Review for Quiz 2

Chapter 4-6 (Modules 12-20), Pages 138-247Essentials of Understanding Psychology- Sixth Edition

PSY110 Psychology

© Richard Goldman

October 26, 2006

Consciousness

Awareness of sensations, thoughts, and feelings at the moment

Altered states of consciousness: Sleeping and Dreaming Drug use Hypnosis

Stages of Sleep 5 Distinct stages:

Stage 1 – Brief transition period – Rapid low amplitude brain waves

Stage 2 – Longest period of sleep – Slower more regular brain waves – brief periods of sleep spindles

Stage 3 – Even slower and larger brain waves Stage 4 – Slowest and largest brain waves – Only

achieved during the first early part of the night REM (Rapid Eye Movement) – Dreaming occurs,

increase in hart rate & blood pressure – accounts for ~20% of sleep time.

Complete cycle ~ 90 minutes

How much sleep is necessary

Changes with age The older you get the less you sleep We currently sleep about 3 hrs less/night

than 100 yrs ago Sleep deprivation causes a reduction in

cognitive ability & recent memory Sleep deprivation does not have a lasting

effect

Teen Sleep

Teens tend to get sleepier later (11:00pm) and wake later

Function & Meaning of Dreams

Nightmares – common – people often have about 24 per year Most dreams are about what you do Meaning of Dream

Unconscious Wish Fulfillment Theory – Freud Latent Content of dreams - Actual Meaning Manifest Content of dreams – overt dream Interpretations tend to be sexually oriented

Research shows that emotion & motivation parts of the brain are active during REM sleep.

Dream-for-Survival Theory – Dreaming reprocess recent events, sifts and strengthens memory

Activation-Synthesis Theory – Dreaming is triggered by random brain activity then the brain tries to make sense of it

Circadian Rhythm 1-day wake/sleep

cycle Controlled by SCN

(Suprachiasmatic Nucleus) in brain

Affected by seasons (amount of light and dark)

Circadian rhythms are important in determining the sleeping and feeding patterns of all animals.

There are clear patterns of brain wave activity, hormone production, cell regeneration and other biological activities linked to this daily cycle.

The term "circadian", coined by Franz Halberg, comes from the Latin circa, "around", and dies, "day", meaning literally "about a day.“

The formal study of biological temporal rhythms such as daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual rhythms, is called chronobiology.

Sleep Disturbances

Insomnia - Can’t get to sleep ¼ of the population have it Some people do not really know how much they sleep

(they often sleep much more than they believe) Sleep Apnea – Heavy snoring – Stop breathing

SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome) may be related CPAP (Continuous Positive Airway Pressure) devices

can help Surgery

Sleep Disturbances (Continued)

SAD – Seasonal Affective Disorder – Depression related to the lack of sunshine Short winter days Exposure to full spectrum light can help

Jet Lag Disparity between personal internal clock and actual

local time Shift Changes People are usually able adjust to different wake/sleep

cycles over time. Continual changes create continual problems.

Daydreams

Dreaming (fantasying) without sleeping Accounts for about 10% of wake time Reduces awareness of surroundings by varying

degrees

Ways To Sleep Better

Exercise Establish a fixed sleep pattern Use bed for sleep only Avoid caffeine after noon Drink warm milk at bedtime (contains

tryptophan) Avoid sleeping pills Visit a sleep disorder clinic

To establish a sleep pattern:

Go to bed at an established time If you can’t fall asleep get up do something

until you are tired Get up an established time Do not take naps during the day

Hypnosis

Trancelike stage of increased susceptibility to suggestion

Subject must be willing Will not do anything against your will 5-20% can not (or are not willing) to be

hypnotized

Some Use of Hypnosis

Psychological Treatment Pain Management Law Enforcement Athletic Improvement (concentration) Smoking/Drugs - addiction/compulsive

behavior management Enertainment

Meditation

A learned technique of focusing so sharply on something that you become unaware of outside stimulation.

Psychoactive DrugsAltered State of Consciousness

Influences a persons Emotions Perceptions Behavior

Addictive DrugsBiological or Psychological Dependency

Examples: Cocaine Alcohol Caffeine Nicotine Heroine

Why do People Take Drugs?

Pain relief or other medical reason Prescription Self medicated

Emulating Role Model Peer Pressure Curiosity Thrill Seeking Escape Pleasure Religious Practice

Stimulants Street Name Effects Withdrawal Symptoms Adverse/Overdose Reactions

Cocaine

Amphetamines Benzedrine Dexedrine

Coke SnowBlow LadySnowSpeed Speed

Increased confidence, mood elevation, sense of energy and alertness, decreased appetite, anxiety irritability, insomnia, transient drowsiness, delayed orgasm

Apathy. general fatigue. prolonged sleep, depression, disorientation, suicidal thoughts, agitated motor activity, irritability bizarre dreams

Elevated blood pressure, increase in body temperature, face picking, suspiciousness, bizarre and repetitious behavior vivid hallucinations, convulsions, possible death

