For other uses, see Kamikaze (disambiguation).The Kamikaze (, [kamikaze];Divineor "spirit

Ensign Kiyoshi Ogawa, who ew his aircraft into the USS BunkerHill during a kamikaze mission on 11 May 1945

wind), ocially Tokubetsu Kgekitai (Special Attack Unit), abbreviated as Tokk Tai (), and used as a verb as Tokk (special attack),were suicide attacks by military aviators from the Empireof Japan against Allied naval vessels in the closing stagesof the Pacic campaign of World War II, designed to de-stroy warships more eectively than was possible withconventional attacks. During World War II, about 3,860kamikaze pilots were killed, and about 19% of kamikazeattacks managed to hit a ship.*[1]Kamikaze aircraft were essentially pilot-guided explosivemissiles, purpose-built or converted from conventionalaircraft. Pilots would attempt to crash their aircraft intoenemy ships in what was called aBody Attack(;, taiatari) in planes laden with some combina-tion of explosives, bombs, torpedoes and full fuel tanks;accuracy was much better than a conventional attack, thepayload and explosion larger. A kamikaze could sustain

damage which would disable a conventional attacker andstill achieve its objective. The goal of crippling or de-stroying large numbers of Allied ships, particularly air-craft carriers, was considered to be a just reason for sac-ricing pilots and aircraft.These attacks, which began in October 1944, followedseveral critical military defeats for the Japanese. Theyhad long since lost aerial dominance due to outdated air-craft and the loss of experienced pilots. On a macroe-conomic scale, Japan suered from a diminishing ca-pacity for war, and a rapidly declining industrial capac-ity relative to the United States. Despite these problems,the Japanese government expressed its reluctance to sur-render. In combination, these factors led to the use ofkamikaze tactics as Allied forces advanced towards theJapanese home islands.

USS Bunker Hill was hit by kamikazes piloted by Ensign KiyoshiOgawa (photo above) and Lieutenant Junior Grade Seiz Ya-sunori on 11 May 1945. 389 personnel were killed or missingfrom a crew of 2,600.*[2]

While the term "kamikaze" usually refers to the aerialstrikes, it has also been applied to various other suicide at-tacks. The Japanese military also used or made plans fornon-aerial Japanese Special Attack Units, including thoseinvolving submarines, human torpedoes, speedboats anddivers.The tradition of death instead of defeat, capture, and per-ceived shame was deeply entrenched in Japanese mili-tary culture. It was one of the primary traditions in thesamurai life and the Bushido code: loyalty and honouruntil death.

1

2 2 HISTORY

1 Denition and etymology

Further information: Battle of Bun'ei and Battle of KanThe Japanese wordKamikaze is usually translated asdi-

The Mongol eet destroyed in a typhoon, ink and water on paper,by Kikuchi Ysai, 1847

vine wind(kami is the word forgod,spirit, ordivinity, and kaze forwind). The word originatedas the name of major typhoons in 1274 and 1281, whichdispersed Mongolian invasion eets under Kublai Khan.In Japanese, the formal term used for units carrying outsuicide attacks during 19441945 is tokubetsu kgeki tai(), which literally means special attackunit. This is usually abbreviated to tokktai (). More specically, air suicide attack units fromthe Imperial Japanese Navy were ocially called shinptokubetsu kgeki tai (, divine windspecial attack units). Shinp is the on-reading (on'yomior Chinese-derived pronunciation) of the same charactersthat form the word kamikaze in Japanese. During WorldWar II, the pronunciation kamikaze was used in Japanonly informally in relation to suicide attacks, but afterthe war this usage gained acceptance worldwide and wasre-imported into Japan. As a result, the special attackunits are sometimes known in Japan as kamikaze toku-betsu kgeki tai.

2 History

2.1 Background

Lt Yoshinori Yamaguchi's Yokosuka D4Y3 (Type 33 Suisei)Judyin a suicide dive against USS Essex (25 November 1944).

The dive brakes are extended and the non-self-sealing port wingtank trails fuel vapor and/or smoke.

A Japanese kamikaze aircraft explodes after crashing into Essex' s ight deck amidships 25 November 1944

Model 52c Zeros ready to take part in a kamikaze attack (early1945)

Before the formation of kamikaze units, pilots had madedeliberate crashes as a last resort when their planes hadsuered severe damage and they did not want to risk be-ing captured, or wanted to do as much damage to the en-emy as possible, since they were crashing anyway; such

2.2 Beginnings 3

situations occurred in both the Japanese and Allied airforces. Axell and Kase see these suicides as individ-ual, impromptu decisions by men who were mentally pre-pared to die.*[3] The case of Nikolai Gastello's taranon 26 June 1941 passed into Soviet air-warfare lore. Inmost cases, little evidence exists that such hits representedmore than accidental collisions of the kind that some-times happen in intense sea or air battles. One exampleof this occurred on 7 December 1941 during the attackon Pearl Harbor. First Lieutenant Fusata Iida's plane hadtaken a hit and had started leaking fuel when he appar-ently used it to make a suicide attack on Kaneohe NavalAir Station. Before taking o, he had told his men that ifhis plane were to become badly damaged he would crashit into aworthy enemy target.*[4]The carrier battles in 1942, particularly Midway, inictedirreparable damage on the Imperial Japanese Navy AirService (IJNAS), such that they could no longer put to-gether a large number of eet carriers with well-trainedaircrews.*[5] Japanese planners had assumed a quickwar and lacked comprehensive programmes to replacethe losses of ships, pilots, and sailors; at Midway inJune 1942 the Japanese lost as many aircrewmen in asingle day as their pre-war training program had pro-duced in a year.*[6] The following Solomon Islands cam-paign (1942-1945) and the NewGuinea campaign (1942-1945), notably the Battles of Eastern Solomons (August1942) and Santa Cruz (October 1942), further decimatedthe IJNAS veteran aircrews, and replacing their combatexperience proved impossible.*[7]During 19431944, U.S. forces steadily advanced towardJapan. Newer U.S.-made planes, especially the F6F Hell-cat and F4U Corsair, began to outnumber and outclassJapan's ghter planes. Tropical diseases, as well as short-ages of spare parts and fuel, made operations more andmore dicult for the IJNAS. By the Battle of the Philip-pine Sea (June 1944) the Japanese had to make do withobsolete aircraft and inexperienced aviators in the ghtagainst better-trained andmore experiencedUSNavy air-men who ew radar-directed combat air patrols. TheJapanese lost over 400 carrier-based planes and pilots inthe Battle of the Philippine Sea, eectively putting an endto their carriers' potency. Allied aviators called the actionthe "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot".On June 19, 1944 planes from the carrier Chiyoda ap-proached a US task group. According to some accounts,two made suicide attacks, one of which hit USS Indi-ana.*[8]The important Japanese base of Saipan fell to the Alliedforces on 15 July 1944. Its capture provided adequate for-ward bases which enabled U.S. air forces using the B-29Superfortress to strike at the Japanese home islands. Af-ter the fall of Saipan, the Japanese High Command pre-dicted that the Allies would try to capture the Philippines,strategically important to Tokyo because of their locationbetween the oilelds of Southeast Asia and Japan.

2.2 BeginningsCaptain Motoharu Okamura, in charge of the TateyamaBase in Tokyo, as well as the 341st Air Group Home,was, according to some sources, the rst ocer to o-cially propose kamikaze attack tactics. He arranged, withhis superiors, the rst investigations on the plausibilityand mechanisms of intentional suicide attacks on 15 June1944.*[9]In August 1944, it was announced by the Domei newsagency that a ight instructor named Takeo Tagata wastraining pilots in Taiwan for suicide missions.*[10]One source claims that the rst kamikaze mission oc-curred on 13 September 1944. A group of pilots from thearmy's 31st Fighter Squadron onNegros Island decided tolaunch a suicide attack the following morning.*[11] FirstLieutenant Takeshi Kosai and a sergeant were selected.Two 100 kg (220 lb) bombs were attached to two ght-ers, and the pilots took o before dawn, planning to crashinto carriers. They never returned, but there is no recordof an enemy plane hitting an Allied ship that day.According to some sources, on 14 October 1944,USS Reno was hit by a deliberately crashed Japaneseplane.*[12]

Masafumi Arima

Rear Admiral Masafumi Arima, the commander of the26th Air Flotilla (part of the 11th Air Fleet), is some-times credited with inventing the kamikaze tactic. Arimapersonally led an attack by about 100 Yokosuka D4Y Su-isei (Judy) dive bombers against a large Essex-classaircraft carrier, USS Franklin, near Leyte Gulf, on (orabout, accounts vary) 15 October 1944. Arima was killed

