E茎

ReceptionandperceptionohockmusiｃｉｎＸｎｄｉａ

乃火α肋肋o舵

ThepurposeofthispaperistoexaminehowrockmusicisperceivedinIndiathroughananalysis

ofthepositionofrockinthelndianpopularmusicscene・Ｉ,llflrstgiveanoverallpictureofthelndian

popularmusicscene,andthenanalyzethecurrentsituationoflndianrockthroughonespeciflcband

asａｎexample・Ｉ，llalsoexamineIndo-Westcrossoverorfilsionmusicthroughacomparisonofitsre‐

ceptionbylndiansandWestemers・Finally,Ｉ，llexplorethepositionofrockmusicinthecontextofIndiansocialsituation．

lndianpopularmusicscene

Popularmusichitshadbeendominatedbyfilmsongsfbralmostfiftyyearsuntilthearrivalofsat‐

elliteTVsinl991，becausecinemahadlongbeenthebiggestentertainmentmediumfbrtheIndian

masses・Thesefilmsongs,usuallycalledfilmi,whicharenotactuallysungbytheactorsandactresses

inthefIlmsbutbyso-calledplaybacksingers,wererecordedbyalimitednumberofsingersuntilthe

latel980s・Thissituationistypicallydescriｂｅｄｂｙｔｈｅｐｈｒａｓｅ‘Mangeshkarmonopoly，：Lata

Mangeshkarandhertwosistershadmonopolizedmmihits・l

Latasingswithahigh-pitchedfalsettovoiceanditisverylikelythatthisstyleisadoptedpartly

fbrcreatingthetypicalimageofheroinesemphasizingfbmininity,whichischaracterizedbybeauty，

frailty,weakness,dependency,loveliness,tendernessandsoon,andalsopartlyfbrduetswiththemale

voiceinlovesceneswhichareessentialfbrthelndianentertainmentcinema・Sincethisparticularsing‐

ingstylegainedwideacceptanceandbecameacceptedastheonlywaytomakehitsfbrthefllmiscene，

othersingershavecometofbllowherstyle・Itshouldalsobenotedthatclassicａｌｏｒｆｂｌｋｓｏｎｇｓａｒｅ

ｓｕｎｇｎｏｔｗｉｔｈＬａｔa-likevoicebutwitheachsinger，sownnaturalvoice・Themaleplaybacksingers

whocouldｍａｋｅｍｍｉｈｉｔｓｗｅｒｅａｌｓｏｌｉｍｉｔｅｄｔｏｔｈreegiants;KishoreKumar，MohammedRaHand

Mukesh・Theirsingingstyleisalsohighlystandardizedwithatenorvoicewhicｈｓｅｅｍｓｔｏｃｒｅａｔｅａ

ｈｅｒｏｉｍａｇｅ,emphasizinggentlemanliness,princeliness,youthMlnessandsoon・z

Filmsongsareusuallyaccompaniedbyatypicallndianorchestrawhichincludesbothlndianand

Westemmusicalinstruments・Thefavouriteinstrumentsarestringsinstrumentssuchastheviolin,the

sitarandthesantur,whichareusedfbrmelismaticphrasesorinterludemelodies,andpercussionin‐

strumentssucha6･thetablaandthedolak,whichcanproducethetypicallndianbeat:theHrstbeatis

accentuated・Abaselineisnaturallyweakandchordsusedinasongarelimitedtoafewwhichshould

notinterruptaflowingmelodyline・Thoughnotaspopularasfilmi,so-calledlightclassical,including

theghazal（anUrdulovepoem),thebhajan（aHindureligioussong)，hasalsobeenarrangedand

sunglikefIlmi,andasaresultitacquiredaprettylargefbllowing・Consequently,thestylesofIndian

366

ー一一

Receptionandperceptionofrockmusｉｃｉｎｌｎｄｉａ

popularmusichitshavebeensounifbrmfromvariousaspectsuntilaroundthel980s,thoughWestern

influenceshavebeenincreasinglyobservedafterthelatel980swhenelectronicmusicalinstruments

becameincreasinglypopular､３

ThelndianpopularmusicscenehasundergoneradicalchangessincｅｔｈｅｅｍｅｒｇｅｎｃｅｏｆＳｔａｒＴＶ，

whichisoneofthesatelliteTVsthatfirstappearedinlndiainl991alongwiththeeconomicliberali‐

zationpolicy・ThenumberofTVchannelshasrapidlyincreased：previously，onlythreechannels

couldbereceivedandwereangovernment-managed・Incontrast,ｔｈｅｎｕｍｂｅｒｏfchannelsavailable

nowisoverfifty､４TVsoonbecamethemainentertainmentmediumfbrtheIndianmasses・Popular

music,exceptmms,whichhadbeenpreviouslyproducedｂｕｔｄｉｄｎｏｔｃｒｅａｔｅａｎｙｂｉｇｈｉｔｓ，nowcould

beenjoyedbyawidergeneralpublic､SinceMTV,ＡＴＮ＆ChannelVstartedbroadcastingvideoclips