Depressants

AlcoholBarbiturates

Nembutal Seconal Phenobarbital

Booze

Yellow jacketsYellowsReds

Anxiety reduction, impulsiveness. dramatic mood swings, bizarre thoughts, suicidal behavior slurred speech, disorientation, slowed mental and physical functioning. limited attention span

Weakness, restlessness, nausea and vomiting, headaches, nightmares, irritability, depression, acute anxiety hallucinations, seizures, possible death

Confusion, decreased response to pain. shallow respiration. dilated pupils, weak and rapid pulse, coma, possible death

Rohypnol RoofiesRope“Date-rape drug”

Muscle relaxation, amnesia, sleep Seizures Seizures, coma, incapacitation, inability to resist sexual assault

Narcotics

Heroin Morphine

H, hombre, junk, smack, dope, crap, horse, Drugstore dope, cube, first line, mud

Anxiety and pain reduction, apathy, difficulty in concentration, slowed speech. decreased physical activity drooling, itching, euphoria, nausea

Anxiety, vomiting, sneezing, diarrhea, lower back pain, watery eyes. runny nose, yawning, irritability, tremors, panic, chills and sweating. cramps

Depressed levels of consciousness, low blood pressure, rapid heart rate, shallow breathing, convulsions, coma, possible death

Hallucinogens

Cannabis (THC)delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol

Marijuana Hashish Hash oil

Bhang. kif, ganja, dope, grass, pot, hemp, joint, weed, bone, Mary Jane reefer

Euphoria, relaxed inhibitions, increased appetite, disoriented behavior

Hyperactivity, insomnia, decreased, appetite. anxiety

Severe reactions rare but include panic, paranoia, fatigue, bizarre and dangerous behavior, decreased testosterone over long term; immune-system effects

MDMA

3,4 methylenedioxymethamphetamine Ecstasy Heightened sense of oneself and

insight, feelings of peace, empathy, energy

Depression, anxiety sleeplessness Increase in body temperature, memory difficulties

LSD

lysergic acid diethylamide Acid, quasey, microdot, white lightning

Heightened aesthetic responses; vision and depth distortion; heightened sensitivity to faces and gestures: magnified feelings; paranoia; panic: euphoria

Not reported Nausea and chills; increased pulse, temperature, and blood pressure; slow, deep breathing; loss of appetite; insomnia; bizarre, dangerous behavior

Classical Conditioning

Learned Response - learned by paring a neutral stimuli with a natural stimuli

Discovered by Ivan Pavlov while studying digestion

Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1946)

Classical Condition - Pavlov’s Experiment

Neutral Stimulus: Bell Rings (neutral stimulus) Gets Dog’s Attention

(unrelated to meat)

Unconditioned Stimulus Dog Shown Meat (UCS

Unconditioned Stimulus) Dog Salaivates (UCR

Unconditioned Response)

During Conditioning Neutral Stimulus:

Bell Rings Unconditioned Stimulus

Shown Meat Unconditioned Response

Dog Salivates

After Conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus: Bell Rings

(Unconditional Stimulus removed) (no meat shown)

Conditioned Response Dog Salivates

Before Conditioning

Before Conditioning

Extinction

Extinction of Conditioned Response Un-learning a conditioned response The strength of a conditioned response

diminishes if not reinforced. Spontaneous Recovery

Immediate reemergence of CR Single paring of CS with CR

Stimulus Generalization

Responding similar stimuli as though it were the Conditioned Stimuli

Stimulus Discrimination

Ability to differentiate between stimuli

Operant Conditioning

Learned Response - learned by associating rewards or punishments with a activity

Thorndike's Law of Effect(Connectionism)

Responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Edward Lee Thorndike8/31/ 1874 – 8/9/1949)

Reinforcers

Reinforcer – Stimulus that increases the likelihood of a particular behavior

Primary Reinforcer – Satisfies biological need (food, etc.)

Secondary Reinforcer – Associated with primary reinforcer (money, etc.)

Negative Reinforcer – Removal of a positive reinforcer, primary or secondary, (time-out, grounding, etc.)

Punishment

Stimulus the decrease the likelihood of a behavior – (spanking, jail, fines, etc.)

Produces: Avoidance activity Resentment

To be effective: Must be immediate Must be severe enough to discourage behavior

Least effective method of learning

Reinforcement Schedules Fixed-ratio – Rewards given at a fixed rate per

performance Hourly employee’s paycheck Requires strict adherence to reward schedule

Variable-ratio – Rewards given at an unknown rate Slot machine Very effective

Fixed-interval – Rewards given at fixed time Salaried employee’s paycheck Least effective

Variable-interval – Reward given at a unknown time intervals Pop quizzes More effective

Shaping Behavior

Teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximation of the desired behavior. (Successive approximations)

Behavior Modification

Formal procedure to increase or decrease a behavior:

1. Identify target behavior2. Design data recording system3. Establish baseline4. Start program (Reinforcing Behavior)5. Record Data6. Evaluate Data

Informal behavior modification is normal part of how we normally interact with others.