4 2 HISTORY

and part of a plane hit Franklin. The Japanese high com-mand and propagandists seized on Arima's example: Hewas promoted posthumously to Admiral and was givenocial credit for making the rst kamikaze attack. How-ever, it is not clear that this was a planned suicide attack,and ocial Japanese accounts of Arima's attack bore lit-tle resemblance to the actual events.On 17 October 1944, Allied forces assaulted SuluanIsland, beginning the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The Im-perial Japanese Navy's 1st Air Fleet, based at Manila,was assigned the task of assisting the Japanese shipswhich would attempt to destroy Allied forces in LeyteGulf. However, the 1st Air Fleet at that time only had40 aircraft: 34 A6M Zero carrier-based ghters, threeNakajima B6N Tenzan (Jill) torpedo bombers, oneMitsubishi G4M (Betty) and twoYokosuka P1YGinga(Frances) land-based bombers, and one additionalreconnaissance plane. The task facing the Japanese airforces seemed impossible. The 1st Air Fleet comman-dant, Vice Admiral Takijir nishi, decided to form asuicide oensive force, the Special Attack Unit. In ameeting atMabalacat Aireld (known to the U.S. militaryas Clark Air Base) near Manila, on 19 October, Onishitold ocers of the 201st Flying Group headquarters:Idon't think there would be any other certain way to carryout the operation [to hold the Philippines], than to put a250 kg bomb on a Zero and let it crash into a U.S. carrier,in order to disable her for a week.

2.3 First unit

Commander Asaiki Tamai asked a group of 23 talentedstudent pilots, all of whom he had trained, to volunteerfor the special attack force. All of the pilots raised bothof their hands, volunteering to join the operation. Later,Tamai asked Lieutenant Yukio Seki to command the spe-cial attack force. Seki is said to have closed his eyes, low-ered his head and thought for 10 seconds, before saying:Please do appoint me to the post.Seki became the 24th

kamikaze pilot to be chosen. However, Seki later said:Japan's future is bleak if it is forced to kill one of itsbest pilots.andI am not going on this mission for theEmperor or for the Empire... I am going because I wasordered to.*[13]The names of four sub-units within the Kamikaze Spe-cial Attack Force were Unit Shikishima, Unit Yamato,Unit Asahi, and Unit Yamazakura.*[14] These nameswere taken from a patriotic death poem (called jiseino ku in waka poetry), Shikishima no Yamato-gokorowo hito towaba, asahi ni niou yamazakura bana by theJapanese classical scholar, Motoori Norinaga.*[15] Thepoem reads:

If someone asks about the Yamato spirit[Spirit of Old/True Japan] of Shikishima [a po-etic name for Japan]it is the owers of ya-

mazakura [mountain cherry blossom] that arefragrant in the Asahi [rising sun].

A less literal translation*[16] is:

Asked about the soul of Japan,I would sayThat it isLike wild cherry blossomsGlowing in the morning sun.

nishi, addressing this unit, told them that their nobil-ity of spirit would keep the homeland from ruin even indefeat.*[17]

2.4 Leyte Gulf: the rst attacks

St Lo attacked by kamikazes, 25 October 1944

Starboard horizontal stabilizer from the tail of aJudyon thedeck of USS Kitkun Bay. TheJudymade a run on the shipapproaching from dead astern; it was met by eective re and theplane passed over the island and exploded. Parts of the plane andthe pilot were scattered over the ight deck and the forecastle.

2.5 Main wave of attacks 5

The bridge and forward turrets of theCounty-class heavy cruiserHMAS Australia, in September 1944. The ocer facing right isCaptain Emile Dechaineux who was killed on 21 October 1944in what is reported as the rst kamikaze attack.

Several suicide attacks, carried out during the invasionof Leyte, by Japanese pilots from units other than theSpecial Attack Force, have been described as the rstkamikaze attack. Early on 21 October, a Japanese air-craft, possibly an Aichi D3A dive-bomber*[18] or aMitsubishi Ki-51 (of the 6th Flying Brigade, ImperialJapanese Army Air Force*[19]) deliberately crashed intothe foremast of the heavy cruiser HMAS Australia.*[18]The attack killed 30 personnel, including the cruiser'sCaptain, Emile Dechaineux, and wounded 64, includ-ing the Australian force commander Commodore JohnCollins.*[18] The Australian ocial history of the warclaimed that this was the rst kamikaze attack on an Al-lied ship, although other sources disagree because it wasnot a planned attack by a member of the Special AttackForce, but was most likely to have been undertaken on thepilot's own initiative.*[18]The sinking of the ocean tug USS Sonoma on 24 Octoberis listed in some sources as the rst ship lost to a kamikazestrike, but the attack occurred before 25 October, and theaircraft used, a Mitsubishi G4M, was not own by theoriginal four Special Attack Squadrons.On 25 October 1944, during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, theKamikaze Special Attack Force carried out its rst mis-sion. Five Zeros, led by Seki, and escorted to the targetby leading Japanese ace Hiroyoshi Nishizawa, attackedseveral escort carriers. One Zero attempted to hit the

bridge of USS Kitkun Bay but instead exploded on theport catwalk and cartwheeled into the sea. Two othersdived at USS Fanshaw Bay but were destroyed by anti-aircraft re. The last two ran at USS White Plains. One,under heavy re and trailing smoke, aborted the attempton White Plains and instead banked toward USS St. Lo,plowing into the ight deck. Its bomb caused res that re-sulted in the bomb magazine exploding, sinking the car-rier.*[20] By day's end on 26October, fty ve kamikazesfrom the special attack force had also damaged the largeescort carriers USS Sangamon, Suwannee which had alsobeen struck by a kamikaze at 08:04 forward of its aft ele-vator on 25 October, Santee, and the smaller escorts USSWhite Plains, Kalinin Bay, and Kitkun Bay. In total, sevencarriers had been hit, as well as 40 other ships (ve sunk,23 heavily damaged, and 12 moderately damaged).

2.5 Main wave of attacks

Early successes such as the sinking of St. Lo werefollowed by an immediate expansion of the program, andover the next few months over 2,000 planes made suchattacks.When Japan began to be subject to intense strategicbombing by B-29s, the Japanese military attempted touse suicide attacks against this threat. During the north-ern hemisphere winter of 194445, the IJAAF formedthe 47th Air Regiment, also known as the Shinten Spe-cial Unit (Shinten Seiku Ta) at Narimasu Aireld, Nerima,Tokyo, to defend the Tokyo Metropolitan Area. The unitwas equipped with Nakajima Ki-44 Shoki (Tojo) ght-ers, with which they were to ram United States ArmyAir Forces (USAAF) B-29s in their attacks on Japan.However, this proved much less successful and practicalsince an airplane is a much faster, more maneuverable,and smaller target than a warship. The B-29 also hadformidable defensive weaponry, so suicide attacks againstthe plane demanded considerable piloting skill to be suc-cessful. That worked against the very purpose of usingexpendable pilots and even encouraging capable pilots tobail out before impact was ineective because vital per-sonnel were often lost when they mistimed their exits andwere killed as a result.

USS Columbia is attacked by a kamikaze o LingayenGulf, 6 January 1945

6 2 HISTORY

The kamikaze hits Columbia at 17:29. The plane and itsbomb penetrated two decks before exploding, killing 13and wounding 44.

On 11 March, the U.S. carrier USS Randolph was hitand moderately damaged at Ulithi Atoll, in the CarolineIslands, by a kamikaze that had own almost 4,000 km(2,500 mi) from Japan, in a mission called Operation TanNo. 2. On 20 March, the submarine USS Devilsh sur-vived a hit from an aircraft, just o Japan.Purpose-built kamikaze planes, as opposed to convertedghters and dive-bombers, were also being constructed.Ensign Mitsuo Ohta had suggested that piloted gliderbombs, carried within range of targets by a motherplane, should be developed. The First Naval Air Techni-cal Bureau (Kugisho), in Yokosuka, rened Ohta's idea.Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka rocket planes, launched frombombers, were rst deployed in kamikaze attacks fromMarch 1945. U.S. personnel gave them the derisive nick-name "Baka Bombs(baka is Japanese foridiotorstupid). The Nakajima Ki-115 Tsurugi was a sim-ple, easily built propeller aircraft with a wooden air-frame which used engines from existing stocks. Its non-retractable landing gear was jettisoned shortly after take-o for a suicide mission, and re-used. During 1945, theJapanese military began stockpiling hundreds of Tsurugi,other aircraft, Ohkas, and suicide boats, for use againstAllied forces expected to invade Japan. The invasionnever happened, and few were ever used.*[21]

2.6 Allied defensive tacticsIn early 1945 U.S. Navy aviator Commander John Thach,already famous for developing eective aerial tacticsagainst the Japanese such as the Thach Weave, devel-oped a defensive strategy against kamikazes called the"big blue blanket" to establish Allied air supremacy wellaway from the carrier force. This recommended combatair patrols (CAP) which were larger and operated furtherfrom the carriers than before, a line of picket destroyersand destroyer escorts at least 80 km (50mi) from themainbody of the eet to provide earlier radar interception,and improved coordination between ghter direction of-cers on carriers. This plan also called for round-the-clock ghter patrols over Allied eets, though the U.S.Navy had cut back training of ghter pilots so there were

not enough Navy pilots available to counter the kamikazethreat. A nal element included intensive ghter sweepsover Japanese airelds, and bombing of Japanese run-ways, using delayed action bombs to make repairs moredicult.*[22]

An A6M Zero (A6M2 Model 21) towards the end of its run atthe escort carrier USS White Plains on 25 October 1944. Theaircraft exploded in mid-air, moments after the picture was taken,scattering debris across the deck.

