2/4/2016

1

Soil, Soil Testing, & Fertilizers…and COMPOST!

“A cloak of loose, soft material, held to the earth’s hard surface by gravity, is all that lies between life and

lifelessness” –Wallace H. Fuller, Soils of the Desert Southwest, 1975

Outline

• Intro to soil– Physical properties – breakout session– Chemical properties

• How do you learn about YOUR soils?• UNH soil testing program• The basic plant/soil nutrients & where to

find them at the store• Soil Biology & Soil Quality, the living

system underfoot • Compost & Vermicompost

2/4/2016

2

Today’s Speaker

Olivia Saunders

UNH Cooperative Extension

Field Specialist, Food & Agriculture

Carroll County

Interests in…

• We are “dust [that shall] return to the earth as it was: and the spirit shall return unto God who gave it” –Ecclesiastes 12:7

• “thou return unto the ground; for out of it thou wast taken; for dust thou art and unto dust shalt thou return” –Genesis 3:19

Poor Old Dirt FarmerBy Levon Helm

Oh the poor old dirt farmer,

He's lost lost all his corn

And now where's the money

To pay off his loan?

He lost all his corn

Cant pay off his loan

He lost all his corn.

Well the poor old dirt farmer,

He only grows stones.

He grows then on down

Till they big enough to roll.

He rolls them on down

To the tax man in town.

Ya, he rolls them on down

Now the poor old dirt farmerHe's left all alone.

His wife and his childrenThey've packed up and gone. Packed up and goneHe's left all aloneThey've packed up and gone

Well the poor old dirt farmerHow bad he must feel.He fell off his tractorUp under the wheel.

And now his headIs shaped like a treadBut he aint quite dead.

Well the poor old dirt farmerHe cant grow no corn.He cant grow no cornCause he aint got a loan.

He aint got no loanCant grow no cornHe aint got no loan

2/4/2016

3

Describe your Garden Soil

A fertile soil

• Mixture of Sand, Silt & Clay– Loam

• History of the property?

• Warms quickly in spring

• Spongy

• Humus containing

• Plenty of air

• Must be built through soil conditioning

• Biology is everything

2/4/2016

4

The three legged stool

90% of all organisms on the seven

continents live underground

actinomycin, neomycin and streptomycin

• Soil is a habitat

• Feed the soil, not the plant

• Best to manage the pools of organic

matter

Healthy soil looks dark,

crumbly, and porous, and is

home to worms and

other organisms

It feels soft, moist, and

friable, and allows plant

roots to grow

Real soil has worms

and bugs

2/4/2016

5

• “When I first came to this land, I was

not a wealthy man, but the land was

sweet and good, and I did what I

could.”

– Pennsylvania Dutch ballad

Describe a dead soil

• Dry

• Hard

• Compacted

• Easily eroded (rain or wind)

• No plants or roots

• No bugs

With loss of soil function air and water quality degrade

Basic Soil Principles - physical • Discover the Cover

2/4/2016

6

Soil Formation – CLORPT– for short!

Soils Differ because of how they were formed!

• Climate

• Organisms

• Relief (landscape)

• Parent Material

• Time

Spodosols – acid, sandy, forest soils, highly leachedForm under forest vegetation

Inceptisols - few diagnostic features – mountainous

What is soil?

• There are many soil properties that help us describe and manage soils.

2/4/2016

7

Basic Soil Principles - physical• Physical properties

– Sand/silt clay

• Texture analysis

– Structure

– Horizons

– Soil color

Air

Water

Minerals

Organisms

Roots

Humus

Composition of Soil

Basic Soils – Texture

• Texture is one of the first things determined when a soil is examined

• Related to the portion of % Sand/Silt/Clay

• Related to weathering & parent material

Texture

• Sand = (2.0-0.05mm)

Can be seen by the naked eye

• Silt = (0.05-0.002mm)

Too small to see without a microscope, feels smooth but not sticky

• Clay = (<0.002mm)

Forms a sticky mass when wet & hard clods when dry

2/4/2016

8

Basic Soils – TextureBreakout Session

Ribbon method – texture analysis

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GWZwbVJCNec

Basic Soil - Structure

• The arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary particles, units or peds.

