Psychol

1

منهجقراءات في علم النفس واالرشاد

(2باإلنجليزية )

2

Psychology   Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors.[1][2] Psychology has the immediate goal of understanding individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases,[3][4] and by many accounts it ultimately aims to benefit society.[5][6] In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist and can be classified as a social ,behavioral, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and biological processes that underlie cognitive functions and behaviors.Psychologists explore concepts such as perception, cognition, attention,emotion, intelligence, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning ,personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships, including psychological resilience, family resilience, and other areas. Psychologists of diverse orientations also consider the unconscious mind.[7] Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology has been described as a "hub science",[8] with psychological findings linking to research and perspectives from the social sciences, natural sciences, medicine, and the humanities, such as philosophy.While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also directed towards understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. The majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of

3

therapeutic role, practicing in clinical, counseling, or school settings. Many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior, and typically work in university psychology departments or teach in other academic settings (e.g., medical schools, hospitals). Some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, or in other areas[9] such as human development and aging, sports, health, and the media, as well as in forensic investigation and other aspects of law.

BehaviorismIn the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism is a discipline that was established in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might be predisposed, or conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways.Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associations between various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism.[28] He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize

4

the study of observable behavior. He focused on behavior–environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment.[29] Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.[28]

Notable incidents in the history of behaviorism are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment which applied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and the clarification of the difference between classical conditioning and operant (or instrumental) conditioning, first by Miller and Kanorski and then by Skinner.[30][31] Skinner's version of behaviorism emphasized operant conditioning, through which behaviors are strengthened or weakened by their consequences.Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence.[32] Martin Seligman and colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism.[33][34] But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications.[32] The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.

HumanisticHumanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis.[37] By using phenomenology, inter subjectivity, and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning.[38] Humanism focused

5

on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology.[citation needed] Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.

GestaltWolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is important, and the whole is different from the sum of its parts.Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.

Cognitive Psycholoy6

Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including problem solving, perception, memory, and learning. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.Noam Chomsky helped to launch a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement". Chomsky argued that such ideas—which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a superficial and vague manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior, including language, is contingent upon learning and reinforcement.[44] Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura, argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subjectMeanwhile, advances in technology helped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and representations—i.e., the cognition—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since World War II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation.[46] By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant paradigm of psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular branch.Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied, and that the scientific method should be used to study it,

7

cognitive psychologists set such concepts as subliminal processing and implicit memory in place of the psychoanalytic unconscious mind or the behavioristic contingency-shaped behaviors. Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the cover discipline of cognitive science.

Clinical PsychologyClinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically based distress ordys function and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration.[48] Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a

8

therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance.  Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.

Memory In psychology, memory is the process in which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. Encoding allows information from the outside world to reach the five senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first stage the information must be changed so that it may be put into the encoding process. Storage is the second memory stage or process. This entails that information is maintained over periods of time. Finally the third process is the retrieval of information that has been stored. Such information must be located and returned to the consciousness. Some retrieval attempts may be effortless due to the type of information, and other attempts to remember stored information may be more demanding for various reasons.

From an information processing perspective there are three main stages in the formation and retrieval of memory:

Encoding  or registration: receiving, processing and combining of received information

9

Storage : creation of a permanent record of the encoded information

Retrieval , recall or recollection: calling back the stored information in response to some cue for use in a process or activity

The loss of memory is described as forgetfulness or, as a medical disorder, amnesia.

Sensory memory

Sensory memory holds sensory information for less than one second after an item is perceived. The ability to look at an item and remember what it looked like with just a split second of observation, or memorization, is the example of sensory memory. It is out of cognitive control and is an automatic response. With very short presentations, participants often report that they seem to "see" more than they can actually report. The first experiments exploring this form of sensory memory were conducted by George Sperling (1963)[1] using the "partial report paradigm". Subjects were presented with a grid of 12 letters, arranged into three rows of four. After a brief presentation, subjects were then played either a high, medium or low tone, cuing them which of the rows to report. Based on these partial report experiments, Sperling was able to show that the capacity of sensory memory was approximately 12 items, but that it degraded very quickly (within a few hundred milliseconds). Because this form of memory degrades so quickly, participants would see the display but be unable to report all of the items (12 in the "whole report" procedure) before they decayed. This type of memory cannot be prolonged via rehearsal.

Three types of sensory memories exist. Iconic memory is a fast decaying store of visual information; a type of sensory memory that briefly stores an image which has been perceived for a small duration. Echoic memory is a fast

10

decaying store of auditory information, another type of sensory memory that briefly stores sounds that have been perceived for short durations.[2] Haptic memory is a type of sensory memory that represents a database for touch stimuli.

Short-term memory

Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: George A. Miller (1956), when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing that the store of short-term memory was 7±2 items (the title of his famous paper, "The magical number 7±2"). Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically of the order of 4–5 items;[3] however, memory capacity can be increased through a process called chunking.[4] For example, in recalling a ten-digit telephone number, a person could chunk the digits into three groups: first, the area code (such as 123), then a three-digit chunk (456) and lastly a four-digit chunk (7890). This method of remembering telephone numbers is far more effective than attempting to remember a string of 10 digits; this is because we are able to chunk the information into meaningful groups of numbers. This may be reflected in some countries in the tendency to display telephone numbers as several chunks of two to four numbers.