Late in 1944 the British Pacic Fleet (BPF) used the goodhigh-altitude performance of their Supermarine Seares(naval version of the Spitre) on combat air patrol duties.Seares were heavily involved in countering the kamikazeattacks during the Iwo Jima landings and beyond. TheSeares' best day was 15 August 1945, shooting downeight attacking aircraft for a single loss.Allied pilots were experienced and better-trained, andew superior aircraft, making the poorly trained kamikazepilots easy targets. The U.S. Fast Carrier Task Forcealone could bring over 1,000 ghter aircraft into play. Al-lied pilots became adept at destroying enemy aircraft be-fore they struck ships.Allied gunners had begun to develop techniques to negatekamikaze attacks. Light rapid re anti-aircraft weaponssuch as the 40 mm Bofors and 20 mm Oerlikon au-tocannons were highly eective,*[23] but heavy anti-aircraft guns such as the 5"/38 caliber gun (127 mm)had the punch to blow kamikazes out of the air, whichwas preferable since even a heavily damaged kamikazecould complete its mission.*[24] The Ohkas with theirhigh speed presented a very dicult problem for anti-aircraft re, since their velocity made a re control solu-tion extremely dicult. By 1945, large numbers of anti-aircraft shells with radio frequency proximity fuzes, onaverage seven times more eective than regular shells,became available, and the USN recommended their useagainst kamikaze attacks.

2.7 Final phase 7

USS Louisville is struck by a kamikaze Yokosuka D4Y at theBattle of Lingayen Gulf, 6 January 1945

USS Missouri (BB-63) shortly before being hit by a MitsubishiA6M Zero, April 11, 1945

2.7 Final phase

The peak in kamikaze attacks came during the periodof AprilJune 1945, at the Battle of Okinawa. On 6April 1945, waves of planes made hundreds of attacks inOperation Kikusui (oating chrysanthemums).*[25]At Okinawa, kamikaze attacks focused at rst on Allieddestroyers on picket duty, and then on the carriers in themiddle of the eet. Suicide attacks by planes or boats atOkinawa sank or put out of action at least 30 U.S. war-ships,*[26] and at least three U.S. merchant ships,*[27]along with some from other Allied forces. The attacksexpended 1,465 planes. Many warships of all classeswere damaged, some severely, but no aircraft carriers,battleships or cruisers were sunk by kamikaze at Okinawa.Most of the ships lost were destroyers or smaller vessels,especially those on picket duty.*[26] The destroyer USSLaey earned the nicknameThe Ship That Would NotDieafter surviving six kamikaze attacks and four bombhits during this battle.*[28]U.S. carriers, with their wooden ight decks, appearedto suer more damage from kamikaze hits than the re-inforced steel-decked carriers from the British Pacic

Fleet. US carriers also suered considerably heavier ca-sualties from kamikaze strikes; for instance, 389 menwere killed in one attack on USS Bunker Hill, greaterthan the combined number of fatalities suered on all sixRoyal Navy armoured carriers from all forms of attackduring the entire war. Eight kamikaze hits on ve Britishcarriers resulted in only 20 deaths while a combined totalof 15 bomb hits, most of 500 kg weight or greater, andone torpedo hit on four carriers caused 193 fatal casual-ties earlier in the war striking proof of the protectivevalue of the armoured ight deck.*[29]*[30]

Aircraft carrier HMS Formidable (67) after being struck by akamikaze o Sakishima Islands. The kamikaze made a mas-sive dent about 3m long, 0.6m wide and deep in the armoredight deck. Eight crew members were killed, forty-seven werewounded, and eleven aircraft were destroyed.

The resilience of well-armoured vessels was shown on 4May, just after 11:30, when there was a wave of suicideattacks against the BPF. One Japanese plane made a steepdive froma great heightat the carrier HMS Formidableand was engaged by AA guns.*[31] Although it was hit bygunre, the kamikaze crashed into the ight deck, makinga crater 3 m (9.8 ft) long, 0.6 m (2 ft) wide and 0.6 m (2ft) deep. A long steel splinter speared down, through thehangar deck and the main boiler room (where it ruptureda steam line), before coming to rest in a fuel tank near theaircraft park, where it started a major re. Eight person-nel were killed and 47werewounded. OneCorsair and 10Avengers were destroyed. However, the res were gradu-ally brought under control, and the crater in the deck wasrepaired with concrete and steel plate. By 17:00, Cor-sairs were able to land. On 9 May, Formidable was againdamaged by a kamikaze, as were the carrier HMS Vic-torious and the battleship HMS Howe. The British wereable to clear the ight deck and resume ight operationsin just hours, while their American counterparts took afew days or even months, as observed by a USN liaisonocer on HMS Indefatigable who commented: Whena kamikaze hits a U.S. carrier it means 6 months of repairat Pearl [Harbor]. When a kamikaze hits a Limey carrierits just a case ofSweepers, man your brooms."Sometimes twin-engined aircraft were used in planned

8 3 EFFECTS

kamikaze attacks. For example, Mitsubishi Ki-67 Hiry (Peggy) medium bombers, based on Formosa, under-took kamikaze attacks on Allied forces o Okinawa.Rear Admiral Matome Ugaki, the second in commandof the Combined Pacic Fleet, directed the last ocialkamikaze attack, sending Judysfrom the 701st AirGroup against the Allied eet at Okinawa on 15 August1945.

3 Eects

A crewman in an AA gun aboard the battleship New Jerseywatches a kamikaze plane descend upon Intrepid 25 November1944

As the end of the war approached, the Allies did not suf-fer signicantly more serious losses, despite having farmore ships and facing a greater intensity of kamikazeattacks. Although causing some of the heaviest casual-ties on US carriers in 1945, the IJN had sacriced 2,525kamikaze pilots and the IJAAF 1,387far more than theyhad lost in 1942 when they sank or crippled three carriers(albeit without inicting signicant casualties). In 1942when US Navy vessels were scarce, the temporary ab-sence of key warships from the combat zone would tie upoperational initiatives. However, by 1945, the US Navywas large enough that damaged ships could be detachedback home for repair without signicantly hamperingthe eet's operational capability. The only surface losseswere destroyers and smaller ships that lacked the capa-bility to sustain heavy damage. Overall, the kamikazeswere unable to turn the tide of the war and stop the Al-lied invasion. The destructive potential of the kamikazesustained postwar funding of Operation Bumblebee un-

til the RIM-8 Talos guided missile became operational in1959.*[32]In the immediate aftermath of kamikaze strikes, Britishcarriers with their armoured ight decks appeared to re-cover more quickly compared to their US counterparts.However, post-war analysis showed that some British car-riers such as HMS Formidable did suer structural dam-age that led them to be written o and scrapped, as be-yond economic repair, but Britain's dire post war nancesand the constantly declining size of the Royal Navy un-doubtedly played a role in deciding not to repair damagedcarriers. By contrast, even the most seriously damagedAmerican carriers such USS Bunker Hill were success-fully repaired to operational condition, although they sawno service after World War II as they were consideredsurplus.The number of ships sunk is a matter of debate. Accord-ing to a wartime Japanese propaganda announcement, themissions sank 81 ships and damaged 195, and accordingto a Japanese tally, kamikaze attacks accounted for up to80% of the U.S. losses in the nal phase of the war inthe Pacic. In a 2004 book, World War II, the historiansWilmott, Cross and Messenger stated that more than 70U.S. vessels weresunk or damaged beyond repairbykamikazes.According to a U.S Air Force webpage:

Approximately 2,800 Kamikaze attackers sunk34 Navy ships, damaged 368 others, killed4,900 sailors, and wounded over 4,800. De-spite radar detection and cuing, airborne in-terception, attrition, and massive anti-aircraftbarrages, 14 percent of Kamikazes survived toscore a hit on a ship; nearly 8.5 percent of allships hit by Kamikazes sank.*[33]

Australian journalists Denis and PeggyWarner, in a 1982book with Japanese naval historian Sadao Seno (The Sa-cred Warriors: Japan s Suicide Legions), arrived at a totalof 57 ships sunk by kamikazes. However, Bill Gordon,an American Japanologist who specialises in kamikazes,lists in a 2007 article 47 ships known to have been sunkby kamikaze aircraft. Gordon says that the Warners andSeno included ten ships that did not sink. He lists:

three escort carriers: USS St. Lo, USS OmmaneyBay, and USS Bismarck Sea

14 destroyers, including the last ship to be sunk, USSCallaghan (DD-792) on 29 July 1945, o Okinawa

three high-speed transport ships ve Landing Ship, Tank four Landing Ship Medium three Landing Ship Medium (Rocket)

9 one auxiliary tanker three Canadian Victory ships three Liberty ships two high-speed minesweepers one Auk class minesweeper one submarine chaser two PT boats two Landing Craft Support

4 Recruitment

Japanese Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka (cherry blossom), a spe-cially built rocket-powered kamikaze aircraft used towards theend of the war. The U.S. called them Baka Bombs (idiotbombs).

It was claimed by the Japanese forces at the time thatthere were many volunteers for the suicidal forces. Cap-tain Motoharu Okamura commented thatthere were somany volunteers for suicide missions that he referred tothem as a swarm of bees,explaining: Bees die af-ter they have stung.*[34] Okamura is credited with be-ing the rst to propose the kamikaze attacks. He had ex-pressed his desire to lead a volunteer group of suicide at-tacks some four months before Admiral Takijiro Ohnishi,commander of the Japanese naval air forces in the Philip-pines, presented the idea to his sta. While Vice AdmiralShigeru Fukudome, commander of the second air eet,was inspecting the 341st Air Group, Captain Okamuratook the chance to express his ideas on crash-dive tactics.In our present situation I rmly believe that the only wayto swing the war in our favor is to resort to crash-dive at-tacks with our planes. There is no other way. There willbe more than enough volunteers for this chance to saveour country, and I would like to command such an oper-ation. Provide me with 300 planes and I will turn the tideof war.*[35]When the volunteers arrived for duty in the corps therewere twice as many persons as aircraft available. Af-ter the war, some commanders would express regret forallowing superuous crews to accompany sorties, some-times squeezing themselves aboard bombers and ghtersso as to encourage the suicide pilots and, it seems, joinin the exultation of sinking a large enemy vessel.Many

of the kamikaze pilots believed their death would pay thedebt they owed and show the love they had for their fam-ilies, friends, and emperor. So eager were many min-imally trained pilots to take part in suicide missions thatwhen their sorties were delayed or aborted, the pilots be-came deeply despondent. Many of those who were se-lected for a bodycrashing mission were described as be-ing extraordinarily blissful immediately before their nalsortie.*[36]As time wore on, however, modern critics questioningthe nationalist portrayal of kamikaze pilots as noble sol-diers willing to sacrice their lives for the country haveemerged. In 2006, Tsuneo Watanabe, Editor-in-Chiefof the Yomiuri Shimbun, criticized Japanese nationalists'glorication of kamikaze attacks:*[37]*[38]*[39]

It's all a lie that they left lled with brave-ness and joy, crying, 'Long live the emperor!'They were sheep at a slaughterhouse. Every-body was looking down and tottering. Somewere unable to stand up and were carried andpushed into the plane by maintenance soldiers.

5 TrainingWhen you eliminate all thoughts about life

and death, you will be able to totally disregardyour earthly life. This will also enable youto concentrate your attention on eradicatingthe enemy with unwavering determination,meanwhile reinforcing your excellence inight skills.excerpt from a kamikaze pilots' manual

Tokktai pilot training, as described by KasugaTakeo,*[40] generally consisted of incredibly strenu-ous training, coupled with cruel and torturous corporalpunishment as a daily routine.Irokawa Daikichi, whotrained at Tsuchiura Naval Air Base, recalled that hewas struck on the face so hard and frequently that [his]face was no longer recognizable.He also wrote:I washit so hard that I could no longer see and fell on the oor.The minute I got up, I was hit again by a club so that Iwould confess.This brutal trainingwas justiedby the idea that it would instill a soldier's ghtingspirit.However, daily beatings and corporal punishmenteliminated patriotism among many pilots.*[41]Pilots were given a manual which detailed how they weresupposed to think, prepare and attack. From this man-ual, pilots were told to attain a high level of spiritualtraining,and to keep [their] health in the very bestcondition.These things, among others, were meant toput the pilot into the mindset in which he would be men-tally ready to die.

10 6 CULTURAL BACKGROUND

The tokktai pilot's manual also explained how a pilotmayturn back if the pilot could not locate a target and that "[apilot] should not waste [his] life lightly.However, onepilot who continually came back to base was shot afterhis ninth return.*[41]We tried to live with 120 percent intensity, rather thanwaiting for death. We read and read, trying to understandwhy we had to die in our early twenties. We felt the clockticking away towards our death, every sound of the clockshortening our lives.Irokawa Daikichi, Kamikaze Diaries: Reections ofJapanese Student Soldiers

The manual was very detailed in how a pilot should at-tack. A pilot would dive towards his target andaim fora point between the bridge tower and the smoke stacks. Entering a smoke stack was also said to beeective. Pilots were told not to aim at a ship's bridge tower orgun turret but instead to look for elevators or the ightdeck to crash into. For horizontal attacks, the pilot wastoaim at the middle of the vessel, slightly higher thanthe waterlineor toaim at the entrance to the aircrafthangar, or the bottom of the stackif the former was toodicult.The tokktai pilot's manual told pilots never to close theireyes. This was because if a pilot closed his eyes he wouldlower the chances of hitting his target. In the nal mo-ments before the crash, the pilot was to yell "Hissatsu"() at the top of his lungs which translates toCer-tain Kill.

6 Cultural backgroundIn 194445, American propaganda invented the term"State Shinto" to characterize Japanese beliefs. As timewent on, Americans claimed, Shinto was used increas-ingly in the promotion of nationalist sentiment. In 1890,the Imperial Rescript on Education was passed, underwhich students were required to ritually recite its oath tooer themselvescourageously to the Stateas well asprotect the Imperial family. The ultimate oering was togive up one s life. It was an honour to die for Japan andthe Emperor. Axell and Kase pointed out: The factis that innumerable soldiers, sailors and pilots were de-termined to die, to become eirei, that isguardian spir-itsof the country. [...] Many Japanese felt that to beenshrined at Yasukuni was a special honour because theEmperor visited the shrine to pay homage twice a year.Yasukuni is the only shrine deifying common men whichthe Emperor would visit to pay his respects.*[34] YoungJapanese people were indoctrinated from an earliest agewith these ideals.Following the commencement of the kamikaze tactic,newspapers and books ran advertisements, articles, andstories regarding the suicide bombers, to aid in recruiting

26 May 1945. Corporal Yukio Araki, holding a puppy, with fourother pilots of the 72nd Shinbu Squadron at Bansei, Kagoshima.Araki died the following day, at the age of 17, in a suicide attackon ships near Okinawa.

and support. In October 1944, the Nippon Times quotedLieutenant Sekio Nishina:The spirit of the Special At-tackCorps is the great spirit that runs in the blood of everyJapanese. The crashing action which simultaneouslykills the enemy and oneself without fail is called the Spe-cial Attack. Every Japanese is capable of becoming amember of the Special Attack Corps.*[42] Publishersalso played up the idea that the kamikaze were enshrinedat Yasukuni and ran exaggerated stories of kamikaze brav-ery there were even fairy tales for little children thatpromoted the kamikaze. A Foreign Oce ocial namedToshikazu Kase said: It was customary for GHQ [inTokyo] to make false announcements of victory in utterdisregard of facts, and for the elated and complacent pub-lic to believe them.*[43]While many stories were falsied, some were true, suchas the story of Kiyu Ishikawa who saved a Japanese shipwhen he crashed his plane into a torpedo that an Amer-ican submarine had launched. The sergeant major wasposthumously promoted to second lieutenant by the em-peror and was enshrined at Yasukuni.*[44] Stories likethese, which showed the kind of praise and honour deathproduced, encouraged young Japanese to volunteer forthe Special Attack Corps and instilled a desire in theyouth to die as a kamikaze.Ceremonies were carried out before kamikaze pilots de-parted on their nal mission. The Kamikaze sharedceremonial cups of sake or water known as mizu nosakazuki. Many Army ocer Kamikaze took their