• Arranged in the soil profile to give a distinct characteristic pattern

• Based on size & shape

2/4/2016

9

Arrangement of soil particles into ‘peds’

Function of soil texture, minerals, organic matter,

weather, and management

Affects water infiltration, root penetration, and

pore space

Soil Structure

Pore space

• Pore space is a function of soil texture, structure and the activity of beneficial soil organisms.

• Bottle of golf balls VS bottle of table salt

• Water movement directly related to size of pore space

2/4/2016

10

Soil Color

Red desert soils of Arizona state

Gray desert soils of Idaho State

Redbed soils of Oklahoma State

Basic Soil – Soil Color

• Soil color along with other properties like texture and structure help identify soils

• Unlike living organisms, soil does not have genetic code attached to it to differentiate between soil types– No RNA/DNA

• Can be basic indicator of soil properties– ie: dark soils can indicate high organic matter

Soil Color-Iron

Form Chemical formula Color

Ferrous oxide FeO Gray

Ferric oxide (Hematite) Fe2O3 Red

Hydrated ferric oxide 2Fe2O3 3H2O Yellow

2/4/2016

11

Basic Soil – Soil Color

• Color is most easily measured by comparison with a color chart.

• Munsell soil color charts

– Arranged by 3 variables

• Hue

• Value

• Chroma

• Soil behavior

Soil Horizons

Basic Soil - Horizons

• O horizon:– Predominantly organic matter

(litter and humus)• A horizon:

– Formed at the soil surface or below O horizon. Mineral, organic matter (humus) accumulation with a loss of Fe, Al or clay

• E horizon:– Leached horizon with a loss of

silicate clay, Fe, or Al, leaving a concentration of sand and silt particles

2/4/2016

12

Basic Soil - Horizons

• B horizon:– Zone of illuviation. The maximum

accumulation of materials like Fe, and Al oxides

• C horizon:– Unconsolidated mineral horizon,

generally beneath the solum – Unaffected by biological activity and

pedogenesis and is lacking properties diagnostic of an A or B horizon.

• R horizon:– Consolidated rock

2/4/2016

13

The New Hampshire State Soil?

State bird State vegetable

State flower State Animal

Marlow - The New Hampshire State Soil

The broad, gently sloping hillsides and summits of loamy drumlins - Some of the most productive soils for farmers and foresters

Marlow established as a soil series in 1939

Soils underlie much of the picturesque backdrop of rural New Hampshire

Many of the State’s current farms are located on this same land that the early settlers cleared of trees and picked of stones.

Basic Soil Principles - Chemical

• Macronutrients & Micronutrients

• pH – liming & adjusting pH

• CEC

• Keeping the ratios in balance

• C:N ratio

2/4/2016

14

Basic plant requirements

Hydrogen (H)

Oxygen (O)

Calcium (Ca)

Magnesium (Mg)

Potassium (K)

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorous (P)

Sulfur (S)

Silicon (Si)

Copper (C)

Iron (Fe)

Manganese (Mn)

Nickel (Ni)

Boron (B)

Chlorine (Cl)Molybdenum (Mo)

Carbon (C)

Zinc (Zn)

Basic plant requirements

Mostly from Air & WaterHydrogen (H) Oxygen (O)

Calcium (Ca)

Magnesium (Mg)Potassium (K)

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorous (P)Sulfur (S)

Silicon (Si)Copper (Cu)

Iron (Fe)

Manganese (Mn)Nickel (Ni)

Boron (B)

Chlorine (Cl)

Molybdenum (Mo)

Carbon (C)

Mostly from Soil

Macronutrients (Used in large amounts)

Micronutrients (Used in small amounts)

Zinc (Zn)

Bromine SeleniumCobalt SiliconFluorine SodiumIodine StrontiumNickel TungstenRubidium Vanadium

Soil Principles - pH• pH = the relative measure of hydrogen ions

(H+) and hydroxyl ions (OH-)

• The pH will determine availability of other nutrients

• Need to maintain soil pH level just below 7

(6.0-6.5)

2/4/2016

15

pH• What plants thrive in acidic soils?