Short-term memory is believed to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964)[5] found that test subjects had more difficulty recalling collections of letters that were acoustically similar (e.g. E, P, D). Confusion with recalling acoustically similar letters rather than visually similar letters implies that the letters were encoded acoustically. Conrad's (1964) study, however, deals with the encoding of written text; thus, while memory of written language may rely on acoustic components, generalizations to all forms of memory cannot be made.

11

Long-term memory

The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally has a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a whole life span). Its capacity is immeasurably large. For example, given a random seven-digit number we may remember it for only a few seconds before forgetting, suggesting it was stored in our short-term memory. On the other hand, we can remember telephone numbers for many years through repetition; this information is said to be stored in long-term memory.

While short-term memory encodes information acoustically, long-term memory encodes it semantically: Baddeley (1966)[6] discovered that, after 20 minutes, test subjects had the most difficulty recalling a collection of words that had similar meanings (e.g. big, large, great, huge) long-term. Another part of long-term memory is episodic memory, "which attempts to capture information such as 'what', 'when' and 'where'".[7] With episodic memory, individuals are able to recall specific events such as birthday parties and weddings.

Short-term memory is supported by transient patterns of neuronal communication, dependent on regions of the frontal lobe (especially dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe. Long-term memory, on the other hand, is maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections widely spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although it does not seem to store information itself. Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, as learned from patient Henry Molaison after removal of both his hippocampi,[8] and there will be a very short attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in

12

changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.

Personality psychologyPersonality psychology is a branch of psychology that studies personality and its variation among individuals. Its areas of focus include:

Construction of a coherent picture of the individual and their major psychological processes

Investigation of individual psychological differences Investigation of human nature and psychological

similarities between individuals

"Personality" is a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences their environment, cognitions, emotions, motivations, and behavioral science in various situations. The word "personality" originates from the Latin persona, which means mask. In i making changes the theatre of the ancient Latin-speaking world, the mask was not used as a plot device to disguise the identity of a character, but instead was a convention employed to represent or typify that character.Personality also refers to the pattern of thoughts, feelings, social adjustments, and behaviors consistently exhibited over time that strongly influences one's expectations, self-perceptions, values, and attitudes. It also predicts human reactions to other people, problems, and stress.[1][2] There is still no universal consensus on the definition of "personality" in psychology. Gordon Allport(1937) described two major ways to study personality: the nomothetic and the idiographic. Nomothetic psychology seeks general laws that can be applied to many different people, such as the principle of self-actualization or the trait of extraversion. Idiographic

13

psychology is an attempt to understand the unique aspects of a particular individual.The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology with an abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include dispositional (trait) perspective, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, behaviorist, evolutionary and social learning perspective. However, many researchers and psychologists do not explicitly identify themselves with a certain perspective and instead take an eclectic approach. Research in this area is empirically driven, such as dimensional models, based on multivariate statistics, such as factor analysis, or emphasizes theory development, such as that of the psychodynamic theory. There is also a substantial emphasis on the applied field of personality testing. In psychological education and training, the study of the nature of personality and its psychological development is usually reviewed as a prerequisite to courses in abnormal psychology or clinical psychology.

IntelligenceIntelligence has been defined in many different ways such as in terms of one's capacity for logic, abstract thought, understanding, self-awareness, communication, learning, emotional knowledge, memory, planning, creativity and problem solving. It can also be more generally described as the ability to perceive and/or retain knowledge or information and apply it to itself or other instances of knowledge or information creating referable understanding models of any size, density, or complexity, due to any conscious or subconscious imposed will or instruction to do so.

Intelligence is most widely studied in humans, but has also been observed in non-human animals and in plants. Artificial intelligence is the simulation of intelligence in machines.

14

Within the discipline of psychology, various approaches to human intelligence have been adopted. The psychometric approach is especially familiar to the general public, as well as being the most researched and by far the most widely used in practical settings.[1]

Intelligence derives from the Latin verb intelligere, to comprehend or perceive. A form of this verb, intellectus, became the medieval technical term for understanding, and a translation for the Greek philosophical term nous. This term was however strongly linked to the metaphysical and cosmological theories of teleological scholasticism, including theories of the immortality of the soul, and the concept of the Active Intellect (also known as the Active Intelligence). This entire approach to the study of nature was strongly rejected by the early modern philosophers such as Francis Bacon, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and David Hume, all of whom preferred the word "understanding" in their English philosophical works.[2][3] Hobbes for example, in his Latin De Corpore, used "intellect tus intelligit" (translated in the English version as "the understanding understandeth") as a typical example of a logical absurdity.[4] The term "intelligence" has therefore become less common in English language philosophy, but it has later been taken up (with the scholastic theories which it now implies) in more contemporary psychology.

