napa ethiopia

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State of EritreaMinistry of Land, Water and Environment

Department of Environment

Programme

of Action

National Adaptation

A ril 2007


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TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. IV

PREFACE V

NAPA PROJECT TEAM. VILIST OF TABLES VII

LIST OF FIGURES.. VII

LIST OF ACRONYMS VIII

1. INTRODUCTION AND SETTING. 1

Population and Geography 1

Climatic Patterns.. 1

Infrastructure 2

Economy 2

Institutions.. 3

Development Challenges and Vulnerability to Climatic Variability... 4

2. FRAMEWORK FOR ADAPTATION PROGRAMME. 5

Key Climatic Hazards. 5

Key Vulnerability. 5

National Goals, Plans and Frameworks 7

Barriers to the Implementation of NAPA Results.. 93. IDENTIFICATION OF KEY ADAPTATION NEEDS.. 10

Vulnerability Groups in Urgent Need of Adaptation... 10

Key Adaptation Activities.. 11

Proposed Adaptation Projects 12

4. CRITERIA FOR SELECTING PRIORITY PROJECTS.. 13

Stakeholders and Evaluation Criteria 13

Approach to Developing Criteria 13

Assigning Scores to Evaluation Criteria 14

Standardization and Weighting 15

5. LIST OF PRIORITY ACTIVITIES.. 16

Highest Priority Adaptation Projects 16

6. NAPA PREPARATION PROCESS.. 17

Organizational Structure 17

Activities.. 17

7. LIST OF REFERENCES. 19Continued overleaf


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ANNEX 1: COPING STRATEGIES AND POTENTIAL ADAPTATION

PROJECTS IDENTIFIED BY STAKEHOLDERS... 23

Agricultural Sector.. 23

Livestock Sector 24Forestry Sector. 25

Water Resources Sector. 26

Marine and Coastal Zone Sector.. 27

Public Health Sector 28

ANNEX 2: PROJECT PROFILES. 29

Introducing Community Based Pilot Rangeland. 29

Introducing Community Based Pilot Projects to Intensify Existing

Production Models

32

Encourage Afforestation and Agroforestry through Community ForestryInitiative.

34

Groundwater Recharging for Irrigation Wells.. 37

Introduction and Expansion of Irrigated Agriculture.. 39


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AcknowledgementsI would like to take the opportunity to expressmy deep appreciation and gratitude to thefollowing individuals, and groups that were of key importance in the development of thisdocument. All involved in the NAPA process from local communities to upper levels of government benefited from the diligent andconcerted efforts of these entities, mentionedbelow in no particular order of precedence:q The national Steering Committee members

provided strategic oversight and policyguidance to the NAPA team that wasvaluable in keeping the ultimate objectivesof the NAPA preparation process inconstant view. In particular, the

contributions of Mr. Estifanos Bein, Dr.Ogbeghebriel Berakhi, Mr. DebessaiHaile, Dr. Semere Habtetsion and Mr.Micheal Negashe are highly appreciated.

q Members of the Technical Committee andthe various task force units carried out thevarious technical assessments inconsultation with national andinternational consultants. Were it not fortheir efforts, this document would havenot been come into reality. Special thanks

go to Mr. Tesfai Gebrhiwot, Mr. SolomonTesfamariam, Mr. Mussie Tesfahiwot, Mr.Esayas Haile, Mr. Esaw Tikue, Mr. BerihuAraya, Mr. Tewelde Zerezgi and Mr.Yohannes Bein.

q Members of the National and RegionalProject Coordination Units (NPCU)coordinate all of the NAPA activities incollaboration with its secretariat at theDepartment of Environment. Thestakeholder consultative process waspossible because of their excellentcoordination efforts. In particular, I wouldlike to extend special thanks to Mr.Kebrab Haile, Mr. Aman Salih and Mr.Merhawie Tekelay.

q Mr. Mogos Wolde-yohannis, DirectorGeneral, Department of Environment inthe Ministry of Land, Water &Environment supervised the entire work of the NAPA effort in Eritrea and was asupportive presence throughout theprocess;

q T. Consult, particularly Dr. TeklemariamZeggu, were diligent and highly engaged

in their support of the NAPA Documentand various interim reports, as well as inproviding technical assistance to thevarious task force units. I also would like

to thank Mr. Aklilu Hadgu from T.Consult for his tireless efforts infacilitating the stakeholder consultationswhich proved to be a great success;

q Horizon Business and Consulting Groupfacilitated the regional consultativeprocesses by providing valuable help withworking in local languages;

q Dr. Bill Dougherty, Senior Scientist fromthe Stockholm Environment Institute-Boston US Center provided technical

advice, contributed to capacitystrengthening, and helped review and editthis document and various interim reports;

q UNDP/GEF, and especially the LeastDeveloped Country Fund, provided thefinancing and implementation support forthe Eritrean NAPA. In particular, Mr.Yoseph Admekom and Mr. Issac Habtefrom the UNDP country office werecatalytic in keeping the NAPA on the righttrack and their continual efforts are highly

appreciated; andq Dr. Kifle Gebru, Mr. Estifanos Bein and

Mr. Amanuel Naggasie did a great job inreviewing and editing various reports.

Seid Abdu SalihNAPA National Project Coordinator,

Department of EnvironmentMinistry of Land, Water and Environment

Asmara, Eritrea


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Preface

Eritrea is a Least Developed Countrysituated in an arid and semi-arid region of Sahalian Africa. The country has low

adaptive capacity relative to constraints inwealth, technology, education, institutions,information, infrastructure and socialcapital. This renders Eritrea highlyvulnerable to climate variability, extremeweather events, and long-term climatechange.

Eritrea has special needs regardingadaptation to climate change. With low-lying coastal regions, arid and semi-arid

areas, areas liable to drought anddesertification, areas with fragileecosystems including mountainousecosystems, and an economy highlydependent on consumption of fossil fuelsand associated energy-intensive products,Eritrea is particularly vulnerable. Anoverriding need is for developed countryparties to the Convention to take fullaccount of these circumstances in order tofacilitate the transfer of needed technology

and resources so that effective adaptationcan continue to take place.

Climatic hazards such as temperatureincreases, reduced precipitation, chronicdrought, flash flooding, heat stress, ElNio effects, and sea level rise areexpected to adversely affect food security,water supply, public health, wildlife,coastal resources and fragile ecosystemsare raising serious concerns in Eritreaabout a changing climate. Those of itscitizens most likely to be affected are alsothose least able to cope. These includesubsistence farmers, spate and irrigatedwell farmers, pastoralists, the rural poor,small-scale traders, urban and semi-urbanpoor, artisanal fishermen and islandinhabitants. These groups are alreadyfinding it difficult to cope with increasingclimatic variability. Women, children, andelderly people are particularly vulnerable.

The NAPA process in Eritrea wasdesigned to be consistent with ongoing

national strategies, plans, and frameworksfor sustainable development. The resultingprioritized adaptation projects are closely

linked with national plans regardingpoverty reduction, improving foodsecurity, disaster preparedness andprevention strategies, and promotingsustainable development. At the policylevel, the NAPA process in Eritrea hasbeen actively seeking to identify ways tomainstream adaptation to climate changeinto national development processes byinclusion of climate and vulnerability insectoral and development policies.

As the climate change Focal Point inEritrea, I believe the priority adaptationprojects identified through the consultativeprocess possess great potential to helpvulnerable groups through relievinghardship, safeguarding livelihoods,improving food security, and strengtheningeducation. The experience gathered indeveloping the NAPA also lays importantgroundwork for long-term climate change

adaptation activities in Eritrea.Eritreas NAPA document is not an end initself, but a way for us to present to theinternational community our highestpriority actions that are urgently needed toadapt to climate change. Each priorityproject will need strong donor supportcoupled with effective local projectimplementation, monitoring andevaluation programmes. I take great pridein the work accomplished thus far andeagerly look forward to seeing priorityadaptation projects successfullyimplemented in Eritrea.