oflndianpopsongsalongwithfbreignpopsongs,manybighitsresulted・Ｎｏｗｗｅｃａｎｆｉｎｄｓｏｍｅｐｏｐ

ｈｉｔｓｉｎｔｈｅｈｉtchart,thOughitisstilloccupiedmainlybyfilmihits・sTVsingersarenaturallynotthe

sameasplaybacksingerswhosephysicalimagecannotbeseenbytheirlisteners・ＴｈｅｎｅｗｓｔａｒｓｏｎＴV

havetolooknice,young,smartandfashionable,ａｎｄｓｈｏｕｌｄａｌｓｏｂｅａｂｌｅｔｏｍｏｖｅｗｅｌｌ・

Itisalsonotablethatvideoclipsoffbreignsingersalsobecameavailabletothelndianmassaudi‐

ences・Previously，fbreignhitswerenoteasilyaccessibletothelndianpopularmarketexceptto

knowledgeablefanswhohadenoughmoneytoobtaincassettesandplayingfacilities・Ｎｏｗ,thelndian

publiccaneasilygetaccesstoanykindofpopularmusicthroughTVprograms，whichhasresulted

inanincreasedacceptanceofnon-Indianmusicarrangementsandsingingstyleswithanaturalvoice

orevenahuskyvoice,ratherthanfalsetto､６

Contemporaryhitsongsareusuallydividedintothreegenres:fIlmi,popandfblk・Thesedivisions

dependneitheronmusicalcharacteristicsnoronthetypeofmedia・Roughlyspeaking，evenifthe

musicisinfluencedeitherbyrockorbylndianclassicalmusic,ｆｉｌｍｓｏｎｇｓａｒｅａｌlcategorizedunder

mmi,andsongsinregionallanguages,notmadefbrfilmsandinfluencedbyWestempop,areallcate‐

gorizedunderpop,andsongsinregionallanguages,notmadefbrfilmsandinfluencedbytheregional

music,areallcategorizedunderfblk､７

Accordingtotheabovecategorization,ｂhangrabeat（originallythetraditionalfblkdancemusic

calledbhangrahailingfiromNorthWestemlndianstateofPunjabwhichhadaddedWesternand

modeminfluencesbyUKAsiansandintroducedtolndia)iscategorizedunderfblksothatthelndian

bhangrabeatisneversunginEnglish,thuspreservingtheoriginalPunjabistyle・Indiansregard

bhangrabeat,ｗｈｉｃｈｗａｓｃｅｒｔａｉｎｌｙｂｏｒｎｉｎｔｈｅＵＫ,astheirownmusicalcreation・Thoughsomeof

theUKbhangramusiciansareactivelycollaboratingwithlndians,ｗｅshould,ｆｂｒｔｈｅｍｏｍｅｎｔ，deal

withthelndiansceneandtheUKsceneseparately､Thoughtheanalysisofbhangrabeatisnotthepur‐

poseofthispaper,Ｉwouldliketorefbrtoafbwpoints・Accordingtomyobservation,theUKbhangra

beatseemstobereflectedmoreintheUKclubmusicsuchasreggae,hip-hop,techno,jungleetc.，

whiletheIndianbhangrabeathasnodirectconnectionwithsuchkindsofmusicalstylesbutseems

tobereflectedinthelndianpopsceneitselfAsaresult,thelndianbhangrabeatismoresimilarto

theinitialUKbhangrabeatlikethemusicofthemostfamousband,Alaap､８

１nadditiontotheabove-mentionedmusic,ｒｅｍｉｘｖｅｒｓｉｏｎｓｏｆｍｍｈｉｔｓｈａｖｅｂｅｅｎｐroduced,ｔｏmeet

theincreaseddemandfbrdancemusicwithanIndiantasteindiscos・Butthereisnodemandfbrrock・

Whydoesrock,ｔｈｅｍusicconceivedasrockbyIndians,remainunpopular,eventhoughmanysongs

haveactuallybeeninfluencedbytherockmusicalscene？

AnIndianroCkband,ParilKrama

ParikramaisaDelhi-basedrockband,fbrmedinl991,ａｎｄｖｏｔｅｄａｓｎｕｍｂｅｒｔｗｏａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｌｎｄｉａｎ

367

TakakolnoueＩ仏Ｉロト・４，‐‐．ルーⅡ酢１Ｊいい酢’１Ｊ酢０８‐いＩ卜脈鵬１０卜仇●睡肥臓脹恥艇騰酢鵬障峠醗膝艇恥脇膨僻臓恥瞬催豚

rockbandsintheannualreader，ｓｐｏｌｌｏｆｌ９９６ｈｅｌｄｂｙＴｈｅＲｏｃｋＳｔｒｅｅｔJournal，India,ｓｏｎｌｙｒｏck

magazinelaunchedinJanuaryl99３．１，vecontinuouslybeenincontactwithmembersofParikrama

sincelattendedtheirliveconcertinMarch，1996．Here,Iwillexaminethesituationoflndianrock

bandsthroughtheobservationoftheirliveconcertandsubsequentdiscussionwiｔｈｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｏｆｔｈｅ

ｂａｎｄ.，

Parikramabasicallyconsistofavocalist,towguitarists,abassist,akeyboardplayerandadrum‐

mer,andoccasionallyatablaplayerandanlndian-styleviolinist(theviolinisoneofthemostpopular

musicalinstrumentsfbrSouthIndianclassicalmusicinwhichitisusednotonlyfbrsolosbutalsoto

accompanyvocals)jointhem,whichcharacterizesanddi舵rentiatesParikramafromotherbands・

Parikramaseemtoexpresstheiroriginalitythroughusingthelndiansound・Ｂｕｔｔｈｉｓｆａｃｔｓｈｏｕｌｄｎｏｔ

ｂｅｔａkenastheexpressionof‘Indianness，becausetheaudienceswhocometolistentoParikramaare

notfbreignersbutyounglndianswhojustloverock・Theexpressionbyusinglndiansoundisfacing

nottowardoutsidersbuttowardtheirownpeOple・AsrockishardlypopularinIndia，mostbands

wererecentlyfbrmedandhavejuststartedbyimitatingWestembands､Consideringsuchasituation，

ｔｈｅｗａｙｃｈｏｓｅｎｂｙＰａｒｉｋｒａｍａｈａｓａｎｅｆfbctofawakeninganinterestinrockbyusingtheirfamiliar

soundamonglndianswhohavelessexperienceinlisteningtorock，ratherthanappealingtoany

‘Indianness,whichｏｆtenremindsoneofakindofnationalidentityusuallyconstructedbythegovern‐

mentwhoisthreatenedthefbreignculturalinvasion・Io

AllthememberswereDelhiUniversitystudentswhentheyfbrmedtheband・Eachoneofthem

hasgotajobandParikramastillremainanamateurband・Accordingtothcmtherewerenoprofbs‐

sionalbandsinlndiabecauseitwasimpossibletomakealivingbyplayingrock・Ｆｏｒexample,ａｎ‐

otherband,IndusCreed(numberoneaccordingtothel994readers,poll)whichweretheoldestband

inlndiafbrmedmorethan丘fteenyearsago，stillcannotsustainthemselvesonlｙｂｙｐｌａyingrock，

thoughtheyreleasedanoriginalalbum・Parikramahavenowoneortwoconcertsperweekwhichare

mainlyheldincollegesorgivefreerockshowssponsoredbysomeinstitutions,andthenumberofthe

concertsisgraduallyincreasing・Guaranteespaidtothem(usuallytoosmalltomaintainaband)are

pooledtopurchaseexpensiveequipment・Theseconditionsseemtobequitesiｍｉｌａｒｔｏｔｈｏｓｅｏｆａｎｙ

ｏｔｈｅｒａｍａｔｅｕｒｂand,ａｃｃｏｒｄｉｎｇｔｏｍｙｏｗｎｅｘｐｅｒｌｅｎｃｅａｓａｍｅｍｂｅｒｏｆａｎａｍａｔｅｕｒｂａｎｄ・

Theliveconcertlattendedwasheldａｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｅｖｅｎｔｓｏｎｔｈｅｏｃｃａｓｉｏｎｏfastudentfbstivalat

LalBahadurShastrilnstituteofManagement,Delhi・Itmainlyconsistedofcopiesorcoverversions

ofWesternrockhitsofsuchfhmousbandsasDeepPurple,PinkFloydandLedZeppelin・Mostsongs

chosenweretheirfavouritehitnumbersflromaroundl970・SomeoftheaudiencefiFequentlyrequested

Parikramatoplaythesenuｍｂｅｒｓｂｙｓｈｏｕｔｉｎｇｔｈｅｎａｍｅｓｏｆｔｈｅｉｒfavouritebands・Theyapparently

havesomeideaofParikrama,sprefbrenceandspeciality,ａｎｄsharethesameperceptionofrock・The

fashionandperfbrmingstyleofmembersofParikramaarealsojustlikethoseofWesternrockbands

aroundl970，Oneoftheiroriginalnumbers‘‘Tilll，ｍＮｏＯｎｅＡｇａｉｎ，，wasfIrstreleasedinacompi‐

lationcassette,耐ｅＧグゼａｒＩＭｍ〃Rock,vol､１，producedby別ｅＲｏｃｋＳ舵ａＪｍＪｍａﾉinl995,consisting

ofonesongeachfroml4bandsselectedoutofdemossentbyl50groups・ll

Parikramararelyplayoriginalnumbersatliveconcerts・Thereasonsweregivenbythemanager

cumkeyboardplayerofParikrama,SubirMalikwithwhomldiscussedseveralmatters,lzasfbllows：

1）TheaudienbealwaysasksthemtoplayonlyWestemrockhitsastheywanttolistentosomethingmorefamiliarrather、

2)Thebandshouldentertaintheaudienceincompliancewiththeirdemand,sothataconcertcannot

beconsistedonlyoforiginalnumberswhichnobodyisfEmiliarwith、

3）Thepositionofrockinlndiadoesn,tallowtheprogrammingofconcertswithoutWesternhits

whicharerelativelywell-known,thoughthebandactuallyintendtomaketheaudiencelistento