11

swords with them, while the Navy pilots (as a generalrule) didn't carry swords in their planes. The kamikaze,like all Japanese aviators ying over unfriendly territory,were issued (or purchased if they were ocers) a Nambupistol with which to end their lives if they risked be-ing captured. Like all Army and Navy servicemen, theKamikaze would wear their senninbari, abelt of a thou-sand stitchesgiven to them by their mothers.*[45] Theyalso composed and read a death poem, a tradition stem-ming from the samurai, who did it before committingseppuku. Pilots carried prayers from their families andwere given military decorations. The Kamikaze were es-corted by other pilots whose function was to protect theKamikaze to their destination and report on the results.Some of these escort pilots, such as Zero pilot Toshim-itsu Imaizumi, were themselves later sent out on their ownKamikaze missions. *[46]

Chiran high school girls wave farewell with cherry blossombranches to departing kamikaze pilot in a Ki-43-IIIa Hayabusa

While it is commonly perceived that volunteers signed upin droves for kamikaze missions, it has also been con-tended that there was extensive coercion and peer pres-sure involved in recruiting soldiers for the sacrice. Theirmotivations involunteeringwere complex and not sim-ply about patriotism or bringing honour to their families.Firsthand interviews with surviving Kamikaze pilots andescort pilots has revealed that they were motivated by adesire to protect their families from perceived atrocitiesand possible extinction at the hands of the Allies. Theyviewed themselves as the last defense.*[47]At least one of these pilots was a conscripted Korean witha Japanese name, adopted under the pre-war Soshi-kaimeiordinance that compelled Koreans to take Japanese per-sonal names.*[48] 11 of the 1,036 IJA kamikaze pilotswho died in sorties from Chiran and other Japanese airbases during the Battle of Okinawa were Koreans.It is said that young pilots on kamikaze missions oftenew southwest from Japan over the 922 m (3,025 ft)Mount Kaimon. The mountain is also called "SatsumaFuji" (meaning a mountain like Mount Fuji but locatedin the Satsuma Province region). Suicide mission pilotslooked over their shoulders to see this, the most south-ern mountain on the Japanese mainland, while they werein the air, said farewell to their country, and saluted the

mountain.Residents on Kikaishima Island, east of Amami shima,say that pilots from suicide mission units dropped owersfrom the air as they departed on their nal missions. It issaid that the hills above Kikaishima airport have beds ofcornower that bloom in early May.*[49]Kamikaze pilots who were unable to complete their mis-sion (due to mechanical failure, interception, etc.) werestigmatized in the years following the war. This stigmabegan to diminish some 50 years after the war as schol-ars and publishers have distributed the survivors' sto-ries.*[50]Some Japanese military personnel were critical of thepolicy. Some ocers, Genda Minoru, Minobe Tadashiand Shiga Yoshio, refused to obey the policy. They saidthat the commander of a kamikaze attack should engagein the task rst.*[51]*[52] Some persons who obeyed thepolicy, Okajima Kiyokuma, Shindo Saburo, and FujitaIyozo, were also critical of the policy.*[53]*[54] SakaiSaburo said 'We never dared to question orders, to doubtauthority, to do anything but immediately carry out all thecommands of our superiors. We were automatons whoobeyed without thinking'.*[55]Tetsuzo Iwamoto refusedto engage in a kamikaze attack because he think the taskof ghter pilots is to shoot down aircraft. *[56]

7 QuotationsI cannot predict the outcome of the air bat-

tles, but you will be making a mistake if youshould regard Special Attack operations as nor-mal methods. The right way is to attack theenemy with skill and return to the base withgood results. A plane should be utilized overand over again. That s the way to ght a war.The current thinking is skewed. Otherwise,you cannot expect to improve air power. Therewill be no progress if yers continue to die.Lieutenant Commander Iwatani, Taiyo

(Ocean) magazine, March 1945.*[44]

Zwei Seelen wohnen auch in mein[em]Herz[en]!! (Ah, two souls [tamashi i] reside inmy heart [kokoro]!!) After all I am just a hu-man being. Sometimes, my chest pounds withexcitement when I think of the day I will yinto the sky. I trained my mind and body ashard as I could and am anxious for the day Ican use them to their full capacity in ghting. Ithink my life and death belong to the mission.Yet, at other times, I envy those science majorswho remain at home [exempt from the draft].One of my souls looks to heaven, while theother is attracted to the earth. I wish to enterthe Navy as soon as possible so that I can de-

12 10 REFERENCES

vote myself to the task. I hope that the dayswhen I am tormented by stupid thoughts willpass quickly.Sasaki Hachiro*[57]

It is easy to talk about death in the abstract,as the ancient philosophers discussed. But it isreal death I fear, and I dont know if I canovercome the fear. Even for a short life, thereare many memories. For someone who had agood life, it is very dicult to part with it. ButI reached a point of no return. I must plungeinto an enemy vessel.

To be honest, I cannot say that the wish todie for the emperor is genuine, coming frommy heart. However, it is decided for me that Idie for the emperor.Hayashi Ichizo*[58]

I am pleased to have the honour of havingbeen chosen as a member of a Special AttackForce that is on its way into battle, but I cannothelp crying when I think of you, Mum. When Ireect on the hopes you had for my future ... Ifeel so sad that I am going to die without doinganything to bring you joy.Ichizo Hayashi, last letter home a few

days before his nal ight. April 1945*[59]

8 Film Saigo no Tokktai*[60] (, The Last

Kamikaze in English), released in 1970, producedby Toei, directed by Junya Sato and starring KojiTsuruta, Ken Takakura and Shinichi Chiba.

Toei also produced a biographical lm aboutTakijir nishi in 1974 called Kessen Kk-tai*[61] (, Father of the Kamikazein English), directed by Ksaku Yamashita.

Masami Takahashi, Last Kamikaze Testimoni-als from WWII Suicide Pilots (Watertown, MA:Documentary Educational Resources, 2008).

Risa Morimoto, Wings of Defeat (Harriman, NY:New Day Films, 2007).

Ore wa, kimi no tameni koso (2007, For Those WeLove in English*[62]).

Assault On the Pacic - Kamikaze(2007), di-rected by Taku Shinjo. Original title : "" Ore wa, Kimi noTame ni Koso Shini ni Iku

9 See also Aerial ramming Chiran Special Attack Peace Museum Giretsu Leonidas Squadron Living torpedoes RammkommandoELBE Shiggy Konno Suicide weapon "Umi Yukaba" Vehicle explosion List of Imperial Japanese Navy air-to-surface spe-cial attack units

List of Imperial Japanese Army air-to-surface spe-cial attack units

10 References

10.1 Notes[1] Zaloga, Steve. Kamikaze: Japanese Special Attack

Weapons 1944-45. p. 12.

[2] Bunker Hill I, Dictionary of American Naval FightingShips, Naval Historical Center, 22 November 2005.

[3] Axell, pp. 34, 4041

[4] Axell, p.44. A monument at the site of Iidascrash reads: 'JAPANESE AIRCRAFT IMPACT SITE.PILOT-LIEUTENANT IIDA, COMMANDER, THIRDAIR CONTROL GROUP, 7 Dec 1941.

[5] U.S. Naval War College Analysis, p.1; Parshall and Tully,Shattered Sword, pp.416430.

[6] Peattie, Sunburst, pp.131134, 181184, 191192.

[7] Peattie, Sunburst, pp.176186; Eric Bergerud, Fire in theSky, p.668.

[8] Fighting Elites: Kamikaze: 9, 12

[9] http://www.animeigo.com/liner/other/father-kamikaze

[10] Axell, pp.4041

[11] Toland, p.568

[12] ww2pacic.com, 2004, World War II in the Pacic:Japanese Suicide Attacks at Sea. Access date: 1 Au-gust 2007.

[13] Axell, p.16

10.1 Notes 13

[14] Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in theHistory of Japan, p289 Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975

[15] Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in theHistory of Japan, p28990 Holt, Rinehart and Winston,1975

[16] Motoori Norinaga: A scholar-physician who lovedcherry blossoms, THE EAST, Vol. XXVI No, 1

[17] Ivan Morris, The Nobility of Failure: Tragic Heroes in theHistory of Japan, p284 Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975

[18] Nichols, Robert (2004). The rst kamikaze attack?".Wartime (Australian War Memorial) (28). Retrieved 15August 2010.