Azalea

HydrangeaBlueberries

Rhododendron

Correcting pH

• Adjust low soil pH– Lime – calcium carbonate

– Dolomitic lime – lime w. magnesium carbonate

– Quicklime

– Wood ash (also contains potassium)

• Adjust high pH – Elemental sulfur

– Aluminum sulfate

Calcium Carbonate Equivalents

2/4/2016

16

CEC – Cation exchange capacity• CEC = total negative charge on the soil

• Measure of the soils ability to hold & supply nutrients

Who has more CEC? Clay or sandy soils?

Mobility of nutrients in soil

Mobile Nutrients Immobile nutrients

– Chlorine Potassium

– Nitrogen Calcium

– Sulfur Copper

– Boron Iron

– Phosphorous Manganese

Molybdenum

Ion Mobility, why do we care?

• Knowing which nutrients are ‘mobile’ (i.e., able to move) is very useful in diagnosing plant nutrient deficiencies

• If only the lower leaves are affected,– A mobile nutrient is most likely causing deficiency

• If only the upper leaves show the deficiency– the plant is likely deficient in an immobile nutrient,

because that nutrient cannot move from older to newer leaves

2/4/2016

17

Nutrient movement• Root Interception - Roots come directly in contact with

some nutrients as they grow– only ~1-2.5% of the total N, P, and K uptake of a plant

• Mass flow - water moves toward and into the root as the plant uses water, or transpires– a substantial amount of nutrient movement toward the

plant root, especially for the mobile nutrients such as NO3-

• Diffusion – Nutrients move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration– For example, if you open a bottle of ammonia in a closed

room, you can soon smell it at the other side of the room

– Slower then mass flow

• Root hairs Increase root surface area by 2-10 times Length ~0.1-1.5 mm, depending on species and environment

• Mycorrhizae Function as extensions of plant root system "fungus roots"

• Myco = fungus, rhizae = roots

– Symbiotic associations between soil fungi and plant roots Mycorrhizae obtain photosynthate (food) from plant roots

– Plants receive additional water and nutrients – Particularly important for P uptake In low P soils

Nutrient MovementMycorrhizae fungi

2/4/2016

18

• Leguminous plants - absorb nitrogen from the air & the soil

• Roots need rhizobialbacteria

• Inside the nodules where atmospheric N is converted

• Healthy soils contain beneficial rhizobial bacteria

• Can inoculate soil with store-bought inoculant

Alfalfa

Clover

Vetch

Peas

Beans

Lentils

peanuts

Soil testing

• Why do we soil test?

• Gives us an understanding of plant available nutrients

• Helps determine relative nutrient status before planting

– Nutrient distribution within field can be highly variable

– Soil test results only an index, not a predictor of plant uptake

Nutrient Management

• Required nutrients varies by crop and growth stage

• Typical to fertilize:– At planting

– 2 weeks following planting

– Most nutrients are required during period of rapid growth

– Fertilize immobile nutrients BEFORE planting

2/4/2016

19

Nutrient Management

Soil Testing

• Sample Depth: 6-12 inches

• 6” for Gardens

• 6”-8” for Trees & Shrubs

• 3”-4” for Lawns

• Only 1 C of soil need for analysis

• Test every 2-3 years

Video - How to collect a soil sample

Reading a soil test result

• www.extension.unh.edu

• ppm- Parts per million – Most commonly used term to describe the

amount of each nutrient found in the soil. (Multiply this value by 2 to get approximate lbs. per acre at a depth of 6 inches.)

• Organic Matter– Aim for 3-5%

2/4/2016

20

Reading a soil test

• Recommendations given in lbs. of nutrient per 1,000 sq.. ft..

• How do you know pounds of nutrient vs. pounds of fertilizer?

N KP

2/4/2016

21

Timing of Fertilizer• Plants need > when growing rapidly

• Also after seeding & Transplant (esp. phosphorous)

• Nutrients can be lost before plant has a chance to use them

POP QUIZ!

• What’s the benefit of having > Sandy soils?