368

＃

illIIll

Receptionandperceptionofrockmusｉｃｉｎｌｎｄｉａ

theiroriginalnumbers・Actuallyalllndianbands,evencomparativelymajorbandslikelndus

CreedandMillennium（numberoneaccordingtothel995-1996readers,polls）ａｒｅｍｏｒｅｏｒｌｅｓｓ

ｄｏｉｎｇｔｈｅｓａｍｅａｓＰａｒikrama、

4）Forthepurposeofmakingthebandmorerecognizable,theflrstthingtobedonebythebandis

tomakerockitselfmorefamiliartolndians・

Takingthereasonsgivenaboveintoaccount，ｉｔｉｓｃｅｒｔａｉｎｔｈａｔthenon-popularityofrockitself

causesaconsiderablelackoforiginalnumbersinconcerts・IsuggestedtoSubirthefbllowingideasof

reasonswhyrockisstillnon-popularinIndia,ａｓｇｉｖｅｎｂｅｌｏｗ：

1）ＭostpeoplehavelistenedtorockonlysincethearrivalofsatelliteTVs・Itistooearlytojudgethat

rockdoesn，tsuittolndiantaste，

2）ItisverydifYicultfbrordinarypeopletofbrmamateurbandsinlndia,asmusicalinstrumentsand

equipmentareallimportedandquiteexpensive,eventhoughpricesofimportedgoodｓｈａｖｅｃｏｍｅ

ｄｏｗｎｓｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｅｃｏｎｏｍｉｃｌiberalizationpolicyofl991・Thispracticalconditionpreventsrockfrom

beingspreadtotheIndianmassmarket、

3）Asfaraswestempopularmusicisconcerned,thelndianpublicstartedtoreceivemanymusical

genressuchasrock,fimk,reggae,hip-hopetc・altogether,ａｎｄmusicbelongingtoanyperiodfrom

theBeatlestoMadonnahasbeenacceｐｔｅｄａｔｔｈｅｓａｍｅｔｉｍｅ・ItisinterestingthatWesternrock

bandswhichdisbandedlongagoarefeaturedonalargescaleineveryissｕｅｏｆＴｿｚｅＲｏｃｋＳ舵er

JbzJr7zaI．

4)Foreigndancemusicseemstohavequicklyattaineditspopularity,becausedancesceneshavebeenin‐

dispensablefbrentertainmentfilｍｓａｎｄｔｈｏｓｅｗｈｏｗａｎｔｔｏｂｅａｃｔｏｒｓｏｒａctressesgenerallyleambreak

dance・Ｉ、additiontotheabovereasonslgave,Subirpointedoutanotherreasonasfbllows：

5）ＡsonginEnglishwouldneverbeabighitinIndia・

HesaidthatthebandhavenointentionofsinginginHindi,eventhoughhewasactuallyadvised

toPlayHindisongs,tomaintaintheirpopularityHebelievedthatrockcouldbesunginEnglishbut

notinHindioranyotherregionallanguages,ｏｒｒａｔｈｅｒｔｈａｔｒｏｃｋｗａｓｓｏｕｎｉｖｅｒｓａｌｔｈａｔｉｔｃｏｕｌｄｂｅ

ｓharedwithworld-widerockfansandshouldnotbesubjectedtoregionaldi鮭rences，Heanswered

thathehadnoobjectiontoHindirockorwhatever,thoughthebandwouldsingonlyinEnglish

ActuallyallthemembershavelongbeenlisteningtorocksunginEnglishsothatsinginginEnglish

seemsquitenaturaltothem・AsthereareafbwbandssinginginHindi,whicharenotpopularatall，

popularitycannotbeacquiredbysimplychangingthelanguageoflyricsfiromEnglishtoHindi・He

alsoemphasizedthatthebandplayedrockbecauseoftheirlovefbrrockanddidn，twanttoplayonly

toobtainpopularity,eventhoughsinginginHindimightpavethewaytomakethebandmorepopu‐

lar・Infact,notonlyParikramabutalsomostlndianbandssingonlyinEnglishThus,thelisteners

ofrockinIndiaarenaturallyrestrictedtotheelitesofsocietywhospeakEnglish(thepopulationwith

Englishasthesecondlanguagehasneverexceeded４％ofthelndiantotalpopulationaccordingtothe

Census),thoughEnglishisnotafbreignlanguagebuttheo筋ciallanguageoflndia､l3

ThelanguageissueaboveremindsusofasimilarlanguagecontroversywhichoccurredinJapan

duringtheearlyl970s,'４Withoutanalyzingthesocialcontext，weshouldnotsimplycomparethe

abovecasewiththeJapanesecase．ＩｎｃａｓｅｏｆＪａｐａｎ,themaincontroversyaboutthelanguageusedin

rockmusicwaswhetherrockcouldbesunginJapaneseornot・Thosewhoadvocatedsingingin

EnglishassertedthattherhythmoftheJapaneselanguageitselfdidnotfitproperlywiththerhythm

ofrock,ａｎｄthattherealrOcksoundcouldnotbeproducedinsinginginJapanese・Whilethosewho