Definitions:

The definition of intelligence is controversial. Some groups of psychologists have suggested the following definitions:

From "Mainstream Science on Intelligence" (1994), an editorial statement by fifty-two researchers:

A very general mental capability that, among other things, involves the ability to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, learn quickly and learn from experience. It is not merely book learning, a

15

narrow academic skill, or test-taking smarts. Rather, it reflects a broader and deeper capability for comprehending our surroundings—"catching on," "making sense" of things, or "figuring out" what to do.[5]

From "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns" (1995), a report published by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological Association:

Individuals differ from one another in their ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely consistent: a given person's intellectual performance will vary on different occasions, in different domains, as judged by different criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are attempts to clarify and organize this complex set of phenomena. Although considerable clarity has been achieved in some areas, no such conceptualization has yet answered all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, when two dozen prominent theorists were recently asked to define intelligence, they gave two dozen, somewhat different, definitions.[6][7]

Besides those definitions, psychology and learning researchers also have suggested definitions of intelligence such as:

Researcher Quotation

Alfred Binet Judgment, otherwise called "good sense," "practical sense," "initiative," the faculty

16

of adapting one's self to circumstances ... auto-critique.[8]

David Wechsler

The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.[9]

Lloyd Humphreys

"...the resultant of the process of acquiring, storing in memory, retrieving, combining, comparing, and using in new contexts information and conceptual skills."[10]

Cyril Burt Innate general cognitive ability[11]

Howard Gardner

To my mind, a human intellectual competence must entail a set of skills of problem solving — enabling the individual to resolve genuine problems or difficulties that he or she encounters and, when appropriate, to create an effective product — and must also entail the potential for finding or creating problems — and thereby laying the groundwork for the acquisition of new knowledge.[12]

Linda Gottfredson

The ability to deal with cognitive complexity.[13]

Sternberg & Salter Goal-directed adaptive behavior.[14]

Reuven The theory of Structural Cognitive 17

Feuerstein

Modifiability describes intelligence as "the unique propensity of human beings to change or modify the structure of their cognitive functioning to adapt to the changing demands of a life situation."[15]

Charles Spearman

"...all branches of intellectual activity have in common one fundamental function, whereas the remaining or specific elements of the activity seem in every case to be wholly different from that in all the others."[16]

How Does Heredity and Environment Influence Intelligence?There are many claims, opinions, and arguments about where intelligence comes from - is it from our genetic heritage, or is it a consequence of the environment and our experiences? Below are some research findings and compelling arguments about how our genes and our society influence intelligence.

Genetic Influences on IntelligenceResearch findings confirming that intelligence is a by-product of our heredity revolves around finding specific genetic markers and associating IQ levels of parents and siblings.Genetic markers on intelligence are believed to be found in chromosomes 4, 6 and 22. The genetic marker in chromosome 6 appears in 1/3 of children with high IQ, and only 1/6 of children with average IQs.Identical twins appear to possess more similar IQ levels than fraternal twins. Arthur Jensen in 1969 reviewed

18

research studies about intelligence and found that the IQ levels of identical twins are 32% more similar than the IQ levels of fraternal twins. He also found that the IQ levels of identical twins reared together are just 11% more similar than the IQ levels of identical twins reared apart. Thus, Jensen concludes that the environment plays very minimal role in developing intelligence.Apart from looking at the intelligence of twins, parents' intelligence also contributes to the genetic debate. Research shows that the IQ of biological parents are more predictive of the child's IQ than the IQ of the adoptive parents.

Environmental Influences on IntelligenceEnvironmental influences come in different packages - family, ethnicity, socio-economic status, gender, and education.The family has a critical role in elevating IQ scores. Communication received during the first 3 years of life is the primary predictor of Stanford-Binet IQ score at age 3. Moreover, simply moving or exposing children to families with better environments increases their IQs by 12 points.Ethnicity also plays an influential role. On average, African American schoolchildren score 10-15 points lower on standardized tests than White American schoolchildren. Also, only 15-25% of African American schoolchildren scored higher than 50% of White American schoolchildren. Additionally, African Americans are prone to stereotype threat. In one study, 50% of African American and White American students at Stanford University were told that the verbal part of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) will be used to assess their intellectual abilities, whereas the other 50% were told that the test will be simply administered to establish its reliability and validity. Both groups of White American students scored similarly on the two scenarios. However, African Americans scored better on the second scenario than the first. The first scenario triggered a stereotype threat. The African American students were pressured on the first scenario, that how they'd score in the test might confirm a negative

19

stereotype about their ethnicity. As a result of their anxiety, they performed worse than they'd normally do.The notion of intelligence also differs across cultures. Europeans place emphasis on thinking and reasoning skills; Kenyans on participation in family and community activities; Ugandas on planning and execution; Iatmul tribe in Papua New Guinea on remembering the names of 10-20,000 clan members; and tribes at the Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean near eastern Philippines cherish the ability to navigate land and sea by reading the stars.Socio-economic status is also very important. Having the means and the resources gives a sense of security and access to stimulating environments. Within a certain ethnicity, those in the low SES scored significantly lower than those in the middle and higher SES.One's gender can also influence intelligence. On average, males and females have similar IQ levels. However, males' scores are more variable. Males specifically perform better in spatial and abstract reasoning, while females tend to be better at finding synonyms.Lastly, and perhaps the most important of all, is education. Intervention day care increases IQ score by 17 points at age 3, and 5 points by age 15. South African Indian children lost 5 IQ points per year of schooling delayed due to the unavailability of teachers. The gap between African and White Americans on standardized test scores is narrowing, especially in college, most likely because of having similar educational environments. In 1999, James Flynn also discovered that the human race is becoming more and more intelligent (also called the Flynn Effect). In the ancient times, only adult priests can read; nowadays, 7-year old children must already know how to read.