Mogos Wolde-YohannisDirector General,

Department of EnvironmentMinistry of Land, Water & Environment

Asmara, Eritrea


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NAPA Project Team

Steering Committee

Mr. Mogos Wolde-yohannes DG, DOE & Focal Point UNFCCC, Chairman

Mr. Seid Abdu Salih NAPA & UNFCCC NPC, DOE, SecretaryDr. Ogbeghebriel Berakhi University of AsmaraDr. Kesete Araia MOHDr. Semere Habtetsion MoEMMr. Estifanos Bein MOAMr. Tewolde Woldemikael MOFMr. Micheal Negash MoTCMr. Debessai Haile MOTCMr. Ogbe Beyene MOT

Mr. Yoseph Admekom UNDP CO Eritrea, Senior Task ManagerMr. Issac Habte UNDP CO Eritrea (alternate member)

Central NAPA Project Team

Mr. Tesfai Gebrhiwot Member of TC, MOEMMr. Solomon Tesfamariam Member of TC, MoTIMr. Mussie Tesfahiwot Member of TC, MLWEMr. Esayas Haile Member of TC, MOFMr. Berihu Araya Member of TC, MOH

Mr. Tewelde Zerezgi Member of TC, MLWEMr. Esaw Tikue Member of TC, MOFMr. Yohannes Bein Member of TC, MOH

Regional NAPA Project Participants

Mr. Aman Salih Member of RPCU, NRDS & SRDS regions,MLWE

Mr. Kebrab Haile Member of RPCU, Anseba & Gash Barkaregions, MLWE

Mr. Merhawie Tekelay Member of RPCU, Anseba & Gash Barka

regions, MLWEMr. Seid Abdu Salih Member of RPCU, Debub & Maakel regions,

MLWE


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List of Tables

Page

Table 3-1: Adaptation projects identified ................................................................................ 12

Table 4-1: Ranked Set of Potential Adaptation Projects for Each Vulnerable Sector.........15Table 5-1: Final list of priority adaptation projects for Eritrea.16

List of Figures

Page

Figure 1-1: Map of Eritrea......................................................................................................... 1

Figure 2-1: Eritreas rain-fed crop areas.................................................................................... 5

Figure 2-2 Eritreas biomass coverage ......................................................................................6

Figure 2-3: Eritreas river systems ............................................................................................7

Figure 6-1 Organizational Chart of Eritrean NAPA Process...................................................18


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List of AcronymsCC Climate ChangeCBA Cost Benefit AnalysisCBOs Community Based OrganizationsCCD Convention to Combat DesertificationCEA Cost Effectiveness AnalysisCO2 Carbon DioxideCOP Conference of the Parties of UNFCCC / UNCBD / UNCCDEINC Eritrean Initial National CommunicationFAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsGCM General Circulation ModelGEF Global Environment FacilityGDP Gross Domestic ProductIDPs Internally Displaced People

IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeLDC Least Developed CountriesLDCF Least Developed Countries FundLEG Least Developed Countries Experts GroupMCA Multi Criteria AnalysisMDGs Millennium Development GoalsM&E Monitoring and EvaluationMEAs Multilateral Environmental AgreementsMIAT Multidisciplinary Integrated Assessment TeamMLWE Ministry of Land, Water & EnvironmentMOA Ministry of AgricultureMOF Ministry of FisheriesMOEM Ministry of Energy & MinesMOH Ministry of HealthMOTC Ministry of Transport & CommunicationMOTI Ministry of Trade & IndustryNAPA National Adaptation Programme of ActionNBSAP National Biodiversity and Strategy Action PlanNCCC National Climate Change Committee

NRDS Northern Red SeaRBM Roll Back MalariaSNC Second National CommunicationSRDS Southern Red SeaUNDAF United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeV & A Vulnerability and AdaptationWHO World Health Organization


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1. Introduction and Setting

The National Adaptation Program of Action(NAPA) of Eritrea has been developedbased on a review of existing studies andextensive stakeholder input. Climatic shockshave already produced serious negativeimpacts on rural and urban livelihoods inEritrea. Unless addressed, Eritrea is likely tobecome increasingly susceptible to impactsfrom climate variability and climate change.

Population and Geography

Eritrea is located at the northern part of theHorn of Africa, between latitudes 12 40? and 18 02I North of equator and longitudes36 30? and 43 0 20? east of Greenwich. Ithas a landmass area of, about 125,700 km 2 inclusive of the islands, and a coastlinespanning some 1,720 kilometres. It sharesborders with Sudan in the north and west,with Ethiopia in the south, and withDjibouti in the southeast (see Figure 1below).

Figure 1-1: Map of Eritrea

Source:www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/africa/eritrea_pol86.jpg

Eritreas physical features are characterizedby central and northern highlands extendingfor about 350 km north to south; flat coastalplains of the eastern lowlands; and flatplains of western lowlands interspersed withhills. The altitude across the country varies

considerably, from 1,500 to 2,400 metersabove sea level in the highland area; from 0

to 500 meters in the eastern lowland areas;and from about 700 to 1,400 meters in thewestern lowlands.

The population of Eritrea is estimated at 3.56million as of 2003 National Statistics with anannual growth rate of about 2.7 percent.Much of the population is clustered in thecooler climates of the central highlands.More than 80% of the population live in ruralareas.

Climatic Patterns

Eritreas climate regime is highly variable,

being influenced by the expanding Sahel-Saharan desert, the proximity to the Red Seaand the lands physical features. Altitudeand topography play major roles indetermining climate in general andtemperature in particular. Typically, meanannual temperature declines by 1 C for each200-meter rise in elevation. Ambientaverage temperatures vary considerably,with the eastern lowland having an annualmean of 31 C reaching as high as 48 C;while in the highland areas the annual meanis 21 C with a maximum of 25 C. In thewestern lowland areas, the annual mean is29 C with a maximum of 36 C.

The whole country is divided into six agro-ecological zones representing two rainfallregimes, summer and winter, whose patternsand amounts are affected by the differenceof physiognomic regions. The summer rainsare brought by south-westerly monsoonwinds and are concentrated mainly in themonths of July and August. They affect thecentral highland and the western lowlandareas. The winter rains typically occur fromNovember to March and are influenced bythe north-easterly continental winds. Theserains affect coastal areas and the eastern andsouthern escarpments.

Eritrea has a mostly arid climate with about70% of its land area classified as hot andarid and receiving average annual rainfall of less than 350 mm. The main rainy season in


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most parts of the country is from June toSeptember. There is also a short rainyseason involving a small number of highland areas which occurs between Marchand May. In the eastern coastal areas and

parts of the adjacent escarpment, the rainyseason is between December and February.The eastern lowland has an average annualrainfall between 50 and 200 mm; whilenorthern areas, given that they fall withinthe eastern limit of Sahelian Africa, receiveless than 200 mm/year of rain. Southernareas experience average annualprecipitation of 600 mm, with the centralhighland areas receiving about 400-500 mmper year.

A main feature of rainfall patterns in Eritreais the extreme variability within and between years , and spatial variation over very short distances . The southwestmonsoon winds are responsible for the mainand small summer rains in Eritrea. Thenorthern and north-eastern continental airstreams are responsible for the winter rainsalong the coast and in southern part of theescarpment of the central highlands. The

northern and north-eastern winds are dry intheir nature but take moisture while crossingthe narrow Red Sea water body.

Infrastructure

Eritrea is currently confronted with majorinfrastructural challenges. Since the end of the war for independence with Ethiopia(1961-1993), significant strides have beenmade in the development of criticalinfrastructure.

Although the extent and the quality of infrastructure are still inadequate to attractprivate investment, Eritrea has madesignificant progress in rehabilitating andexpanding its basic infrastructure. Powergeneration has been critical to investmentopportunities in the past but with thecommissioning of the Hirgigo project,Eritreas power generating capacity hasbeen boosted from 35 MW in 1991 to more

than 135 MW in 2002.

