO parEcular occasions habitual, general a. I must/have got to feed the baby: shes been crying

for half an hour. b. I have to feed the baby six Emes a day c. Do I have to/need to show him my ID card every

Eme? d. Must I/Have I got to show him my ID card now?

have to, have got to -> actuality must: future a. The snow lay four feet deep around the house and he had to dig a path from the front door to the road. b. Chance had placed a great opportunity within his grasp and he must not let it slip.

a. It means Im permanently broke and Im having to do lots of work to support you and your mother unEl I get another commission.

b. If youd seen some of the fortune-hunEng dead-beats Ive had to keep o with a sEck since I ripened into womanhood, you would understand my thinking its a pleasant change to meet someone like Jerry.

dynamic necessity; disposiEonal must Eds a guy who must always be poking his nose into other peoples business. hedged performaEve: There is a confession I must make. I must admit that harmonic must needs ironic use: Must you make such a dreadful noise? If you must smoke, use an ashtray.

deonEc NEED: necessity usu. negaEve

a. Im very grateful. You neednt be. b. I need hardly tell you that ... c. I do not think I need read subsecEon 2. d. You neednt answer any quesEon. e. All you need do is go there and pay the money f. I wonder if I need be present. g. They need have no fear on that account

a. Must I wait? (open quesEon) b. Need I wait? (negaEve answer expected)

c. I neednt have gone. -> implies: I went. d. I didnt need to/didnt have to go. (open)

e. You neednt cut the grass speaker: deonEc source f. You dont need to cut the grass. - external deonEc source

HAVE TO/HAVE GOT TO deonEc/epistemic reading indisEnguishable in scienEc wriEng

a. Every nite clause has to contain a nite verb. -> deonEc source: rules of language / epistemic necessity not discourse-oriented b. The verdict must/has to be unanimous. If the members are unable to reach agreement, the case must/has to be retried before a new jury . -> neutral deonEc source

Dynamic possibility what is reasonable or acceptable: The most we can/may accept is a slight cut in sales-tax. what is circumstanEally possible Water can sEll get in. ability I can reach tall places. existenEal can: These animals can someEmes be dangerous. Lilies can be white or red. may: very formal The hairs are there all the Eme, although they may not grow noEceably before puberty. -> internal negaEon: someEmes they do not grow

ability potenEal a. He can make anything! Mr Willy Wonka can

make marshmallows that taste of violets. currently actualized b. Listen! You can hear the machines! And you

can smell the melEng chocolate in the air!

DeonEc SHOULD subjecEve: what the speaker considers right (morally

right, expedient) a. Oaths should not be lightly u

Epistemic SHOULD inference : a. The next road should be King Street. deonEc use more basic than epistemic: *epistemic +

perfect : b. She should have lei. rare examples of pure epistemic: always + deonEc (the

right thing, place): c. The key should be in the drawer. d. They should accept your manuscript. => epistemic : favourable situaEons e. ?They should reject your manuscript.

SHOULD: infer consequence from cause; evidence = norms, expectaEon

vs. MUST: direct evidence MUST = proposiEon is veriable in the present SHOULD = future conrmaEon a. Hes be

internal negaEon: a. She should not have done it -> advisable to not do it b. A man who wants to keep secrets should not babble in his sleep. -> advice to not do

open interrogaEves:

a. If this house was not permi

low-degree modality: subordinate clauses (mandaEve, emoEonal, condiEonal)

a. ...with the proviso that the company should not be broken up b. He was so astonished that anyone should care c. He wanted it more than life itself that she should love him. d. It was important to Abraham that this scheme should fail. e. How striking that both should disappear. f. That she should now make this separaEon was almost an

admission of defeat. g. The protest had been suspended, lest an outbreak of violence

should mar the happy day. h. Should they refuse the oer of his only sons hand in marriage, it

was enErely likely that the old mans protecEon would be withdrawn.

i. If, at any Eme thereaier, you should run out of supplies

Epistemic WILL a. They will have made the decision last week.

not normally 1st person (cf. voliEon) strength of modality: strong : entails factuality c. *They will have made the decision although its possible that they have not. avoided in contexts where it can be interpreted as future d. This must be the best restaurant. e. This will be the best restaurant (predicEon). future conrmaEon, vs. must: conclusion f. You were mad to tell her. You must/*will have known it would upset her.

objec1ve will: Ed is Toms father and Tom is Bills father, so Ed will be Bills grandfather.

Dynamic WILL voliEon: She wont sign./ ?She will. / Shes going to. I WILL solve the problem. condiEonal: Ill wash if you will dry. extension to inanimates: The computer wont start. propensity: He will lie in bed all day. Oil will oat on water. Deon1c WILL You will bring the prisoners to me.

DeonEc SHALL a. The commi

DeonEc HAD BETTER a. You had be

DARE dynamic - subject-referent disposiEon: have the courage

external negaEon I darent tell her.

Preterite COULD, MIGHT, WOULD, SHOULD dynamic modality: formal

a. When my father was a

restricEon on COULD in armaEve contexts: a. I lei early but couldnt get a seat b. *I lei early and could get a seat -> actualizaEon of a single situaEon viewed perfecEvely; actualized ability: c. I can/could hear something ra

WOULD voli1on: a. I had no money but he wouldnt lend me any. /*and he would lend me some.

propensity: allows reference to a single actualizaEon: b. He would call round just when I was the busiest. cf. will: c. He will have his li

politeness; deonEc: a. Could you pass the salt? b. Would you tell them were here. (voliEon)

hedged performaEve: a. I would not advocate it. b. I would imagine c. If I might make a suggesEon d. I can promise you.

redoubled qualicaEon: epistemic:

a. Certainly it would appear that ... b. it would seem that c. Whisky would seem to be what he lled the

radiator with. d. Is it conceivable that you might travel with

two hairdryers?

a. You were mad to drive so fast: you might / could have been killed.

b. "Jimmy Crocker is a WORM! Jimmy spilled his cocktail. It might have been the voice of Conscience.

c. You might /could have put it more nicely. d. Yeah, well, we might just have to do that, he said in a dark

threatening voice. e. His demeanour seemed to me that of a man who might

quite easily throw bread about at lunch. f. Angela might have been hewn from the living rock. g. I might have known he was a friend of yours!" he said,

bi

The scope of the perfect

She must have saved him. (internal perfect) She could have saved him if shed tried (external perfect)

External perfects: deonEc: He neednt /ought to/should/ might/could

have told her. possibility: We could/might have have been in Africa. remote apodosis: If he hadnt lied she would/might

have forgiven him.