Latent Learning

Learning without apparent incentives Not demonstrated until needed

A passenger in a car may learning how find a particular store

Observational Learning

Learning by observing a model Imitation Much of childhood learning

Learning Styles

Relational – learning parts are related to the whole (women)

Analytical – analysis of the principals involved (men)

Memory

Process of encoding, storing, and retrieval of information: Encoding – Receiving, processing, and storing

information received from the senses Storage – Maintenance of information saved in

memory Retrieval – Locating information and bringing it to

awareness

Types of Memory

Sensory Learning – < 1 second – Raw Information Sight (Iconic) Hearing (Echoic) Touch Taste Smell Motion

Short Term Memory – 15-25 seconds Long Term Memory – Permanent

Short-term Memory

Holds encoded (processed/meaningful) information.

Can hold a maximum of seven (+/- 2) chunks of information. 7 numbers 7 letters 7 words (etc.)

Limited to 15-25 seconds

RehearsalTransferring Short-term to Long-term Memory Just repeating the information over and over

Keeps the information active in short-term memory

Often lost when the repeating stops Elaborative Rehearsal

Using logic, mnemonics, or organizing the information leads to long-term memory storage

Traditional Memory Model (Sequential)

SensoryMemory

Long-termMemory

Encoding

Short-termMemory

ConsciousAwareness

Retrieval

Simple Rehearsal

ElaborativeRehearsal

Working Memory Model

SensoryMemory

Encoding

Long-termMemory

Retrieval

WorkingMemory

CentralExecutive

VisualStore

VerbalStore

EpisodicBuffer

Long-term Memory Model

Long-term Memory

Declarative Memory Procedural Memory(Skills & Habits)Semantic

Memory(Facts)

EpisodicMemory(Personal

knowledge)

Associative Memory Model

Interconnected mental representations of information

Priming – Word or concept triggers recall of related information

Recalling

Difficult because of the vast amount of information stored in our brains

Retrieval Cues - Words or images that guide us through long term memory

Recall - retrieving information (fill in the blank)

Recognition - select from items presented (multiple choice)

Levels of Processing

The more material is analyzed, considered, or processed in any way – the better it will be remembered.

Which generates better, long-lasting memory? Rote memorization of a list of key terms Discussing the key terms in a study group

Flashbulb Memories

Vivid memories focused on a significant event in your life.

Constructive Processes in Memory Recollection is imperfect Our minds fill in the missing information Our personal biases and expectations affect

how we fill in the missing information. Schemas:

Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is: Interpreted Stored Recalled

Memories in the Courtroom

Eyewitnesses are prone to very high error because of fear, influences from personal schema, expectations (how questions are worded), etc.

Children’s recollections are especially susceptible to the influence or perceived expectations.

Repressed Memories:Truth or Fiction? “Repressed Memories” are often (always?)

“False Memories” (fabricated). Psychologists have been accused (and

convicted) of inadvertently prompting and encouraging the creation of “Repressed Memories.”

Repressed Memories - supported by Freud - no scientific support

Autobiographical Memory

Recalling our own past is subject to the same constructive processes and biases as other types of recall.

We tend to recall our past in ways that are consistent with our current beliefs and desires.

Major events are remembered best – unpleasant events are remembered least.

Accuracy of recall decreases with time.

Forgetting

The inability to recall may be attributed to may factors: Initial encoding Memory decay Interference Cue-dependent loss Drugs Disease Physical damage

Memory Persistence Memory decreases over time: Very rapid at first; Very slow later on

Reviewing information right after learning greatly increases persistence.

Relearning previously learned information is easier, quicker and more persistent.

Hermann Ebinghaus

Memory Decay

The loss of the physical memory trace. Though to be due to lack of use. Does not appear to be time dependent. (May just be a recall problem.)

Memory Interference

The theory that new memory interferes with the recall of older memory. Proactive Interference – Earlier learning interferes

with new learning Retroactive Interference – New learning interferes

with older learning

Biological Foundation of Memory Memory Trace: The physical (neurological) record

(map) of a memory. Consolidation:

Memory occurs with the increase of stable synapses between many neurons.

Controlled by the hippocampus Long-term Potentiation (LTP): The enhancement in

efficiency of the synapse between neurons. Multiple processing systems in the brain are

involved in learning and consolidation and LTP occurs over long periods of time throughout the brain.

Memory Dysfunctions Alzheimer's Disease

1 in 5 in 75-84 age group 50% of those 85 and over (May be related to low production of beta amyloid)

Amnesia Retrograde amnesia – Unable to remember past (rare) Anterograde amnesia – Unable to remember current

things Korsakoff’s Disease

Afflicts long-term alcoholics

Normal vs. Alzheimer’s Disease Normal forgetfulness:

Forgetting parts of an experience Forgetting where the car is parked Forgetting events from the distant past Forgetting a person's name, remembering it later

Memory loss due to Alzheimer's disease: Forgetting an entire experience Forgetting how to drive a car Forgetting recent events Forgetting ever having known a particular person Causes changes in both thinking (cognition) and behavior or

personality.