Road transport has been very muchdamaged by the 30-year war of independence. The Government has madeconsiderable progress to rehabilitate oldroads and to construct new ones, particularly

linking the productive regions to majorconsumption canters. Nonetheless, with theroad density of only 0.6 Km per square Kmand 2 Km per 1000 people, many challengesstill remain.

Efforts are also being made to improve theseaports at Massawa and Assab. Eritrea hasa steadily improving education, healthfacilities, telecommunication and postalservices throughout the country.

Economy

The 30-year liberation war for independencehas resulted in the destruction of economicand social infrastructures. Immediately afterindependence in 1994, however theGovernment formulated economic policy ina Macro-Policy Paper. This policy documentencouraged, inter alia, private investment invarious sectors and the establishment of anefficient, outward looking private sector-ledmarket economy.Eritrea is a poor country with an estimatedannual GDP of about US$ 180 per capitaaccording to World Development Report of 2003. Agriculture, fisheries, industries,tourism and mining, inter alia, play animportant role in the economic developmentof the country.

Agriculture accounted for about 21 % of theGDP as of 2003. Over 80% of thepopulation depend on traditional subsistenceagriculture, including crop production andlivestock husbandry. However, agriculturalproduction is affected by a host of factorsincluding high rainfall variability withrecurrent and long drought periods,continuous degradation of the soil, frequentpest outbreaks and lack of research andextension services. About 66% of population was below the poverty line in2003 according to national Statistics Office.


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Poverty is concentrated in rural areas, and ismost severe in arid highland areas.

Marine and coastal resources, particularlyfisheries, are recognized as one of the veryimportant areas, which could have a verycrucial role in the economic development of the country. Eritrea has the potential tosustainably harvest around 70,000 tones of fish annually, but nonetheless the currentfish catch is known to be around 13,000metric tones per year. Having 1900 km of coastline, Eritrea has a very high potentialnot only to exploit its fish and other marineresources but also has an excellentopportunity to develop its tourist industry.

Eritrea is also believed to have goodpotential of minerals including gold, copper,potash, silver, marble, oil and natural gas.The potential of gold, petroleum and gas isbelieved to be high. Mining is believed tohave good prospects in contributing to theeconomic development of the country.Mining and Quarrying on the averageaccounted for about 1.5% of GDP for theperiod 1992-1997.

Industry accounts for about 22% of GDPand the balance of national income isaccounted for by the service sector, whichwas 58% of GDP in 2002.

Eritreas long-term development objectiveis to attain rapid and widely sharedeconomic growth with macroeconomicstability and a steady and sustainablereduction in poverty. The transitionalmedium-term (2004-06) objectives soughtto promote economic growth anddevelopment including developing exports,increasing agricultural productivity,attracting investment in fisheries, tourism,construction, manufacturing, developingstrong financial sector, and expanding andmodernizing the countrys basicinfrastructure. During this transition period,Eritreas immediate development prioritieshave been to meet the basic needs of thepopulation, achieving macroeconomicstability, managing the public debt,

rehabilitating and expanding infrastructureand resettlement and reintegration.

Institutions

Eritrea did not inherit a sound institutionalset up from the previous regime. Alladministrative, legal, commercial, judiciaryand regulatory institutions started to beestablished after 1991. Althoughconsiderable progress has been made in thisrespect much remains to be done to achievea standard that can help to facilitate theintegration of adaptation concerns intonational policy making.

The Department of Environment (DOE) in

the Ministry of Land, Water & Environmentis the major institution responsible forcoordinating environmental actions inEritrea. In addition, there are severalMinistries that deal with environmentalissues in their areas of mandate such as theMinistry of Energy & Mines, the Ministryof Agriculture, the Ministry of Trade &Industry, the Ministry of Fisheries, theMinistry of Transport & Communication,University of Asmara, the Ministry of Public works, and the Ministry of Health.The National Environmental ManagementPlan for Eritrea was adopted in 1995 andprovides the basic policy document foraction in the environmental sector and laysout a strategy for action for conservationactivities. Its guiding principles includerecognition of the strategic importance of conserving natural resources andmaintaining environmental quality as a part

of national economic growth anddevelopment processes, to developintegrated and multiple uses of naturalresource use strategies at the same timeensuring local involvement and equity inenvironmental.

The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA)develops agricultural strategies and policies.Regarding improvements of existing crops,technologies and traditional knowledgesystems, the National Agricultural ResearchInstitute (NARI) has been conducting


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research on different agronomic cropsincluding breeding for drought and diseasesresistant cultivars. Regarding forestrypolicy, the MOA, in consultation with allstakeholders, has prepared a draft policy.

This draft has sought to integrate manyclimate change adaptation issues.

To facilitate the implementation of National Integrated Water resourcesPlanning development and ManagementStrategy, a set of management tools,policies and legislative guidelines, takinginto account of climate change concerns,have been prepared.

To safeguard the sustainability of marineresource and protect the countrys marineand coastal biodiversity, the Governmenthas adopted two proclamations and thirteenlegal notices. There is also an ongoingproject entitled Eritrean Coastal, Marine andIsland Biodiversity (ECMIB) Project aimedto address the environmental and marinebiodiversity concerns of Eritrea in the RedSea Region.

Finally, every institution both governmental

and NGO is required to conduct Environmental Impact Assessment beforeimplementing any development project using the National Environmental ImpactAssessment Procedures and Guidelines.Some institutions are developing their ownprocedures and guidelines in consultationwith relevant stakeholders, mainly theDepartment of Environment.

Development Challenges and Vulnerability to Climatic Variability

As indicated above, traditional subsistenceagriculture dominates the Eritrean economy,with the overwhelming majority of thepopulation dependent upon crop productionand/or livestock husbandry to support theirlivelihoods.

Over 66% of the population lives below thepoverty line. The average Eritreanhousehold lives on approximately US$ 15per capita per month, with slightly wealthierfamilies living on US$ 317 per capita permonth Currently, 80% of those living inrural areas support themselves throughsubsistence farming.Small-scale farmers dominate theagricultural sector. Typically, such farmersare living in conditions of persistent povertyand rely on rain-fed and traditionalpractices. This combination renders themhighly vulnerable to climate variability. Theeradication of poverty through improvedagricultural production is among Eritreasprimary development objectives. Poverty is

deeply entrenched in rural areas, home to amajority of the population living on lessthan US$1 per day.

Numerous other development challenges aretaking place simultaneously with increasingclimate risks. For example, depletion of forests primarily for household fuel use threatens biological diversity, humancommunities, and reduces other valuableservices forests provide.


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2. Framework for Adaptation Programme

The vulnerability of communities andeconomic sectors in Eritrea to climate-related impacts is primarily associated with

weather fluctuations in the near term (i.e.,climate variability), as well as fluctuationsin weather patterns over the long term (i.e.,climate change). Current major climatehazards are discussed in the sections belowrelative to the nature of the hazard and theserious threats they pose to locallivelihoods, ecosystems, and economicsectors.

Key Climatic Hazards

The main climatic hazards identified in thecourse of the desktop and participatoryvulnerability assessments are as follows:

q Increased climatic variability : Relativeto baseline conditions, there have beenobserved changes in average, range, andvariability of temperature andprecipitation throughout the country;

q Recurring drought : The occurrences of

dry spells, seasonal droughts and multi-year droughts are more frequent than inthe past;

q Flash flooding: there has been aperceived increase in episodes of torrential rainfall with heavy runoff andflooding; and

q Sea level rise: Coastal areas and thehundreds of Eritrean islands in the RedSea are susceptible to rising sea levels

associated with climate change. Key Vulnerabilities

Eritreas Initial National Communication(INC) showed that a doubling of carbondioxide concentrations would lead to anaverage temperature increase 4.1 oC.Rainfall is also expected to be seriouslyaffected by climate change, varying by aratio ranging from 0.1 in 0.15. Such long-term changes in climate will have seriousadverse impacts on agriculture, waterresources, forestry, coastal environments,

and human health. Moreover, impacts arealready being observed in each of thesesectors, as briefly outlined below:q Agriculture: Relative to total surface

area, Eritrea has modest land resourcesfor rain-fed cultivation (see Figure 2-1).Small rains that usually occurred duringApril/May have all but disappeared. Inrecent years, the main rainy season startslater and finishes earlier than thehistorical pattern resulting in somewheat and millet varieties, as well assome native cultivars, disappearing from

production, due to recurring rain-fedcrop failures. New crops pests areappearing that have been previouslyunknown or uncommon. Irrigated cropsare also adversely affected due todepletion and drying of water wells onwhich irrigation depends, as well asunusually heavy flooding during therainy season. These circumstances areincreasing the heavy toll on subsistencefarmers.