[19] Richard L. Dunn, 20022005,First Kamikaze? Attackon HMAS Australia21 October 1944(j-aircraft.com).Access date: 20 June 2007. If the pilot was from the 6thFlying Brigade, it was probably either Lieutenant Moritaor Sergeant Itano, ying out of San Jose, Mindoro.

[20] Toland, p.567

[21] Japanese Ki-9 biplane

[22] Bill Coombes, 1995,Divine Wind The Japanese secretweapon kamikaze suicide attacks

[23] USN, Antiaircraft Action Summary Suicide Attacks, April1945

[24] DiGiulian, Tony (September 2006). United Statesof America 20 mm/70 (0.79) Marks 2, 3 & 4.navweaps.com. Retrieved 25 February 2007.

[25] Kennedy, Maxwell Taylor: Danger's Hour, The Story ofthe USS Bunker Hill and the Kamikaze Pilot who CrippledHer, Simon and Schuster, New York, 2008 ISBN 978-0-7432-6080-0

[26] Naval Historical Center, 2004, Casualties: U.S. Navy andCoast Guard Vessels, Sunk or Damaged Beyond Repairduring World War II, 7 December 1941 1 October 1945(U.S. Navy) Access date: 1 December 2007.

[27] American Merchant Marine at War (website), 2006,Chronological List of U.S. Ships Sunk or Damaged dur-ing 1945 Access date: 1 December 2007.

[28]USSLaey. Patriots Point Naval&MaritimeMuseum.Retrieved 22 June 2011.

[29] DiGiulian, Kamikaze Damage to US and British Carriers

[30] Polmar, Aircraft Carriers.

[31] Sydney David Waters, 1956, The Royal New ZealandNavy, Historical Publications Branch, Wellington. p.3834 Access date: 1 December 2007.

[32] A Brief History of White Sands Proving Ground 19411965. New Mexico State University. Retrieved 19 Au-gust 2010.

[33] Dr Richard P. Hallion, 1999,PrecisionWeapons, PowerProjection, and The Revolution In Military Aairs(USAF Historical Studies Oce). Accessed from 2009archive of webpage on 21 December 2015.

[34] Axell, p.35[35] Inoguchi, Rikihei, The DivineWind, Maryland: Naval In-

stitute Press, 1958, page 139.[36] Axell, p.40[37] New York Times, THE SATURDAY PROFILE; Shadow

Shogun Steps Into Light, to Change Japan. Published: 11February 2006. Retrieved 15 February 2007

[38] International Herald Tribune, Publisher dismayed byJapanese nationalism. Published: 10 February 2006. Re-trieved 11 March 2007

[39] Kamikaze Survivors: They've Outlived the Stigma, byBruce Wallace (Los Angeles Times; 25 September 2004)

[40] Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko (2006). Kamikaze Diaries: Re-ections of Japanese Student Soldiers. University ofChicago Press. p. 175. Extract at University of ChicagoPress website

[41] Ohnuki-Tierney[42] Axell, p.36[43] Axell, pp.38, 41, 43[44] Axell, p.41[45] King Template:Chapter 4 Imaizumi[46] King Template:Chapter 4 Imaizumi[47] King Template:The Last Zero Fighter Chapter 4

Imaizumi[48] The Hindu : International : AJapanese herogoes home[49] Jiro Kosaka, 1995, Ky ware Ikiteari[50] Los Angeles Times, They've Outlived the Stigma Pub-

lished: 25 September 2004. Retrieved 21 August 2011[51] Henry Sakaida, Genda's

Blade(Japanese),Nekopublishing,pp.376[52] Watanabe Yoji,Tokko Kyohi No Ishoku Shudan Su-

iseyashutai(Japanese),Kojinsha,pp.104-108[53] Ikari Yoshiro,Shidenkai No Rokuki(Japanese),

Kojinsha,pp.197-199[54] MaruSaikyo Sentoki Shidenkai(Japanese), Kojin-

sha,pp.162[55] Allan R. Millett, Williamson Murray,Military Eective-

ness Volume3,Cambridge University Press, pp.34[56] Iwamoto Tetsuzo, Zero-sen Gekitsui-Oh Kyo-no-wadai-

sha. ISBN 4-87565-121-X.[57] Ohnuki-Tierney, pp.6566[58] Ohnuki-Tierney, p.163[59] David Powers Japan: No Surrender in World War Two

BBC History[60] Saigo no Tokktai on IMDB[61] Kessen Kktai on IMDB[62] For Those We Love on IMDB

14 12 EXTERNAL LINKS

10.2 Bibliography Axell, Albert; Hideaki, Kase (2002). Kamikaze:

Japan's suicide gods. New York: Longman. ISBN0-582-77232-X.

Brown, David (1990). Fighting Elites: Kamikaze.New York: Gallery Books. ISBN 978-0-8317-2671-3.

Brown, David (1990). Warship Losses of World WarTwo. London: Arms and Armour. ISBN 0-85368-802-8.

Hobbes, Nicholas (2003). Essential militaria. Lon-don: Atlantic Books. ISBN 978-1-84354-229-2.

KING, Dan (2012). The Last Zero Fighter FirsthandAccounts from WWII Japanese Naval Pilots. Califor-nia: Pacic Press. ISBN 978-1-468178807.

Hoyt, Edwin P. (1993). The Last Kamikaze.Praeger. ISBN 0-275-94067-5.

Inoguchi, Rikihei; Nakajima, Tadashi; Pineau,Roger (1959). The Divine Wind. London: Hutchin-son & Co. (Publishers) Ltd.

Mahon, John K. (May 1959). The Pacic HistoricalReview. Vol. 28, No. 2.

Millot, Bernard (1971). Divine Thunder: The lifeand death of the Kamikazes. Macdonald. ISBN 0-356-03856-4. OCLC 8142990.

Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko. (2006). Kamikaze Diaries:Reections of Japanese Student Soldiers. Chicagoand London: The University of Chicago Press.ISBN 978-0-226-61950-7

Sheftall, Mordecai G. (2005). Blossoms in the Wind:Human Legacies of the Kamikaze. NAL Caliber.ISBN 0-451-21487-0.

Toland, John (1970). The Rising Sun: The Declineand Fall of the Japanese Empire, 19361945. NewYork: Random House. OCLC 105915.

Willmott, H. P.; Cross, Robin; Messenger, Charles(2004). World War II. London: Dorling Kindersley.ISBN 978-1-4053-0587-7.

Zaloga, Steven (2011). Kamikaze: Japanese SpecialAttack Weapons 1944-45. Osprey. ISBN 1-84908-353-3.

11 Further reading Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko (2006). Kamikaze Diaries:

Reections of Japanese Student Soldiers. Universityof Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-61951-4.

Ohnuki-Tierney, Emiko (2002). Kamikaze, CherryBlossoms, and Nationalisms: The Militarizationof Aesthetics in Japanese History. University ofChicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-62091-6.

Rielly, Robin L. (2010). Kamikaze Attacks of WorldWar II: A Complete History of Japanese SuicideStrikes on American Ships, by Aircraft and OtherMeans. McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-4654-4.

Stern, Robert (2010). Fire from the Sky: Survivingthe Kamikaze Threat. Naval Institute Press. ISBN978-1-59114-267-6.