wereagainstsinginginEnglishquestionedwhetherrockcouldbeenjoyedonlybyitssound,and

whetherrockcouldbereallyunderstoodwithoutknowingthemeaningoflyrics,becauseofthelim‐

itedknowledgeofEnglishamongtheJapaneseingeneral．

369

｡

TakakoInoue

Thiscontroversysymbolizedaprocessoftransfbrmationofrockinthecourseofitsacculturation，

witharesultthatinthemid-70s，manyrockbandsstartedtosinginJapanese・ｌ５１ｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆＩｎｄｉａ，

there，ｓｎｏｑｕｅｓｔｉｏｎａｓｔｏｗｈｅｔｈｅｒｒｏｃｋｃａｎｂesunginHindi・Ｔｈｅｙａｒｅａｂｌｅｅｎｏｕｇｈｔｏｓｉｎｇａｎｄｃｏｍ‐

posｅｉｎEnglishwithoutanydifficulty，becauseitisquitenaturalthatthosewhohavebeengiven

EnglisheducationspeakEnglishaswellastheirmothertongue,and,aboveall，theyhavelonglis‐

tenedtorockinEnglish-

Inshort,thelanguagecontroversyinrockisanissueoftheperceptionofrockinＪａｐａｎｗhileit

isanissueofcommercialisminIndia．

ParikramaandIndo-Westcrossovermusic

Aslmentionedabove,Parikramatakelndianmusicalelementsbackintheiroriginalnumbersand

someoftheircoverversionsbyfbaturingthetablaandtheviolin，Franklyspeaking,theirfavourite

WesternrocknumbersaredirectlyorindirectlyinfluencedbyIndianmusic・So-cauedragarockand

manysongsofpsychedelicrockcanberegardedasexamplesofsuchdirectinfluences，underwhich

lndianmusicalinstrumentsorthoseproducingsimilarsoundsareused,andthetypicalcharacteristics

ofIndianclassicalmusic,particularlyitsmelody（usingmodeslikelndianragas）anddronesare

adapted・Laterhardrockandprogressiverockcanberegardedasexamplesofindirectinfluencesbe‐

causetheircharacteristics,likelongimprovisationswithadroｎｅｏｒｏｖｅｒａｆｂｗｃｈｏｒｄｓ，arealsolike

thoseoflndianclassicalmusic・Inotherwords,rockaroundl970andlndianmusicsharedthesame

musicalstructure,ｌ６Ｉｆｓｏ,it，squitenaturalthatParikramaareinterestedinincorporatinglndianｍｕ‐

sicalelementsintotheirownmusic,whichwasalreadyattemptedbyWesternrockmusiciansveryin‐

tensivelymorethan20yearsago・ＩｔｃａｎｂｅａｒｇｕｅｄｔhatParikramaaretryingtotakecurrentIndian

rockbacktoitsbirthplace,andtheireffbrtsarenotmerelytheimitationorreproductionofWestern

rock・

TakingthewayadoptedbyParikramaintoconsideration,Ishouldliketoexaminethelndianre‐

ceptionofIndo-WestcrossoverorfUsionmusic・

ＭｏstoflndianmusicianswhocollaboratedwithWesternersaretrainedinIndianclassicalmusic

andregardedaspureclassicalmusiciansinlndia・TheyhavesuppliedthetypicalOrientflavourin

ordertomeetthedemandsofWesternersregardlessofanygenre，eitherpopularorclassic・l7

Moreover,ｔｈroughthecollaborationwithWesternersinEuropeandAmericatheyhaveactuallypaid

muchbetterdividendsthanplayingonlyclassicalmusicinlndia・Whileinsidethecountry,suchclas‐

sicalmusicianshaveplayedanactiverolewithintheelitemusicalscene:understandingorpretending

tounderstandclassicalmusichasfimctionedasaqualificationoftheculturalelitesincetheperiodof

BritishIndiawhenclassicalmusicwasestablishedasa‘traditionalart，symbolizingthelndianspiri‐

tualheritage・l8ThesemusicianshaveneitherenteredintotheIndianpopularmusicscenenorconabo‐

ratedwithIndianpopmusiciansexceptinafもwcases,l9sothattheycouldsuccessfUllyprotecttheir

statusasclassicalmusicians・Popularmusic,particularlyentertainment-filmmusic,whichrepresents

masscultureorcommercialism,andclassicalmusicrepresentinghighculturehavebeenestablishedas

twoseparatefieldsinIndia,thoughthefbrmerisinspiredalotbythelatterandthemusiciansofthe

fbrmerfieldoftenstarttheirmusicalexperiencesinleamingthelatter・

Consequently2thecouaborationwithWesternershasneverdrawnpublicattentioninsideIndia，

thoughithasdefmitelyservedtomakelndianmusicexposedtotheworld・Itshouldbenotedthat

theapparentcontradictorywayadoptedbythosewhochosetocollaboratewithWesternersoutside

hasnotbeenonlysatisfyingtobotheliteIndians,andWestemers，demandsbutalsoconfbrmedto