Figure 2-1: Eritreas rain-fed crop areas

q Livestock: Frequent droughts between

1992 and 2004 have led to the deaths of thousands of cattle and camels. In


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addition, thermal stress is increasinglyexceeding thresholds that animals cantolerate, leading to decreased feedintake, interference with animalproductive and reproductive functions,

requiring a shortening of grazing hours,and increasing exposure to pathogens.Pastoralists in the eastern lowlands andnorth-western rangelands are the mostvulnerable to these patterns.

q Forestry: Most of Eritreas land areasare characterized by sparse to mediumcoverage of shrubs with almost not areascovered with trees (see Figure 2-2).Climate variability impacts soil moisture

and adversely affects the growth of shrubs and trees. As temperatureincreases, it has been observed that thereare increasing shortages of biomass bothfor energy and local house construction,as well as declines of biomass productssuch as frankincense, gum Arabic, doumpalm leaves, wild fruit, wild medicineand fodder. The most vulnerable speciesare those shallow rooted with narrowtemperature tolerance including

Dodonaea angustifolia, Psiadia punctulata, Meriandra bengalensis andOtostegia integrifolia in the eastern andwestern escarpments of the country andthose with slow growing habits such asOlea africana and Juniperus procera.

q Water Resources: Eritrea has anextensive river system with seasonalflow pattern (see Figure 2-3). However,recurrent drought, warmer temperatureand high evaporation pattern areresulting in smaller stream flows, lowergroundwater level, deterioration in waterquality, and disappearance of base flowswhich are the sources of water supplyfor urban, rural, livestock and industry.All towns located in the upper part of the major drainage basins (Mendeferaand Dekemehare) or at the water shadedividing ridges (Adikeyih and Barentu)are particularly vulnerable. On the other

hand, most of the coastal villages arelocated with in less than 15 km distance

from the sea. Fresh and scarcegroundwater is found mostly underneaththe larger ephemeral rivers and isextracted using very shallow open wells.Because of these sources proximity to

the sea and its arid climate, the coastalvillages water supplies are verysensitive for salt-water intrusion andflooding.

q Coastal and Marine Environment: thedistress of coral reefs in the Red Sea as aresult of temperature rise has had adevastating effect both on Eritreanfisheries as well as the reefs themselves.Temperature changes affect through

impacts on food and nutrient supply,growth, survival, reproduction, prey-predator dynamics and habitat.Similarly, temperature increase causestoxic algal blooms (such as red tide) thatthreaten the shellfish population throughlethal and chronic impacts. Climatechange is likely impacting mangrovesand sea grasses through altered sedimentbudgets.Figure 2-2 Eritreas biomass coverage

q Public Health: Malaria has now beenobserved at altitudes close to 2,000metres in Eritrea, a new phenomenonthat is attributed to climate change.


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Increasing climate variability willexacerbate food security and lead tomalnutrition, impaired childdevelopment and decreased adultactivity. Also, diarrhea is being

manifested from flooding and droughtevents. During floods, the spread of infective micro-organisms and parasitesincrease contamination particularly of waste. During drought, water supply isdecreased creating difficulties inmaintaining hygiene.

Figure 2-3: Eritreas river systems

National Goals, Plans, and Frameworks

The NAPA process in Eritrea was designedto be consistent with ongoing nationalstrategies, plans, and frameworks. In

particular, the NAPA process is closelylinked and highly complementary withexisting national development plansregarding food security, poverty reductionand sustainable development.

Strong linkages have been established underthe NAPA framework with a number of keynational initiatives. These include EritreasPoverty Reduction Strategy, the NationalEnvironmental Management Plan (NEMP),

Eritrean Initial National Communication(EINC), Multilateral Environmental

Agreements (MEAs), United NationsDevelopment Assistance Framework (UNDAF), disaster preparedness andprevention strategies, and various sectoralongoing and formulated projects and

policies.Moreover, the NAPA process in Eritrea hasbeen actively seeking to identify ways tomainstream adaptation to climate changeinto national development processes, byinclusion of climate and vulnerability insectoral and development policies that arecomplementary to climate change. Inparticular, there are several national policyprocesses that have parallel aims to climate

change adaptation have been the focus of scrutiny. Some of them are listed below.

q Poverty reduction strategy: Majorportions of Eritreas interim PovertyReduction Strategy Paper (2007) focuseson an overview of the nature of povertyin Eritrea and a statement of theGovernments commitment to povertyreduction. It lays out the Governmentsmacroeconomic framework and steps tocreate the conditions for resuming rapideconomic growth, and policies andprograms for poverty reduction. Itrepresents an initial articulation of anational strategy that aims at directlyimpacting on poverty through broadbased economic growth and targetedinterventions. The strategy and theprocesses followed in its formulation arecountry-owned and reflect nationalpriorities and local realities.

q Environment Management Plan: Theplan comprises four parts, eachconsisting of several sections. The firstpart considers environmental anddevelopmental prospects for Eritreawithin a broader (i.e., international)context, including the United NationsConference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED). The secondpart addresses the major environmentaland development issues confrontingEritrea. The third part defines majorsteps and responses involved in an


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integrated environmental anddevelopment planning process. The lastpart examines in detail the requirementsfor implementation of the plan and itsassociated project activities, institutional

prerequisites, and financial/humanresources.

q Initial National Communications: Aspart of its obligation under theUNFCCC, Eritrea communicated arange of information to the COP throughits initial national communicationsubmitted in 2001. There is closelinkage between the initial nationalcommunication and the NAPA process,

particularly as related to vulnerabilityand adaptation assessments with keyfindings from the NAPA process to beintegrated into Eritreas SecondNational Communication (SNC). Mostmembers of the NAPA team have beenretained for the vulnerability andadaptation assessment to be undertakenas part of the SNC. Many of the issues,concerns and needs identified in theNAPA process will be further explored

in the SNC while taking advantage of stakeholder networks established.q National Capacity Self-Assessment: The

NCSA has already identified the majorcapacity requirements of Eritrea in thethree main environmental agreementsincluding CBD, UNCCD and UNFCCC.Adaptation and capacity building areconsidered in NCSA project as beingcross cutting issues that would promotesynergy between and among theUNFCCC, CBD and UNCCD. NCSAhelps identify key deficits ininstitutional capacity and institutionallinkages and aids the process of creatingsynergies. The experience gained by theEritrean NCSA team during thepreparation of NCSA will also enableEritrea to implement its SNC.

q Sustainable Development Summit: Eritreas assessment of national progresson sustainable development is highlyrelevant to NAPA, particularly in that it

creates an informative snapshot of thecountrys policy and programmaticsuccesses, upon which an adaptationstrategy might be built, as well as itspersistent and emerging areas of

unsustainable development andvulnerability.

q Development Assistance Framework: The UNDAF is intended to representcollaboration and coherence in the UNProgrammes of assistance, an endeavorwhich includes a range of climatechange adaptation and adaptation-relevant activities. In achieving itsoverarching goal of contribution to the

reduction in absolute poverty in Eritrea,UNDAF will pursue activities in sixmajor areas including the highly relevantareas of food security and sustainableagricultural development.

q Multilateral Environmental Agreements: The United Nations Convention onBiological Diversity (UNCBD) hasmany direct, potential linkages toadaptation to climate change, includingits topical foci (e.g., ecosystemvulnerability), its policyrecommendations (e.g., maintainingecosystem resilience and adaptivecapacity), and its participatinginstitutions at the national andinternational level. For each of theseareas, there are strong potentialsynergies with the adaptationrecommendations identified in theNAPA and EINC. Similarly, the UnitedNations Convention to CombatDesertification and Mitigate the effectsof Drought (UNCCD) has manypotential linkages to adaptation toclimate change, including its topical foci(e.g., ecosystem vulnerability), its policyrecommendation (e.g., improved naturalresource management), and the overlapin participating institutions. For each of these areas, there are strong potentialsynergies with the adaptation

recommendations identified in theNAPA and EINC.