How Do We Measure Intelligence? The earliest recorded intelligence test was made by the Chinese emperor Ta Yu in 22,000 BC. It was devised to examine government officials, and was used as the basis

20

for promoting or firing them. Today, intelligence testing forms part of the scope of Psychometry, a branch of Psychology specialized in psychological testing. Psychometrists create, administer, and interpret tests and their results. Psychometrists typically hold masters in Psychology, and underwent extensive courses on testing. They work in educational, business, and clinical settings.Intelligence testing began to take a concrete form when Sir Francis Galton, an English psychologist considered to be the father of mental tests, demonstrated in the late 19th century that individuals systematically differ across then-known key components of intelligence (sensory, perceptual, and motor processes). Although the tests he designed resulted to very few significant findings, they nevertheless brought forth important questions about intelligence - questions that remain tantamount to the refinement of intelligence testing even to this day. These questions revolve around the methods of measurement, components, and heritability of intelligence.

Popular Intelligence TestsIntelligence tests are classified in two ways - individual/group, aptitude/achievement. Aptitude tests measure the potential development of the testee, like a tool for predicting future performance. Achievement tests, on the other hand, measure mastery of a specific domain, and thus evaluate current performance. Abstract tests are mainly aptitude in type, while quarterly examinations in schools are mainly achievement in type. Intelligence tests also differ in how they are being administered, whether by individual or by group. Individual tests consider the interaction between the tester and the testee, and thus are more customized and personal. On the other hand, groups tests are more economical, saving time, money and effort. Because group tests are more superficial than individual tests, they only serve supplemental basis when it comes to special placements. For example, the legal requirements for placing children in special education include group and individual tests, and additional information outside the testing situation. Intelligence tests today, however, are more complicated than these basic

21

classifications. They can be mainly aptitude type, mainly achievement type, or both; and can be administered individually and/or by group.

Stanford-Binet Test. This test is given to individuals even as young as 2 years old and up to adulthood. The test consists of various items requiring verbal and nonverbal response. For example, a 6-year old child may be asked to define a list of words and also to trace a maze path. The test attempts to measure cognitive processes, such as memory, imagery, comprehension and judgment. The test also emphasizes the importance of considering age when administering and interpreting results. After collecting results from a large number of testees through the years, findings were found to approximate a normal distribution, or a bell curve, in which most testees fall in the middle scores (84-116) and about 2% scores greater than 132 and less than 68. The Stanford-Binet test started in 1904 when Alfred Binet was asked to devise a method to separate students who benefit from regular classroom instruction and those who need to be placed in special schools. Through the help of his student, Theophile Simon, Binet came up with 30 items and administered the test to 50 nonretarded children aged 3 to 11 years old. Based on the results of the test, Binet was able to identify the norm for mental age. For example, 6-year old Simon scored 20, which is the average score of 9-year old children; thus, his mental age is 9. In 1912, William Stern formulated the notion of intelligence quotient (IQ) in which he divided the mental age by the chronological age and multiplied it by 100. Based on this formula, he classified testees as "average", "above average", and "below average". Lastly, in 1985, Lewis Terman revised the original test in Stanford University, hence the name. His revisions include detailing and classifying insructions, adding other content areas (such as evaluating short-term memory, and verbal, quantitative and abstract reasoning), applying the concept of IQ in intepreting results, extensively calculating the norms, and identifying a general score for intelligence.

Weschler Scales.22

 David Weschler developed different scales to measure intelligence. The first scale was developed in 1939. Today, it is known as the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale - III (WAIS-III). Other scales he developed are the Weschler Intelligence Scale for Children - III (WISC-III), which is for children and adolescents aged 6 to 16 years old, and the Weschler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI), which is for children aged 4 to 6.5 years old. All of Weschler's scales are divided into 6 verbal subscales and 5 nonverbal subscales. Norms developed from nonverbal subscales are astonishingly more representative than the abstract content of the Stanford-Binet test. Weschler scores his scales in two ways: there are specific IQ scores for all subscales and a general IQ score for the entire scale. Scoring is therefore more rigorous and possibly more accurate than the Stanford-Binet test.

Army Alpha Test and Army Beta Test )1917(.The Army tests are the first intelligence tests that were administered in a group. The Army Alpha test is a written exam, whereas the Army Beta test is a performance exam given orally or verbally to illiterate recruits.

Scholastic Assessment Test )SAT(. This test is taken by almost 1 million US high school seniors every year to gain passage to colleges and universities. The SAT is mostly an achievement test rather than an aptitude test, and is therefore oftentimes not viewed as an intelligence test. But it can still be considered an intelligence test because it measures and scores the same domain abilities - verbal and mathematical proficiency; and it was similarly developed to predict school success as with the Stanford-Binet test. Although the SAT is administered in a group, the result of the test is interpreted along with other individual measures, such as high school grades, quality of the high school, recommendation letters, personal interviews, and special activities or circumstances that benefited or impeded the testee's intellectual ability (e.g., contests, projects, outside involvements, etc.). Although the SAT is widely used as an index to accept high school students in

23

colleges and universities, there have been many criticisms about it. First, research shows that simply coaching students on a short-term basis can dramatically raise their SAT scores by 15 points. Second, SAT scores appear to show that males score better than females by 42 points on average. Further review by the College Board shows that males tend to score 35 points more on mathematical contents and 8 points more on verbal contents than females. According to the Educational Testing Service, the SAT aims to predict first year grades, but actual data shows that females tend to outperform males during the first year. This could mean that the SAT is not equally reliable for both male and female testees.