marketeconomy．

1１＃

370

Ｌ』

Receptionandperceptionofrockmusｉｃｉｎｌｎｄｉａ

TheviolinistofParikramaisaregularclassicalmusicianfbrAlllndiaRadio・Theemergenceof

classicalmusicianslikehimwhoplaybothintheclassicalandpopularfleldssuggestsaradicalchange

iSundergoingamongmusicians・Hehascrossedthebarrierwhichtheeldergenerationputup・Ｔｈｅ

sａｍｅｔｅｎｄｅｎｃｙｃａｎｅｖｅｎｂｅｓｅｅｎｉｎＨｉｎｄｉｐｏp・Ｆｏｒexample，ｉｎｔｈｅｃａｓｅｏｆａｐｏｐｄｕｏ，Colonial

Cousins,whorecentlybecamepopular，ｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｍｅｍｂｅｒｓｉｓａｖｏｃａｌｉｓｔｏｆＳｏuthlndianclassical

musicandtheyincludeintheirrepertoireclassicalsongs,whichwerenotwelcomedbefbreasdamag‐

ingtheauthenticityofclassicalmusic・zoThefactthatColonialCousinsarenowwidelyacceptedby

thelndianpublicmaysuggestthatthelndo-westcrossoverorfilsionmusicperfbrmedbylndianswill

becomemorepopularfromnowon,whiletheconceptofauthenticityi、‘traditionalart，amongelders

willgraduallybetransfbrmedbytheyoung,thoughthelatterwillde伽itelykeeponpayingrespect

tolndiantraditions．

Ｔｈｅｓｉｔｕａｔｉ０ｎ０ｆｒｏｃｋｉｎｌｎｄｉａｎsociety

Thecontradictorypositionofrockinlndiawasclarifiedbythediscussionabove:rock,ｗｈｉｃｈｗａｓ

ａｒｇｕｅｄｔｏｂｅｂｏｍａｍｏｎｇｔｈｅｗorkingclassintheWest,isactuallythemusicfbrtherestrictedelite

whowaseducatedinEngliｓｈｏｒ,ｗｅｃａｎｓａｙ,fbrthebourgeoisiewhohasgotenouｇｈｍｏｎｅｙｔｏｐｕｒ‐

chaseexpensivemusicalinstrumentsandequipmentinlndia・Rockstillremainssomethingdi筋cult

togetaccesstolndianmasses・Thepresentconditionofrockisalsoreflectedinthesocialsituation

ofpost-coloniallndia;Englishembeddedinlndiansocietybothasacolonialheritageandasthebasis

ofhigheducationisjuxtaposedtoastrongattachmenttolndiantraditionbothasaproductionbythe

nationalisteliteandsomethingtoawakenorappealtotheIndianpublicemotion・

ＴｈｅＨｉｎｄｕｃｏｍｍｕｎａｌｉｓｍｈａｓｃｏｍｅｔｏｐｏwersincetheearlyl990s・Thecommunistsfirequently

appealtothenationalisticemotionamongthepublicthatWestemculturewiudamagelndiantradi‐

tion；fbrexample，ｔｈｅｙｏｐｐｏｓｅｄｔｏｅｖｅｎｔｓｓｕｃｈａｓＴｈｅＭｉssWorldContestheldatBangalorein

Novemberl996,inwhichwearingswimsuitswasconsideredtobeagainstthelndiantraditionalfbmi‐

ninevalue､２１EvennonpoliticaltraditionalistsamongtheelderlygenerationopposetoWestemizedcul‐

tureandcriticizethepresentpopularmusicsceneasvulgarization・Ｆｏｒexample，avideoclipof

Alisha,afamousfemalepopsingerpromotedasthelndianMadonna,ｉｎｗｈｉｃｈａｂｅｄｓｃｅｎｅｗａｓｆｂａ‐

tured,wasbannedfromTVasobsceneinl991，Ｓｈｅlaterhadanothervideoclipshot,inwhichshe

actedlikeSita,achastewifbofRama,ｗｈｏｉｓｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｐｏｐｕｌａｒＨｉｎｄｕｇｏｄｓｄescribedinthefamous

epicRamayana,incontrasttothepreviousvideoclip､２２Consequently,shegainedpopularitybyplay‐

ingaroleofaconventionalidealizedlndianwoman・

Ｒｏｃｋhasnotmetwithsuchoppositionsyetasitisnotpopularenoughinlndia､Traditionalistsor

nationalistsmaynothavebeenexposedtoroｃｋａｔａｌｌｏｒｅｖｅｎｎｏｔｂｅｅｎａｗａｒｅｏｆｉｔｓexistence・Ｔｈｅｅｘ‐

amplesshownabove,however,maycauseonetoimaginethatthesocialsituationoftoday,ｓＩｎｄｉａｗｉｌｌ