12 External links Kamikaze Images Personal website of Mr Nobu Dayofthekamikaze.com An ex-kamikaze pilot creates a new world Gyokusai Who became Kamikaze Pilots... Excerpt from Kamikaze Diaries The End of Kamikaze (Japanese) Day of the Kamikaze, Smithsonian NetworksAscent of the Fireies, TIME about Tome Tori-hama calledKamikaze Mom

WW2DB: Kamikaze Doctrine What motivated the Kamikazes? onWW2History.com

Kamikaze Pilot Strikes USS Essex - 25 November1944 Torpedo Bomber pilot recalls the experienceof a Kamikaze striking the USS Essex, 25 Novem-ber 1944

15

13 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses13.1 Text

Kamikaze Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamikaze?oldid=648820794 Contributors: TwoOneTwo, The Epopt, Ed Poor, Arvindn,Fubar Obfusco, Ortolan88, Roadrunner, Shii, Maury Markowitz, FvdP, Topory, Olivier, Ericd, Stevertigo, Patrick, Kchishol1970, MichaelHardy, Booyabazooka, Liftarn, Tannin, Wwwwolf, Ixfd64, Chinju, Zeno Gantner, TakuyaMurata, Vic, Skysmith, Gbleem, Nanshu, Jpa-tokal, Rlandmann, Marco Krohn, Error, Cyan, Qute, Jiang, Lancevortex, Conti, Hashar, Feedmecereal, Rbraunwa, Dysprosia, Whisper-ToMe, Tanolin, Yoshtec, Itai, Lkesteloot, Sabbut, Tlotoxl, Thue, Morven, Shizhao, AnonMoos, Mp623, Robbot, Pigsonthewing, Joseph-Barillari, Academic Challenger, Hippietrail, Hadal, UtherSRG, Xanzzibar, Cyrius, PBP, Exploding Boy, Paul Richter, Tom harrison,Lupin, HangingCurve, Monedula, Hokanomono, Wwoods, Everyking, MichaelHaeckel, Per Honor et Gloria, Jason Quinn, Taak, Iceberg3k,Grant65, Golbez, Gadum, Shibboleth, Gdr, BruceR, Antandrus, MarkSweep, Kusunose, IGEL, Mamizou, Cylauj, DragonySixtyseven,Sam Hocevar, Biot, Usrnme h8er, Fg2, Jh51681, Adashiel, Trevor MacInnis, Canterbury Tail, Lacrimosus, Corruptresearcher, DanielCD,Jiy, Echnin, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Milkmandan, Rama, Vapour, Barista, Ericamick, Martpol, Paul August, Stereotek, Vi-oletriga, CanisRufus, El C, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Shanes, RoyBoy, Bendono, Pearse, Janna Isabot, TomStar81, Smalljim,Kappa, Kundor, Hajenso, 3mta3, Pearle, Nsaa, Alansohn, Jhertel, Anthony Appleyard, Hektor, LtNOWIS, Sherurcij, Revmachine21,Andrew Gray, Calton, H27kim, Cdc, Hohum, Snowolf, L33th4x0rguy, Naif, RJFJR, Gene Nygaard, Netkinetic, Bookandcoee, Dan100,Galaxiaad, Saxifrage, Hijiri88, Angr, Woohookitty, CWH, Kiltman67, JustDerek, Pol098, Before My Ken, Schzmo, Firien, Bschorr,Pgilman, Kralizec!, GraemeLeggett, Marudubshinki, Rbccc, Ashmoo, KyuuA4, Liqk, The Disco King, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Ikh,Tangotango, Pitan, John Nixon, Himasaram, DoubleBlue, Ian Dunster, MChew, Remurmur, Nicolas1981, Aeolusborealis, YamamotoIchiro, FlaBot, Mirror Vax, Akihabara, El Cid, Jolyonralph, MacRusgail, Mark Sublette, RexNL, Gurch, Kolbasz, Jrtayloriv, Quuxplu-sone, Cubia2011, Wongm, Alphachimp, GreyCat, Le Anh-Huy, Imnotminkus, Scoops, Th3dunadan, DVdm, Gdrbot, Chwyatt, Abby724,Banaticus, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Wikky Horse, RussBot, FrenchIsAwesome, Crazytales, Conscious, Sankarson, Witan,Kurt Leyman, SpuriousQ, IanManka, Akamad, Tenebrae, Lavenderbunny, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Bullzeye, Gcapp1959, Nawlin-Wiki, TEB728, Madcoverboy, Howcheng, Esthurin, Brandon, Trollderella, Saberwyn, Misza13, Grakm fr, Dbrs, Deckiller, MieciuK, Bota47, DRosenbach, Bucketmouse, TarenCapel, Chase me ladies, I'm the Cavalry, Mike Selinker, Visual77, Willirennen, GraemeL,TBadger, Nothlit, Curpsbot-unicodify, Ilmari Karonen, Kaicarver, GMan552, Katieh5584, Nick-D, Luk, Danielsavoiu, Neier, Mirie1,SmackBot, John Lunney, Aido2002, Slashme, KnowledgeOfSelf, Reader72, David.Mestel, Unyoyega, Dblobaum, Zserghei, Kilo-Lima,Declare, Cla68, Paxse, Kintetsubualo, Geo B, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, SteveO, Bluebot, KaragouniS, GoldDragon, Agateller, Gonzalo84,vitrigaila, B00P, Mkamensek, Audriusa, Modest Genius, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, MyNameIsVlad, Ajaxkroon, Avb, Alexmcre,TheKMan, EvelinaB, Rrburke, RedHillian, Phaedriel, Huon, Krich, Radagast83, Nakon, Valenciano, Dreadstar, Xagent86, The PIPE, Sala-murai, Stor stark7, Kukini, Adsllc, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Xdamr, Tymek, John, LWF, Takijiro, Majorclanger, Mr. Lefty, PseudoSudo,Andyops, Stupid Corn, Hvn0413, Emerybob, Critic-at-Arms, Boomshadow, Interlingua, Ginstrom, Citicat, Peyre, NuncAutNunquam, Kea-hapana, Hu12, PaulGS, Iridescent, Clarityend, Joseph Solis in Australia, JoeBot, Igoldste, Umar Smith, Civil Engineer III, Courcelles,Tawkerbot2, PhysicalTV, Lahiru k, Ehistory, Fvasconcellos, SkyWalker, HDCase, JForget, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Sir Vicious, Makeem-lighter, Kylu, Mak Thorpe, Pseudo-Richard, Karenjc, Myasuda, Fred8615, Felix c, LaFoiblesse, Cydebot, Fl, MC10, SithiR, Languagehat,Goldfritha, Bobo12345, Ring0, Odie5533, Silleegyrl, DumbBOT, Gnfnrf, Mdhennessey, SpK, ShizuokaSensei, PsychoSmith, Thaigerz,Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kubanczyk, DulcetTone, Pajz, Kablammo, Ucanlookitup, Sry85, N5iln, Dvdragond2, Marek69, Tellyaddict, DanTD,Grissen, PaulVIF, NickRinger, Anshelm '77, J Clear, Escarbot, Kkjc5824, Guy Macon, Shirt58, Alphachimpbot, Hoponpop69, Spacecat2,Lbecque, Qwerty Binary, NByz, Ingolfson, Steelpillow, HolyT, JAnDbot, EmersonLowry, AniRaptor2001, NapoliRoma, Skomorokh,Jrhoadley, Bhaddow, Hut 8.5, Flying tiger, Wasell, Angelofdeath275, Parsecboy, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Askari Mark, Torb37, Deki-masu, Mbc362, Pushkin26, Rami R, Nyttend, KConWiki, Peppy318, Loonymonkey, Heliac, DerHexer, Philg88, 1549bcp, Edward321,Hmshiau, Flami72, NatureA16, MartinBot, Arjun01, Roastytoast, Autocratique, CommonsDelinker, Jmccormac, Tgeairn, Erkan Yil-maz, J.delanoy, Rgoodermote, JoDonHo, Uncle Dick, Darth Gladius, Tdadamemd, J Dezman, It Is Me Here, BrokenSphere, Naniwako,Mjb1981, AntiSpamBot, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYankee, DadaNeem, ThinkBlue, Jamesofur, Wolcott, Ja 62, Andy Marchbanks, Ben-Fenner, Martial75, Halmstad, Talz13, ACSE, VolkovBot, ABF, Urbane User, TheOtherJesse, Cqdmgy, Philip Trueman, Tokyo Watcher,Zidonuke, Khutuck, Anonymous Dissident, Lradrama, Don4of4, Jackfork, ^demonBot2, Yuhani, Sushiya, Thomas419ca, Sst557, Wenli,Petrelg, Kevin Lakhani, Turgan, Master of the Orchalcos, Jake73, Insanity Incarnate, Dermajay, EmxBot, AHMartin, Poke it with astick, Ponyo, SieBot, Ttony21, Scarian, Biohazard103, Claus Ableiter, Caltas, Triwbe, Yintan, JabbaTheBot, Calabraxthis, Zacatecnik,Gshock91, Dirk P Broer, Happysailor, Oda Mari, Lightmouse, Borat23, Shidenkai, Colebrax, Maralia, PerryTachett, Hmose, Lanfear'sBane, Mizst, Muhends, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Lothar of the Hill People, Aenash, Avenged Eightfold, Binksternet, Fyyer, Konamaiki,The Thing That Should Not Be, Mx3, CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, Arunsingh16, Excirial, Bagworm, Alexbot, Joemomma505,Eeekster, Acer81996, Gtstricky, Sun Creator, Leftspeaker, UltraEdit, Ngebendi, LonerXL, Redthoreau, Saebjorn, Staygyro, BOTarate,Thewellman, Acapetlan, Thingg, Tweedledong, Carlson288, Versus22, Berean Hunter, Trulystand700, Vanished User 1004, DumZi-BoT, TNTM64, Bridies, XLinkBot, Bilsonius, Stickee, Kintaro, Avoided, Pacotaco1212121212, Borock, Jbeans, Gamebeater2711, Har-landQPitt, Common Good, HexaChord, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Magus732, AkhtaBot, Vishnava, Del re07, Download, Mor-nichan, Ld100, Favonian, Kyle1278, LinkFA-Bot, West.andrew.g, Fireaxe888, Numbo3-bot, Arsenicturtle, Damwiki1, Tide rolls, Qazka-makazi, Apteva, LuK3, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Mightyreds13, Palamabron, Samtar, Mystia Lorelei, Gna2000, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz,1exec1, Rjanag, Chuckiesdad, LlywelynII, Kingpin13, Csigabi, Materialscientist, Bukubku, High Contrast, Mesilla, Citation bot, Arthur-Bot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, MercuryApex, Drilnoth, Mzzyzx, Nasnema, Megadeth787878, Anna Frodesiak, R43Bramton-Hedges, Eric Blatant,GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Squidninja, Reagox, CHJL, Shadowjams, Astatine-210, Sibazyun, Treminaor, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Lucien-BOT, Lagelspeil, VS6507, Bleent, Dockimble, Mheineke, Armigo, HamburgerRadio, Diwas, AstaBOTh15, Winterst, I dream of horses,Edderso, Dac04, Crusoe8181, DocYako, Tulipanos, Trappist the monk, NortyNort, Fox Wilson, LilyKitty, Duncan1986, Tyrker, Ad-dictedtoSeed, Assadollah, Mean as custard, TjBot, DexDor, Jackehammond, Yaush, Noommos, Nistra, DASHBot, John of Reading,Gyorokpeter, CAREBEAR4024, Nosriep2, RenamedUser01302013, Tcsnow, Stephan1929, Gocows2, Wikipelli, ZroBot, IllegitimateBarrister, Robert Elmer Phd, WhiteAgent, Watson01, Rcsprinter123, Gray eyes, Brandmeister, Donner60, Stefan Milosevski, Philip JohnDraper, Tomo305, Subrata Roy, ChuispastonBot, AlPhA787FTW, Cisnarf, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Intoronto1125, Movses-bot, Snot-bot, JadeMrAw, Gilmanhawk, Widr, Amhill4, Lonewolf9196, Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, Maculosae tegmine lyncis, Lower-case sigmabot, Articseahorse, Mminneman, Mark Arsten, FutureTrillionaire, Tanukikousagi, Mmovchin, Ownbeastly24, Snow Blizzard,Chicken tiki pies, NorthCoastReader, Klilidiplomus, Simeondahl, Woundedknight, Hansen Sebastian, EuroCarGT, Pornhub1, APerson,Dexbot, Thunderoxys, Yasfmi, Frosty, Calligraphy9, 93, Mjkingofpoop, TheTrollmeister, HasseyAFT, Jodosma, 0079P, Guysguysgirls,Seibusinzyukusenn, Andy Xucha, WPGA2345, Eggyfartyfart, KylarStern101, Fuego0000, Monkbot, American Starkiller, Fdafdsafdsafd,Sohailanees, Zxcvbnm0707, Aaron Nadler, Bender10024, LoneEditor, Tracco24 and Anonymous: 866