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Barriers to the Implementation of NAPA Results

Eritrea faces numerous challenges andbarriers when it comes to theimplementation of urgent and immediateactivities identified by the NAPA process.Some of the major barriers that will need tobe overcome can be summarized as follows:q Institutional Organization. Institutional

coordination is lacking in theimplementation of development projectsand Multilateral EnvironmentalAgreements (MEA). Due to the lack of aclear and transparent legal framework,institutional organization is sometimesinappropriate and has overlappingmandates and responsibilities that createconflicts of interest among stakeholders;

q Capacity: There is also a chronicshortage of human resources and skillsessential for the implementation of potential adaptation initiatives;

q Policy gaps: While Eritrea has macropolicies in place, there is a lack of regional and/or micro policies for thevarious socio-economic sectors. Whereregional/macro policies are in place,

they suffer from important gaps thatinhibit effective action towardsustainable development. There is also alack of regulatory mechanisms forexisting legislation and sectoral policy.Lack of approved laws and regulationsthat are directly linked with CC likeenvironmental law, water law, andmaritime code have not being approved.

q Lack of clear institutional mandates:

There is no clear mandate andresponsibility among institutions as aresult there is duplication and overlap of activities; and

q Funding: There is concern thatinadequate funding both at the nationaland international levels may limit thelevel of implementation of all measuresidentified in the Eritrea NAPA.


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3. Identification of Key Adaptation Needs

Eritrea is a country of rich resourcepotential, richly varied geography, anddedicated human capability. It has made

significant development strides as itemerges from a long-running war inpromoting sustainable developmentpolicies, engaging in internationalenvironmental processes, and seeking tostrengthen its human and institutionalcapacity.

Climatic risks pose a serious challenge toEritreas emerging development prioritesfor agricultural development, livestock

raising, forestry conservation, waterresource management, coastal and marineenvironmental protection and safeguardingpublic health. For each of these sectors,adaptation options have been identified onthe basis of desk-based assessments coupledwith ground-truthing through extensivestakeholder consultations, includingindividuals from governmental agencies,non-governmental organizations, and grassroots communities across the country.

In the subsections below, major adaptationneeds and initiatives are summarizedrelative to the key vulnerable sectorsidentified during the regional stakeholderconsultation processes in the coummitiesaround Masawa, Asmara and Keren. Theseneeds represent the outcome of consultations that addressed climatichazards, priority vulnerabilities, andexisting coping strategies.

Vulnerable Groups in Urgent Need of Adaptation

In Eritrea, the groups that are mostvulnerable to climate risks are those thatdirectly depend upon natural resources fortheir livelihood. Women, children, andelderly people are the most affected in anygroup. A brief description of eachvulnerable group appears below.

q Subsistence farmers: These include rain-fed and spate and well-irrigated farmers.

Subsistence rain-fed farming isparticularly vulnerable to climatichazards due to the low adaptive capacity

and practices that are increasinglyincompatible with climatic variability.Small-scale irrigation farmers are alsovulnerable because decreased rainfalland drought reduce the availability of irrigation water thus affectingproductivity. Flooding also destroyswells and other irrigation infrastructure.

q Rural dwellers: Forest or woodland-dependent rural inhabitants are also

highly vulnerable. People that harvestgum and incense, as well as women thatderive their livelihoods by weavingdoum palm leaves and selling wood andother forest products are also vulnerablesocial groups.

q Pastoralists: Pastoralists are mostimpacted by recurrent drought throughreduced livestock production andreduced livestock products such as milk.

q Urban poor: The urban poor arevulnerable to thermal stress and sea levelrise through destruction of livelihoodactivities, price increases in localmarket, increases in diseases burdensuch as Acute Respiratory Infections(ARIs), shortage of water both inquantity and quality due to drought andsalt water intrusion and shortage of fuelwood.

q Fishermen: Artisanal fisheries will bevulnerable to sea level rise in a differentways through low harvests that resultfrom erosion and sedimentation of thecoral reefs and mangroves which arebreeding sites for fisheries.

q Island residents: Inhabitants of Eritreanislands in the Red Sea are vulnerable toclimatic hazards through growingshortages of freshwater both in quantityand quality due to saltwater intrusion.


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While each of the above communities isalready adversely affected to some degree,long-term climate change will deepen theirvulnerability to a variety of health impacts.The most highly impacted will be people

with low immunization, refugees, ruralchildren, pregnant women, pre-schoolchildren and people living in camsin areas.

Key Adaptation Activities

In many parts of Eritrea, the vulnerablegroups identified above have devisednumerous kinds of coping strategies to dealwith agricultural production in the face of climatic variability. However, many of these strategies are proving to be no longereffective. Key adaptation activities neededin each of the vulnerable sectors are brieflysummarized below.

Agriculture

Major adaptation activities and needsidentified for crop production duringstakeholder consultations are as follows:

q Improve soil fertility and moistureretention using conservation,fertilization, and alternative croppingtechniques;

q Increase water supply through irrigation,water diversion structures, ponds, wells,and the optimization of farmingpractices;

q Control pests and plant diseases throughregular weeding, crop rotation, andplanting of appropriate crops;

q Time crop cultivation in direct responseto changing patterns of rainfall; and

q Breed drought- and disease-resistanthigh-yield crops to maintain and/orimprove crop production levels.

Livestock

Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for livestock production during stakeholder consultations

are as follows:

q Implement community-baseddevelopment and/or rehabilitation of rangelands in specific areas;

q Select animal species and breeds moreable to cope with climatic variability;

q Establish dairy production modelssuitable for specific areas;

q Increase job opportunities in order todiversify household income; and

q Reduce overall livestock numbers, whilesimultaneously improving productivitylivestock retained.

Forestry

Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for tree- and shrub-covered areas during stakeholderconsultations are as follows:

q Encourage afforestation of degradedlandscape/watersheds by constructingterraces, micro basins, and check dams;

q Promote agroforestry practices as a wayof diversifying land production systems;

q Plant a mix of drought resistantindigenous and fast growing exoticspecies through community forestryinititives;

q Encourage natural regeneration throughenclosures augmented with enrichmentplanting in biodiversity protected areas;

q Promote wood energy substitutes (solar,wind, kerosene, liquid propane gas,electricity) and wood consumption

efficiency (i.e., improved stoves); andq Encourage alternatives for wood in

traditional house construction

Water Resources

Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for water resourcemanagement during stakeholderconsultations are as follows:q Improve water use efficiency by

introducing water saving irrigation


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systems like drip and sprinklerirrigation;

q Enhance groundwater recharigingmechanisms;

q Develop effective soil and waterconservation projects;q Increaser awareness, education and

training for farmers, MoA staff andZoba offices on resource utilization,particularly on soil/water conservation;

q Upgrade the existing nationalclimatological network;

q Increase knowledge of water resourcesthrough stream flow gagging stations formajor river basins and groundwatermonitoring;

q Introduce/expand irrigated agriculture,especially spate-irrigated agriculture forcrop/livestock production;

q Promote good water resourcemanagement and efficiency through newregulations; and

q Conduct impact and adaptation research

on water resources.