ｔｕｍｔｏｂｅａｎｉｍpedimenttomakerockpopular,thoughtheyoungpeoplewhomltalkedwithalways

emphasizedthatlndiantraditionandimportedmodernWesternculturewerecompatible､z3Thisisnot

aproblemofdiscordbetweengenerations,whichseemstobequitenaturalinanysociety・Theissue

ofcommunalismversussecularismisnotsuchanage-oldphenomenonbutaquitemodernone,which

isconnectedwithentangledcontradictions:thosebetweentheEastandtheWest，betweentradition

andmodernity,andbetweenthepastandthepresent･

Thus,itcanbearguedthatthesituationofrockinIndiansocietyreflectstheambivalenceofpost‐

coloniallndia,whichhasbecomemorevisiblesincetheeconomicliberalization．

3７１

③

TakakoInoue

配ndnOtes

１LataMangeshkar（1929-）:Recordedover25,000songsinl41ndianlanguages，Theflrstsong

appearedinl942andcametoprominenceinl948・Untilthelatel980s，Theyrecordedabouttwo

songsperday.（Rajadhyaksha＆Willemenl995:135）２Iresidedinlndiafroml983tol987,andthereafteryearlyspentafbwmonthstherefbrfleldre‐

searches・Thisobservationisbasedonmanyfilmslsawinlndia・Ialsolearnedghazalandbhajan

froｍＭｓ・SapnaAwasthi，ｗｈｏｉｓｎｏｗｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｆａｍｏｕｓｐｏｐｕｌａｒｓingers，inadditiontoleaming

Karnataka（SouthIndianclassical）musicatDelhiUniversity、

３Electrickeyboards,particularlyCasiotonehaveincreasinglybeenused,inplaceofstringedinstru‐

ments,fbrproducingmelismaticphrases、

４Ｔ〃＆脈deoWbrﾉd,Aprill996,ｐｐ､35-38.

5Seefbllowingwebsites:http://www・indiaworld・ＣＯ・in/open/rec/films/top25.ｈｔｍｌａｎｄhttp://www､indolink・com/bollywood/index・html・GenerallnfbrmationonIndianpopularmusiccanbe

fbundinRMIMnewsgroup（http://www・Ｃｓ・umn・edu/-subraman/ｒｍｉｍ)．

６Ｆｏｒexample，IlaArun，whosesong‘‘Votefbrghaghra，,ｂｅｃａｍｅａｂｉｇｈｉｔｉｎｌ９９５，ｈａｓａｌｏｗ‐

pitchedhuskyvoicetrainedinfblkmusic、

７Ｆｏｒexample,songsincludedinthebestalbumofllaArun,whocansingsongsbelongingtoall

threegenres,canbeorderedaccordingtothiscategorization.（ZｿieBesrq/･肋』池":剛、Ｈ脇剛k

Sb"gsbPbpSb"gsbCD132228,Calcutta:ＲＰＧ）

８AboutAlaapandtheearlybhangrabeａｔｉｎＵＫ,seeSabitaBanelji,"GhazalstoBhangrainGreat

Britain，'ｉｎＰﾛp山rMi4sjMz肋伽（1988)．

９１continuouslydiscussedwiththemembersofParikramathroughe-mailaftercomingbackto

Japan・IamdeeplygrateMtoParikramafbrrespondingreadilytomyquestionsandcomments・

１０Thispointwinbediscussedmoreinlatersectionsofthepresentpaper、

１１AfiFeebookletandpre-recordedcassette,“TheGreatlndianRock，，,accomapaniestheAugust／

Septemberl995issueof耐ｅＲｏｃｋＳ舵erJbzJ碗αﾉ．

l2ThefbⅡowingpointsarebasedonmyinterviewwithSubirMalikconductedinMarchl996in

Delhiandthereafterthroughe-mail・MoreinfbrmationonParikramacanbefbundintheirownweb

site（http://www・netfX､net/parikrama)．

１３１ｔshouldbenotedthatthepopulationwithEnglishasthesecondlanguageisnotequaltothe

populationwhounderstandsormanagestouseEnglish;itmustbemuchlargerthantheCensusdata、

１４Ｔｈｅlanguagecontroversywasmainlyfもaturedinthel971-1972issuesofjVｾwMzJsicMZgZzz腕e・

AlsoseeShinoharal996:６４－６７．

１５ShinoharamentionsthatthecontroversyresultedinafMe-outafterthebigsuccessofa

rock，n，rouband,Carol,whodebutedinl972・ButIbelievethatthedebutoftheSouthernAll-stars

inl978HnallysucceededinappropriatingrockintotheJapaneseculture,becausebothadvocateshave

coexistedsincethen・

l6SeeCharltonl996:200-201;OsatoToshiharu,“Rock-toHiseiy6:Fushizen-naKy6hankankei-o，,，

助畝α（1990),pp､87-93;andTakakoInoue,"Parikrama1:70-nendaiRock-walndo-niYomigaeru!?,'，

Bessa伽ｎｚｋａ町加α（1996),ｐｐ､120-125.

17Awell-knewnsitarist，RaviShankar，whoplayedtogetherwithbothGeorgeHarrisonofthe

Beatlesandaviolinist,YehudiMenuhin,ｉｓａｇｏｏｄｅｘａｍｐｌｅ・MaImy血dianmusicianshavefbllowed

hiswaysincethen・SeeShankarl969、

１８１cannotgointodetailonthispointduetoalimitedspcae・ＳｅePurohitl973:815-940,andSundar

l995：219-235.