• What’s the benefit of having > Clay-like soils?

2/4/2016

22

What is Fertilizer• Naturally occurring minerals

– Rock phosphate– Sulfate of potash, muriate of potash

• Synthetic compounds– Urea, ammonium nitrate– ‘Slow release’ coatings or treatment

• Byproducts from different industries– Oilseed meals– Biosolids– Fish emulsion

Material N (%) P2O5 (%) K2O (%) Availability

Alfalfa Pellets 3 .5 3 Slow

Compost 1-3 0.5-1 1-2 Slow

Dried blood 13 2 .5 Med/rapid

Fish emulsion 4-5 1-2 1-2 Rapid

Soybean meal 6-7 1-2 2 Slow/med

Sodium nitrate 16 0 0 Rapid

Cottonseed meal 6 2 2 slow/med

10-10-10, 20-20-20, 15-15-15 rapid

• Amount of nutrient fertilizer contains, expressed as percent by weight

2/4/2016

23

Typical nutrient content & nitrogen availability for animal manure at the time of application.

Bulk Nitrogen Type N P2O5 K2O Solids density availability

lb. / ton as-is % lb./cu yard % Broiler with litter 73 63 46 70 900 40–70 Laying hen 37 56 32 40 1400 40–70 Sheep 18 9 24 28 1400 25–50 Beef 12 6 12 23 1400 20–40 Dry stack dairy 9 4 13 35 1400 20–40 Sep. dairy solids 5 2 2 19 1100 0–20 Horse 9 6 11 37 1400 0–20

Phosphorous in Lake Champlain, VT

2/4/2016

24

Fertilizing with manure

• Spring before planting is the best time to add manure

• Some nutrients will be lost during winter when fall applying– Spread early & apply a cover crop to help capture

nutrients

• ORGANIC fertilizers = slow release, you will see the benefits over time, not immediately

~check in~

• What do plants receive from soil

– Physical support

– Air

– Water

– Temperature moderation

– Protection from toxins

– Nutrient elements

NRCS Soil Survey

BREAKOUT SESSION

http://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/HomePage.htm

2/4/2016

25

Break

Organic Matter

• Benefits

– Builds soil structure

– Holds water & nutrients for plants & soil orgs

– Slow release storehouse of N, P, S

– Improves porosity

– Improves infiltration/drainage

– Reduces erosion

Ideal OM between 4-8%

2/4/2016

26

Organic matterNot just one kind of organic matter

• The Living - Active soil organic matter is primarily made up of fresh plant and animal residues that break down in a very short time, from a few weeks to a few years– lots of biological activity!

• The Dead - partially broken down cells and tissues that are only gradually decomposing– May take a few years to a few decades to completely break down

• The Very Dead - Passive soil organic matter, also known as humus, is not biologically active, meaning it provides very little food for soil organisms– May take hundreds/thousands of years to fully decompose!

Organic Matter• To maintain the same level of active soil organic

matter requires a constant supply of fresh organic materials

• Growing plants

• Crop roots

• Crop residues & cover crops

• minimize loss (from aggressive tillage) & erosion (from ground left bare)

Organic Matter• C:N ratio• Low C:N ratio (ie: raw manure/bloodmeal) rich in N

– Good source of nutrients, but use with caution

• Moderate C:N ratio (ie: compost, leaf mulch, cover crop residues) =lower nutrient availability – Replenish soil organic matter

• High C:N ratio (straw, bark, sawdust) contain little N. soil micros will leave little N for crop uptake if using > material

• Immobilization

2/4/2016

27

• The plants growing in a 2-acre wheat field can have more than 30,000 miles of roots, greater than the circumference of the Earth.

• Soil organisms can be divided into six groups: bacteria, fungi, protozoa, nematodes, arthropods, and earthworms.