Marine and Costal Zones

Major adaptation activities and needs thathave been identified for coastal zones andmarine ecosystems during stakeholderconsultations are as follows:

q Strengthen Integrated Coastal AreaManagement (ICAM) practices;

q Promote research to bridge existingknowledge gaps regarding sea level rise;

q Implement a management programmefor mangroves;

q Introduce marine and coastalinfrastructure protected areas;

q Promote traditional adaptation measuressuch as natural bench nourishment;

q Provided assistance for relocation of island inhabitants; and

q Develop accessible communityawareness programmes on climatechange and adaptation options.

Public Health

Major adaptation activities and needs that havebeen identified for the protection of publichealth during stakeholder consultations are asfollows:q Establish drought early warning systems;q Improve the quality of water supply and

sanitation systems;q Improve emergency preparedness;q Encourage supplementary feeding;q

Upgrade health infrastructures (i.e., enhancevaccination, improving housing standards,monitor and raise awareness of vectors anddiseases); and

q Develop integrated control approach forvector-borne diseases.

Proposed Adaptation Projects

During regional stakeholder consultations,numerous specific projects were identified foreach type of key adaptation need identified

above. These projects were considered to havethe potential to decrease vulnerability of keygroups and sectors relative to climate variability,extreme events, and long-term climate change.

Overall, there were a total of 102 specificadaptation projects across the crop, livestock,forestry, water resource, coastal and marineenvironments and public health sectors (seeTable 3-1 for a summary). A complete listing of these projects is provided in Annex 1 in tabularform, which also includes a listing of current

coping strategies and programmes.Table 3-1: Adaptation projects identified

Vulnerable sectorNumber of potentialadaptation projects

Agriculture 18Livestock 9Forestry 15

Water resources 29Marine & coastal zones 14

Public health 17Total 102


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4. Criteria for Selecting Priority Projects

The potential adaptation projects listed inAnnex 1 had sufficient consensus amongstakeholders to warrant their evaluationrelative to a set of criteria. This sectionprovides an overview of the process thatwas used to develop locally-drivenevaluation criteria to rank potentialadaptation options emerging from thestakeholder consultations.

The criteria were ultimately used in a multi-criteria assessment of potential adaptationoptions using NAPAssess , a tool for multi-criteria assessment that integrates the

various components of a multi-criteriaassessment (i.e., scoring, weighting,standardization, and project ranking). 1

Stakeholders and Evaluation Criteria

Throughout the NAPA process in Eritrea,there was an emphasis on the engagement of local stakeholders. This provided a basis fordetermining appropriate trade-offs betweenpotential adaptations initiatives directlyrelated to the unique concerns of the rangeof stakeholders engaged.

A list of key types of stakeholders issummarized in Box 1 below. The role of stakeholders in the development of evaluation criteria was focused on providinga better understanding of the key metricsthat they would use in judging theperformance of adaptation activities.Several regional and national extensivestakeholders discussions were held with the

coummities drawn from all regions of Eritrea.

Approach to Developing Criteria

The process for the development of evaluation criteria was threefold. First, thegeneral criteria suggested by the NAPAAnnotated Guidelines were reviewed

1

The NAPAssess model, available fromhttp://130.64.126.18/SEIUS/napassess/index.asp ,was tailored to Eritrean conditions.

against existing national policies and actionplans related to national developmentpriorities. This resulted in an initial set of evaluation criteria that emerged as findingsfrom the initial desk-based assessment of possible criteria.

Second, in order to integrate the needs andconcerns of local communities and othersegments of vulnerable communities, theNAPA team developed a set of locally-driven evaluation criteria based on specificeconomic, social, cultural andenvironmental factors that emerged from

stakeholder consultations in the coummitiesaround Masawa, Asmara and Keren .

Box 1: Types of stakeholders consulted

Finally, a high-level expert group drawnfrom various national stakeholderinstitutions, as well as the technical

committee of NAPA, merged these two setsof evaluation criteria into one final andpractical set that was then used for theprioritization of adaptation projects. Thestakeholders involved at this level of consultation were all based in Asmara.

As a practical matter, the total number of criteria was kept to a manageable level bycombining those criteria that tended to havea high degree of overlap. This helped to

reduce the analytical burden associated withthe manipulation of the scoring matrices that

Rural heads of households Farmers Pastoralists Fishermen Urban and semi urban dwellers Government officials Academic researchers NGO representatives

CBO representatives Community leaders Regional officials Womens groups Agriculture/health extension Local school teachers


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were developed. The expert group alsoassigned weights to the final list of criteriabased on their understanding of thestakeholder perspectives that emergedduring the consultation process.

In all, the final list of evaluation criteriaincluded seven key criteria that emergedfrom the process described above. Thesecriteria are listed below together with ashort description. They are listed in order of highest to lowest weighting. It is importantto note that these criteria represent a mix of both quantitative and qualitative indicatorsand were fully established and approved bystakeholders assembled.

q Reduction of threats or impacts of climate change: This refers to thepotential of adaptation measures tosignificantly contribute to a reduction of the adverse impact of extreme eventsand climate variability. The relativeweight of this criterion was 20%.

q Cost-effectiveness and feasibility : Thisrefers to the d egree of implementationease, overall cost, potential to overcome

barriers, and long-term sustainabilityrelative to the conditions and constraintsof the vulnerable groups identified. Therelative weight of this criterion was20%.

q Impact on vulnerable groups and resources: This refers to the potential of adaptation measures to relieve hardship,safeguard livelihoods, improve foodsecurity, and strengthen education,particularly among the vulnerablegroups identified. The relative weight of this criterion was 20%.

q Synergy with multilateral environmentalagreements: This refers to thecompatibility of adaptation measureswith existing national action plans thathave been developed to combatdesertification and preserve biodiversityresources. The relative weight of thiscriterion was 10%.

q Synergy with national plans: This refersto the c ompatibility of adaptationmeasures with national sustainabledevelopment, poverty reduction, andresource conservation policies and

strategies. The relative weight of thiscriterion was 10%.

q Contribution to poverty reduction: Thisrefers to the potential of projects tocontribute to the creation of adaptivecapacity among the vulnerable groupsidentified. It is particularly related tohow adaptation projects can contributeto income growth of poor people in bothurban and rural areas. The relative

weight of this criterion was 10%.q Equity: This refers to the potential for

the adaptation measures to be equitableregarding gender, income distributionopportunities, empowerment acrosscommunities, and risk reduction acrosslivelihoods. The relative weight of thiscriterion was 10%.

Assigning Scores to Evaluation Criteria

Once the evaluation criteria were fullyidentified, each of the 102 adaptationprojects (see Annex 1) that had beenproposed by the stakeholders was assigned araw score for each of the proposed criteria.The process of assigning raw scores took place one vulnerable sector at a time. Thatis, adaptation projects were evaluatedrelative to other projects within the samevulnerable sector. For example, potentialadaptation projects in agriculture competed

against only those projects that wereagriculture-based.

These raw scores were determined on thebasis of discussions - sometimes quiteextensive with stakeholders. Where necessary, uncertainty in stakeholderconsensus was resolved on the basis of thebest judgement as exercised by the NAPAteam under the direction of the ProjectCoordinator.


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Standardization and Weighting

Once all raw scores had been assigned, theywere standardized using conventionalmathematical techniques. Oncestandardization process was complete, theweight assigned by stakeholders to eachcriterion was integrated into the analysisand a final weighted score for each of the102 potential adaptation projects wasdeveloped.

These final weighted scores made it possibleto rank the projects in the order of theirimportance, as perceived by the stakeholdersaffected and relative to the individualvulnerable sector categories. The top 22 of

the overall 102 projects appear in Table 4-1,ranked relative to all the other projects in thevulnerable sector in which they wereclassified.

Table 4-1: Ranked Set of Potential Adaptation Projects for Each Vulnerable Sector


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5. List of Priority ActivitiesThe process for the final prioritization of adaptation projects across vulnerable sectorswas twofold. First, the top-ranked sectoral

projects that emerged from the processdescribed in the previous section wereidentified. This resulted in the 22 projectsidentified in Table 4-1 in the previoussection being put forward as the highestpriority adaptation activities for Eritrea.