Criteria for Intelligence TestsA good intelligence test must be valid, reliable and standard.

Validity refers to how well the test accurately capture what it attempts to measure. For intelligence tests, that is "intelligence". For example, a test measuring language proficiency in itself cannot be considered an intelligence test because not all people proficient in a certain language are "intelligent", in a sense. Similarly, a test measuring mathematical ability need not include instructions using cryptic English. Validity can be established in two ways. First, there should be a representative sample of items across the entire domain of intelligence (i.e., not just mathematical abilities, but verbal skills as well). This is where Weschler scales seem to fare better than the Stanford-Binet test. Second, the results should match an external criterion. Common external criteria are educational achievements, career success, and wealth; that is, intelligent people are often achievers, whether in school, work, or finances.

Reliability refers to the stability and consistency of scores the intelligence test produces. For example, Peter took a random 50% sample of an intelligence test on his first

24

year, and answered 75% of the test items correctly. Thereafter, Peter took the test year after year. Surprisingly, the results were inconsistent. He correctly answered 90% of the items in his second year, 40% of the items in his third year, and 60% in his first year. Meanwhile, Annie took the intelligence test every month in her first year, and the results seemed nonsense. Because the results vary significantly every retake, then the test loses its ability to be predictive of what it attempts to measure.

Standardization refers to the uniformity of administering and scoring the test. An intelligence test does not consist only of the test items; it includes the process in which the test is given and interpreted. For example, if the test requires an interview, all the interviewers should ask the same questions in the same way. Ideal standardization is, of course, impossible, but the test should attempt to eliminate certain factors that can compromise the test's reliability.

Cultural Bias in Intelligence TestsIntelligence tests are traditionally biased with the dominant culture. Early intelligence tests consistently showed that urban testees scored better than rural testees, that middle-income test-takers fare better than low-income test-takers, and that White Americans get higher scores than African-Americans. For example, an early intelligence test asks children what would be the best thing to do when one finds a 3-year old child alone in the street. The correct answer then was to call the police. This is where the minority's perception differ. Most rural children have negative impressions about authority figures, including the police; most low-income children know where to look for a security guard, but not a policeman; and, the African-American culture allows children as young as 3 years old to roam about and explore their environment alone, and so most African-American children might not even understand what the question is all about.

25

Intelligence tests today attempt to minimize cultural bias by administering the test and adjusting the norms to and for a large and more representative sample of the population. However, intelligence tests continue to be biased toward the dominant group. There are some test-makers who attempt to go beyond "norms" adjustment, and actually modify or include test items from the minority group's domain expertise. These attempts make up the culture-fair tests - intelligence tests intended to be culturally unbiased. Two popular culture-fair tests are the Raven Progressive Matrices and the System of Multicultural Pluralistic Assessment (SOMPA). The Raven Progressive Matrices attempts to eradicate language barrier and cultural factors inherent to the language of the test by making the test simply nonverbal; however, results still show that the educated consistently score better than the illiterate. So far, the SOMPA is considered to be the most comprehensive of the culture-fair tests today. The SOMPA measures both verbal and nonverbal intelligence by utilizing WISC-III; it takes into consideration the testee's social and economic background by conducting a 1-hour interview with the parents; it factors in the testee's social adjustment in school by administering questionnaires to parents; and, it also identifies the testee's physical health by means of a medical examination.Culture-fair tests today seem to reveal that intelligence tests do not accurately capture the notion of intelligence; rather, they simply reflect the priorities of the dominant culture.

The Misuse and Abuse of Intelligence TestsIntelligence tests attempt objectivity by ideally meeting certain criteria - validity, reliability, and standardization; but, classifications, categorizations, and placements borne out of the norms of the test reinforce the same bias it attempted to eliminate in the first place. Anyone who took an IQ test knows how bad it feels when you are sandwiched between those who fared better and those who scored worse. Imagine how the lowest scorer would feel. No matter how interpreters attempt to objectify the meaning of the scores, we all have our own subjective

26

understanding of how we did compared to others. And this have drastic repercussions. First, anyone who scores lower feels down, is ridiculed, and even feels more down. Second, anyone who scores higher feels elated, starts to ridicule others, and begins to exaggerate one's self. Self-prophecy kicks in, and the test, instead of being a form of measurement, becomes a variable that effects change to the test-takers. The basic example goes like this: People who scored low in the first test tend to be pessimistic and perform worse on the second test, whereas people who scored high on the first test tend to be optimistic and perform better on the second test.

What is Creativity?

Creativity is the ability to think in novel ways and to generate unconventional ideas and solutions to problems.

Intelligence versus CreativityCreative people are often intelligent, but intelligent people are not always creative. According to Sternberg, intelligent people tend to produce a lot of good results, but the results are not novel, interesting, or different; intelligent people tend to please the mob, but not defy it; and, intelligent people tend to generate only one answer to one problem, whereas creative people produce many answers to a single problem.