16 13 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

13.2 Images File:72nd_Shinbu_1945_Kamikaze.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/72nd_Shinbu_1945_

Kamikaze.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: uncredited File:A6M5_52c_Kyushu.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/A6M5_52c_Kyushu.jpg License: Public

domain Contributors: http://perso.orange.fr/christophe.arribat/stofzeke5.jpg Original artist: unlisted File:Arima_Masafumi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Arima_Masafumi.jpg License: Public

domain Contributors: Chiran Kamikaze Peace Museum (http://www.town.chiran.kagoshima.jp//cgi-bin/hpViewContents.cgi?pID=20041215093148 Original artist: ?

File:CV09_Essex_USG-80-G-273032-.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/CV09_Essex_USG-80-G-273032-.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. Naval Historical Center #80-G-80-G-273032 Original artist:U.S. Naval Historical Center #80-G-80-G-273032

File:Chiran_high_school_girls_wave_kamikaze_pilot.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fc/Chiran_high_school_girls_wave_kamikaze_pilot.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.k3.dion.ne.jp/~{}j-gunto/gunto_036.htm,originally:1965 11 25 8 5Original artist: Hayakawa ()

File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?

File:D4Y_Yoshinori_Yamaguchi_col.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/D4Y_Yoshinori_Yamaguchi_col.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Originalartist: Original uploader was Felix c at en.wikipedia

File:D4Y_tail_kitkun.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/D4Y_tail_kitkun.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Felix c at en.wikipedia

File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: TheTango! Desktop Project. Original artist:The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically:Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (althoughminimally).

File:Ensign_Kiyoshi_Ogawa_hit_Bunker_Hill_(new).png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Ensign_Kiyoshi_Ogawa_hit_Bunker_Hill_%28new%29.png License: Public domain Contributors:

Ensign_Kiyoshi_Ogawa_hit_Bunker_Hill.gif Original artist: Ensign_Kiyoshi_Ogawa_hit_Bunker_Hill.gif: Original uploader was Felix cat en.wikipedia

File:HMAS_Australia_bridge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/HMAS_Australia_bridge.jpgLicense: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the Collection Database of the Australian War Memorial under the IDNumber: 017623

This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.Original artist: Photograph by Gordon Short

File:HMS_Formidable_(67)_on_fire_1945.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/HMS_Formidable_%2867%29_on_fire_1945.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This is photograph A 29717 from the collections of the ImperialWar Museums. Original artist: Royal Navy ocial photographer aboard HMS Victorious (R38)

File:Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Imperial_Seal_of_Japan.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Inspired by File:Japan coa kiku.png Original artist: User:Philip Nilsson

File:Kamikaze-ManchesterMSI_crop.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Kamikaze-ManchesterMSI_crop.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Analog photograph by Error Original artist: Error; cropped by Before My Ken (talk) 09:47,13 April 2009 (UTC)

File:Kamikaze_zero.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Kamikaze_zero.jpg License: Public domainContributors: NavSource Original artist: HaroldBusterCampbell according to USS Missouri Memorial Association or Len Schmidtaccording to Naval and Heritage Command

File:Merchant_flag_of_Japan_(1870).svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Merchant_flag_of_Japan_%281870%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: kahusi - (Talk)'s le Original artist: kahusi - (Talk)

File:MokoShurai.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/MokoShurai.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-tors: Dschingis Khan und seine Erben (exhibition catalogue), Mnchen 2005, p. 331 Original artist: Kikuchi Yoosai / (of the reproduction)Tokyo National Museum

File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0Contributors:Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:Tkgd2007

File:SL_Exp_5.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/SL_Exp_5.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:Ocial U.S. Navy photograph. Original artist: Photograph taken by a combat cameraman aboard USS Kalinin Bay (CVE-68)

File:Speaker_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg License: Public domain Con-tributors: ? Original artist: ?

13.3 Content license 17

File:USS_Bunker_Hill_hit_by_two_Kamikazes.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/USS_Bunker_Hill_hit_by_two_Kamikazes.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] from Archival Research Catalog. Original artist: U.S. Navy;Original uploader was Quercusrobur at en.wikipedia.

File:USS_Columbia_attacked_by_kamikaze.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/USS_Columbia_attacked_by_kamikaze.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:USS_Columbia_hit_by_kamikaze.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/USS_Columbia_hit_by_kamikaze.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

File:USS_Intrepid_CV-11_kamikaze_strike.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/USS_Intrepid_CV-11_kamikaze_strike.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Photo located on this website, specically this link. Original artist: U.S.Navy Photo

File:USS_Louisville_hit_by_kamikaze.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/USS_Louisville_hit_by_kamikaze.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Ocial U.S. Navy [1] photograph 80-G-363217. Original artist: USN (photographedfrom USS Salamaua (CVE-96)).

File:USS_White_Plains_attack_by_Tokkotai_unit_25.10.1945_kk1a.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/USS_White_Plains_attack_by_Tokkotai_unit_25.10.1945_kk1a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.bosamar.com/kami/kk7.html credits this as a US Navy photograph, so is PD. Original artist: ?

13.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

Definition and etymologyHistoryBackgroundBeginningsFirst unitLeyte Gulf: the first attacksMain wave of attacksAllied defensive tacticsFinal phase

EffectsRecruitmentTrainingCultural backgroundQuotationsFilmSee alsoReferencesNotesBibliography

Further readingExternal linksText and image sources, contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license