– Each group of organisms plays important roles

Soil Biology

Soil biology• Soil orgs incorporate plant & animal

residues, return to CO2, create humus

• Release essential plant nutrients as they digest

• Mechanically incorporate residues, leave open channels – ecosystem engineers

• Most healthy soil has several species able to carry out the same process

2/4/2016

28

• mycorrhizae (my-cor-rhi-zee), ="fungus roots,“

• Extend the reach of plant roots

• Channel nutrients & water back to plant

• Connect plants

Actinomycetes

• Filimentous bacteria

• Degrade complex organics such as cellulose, lignin, chitin, and proteins

Springtail (Collembola)

• Among the most abundant of all soil-dwelling arthropods

• Evolved in cool climates

• Part of the community of decomposers that break down and recycle organic wastes

• The snowflea, Hypogastrura nivicola

2/4/2016

29

Snowflea

http://www.mokkka.hu/drupal/en/node/2901

Rhizobium in nodulesFix atmospheric N at room

temperature & normal atmospheric pressure

Häber Bosch process fixes N at about 400°C and 200 atm.

Fertilizer use represents about 29% of energy use in US ag

2/4/2016

30

Dung Beetles

• Ecosystem engineers

• Burry animal feces in upper soil

• Female lays eggs in buried feces

Nematodes• Large diversity of species

• Un-segmented roundworms

• Highly mobile

– Wiggle through soil pores, swim through water-filled pores

• Nematode activity can increase nutrient cycling

2/4/2016

31

• The rhizosphere = the interface between plant roots and the soil environment.

• Location of much soil biological activity and plant-microbe interactions including symbioses, pathogenic infection, and competition

• Bio fertility products are now a $500 million industry growing

• Bayer, BASF, Novozymes, Pioneer, and Syngenta are now actively selling, acquiring or developing these products

Wrap upDon’t Guess, Soil Test!

Avoid working the soil when wet –

– Easier to compact

Avoid adding too much organic matter

– This leads to salt build-up, large release of nitrogen, the build-up of excessive phosphorus, and an imbalance in potassium, calcium, magnesium, and iron

FEED THE SOIL, NOT THE PLANT!

2/4/2016

32

Part 2: Composting!

Composting

• The Controlled decomposition of Organic Wastes

• Transformation of raw waste materials into biologically stable humic substances

WHY

• Improve Soil Health

• Create high quality (slow release) fertilizers & soil amendments

• Lessen the reliance on commercial (imported) fertilizers, & water

• More resilient closed-loop system, captures nutrients that would otherwise be lost

• Destruction of weed seeds

• Reduced odors/nuisance complaints

2/4/2016

33

WHY

• Extends municipal landfill life by diverting organic materials from landfills

• Finite capacity of landfills– NH ban on yard trimmings in landfills

– NH DES - RSA 149-M Solid Waste Management Act

• Proposal to ban commercial food waste from Massachusetts landfills in 2014

• Vermont House Bill 485 bans yard waste by July 2016, and all organic materials by July 1, 2020

Composted Windrow

3-Stage Process

2/4/2016

34

3-Stage Process

1. Initial mesophilic stage• Sugars and readily nutrients consumed by

microorganisms

• Temperature gradually rises (ambient to 40ºC)

2. Thermophilic stage (next few weeks/ months)• Temps rise to 50-60ºC (122-140F)

• Break down of cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, fats & more resistant materials

• Frequent mixing important during this stage

3-Stage Process

3. Curing - 2nd mesophilic stage

• Following several weeks or months

• Temp falls back to ambient

• Long, slow degradation of lignin and other resistant compounds, formation of humus

Five Primary Variables

• Feedstocks

• Particle Size

• Moisture

• Oxygen Flow

• Temperature

2/4/2016

35

Feedstocks & Nutrient Balance

• Controlled decomposition requires a proper balance of

• “Green” organic materials (e.g., grass clippings, food scraps, manure)– LOTS OF NITROGEN

• “Brown” organic materials (e.g., dry leaves, wood chips, branches)– LOTS OF CARBON but little nitrogen

• Getting the right mix requires experimentation and patience and is part of the art and science of composting

Carbon : Nitrogen ratioKitchen Scraps 15:1

Animal manure 20:1

Grass clippings 19:1

Straw 80:1

Paper 170:1

Sawdust 400:1

Desirable 30:1

2/4/2016

36

Moisture• Microorganisms need adequate amount of

moisture to survive

• makes the nutrients accessible to the microbes

• Should feel as moist as a wrung out sponge

• Dry carbon layers can be watered as the pile is built, then with each turning, add more water as necessary