The Creative ProcessMihaly Csikszentmihalyi identifies five activities creative people engage to:1. Preparation - gaining interest and curiosity, and

immersing one's self in a certain problem or issue;2. Incubation - generating diverse ideas, and making

unusual connections among these ideas;3. Insight - gaining a clear and concrete picture of how

the ideas relate to each other;27

4. Evaluation - deciding the workability and value of an idea; and,

5. Elaboration - transforming the idea into action.The creative process is not always linear. Sometimes, elaboration is interrupted by incubation and insight sometimes appears during incubation, evaluation and elaboration. Sometimes, it may take hours or even years for insights to appear; and insights may be either deep, or come in small series.

Characteristics of Creative People:

Perkins identifies 4 characteristics of creative people:Flexible and Playful Thinking. Creative people like to challenge the convention and give rise to paradox. They practice brainstorming to come up with as many ideas as possible. They enjoy the company of other creative people with whom they play off each other's ideas, and then share their unconventional ideas without the threat of criticisms. They also often utilize humor to avoid censorship and to generate thoughts more quickly.Intrinsic Motivation. Creative people generate novel ideas for no other reason but the joy of creating. They enjoy their creativity. External factors are in fact more damaging because they limit their creativity.Willingness to Risk. Creative people never mind failure. Failure can be translated to fear, and fear can impede curiosity. Creativity is all about generating more ideas and possibilities, and creative people are fully aware that more ideas means committing a good number of mistakes. But unlike most goal-oriented people, creative people deliberately make mistakes to come up with the best opportunities to learn. For example, not all the 2,000 paintings made by Pablo Picasso are masterpieces.Objectivity. Creative people are also fully aware of how they can get out of hand with their own ideas, so they intentionally come up with rather stringent rules to evaluate and criticize their work. They come up with their own criteria of judging the value of their work, and they also extensively consult other people's opinions. In fact, they hold the opinions of people who think differently than

28

them as more significant than the ideas of people who agree with them.

Creative People Mark Strand, former US poet laureate, describes

his most creative moments as those in which he loses the sense of time, becoming too absorbed in the activity, which often involves dismantling and remaking meanings. These creative moments are fleeting. They come and go, and they tend to come randomly, so he takes advantage of them by transforming every generated idea into a verbal image that he can get back to when needed. Bill Gates of Microsoft also brings with him a notebook in which he jots down every valuable or interesting idea that comes to mind.

Nina Holton is a popular contemporary sculptor who shares that creative sculptures are a combination of unique ideas and hard work. She emphasizes "hard work" because determination and persistence makes ideas into reality.

Jonas Salk, inventor of the polio vaccine, reveals that his best ideas pop out whenever he suddenly wakes up from sleep. Visualizing his ideas for a few minutes after such an event brings about a concrete plan that he follows through. Salk believes that people should nurture their creativity by conversing with open-minded, curious, and positive people.

How Creative Are You? This is just a basic measure on how you evaluate yourself as creative or not. This is not meant to be a valid indicator of your creativity, but just a simple way of knowing if there is a need to for you to engage in more creative activities.

29

Instructions: Read each item carefully, and score yourself as (1) if it is not like you at all, (2) if it is somewhat not like you, (3) if it is somewhat like you, and (4) if it is very much like you.1. You are good at coming up with lots of new and

unique ideas.2. You like to brainstorm ideas with other people when

trying to come up with solutions.3. You are self-motivated.4. You like to play off with your own ideas.5. You enjoy the companion of other creative people,

and like to know how they think.6. You like to surprise yourself with something

everyday.7. You like to surprise other people.8. You want to wake up in the morning with a specific

goal in mind.9. You like finding alternative solutions to problems.10. You like spending time in places that stimulate your

creativity.

Psychological Disorders and Behavioral ProblemsBelow is an alphabetized list of psychological disorders. Click on a disorder to view a description and information about psychological treatment options. Or, if you prefer, you may search an alphabetized list of all treatments.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Adults) Bipolar Disorder Borderline Personality Disorder

30

Child and Adolescent Disorders Chronic or Persistent Pain Depression Eating Disorders and Obesity Generalized Anxiety Disorder Insomnia Mixed Anxiety Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Panic Disorder Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Schizophrenia and Other Severe Mental Illnesses Social Phobia and Public Speaking Anxiety Specific Phobias (e.g., animals, heights, blood,

needles, dental)Substance and Alcohol Use Disorders

Treating Psychological DisordersMental illness is a complex issue, and successful treatment often incorporates multiple types of therapy . Many psychological disorders have biological components best treated with medication, cognitive components that respond well to psychotherapy, or socioeconomic components that may be addressed through social welfare support (e.g. specialized housing or income assistance). Successful public mental health intervention at the community level requires access to services that address all facets of mental illness. This module presents several examples of therapies used to treat mental illness. 

31

Please note that the following list is not an exhaustive list of treatments for psychological disorders, and is not intended to serve as a substitute for medical advice from a mental health professional.