372．．』．。．・ロ：．・、●．：．．．．‐．、司・．．．調・．．．．〕罪：．碑．少．、１．も町

鮭恥降酔鵬』眼．いい暇畷鵬鵬恥酔眠●酔酔睡眠癖恥”』睡眠鴫酔融齢醗酵酔醒酔耐坐画』Ｆ１』．‐函

Receptionandperceptionofrockmusｉｃｉｎｌｎｄｉａ

１９Ｆｏｒexample,aSouthIndiansinger,Ｋ､Ｊ・Yesudasplaysanactivepartbothinclassicalandpopu‐

lar丘elds,andaveenaplayer,Ｓ・Balachander,directedmmsandcomposedmusicfbrａｌｌｏｆｈｉｓｆｉｌｍｓ・

SeeRajadhyaksha＆Willemenl995:50＆222.Accordingtomyobservation,Southlndianmusicians

seemtobemoreindiffErenttothebarrierbetweentwofieldsthanNorthIndians、

２０Ｆｏｒexample,theopeningphraseofafamousSouthIndianclassicalsong，‘‘Krishnanibegane

baro，，（composedbyVyasarayainthel6thcentury)，is化aturedinasong,“Krishna，，ofColonial

Cousins（ColonialCousins,C4GP1573,Mumbai:Magnasound)．

２１ThecontroversyaboutTheMissWorldContestwasrepeatedlyfbatureｄｉｎａｌｌｔｈｅｐａｐｅｒｓａｎｄ

ｍａｇａｚｉｎｅｓｉｎｌ996．ＩｔｉｓａｌｓｏｎｏｔｅｄｔｈａｔｔｈｅｙｄｉｄｎｏｔｃｒｉticizecharacteristicsofanyMissＣｏｎｔｅｓｔｉｎ

ｗｈｉｃｈｗｏｍｅｎａｒｅｐｕｔｏｎｄｉｓplayasakindofcommodity,ａｓ企ministsusuallydo,butcriticizeditfrom

theviewoftraditionalvaluediffErentfromtheWesternvalue、

２２Avideoclipofasong,"DeDeMUjhko",wasbannedinl991andthatofasong,"MadeinIndia，,，

madeAlishaanidolstarin1995.

23Ｔｈｉｓｆｈｃｔｒｅｍｉｎｄｓｍｅｏｆｔｈｅｗｏｒｄ‘synthesis，suggestedbyanlndiansociologist，ProｆＴ・Ｋ、

OommenofJawaharlalNehruUniversity・ThiswordusedfbrthedescriptionofcolonialIndiameans

arenovatedtraditionthatpartlyaccepts,aswellaspartlyrejecting,Westernculturebroughtbythe

British．‘Synthesis,,namelytherenovatedtradition,isneithera‘thesis,ｏｆＷｅｓｔｅｍｃｕｌｔｕｒｅｎｏｒａｎ‘an‐

tithesis，ofindigenouscultureinthiscontext・Hesaidthat‘synthesis,hadbeenabletoproducesome

unityincolonialcontexts,butthatthepresentlndiansocietywasdescribedasavolutionofmodemity，

plurality,andsynthesis・AlsoseeNandyl983．

References

Magazines：

Bessa伽乃ka7zI/伽α:肋do助伽雌e"ＤＣ肋AC"、1996．Tokyo:Takarajima-sha・

助峨α,Ｗb瓶M2j血0,,Ky6d6皿rlgcﾉh"oIqgy、1990．vols､22-5．Tokyo:Seido-sha．

』VとｗＭ”たMtZgzzz加巳1969-1976．Tokyo:NewMusicMagazine・

Pbp山rMiJ血加血伽．1988．NewDelhi:Manohar.(ReproductionofZ1AeJb"ｍａＩｑ/,PbpzJ肋』伽ｍ

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Charlton,Katherine、1996．RockMijsjcSfy伽４Ｈ肋肌JapanesetranslationbyMinoruＳａｔｏ

（Tokyo:Ongaku-no-tomo-sha)．

Nandy,Ashis、1983．剛e加加α陀助e叩:Lossα"dRecoye〃ｑ/､舵〃z"zderCbん伽ﾉ伽（Delhi：

OxfbrdUniversityPress)．

Purohit,Vinayak,1973．小応q/mzz"伽o"αﾉ肋ｄｉａＴＷｚ伽α剛〃（Bombay:PopularPrakashan)．

Rajadhyaksha,Ashish＆PaulWillemen,eds、1995.Ｅ卿cﾉqpaedjaq/･１Ｍ伽α"eｍａ（NewDelhi：

OxfbrdUniversityPress)．

Shankar,Ravi、1969.Ｍ【yMZjsねＭ〕’Ｌ舵（NewDelhi:VikasPublishingHouse)．

Shinohara,Akira、1996.ＪとRockI968-I996BesrI23（Tokyo:K6dansha)．

Sundar,Pushpa、1995.Ｈｚ抑"Ｓ＆ＰA伽伽es:ルＺＭ"伽ｈｅＳｍＺｅｍＢｒ肋ﾉz血dja（Delhi：Oxfbrd

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