Ideally, 40 - 60% moisture

Temperature

What went wrong?!Problem What Happened What To Do

Pile produces strong, unpleasant odors

Pile is too wet

Poor aeration

Turn pile

Add, dry, bulky materials

Pile is ‘stuck’ Pile too dry

High C:N ratio

Pile is too small

Add water

Add more ‘green’ material

Pile is attacked by scavengers

Animals attracted to meat scraps, fats, etc.

Keep fats, meat scraps out

Bury other scraps

2/4/2016

37

The End Product

• C/N ratio decreases until it is fairly stable

– C/N of 10:1 to 20:1

• 50-70% of the initial carbon is lost during process

• Mineral nutrients mostly conserved

• Therefore finished compost = more concentrated in nutrients than raw materials

The End Product

• 8-12 percent total nitrogen (N) is available the first year following its application

– Nutrients from chemical fertilizer are nearly 100 percent available to growing plants

2/4/2016

38

Commercial composters

• Convenient• Easy to use• May be expensive• *Helps* Keep animals out• Do not necessarily

perform better than homemade composters

3-bin system

• Allows you to add materials and use compost at the same time

• Requires some carpentry skills

• May be expensive to build

Low Tech Composters

• Inexpensive to build

• Can be made with common materials around the home

2/4/2016

39

Questions?

Vermicomposting

A step beyond compost

VERMICOMPOSTING• Vermi = things relating to worms

• No heat needed for decomposition

• Great for small spaces!

– Don’t need a large pile for decomposition

• Can be done in urban environments!

2/4/2016

40

Worm Species1. Anecic

– Large worms that live deep in soil

– Come up to grab organic matter

– ie: night crawler

2. Endogeic– Rarely visit soil surface

– Move horizontally, often found near roots

3. Epigeic– Live on decaying material – on soil surface

– ie: red wiggler

Palouse Earth WormDriloleirus americanus

Earth’s Natural Tillers!

Vermicomposting• Worms can live for about one year in the worm

bin

• New worms are born and others die all the time

• Inside the cocoon, 2-5 baby worms may be found

• The baby worms live in the egg case for at least 3 weeks

• When worm leaves cocoon, they are the thickness of a piece of thread

2/4/2016

41

Best Environment for Red Wigglers

• Can survive 35-88° F

• Most productive 65-80° F

• Need oxygen flow

• Moisture must be able to drain

• Moisture content 60-70%

Build your own bin!

¼ inch holes for drainage15 holes per sq. ft.

Bedding 5-6 inches of:

• Finely shredded newspaper

• Cardboard

• Coconut fiber

• Shredded/decomposed leaves

• Hay

• Straw

• Coffee grounds

• Coffee chaff

2/4/2016

42

Worm bin set-up

Bedding (newspaper)

Small holes for drainage

Larger Holes on cover for air flow

Slowly add kitchen scraps

The worms will do the rest!

Worm bin set-up

Bedding (newspaper)

Small holes for drainage

Larger Holes on cover for air flow

Slowly add kitchen scraps

The worms will do the rest!

2/4/2016

43

Vermicomposting• USE

– Raw fruit and vegetable scraps

• DO NOT USE– Meats, oils and dairy products

– Orange rinds & citrus fruits, too acidic, can attract fruit flies

– Cooked foods are often oily or buttery, which can also attract pests

– Stay away from onions and broccoli - strong odor

What else?

• Grit – helps keep their gizzards clean

• They don’t like light! Leave them alone!

• Worms aren’t the only ones in there!

– Keep your eye out for Centipedes (THEY EAT WORMS!)

“…it is our work with living soil that provides sustainable alternatives to the triple crises of climate, energy, and food. No matter how many songs on your iPod, cars in your garage, or books on your shelf, it is plants’ ability to capture solar energy that is at the root of it all. Without fertile soil, what is life?”

-Vandana Shiva, 2008

2/4/2016

44