Then, as a final step, these highest priorityprojects were themselves ranked by a groupof technical experts, subject matterspecialist and senior policymakers, most of them are members of the National SteeringCommittee , to produce a final prioritized setof projects across all vulnerable sectors.This represents a final prioritized list of themost needed projects in Eritrea to meet theurgent and immediate needs of vulnerablecommunities for adaptation to increasingclimatic risks.

Highest Priority Adaptation Projects

Each of the highest ranked sectoral

adaptation projects aims to support andimprove livelihoods in Eritrea relative to the

set of vulnerable sector identified earlier,particularly among those living in ruralcommunities.

The development of the final list of priorityprojects attempted to rank the five highestpriority projects. The subject matterspecialists, experts and senior policymakerswho conducted the final evaluation and

project rankings sought to ensure that thefinal outputs of the NAPA process would bewell linked to the governments ongoingstrategies to reduce poverty.

The resulting prioritized options assummarized in Table 5-1 below, rankedfrom highest to lowest priority. Nonetheless,it was agreed that the first raked projectwhich is Breeding Drought and DiseaseResistant Crops is essentially a researchproject and as such it seems difficult toharmonize it as an adaptation project thatcan meet the urgent and immediate needsof vulnerable communities in Eritrea.

Therefore, it was agreed to replace thisproject by the second ranked project as thefirst highest priority project and the third asthe second and so on. It was also agreed thatthe sixth raked project which isIntroduction and expansion of irrigatedagriculture especially spate irrigatedagriculture (for crop and livestock production) to be included in the final listof priority adaptation projects for Eritrea.Full project profiles are provided for each of

these options in Annex 2. After the processof selection and prioritization of adaptationprojects was completed, the NAPAconsultation process gave considerableemphasis to the analysis of existing policiesand institutional framework so as to assesstheir suitability for integration andimplementation of the NAPA in nationaldevelopment context.

Table 5-1: Final list of priority adaptation projects for Eritrea


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6. NAPA Preparation Process

The overall objective of the NAPA processin Eritrea was to build awareness aboutclimate risks, solicit feedback on urgent and

immediate needs, and synthesize a widerange of information to decide on thehighest priority adaptation projects to putforward.

By necessity, this process involvedcontributions from a wide range of stakeholders which were solicited throughconsultations, workshops, meetings, androundtable discussions. The overall processwas guided by the approach recommended

in the LEG Annotated Guidelines. A brief overview of the process is provided below.

Organizational Structure

A participatory process, involving multiplestakeholders and national consultants,guided the implementation of the NAPAdocument in Eritrea. This process beganwith the establishment of an administrativestructure, which included the entitiesdescribed below. An organizational diagramis provided in Figure 6-1.q National Steering Committee: this unit

consisted of senior policymakers whoprovided strategic oversight andguidance to the overall activitiesinvolved in the NAPA process;

q Multidisciplinary Integrated Assessment Team: this team was organized into aset of task force units that consisted of experts and specialists who reviewedand synthesized pertinent studies andassessments;

q Technical Committee: this group wasconsisted of experts and specialists whoprovided a periodic review andevaluation of technical materialsprepared during the NAPA process;

q Project Management Team: this unitconsisted of personnel from theDepartment of Environment who wereresponsible day-to-day administration of

the project both at the national andregional levels;

Activities

Following the establishment of theadministrative structure, the NAPA processin Eritrea was launched with a kick-off workshop. The objectives of this workshopwere to publicize the program activities of the NAPA Project and to cultivate publicawareness of the adverse effects of climatechange to Eritrea.

A major activity in the NAPA process wascarrying out the participatory vulnerabilityassessment, which identified climate changerelated problems as well as traditionalcoping mechanisms and strategies. Hence,both a desktop research component and aconsultative component were included in thevulnerability assessment.

The vulnerability assessment was followedby meetings of expert committees and anational stakeholders consultation. Inaddition to summarizing the climate change

related issues and traditional copingstrategies, the consultation identifiedrequisite adaptation needs of Eritrea as wellas barriers to proposed adaptation measures.The end-of-project workshop concluded theNAPA process with the identification of ranked adaptation projects.

Development of Interim Technical Reports

Expert groups were formed to synthesizeavailable information, undertake synergy

assessments, and prepare a variety of interim technical reports. These reports hadthe result of consolidating emergingknowledge and represent a library of permanent material at the climate changeSecretariat at the DOE. The followingtopical reports were prepared by expertgroups:

q Stakeholder Assessment: The purpose of this report was to identify keystakeholders, based on priorityvulnerabilities, whose participation in


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the NAPA process would providecritical experience and perspective

q Stakeholder Consultation Methodology:The purpose of this report was toconceptualize a consultation processthrough which participatory assessmentsof both vulnerability and adaptationoptions could be achieved.

q Participatory Assessment: The purposeof this report was to documentstakeholder perceptions and areas of agreement on priority vulnerabilities.

q Synthesis of Vulnerability Information: The purpose of this report was tocollate, review and synthesize availableinformation on adverse effects of climate change in order to provide abaseline of climate information, andhelp sharpen understanding of criticalvulnerabilities to which adaptationdecisions should respond.

q Synergy and Barriers to Adaptation toClimate Change: The purpose of thisreport was to collate, review andsynthesize available information onexisting national policy linkages withclimate adaptation, in order to clarifysynergies and provide an overview of the relevant policy context within whichadaptation decisions must be made.

q Identification of Coping Strategies and Adaptation options: The purpose of thisreport was to collate, review andsynthesize available information onexisting strategies and measures for

coping with the adverse effects of climatic variability in order to orient theNAPA process toward tested, effectiveapproaches, and help make the processof selecting adaptation projects asinformed and strategic as possible.

q Identification of Adaptation Projects: The purpose of this report was toidentify and elaborate potentialadaptation activities for consideration in

the final project selection process.q Country-Driven Evaluation Criteria:

The purpose of this report was toidentify, assess and prioritize evaluationcriteria suitable for use in the selectionof adaptation activities that addressimmediate and urgent needs in theEritrean context.

q Selecting Adaptation Projects: Thepurpose of this report was to select and

propose adaptation activities forimplementation, through the applicationof agreed criteria.

Figure 6-1 Organizational Chart of Eritrean NAPA Process

Department of Environment

Steering Committee

National ProjectCoordination Unit

TechnicalCommittee

ConsultativeAssessment Task

Force

SynergyAssessment Task

EvaluationCriteria Task

Force

Project PortfolioTask Force

Regional Project Coordination Units

Massawa Keren Asmara

Regional & National Stakeholder ConsultationProcess


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Annex 1: Coping Strategies and Potential Adaptation Projects identified bystakeholders

Agricultural SectorCurrent coping strategies

Autonomous Projects/programmes Potential Adaptation Activities Diversion of small

streams and run off tofields

Stone and earth bundterraces

Check dams Crop rotation Fallow systems Contour farming Mixed cropping Late planting and early

maturing crops Cash for work Off farm labour Remittance from family Accumulation of food in

good rain years Growing expensive

products Integrating crop/livestock Constructing wells,

dams, ponds Using water conservation

oriented irrigation system(e.g. drip irrigation)

Using early maturingvegetable plants

Reduction of irrigatedfield size during drought

Replacing perennialplants by annuals

Increasing depth of waterwells during drought

Growing expensiveproducts

Integrating crop/livestock Sell of fire wood and

charcoal Produce vegetables,

fruits forage/fodder whichrequire less water

Growing expensiveproducts

Integrating crop/livestock Safety net for food Family remittance Seed selection Crop rotation Crop diversion Developing wells, ponds

& dams Water supply from spring

& river beds Mulching Drill planting (chulika) Deep seeding

Research in droughtresistance crops

Multiplication anddistribution of droughtresistant crops

Food safety nets for needyhouseholds duringdisasters such as drought

Promoting diversion ofstreams and run off tofields

Preparing integratedproduction models

Water use managementand regulation

Developing waterconserving irrigationtechniques

Enhance spate irrigation Applied research on crop

resistant vegetables Promoting self-reliance

programmes for womenheaded families

Stone and earth bund terraces on farmlandsto conserve soil and moisture.