PsychotherapyThere are many different types of psychotherapy , derived from a variety of theories of psychological disorders, but all employ some form of mental health counseling, in which the patient works in a structured individual or group setting with a psychotherapist . One type of psychotherapy is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), which is used to treat a wide variety of  psychological disorders. CBT incorporates aspects of cognitive therapy, which focuses on how a person’s thoughts influence their mood and behaviors, and behavioral therapy, which focuses on an individual’s actions. By combining these two modes of therapy, CBT aims to help patients identify and modify maladaptive patterns of thinking and behavior.(1) By changing negative and unproductive thinking, CBT can help patients cope with challenging or stressful situations in positive and constructive ways, which can alleviate psychological symptoms, help patients manage their disorder and cope with daily stresses, or prevent a relapse of symptoms. CBT can be used alone or in conjunction with medication to treat a variety of psychological disorders, such as depression, substance abuse disorders, anxiety disorders, and schizophrenia.(2)  

Pharmacotherapy)3(

32

A variety of psychiatric medications are used to eliminate or decrease the severity of psychological disorder symptoms in order to improve patient functioning and quality of life.  Antipsychotics such as risperidone (Risperdal), aripiprazole (Abilify), and clozapine (Clozaril) are often used to treat psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia. To treat depression, many psychiatrists prescribe antidepressants, which regulate neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin. The most commonly used antidepressants are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), such as fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft). Mood stabilizers are frequently used to treat bipolar disorder, sometimes in conjunction with antipsychotics and antidepressants. Commonly used mood stabilizers are lithium and anticonvulsants, including carbamazepine (Tegretol), lamotringe (Lamictal), and oxcarbazepine (Trileptal). Numerous medications are used to treat other psychological disorders, and patients must work with their psychiatrists to find the medication regimen that best suits their needs.

Assertive Community Treatment)4(Assertive community treatment (ACT) is a model of mental health services delivery that provides comprehensive, individualized care at the community level. ACT programs aim to provide mentally ill patients with treatment, rehabilitative, and support services in order to improve their ability to live independently . ACT services include medication delivery, individual therapy, crisis and hospital services, substance abuse therapy, rehabilitative services , supported housing and

33

transportation, and skill  teaching to family members. ACT programs are usually designed for individuals living with severe mental illness who have trouble functioning independently in society. As of 2011, ACT programs were available statewide in six states, and nineteen states had implemented at least one ACT pilot program.

Barriers to Mental Health CareDue to the complex nature of psychological disorders, successful treatment often requires regular access to mental health care professionals and a variety of support services. Unfortunately, mental health care services are often not available or are under-utilized, particularly in developing countries. In developed countries, the treatment gap (the %age of individuals who need mental health care but do not receive treatment) ranges from 44% to 70%; in developing countries, the treatment gap can be as high as 90%.(1) Common barriers to mental health care access include limited availability and affordability of mental health care services, insufficient mental health care policies, lack of education about mental illness, and stigma.   

Limited Availability of Medication and Health ProfessionalsUnavailability of essential medicines is particularly prevalent in developing countries, and severely restricts access to treatment for psychological disorders. The World Health Organization reports that nearly 20% of countries do not have at least

34

one common antidepressant, one antipsychotic, and one antiepileptic medication available in primary care settings.(2) This problem is compounded by a lack of mental health care professionals in low- and middle-income countries; low-income countries have a median of 0.05 psychiatrists and 0.16 psychiatric nurses per 100,000 people.(3) Even fewer resources are available for children and adolescents; the WHO reports that most low- and middle-income countries have only one child psychiatrist for every one to four million people in 2005.(4) Community-based mental health care is also rare in low-income countries; about 52% of low-income countries offer community-based mental health care programs, compared to about 97% of high-income countries.

Limited AffordabilityIn many low- and middle-income countries, the high cost of psychiatric treatment, often due to high medication prices, poses significant financial barriers to patient care.(6) In addition, psychological disorders are not covered by insurance policies in many countries, making mental health care unaffordable for many people. The WHO also reports that 25% of all countries do not provide disability benefits to patients with mental disorders, and one-third of the world’s population lives in countries that allocate less than 1% of their health budget to mental health.(7) Furthermore, 31% of countries do not have a specific public budget for mental health.(8)

Policy Limitations35

The World Health Organization cites a global lack of comprehensive mental health policies, which are crucial for implementing and coordinating mental health care services, as a key barrier to public access to mental health care. Nearly one-third of all countries, and almost half of all African nations, have no comprehensive mental health care policy or plan. Among countries with mental health care policies in place, approximately 40% have not been revised since 1990 and do not address recent developments in mental health care. Furthermore, 22% of countries do not have laws that offer legal protection of the human and civil rights of people with mental illnesses.(9) In many low- and middle-income countries, the localization of mental health care resources in large cities has also been cited as a key barrier to providing mental health care to the entire population, and geographical decentralization has been recommended to improve accessibility to mental health care in non-urban communities.(10)   

Lack of EducationIn developing and developed countries, limited knowledge about mental illness can prevent individuals from recognizing mental illness and seeking treatment; poor understanding of mental illness also impairs families’ abilities to provide adequate care for mentally ill relatives.(11) In 1992, data from the National Comorbidity Survey revealed that of the 6.2% of respondents who had a serious mental illness in the 12 months prior to the survey, fewer than 40% had received stable treatment. The majority of individuals with an untreated severe mental illness did not seek care because they believed they did not have a

36

condition that required treatment. Of responders with a severe mental illness who did not receive care but recognized that they needed treatment, 52% reported situational barriers to care, 46% cited financial barriers, and 45% dropped out of care because they felt that treatment had not been effective. Furthermore, 72% of respondents who did not seek treatment chose to do so because they wanted to “solve the problem on their own”.(12) These findings suggest that lack of education about the nature of psychological disorders and the need for consistent treatment is a significant barrier to care.