Breeding of drought and disease resistanthigh yielding crops to promote cropproduction

Implementation of diversion structures tosupplement water to rain-fed agriculture

Application of fertilizer (both organic andinorganic) to improve soil nutrients anincrease water holding capacity of soil

Conservation tillage through application ofcrop residue to reduce evaporation andaccordingly retain moisture.

Planting moisture efficient crops such aspearl millet and water melon on river beds

Crop rotation (rotating legume and nonleguminous crops) to improve soil nutrients,soil mois ture and decrease soil born pestsand disease.

Selection of healthy and vigorous seeds toincrease resistance to drought, pests anddiseases and to increase productivity

Improve farm management technology suchas row planting depth of planting etc. toincrease production.

Use late planting and early maturing crops tosecure crop production at times of low and

variability of rains Contour farming to retain soil and moistureon cultivated fields.

Weeding to reduce competition of weedsagainst plants for soil nutrients and moisture

Mulching using crop residue to retain soilmoisture from evaporation

Increase irrigation through construction ofdams, ponds, and water wells for increasedcrop production

Mixed cropping such as barley and wheat,sorghum and finger millet, sorghum andsesame etc. to secure production if one typeof crop fails.

Soaking of seeds into water prior to plantingto hasten and secure germination.

Biological soil conservation (strip cropping,planting grasses and leguminous plants onedges of plots) to strengthen physical soilconservation structures so as to retainmoisture and soils in the cultivated fields.

Introduction/ expansion of irrigatedagriculture especially spate irrigated for cropand livestock production.


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Livestock Sector

Current coping strategies Autonomous Projects/programmes Potential Adaptation Activities Seasonal extensive movement,

distance depends on severity

Concentration in riverine area Increase digging shallow wells inriverbeds

Forage conservation Crop residue conservation, purchase Digging deep wells by communities Moving animals to villages with better

water sources Selling animals except for breeding Movement to cooler uplands Movement to raised grounds Keeping herds isolated Decreasing grazers (cattle) Increasing browsers (goat, camel) Overall reduction of herds Selling of animals even breeders Casual work in towns or permanent

displacement of young people Fuel wood sale Trade (within and across boundaries)

e.g. western lowland area with Sudan,eastern area with Yemen.

Fishing (eastern lowlands) Remittance from relatives (within and

from outside) Riverbed planting with pearl-millet Loan from friends, relatives, merchants Elimination of animals or substitution of

cattle (except ox) by goat/sheep Reducing number of oxen Selling oxen at the end of cultivation

season and buying at the onset of nextcultivation season

Casual work in towns Food/cash for work Remittance from relatives Substitution of ox by hiring tractor

service Loan from friends, relatives, merchants Importing of animals (eastern Sudan,

northern Ethiopia) Changing to other trade Reduction of meet, milk consumption

The poor substitute beef, mutton/goatmeat with chicken meat and pulses Restriction of milk only to young

children The poorest families substitute meat

with pulses Substitute forage scarcity with low

energy level feeds and imported feedsbut limited by supply availability andcost

Reduction of herd size Sales of male calves at early age

Range development(reseeding, spate

irrigation, terracing, etc.) Provision of ponds, deepwells, motorized

Early warning Restocking of breeding

animals and oxen for thevery needy households

Provision of healthservices

Early warning Rural sustainable

development programmes Food aid Food or cash for work School feeding Supplemental feeding for

child and mother Food aid Food or cash for work School feeding Early warning Food aid dried milk Price control on milk and

meat Supplemental feeding Early warning Priority for dairy the

industrial by-product feed

Range development bycommunity in specific area

Local institutional capacitybuilding

Rangeland management Selecting animal species and

breeds Reduction of livestock

numbers, but improveproductivity of individual

Establish production models Increase job opportunities Substitute cattle with small

ruminants Establish dairy models suitable

for specific areas


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Forestry SectorCurrent coping strategies

Autonomous Projects/programmes Potential Adaptation Activities Promoting community

forestry/Agro- forestry(multipurpose trees planting at

home stead, individual plots,etc)

Off farm job; formal or informalemployment locally or in urbanareas

Remittance from familymembers or relatives fromurban areas or abroad

Planting drought resistanttrees or shrub species

Mixed planting (indigenousand exotic) in rows, one afterthe other or in blocks tominimize risk of failure,

Establishment andmanagement of permanentand temporary enclosures

Collaborative management(community and government

joint management, under theprinciple of cost benefitsharing)

Planting fast growing speciesrecommended by government

Promoting fuel woodconserving stoves (Adhanet );use animal dung and cropresidues

Wood energy substitute (solar,wind, electrical, kerosene,liquid propane gas etc

Planting fast growing speciesrecommended by government

Substitute house roofs withcorrugated iron sheets andother roofing materials

Afforestation and enclosureswith rotational taping

Enclosure with rotationalcutting

Planting fodder trees andshrubs, enclosure, rotationalgrazing, rotational pollarding,

Reseeding, cut and carry

Promoting communityforestry/Agro- forestry

Constructing hillside

terraces, check dams,micro-basins and differentbunds, to enhance plantsurvival and growth

Selection and multiplicationof drought resistant plants

Raising seedlings onpolythene tubes to developcompacted fibrous rootsprior to planting

Institutional capacitybuilding

Organizing communitybased committees to

manage local forestry Selecting fast growing treespecies

Research on energysubstitutes and distributionat economic cost;promotion of the privatesector to developsubstitutes

Developing fast growingtree species

Developing afforestationtechnologies for differentregions

Research on fodder treesand shrubs

Promote climate change researchrelating to forestry and disseminatescientific information

Conservation and management of thehighland forest ecosystem

Conservation and management of thewoodland ecosystem of the southwestern lowland and promote thesustainable utilization of none woodforest products such as gum andincense

Strengthening institutional and legalaspects of the sector

Conduct woody biomass survey andintroduce proper utilization of woodresources

Encourage Afforestation of degraded

landscapes/watersheds and promoteagro forestry, by constructing terraces,micro basins, check dams and using amix of drought resistant indigenous andfast growing exotic species, throughcommunity forestry initiatives. These willhelp in producing diversified productionof food, wood and fodder in line withother environmental protection

Encourage natural regeneration throughenclosures and augment withenrichment planting with indigenousplants to fill gaps

Establish biodiversity protected areas Introduce collaborative forest resources

management in the riverine forest andpromote proper utilization of the DoumPalm leaves ( Laka)

Encourage alternatives for traditionalhouse construction

Delineate some forest land inSemienawi and Debubwi Bahri forgenetic resource conservation

Encourage the use of improved woodstoves (Adhanet)

Promote wood energy substitutes(solar, wind, kerosene, liquid propanegas, electricity)

Encourage proper livestock

management (rotational grazing,rotational pollarding, cut and carry,reseeding grasses, planting fodder treesand shrubs ) to reduce overgrazing

Promote fire protection mechanisms


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Water Resource Sector

Current coping strategies Autonomous Projects/programmes Potential Adaptation Activities Rainwater harvesting

from roofs and hillsides Introduction of water

rationing, water tariff andwater trucking

Establish village levelwater committees

Soil and WaterConservation measures

Change in land use Construction of stream

diversions in thelowlands

Construct shallow wells Construction of shallow

and deep wells, damsand ponds and

increasing the capacityof existing dams byraising their heights

Reduce irrigated landsize and grow mainlyshort maturingvegetables

Establish village levelwater and irrigationcommittees

River bank protection Construction of shallow

wells, ponds and smalldams for human and

napa ethiopia

Documents