StigmaMultiple studies have found that stigma associated with mental illness often prevents patients from seeking and adhering to treatment, as patients may “attempt to distance themselves from the labels that mark them for social exclusion”.

Cultural Perspectives on Mental Health   Stigma, Discrimination, and Mental Health Mental illness stigma is defined as the “devaluing, disgracing, and disfavoring by the general public of individuals with mental illnesses”.(1) Stigma often leads to discrimination, or the inequitable treatment of individuals and the denial of the

37

“rights and responsibilities that accompany full citizenship”.(2) Stigmatization can cause individual discrimination, which occurs when a stigmatized person is directly denied a resource (e.g. access to housing or a job), and structural discrimination, which describes disadvantages stigmatized people experience at the economic, social, legal, and institutional levels.(3) In addition, stigma can prevent mentally ill individuals from seeking treatment, adhering to treatment regimens, finding employment, and living successfully in community settings. In 2001, the World Health Organization (WHO) identified stigma and discrimination towards mentally ill individuals as “the single most important barrier to overcome in the community”, and the WHO’s Mental Health Global Action Programme (mhGAP) cited advocacy against stigma and discrimination as one of its four core strategies for improving the state of global mental health.

What is Counseling PsychologyCounseling Psychology is a specialty within professional psychology that maintains a focus on facilitating personal and interpersonal functioning across the life span.  The specialty  pays particular attention to emotional, social, vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns.The practice of Counseling Psychology encompasses a broad range of culturally-sensitive practices that help people improve their well-being, alleviate distress and maladjustment,

38

resolve crises, and increase their ability to function better in their lives. With its  attention to both to normal developmental issues and problems associated with physical, emotional, and mental disorders, the specialization holds a unique perspective in the broader practice-based areas of psychology.Counseling Psychologists serve persons of all ages and cultural backgrounds in both individual and group settings. They also consult regularly with organizations seeking to enhance their effectiveness or the well-being of their members.Interventions used by Counseling Psychologists may be either brief or long-term; they are often problem-specific and goal-directed. These activities are guided by a philosophy that values individual differences and diversity and a focus on prevention, development, and adjustment across the life-span.Counseling Psychologists adhere to the standards and ethics established by the American Psychological Association.

What Is Psychosis?Psychosis is a serious mental disorder characterized by thinking and emotions that are so impaired, that they indicate that the person experiencing them has lost contact with reality.People who are psychotic have false thoughts (delusions) and/or see or hear things that are not

39

there (hallucinations). These are referred to as “positive” symptoms; “negative” symptoms like loss of motivation and social withdrawal can also occur.These experiences can be frightening and may cause people who are suffering from psychosis to hurt themselves or others. It is important to see a doctor right away if you or someone you know is experiencing symptoms of psychosis.Psychosis affects three out of every 100 people. It is most likely to be diagnosed in young adults, but psychosis can happen to anyone.Part 2 of 12: SymptomsRecognizing the Signs of PsychosisEarly stage psychosis:

difficulty concentrating depressed mood sleep changes—sleeping too much or not

enough anxiety suspiciousness withdrawal from family and friends ongoing unusual thoughts and beliefs

40

Neurosis : The term neurosis encompasses a variety of very common mental health disorders. Neurosis is actually an outdated diagnosis that is no longer used medically. The disorders that were once classified as a neurosis are now more accurately categorized as neurotic disorders.

Disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder include post-traumatic stress disorder, somatization disorders, anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, dissociation disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder and adjustment disorder.

Disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder include a wide variety of emotional and physical symptoms or manifestations. Anxiety and fear are common symptoms to many disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder. People with disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder do not have delusions or hallucination, which are symptoms of psychotic disorders. However, disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder can negatively affect a person's ability to function effectively in the activities of daily living, such as going to work and school, caring for family, and taking care of basic needs. For more information on symptoms, refer to symptoms of neurosis.

Making a diagnosis of disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder begins with taking a thorough medical history, including symptoms, and completing a complete physical examination and mental health exam. Tests may also be ordered to ensure that symptoms are not related to other conditions, such as hyperthyroidism or mitral valve prolapse, which both have symptoms that can result in anxiety. An evaluation

41

by a psychiatrist or other licensed mental health provider is often necessary to aid in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder.

It is possible that a diagnosis of disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder be missed or delayed because symptoms can be vague, associated with other conditions, or because of the stigma associated with mental illness. For more information on misdiagnosis, refer to misdiagnosis of neurosis.

Treatment of neurosis varies depending on its severity of the condition, and a person's medical and mental health history, age and lifestyle. For more information on

treatment, refer to treatment of neurosis. ...more» Neurosis: Variety of mental disorders with self-awareness. More detailed information about the symptoms, causes, and treatments of Neurosis is available below.Symptoms of Neurosis :

The severity and types of symptoms of disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder vary between the specific disorders and from person to person.

Excessive anxiety and fear are common symptoms of and/or underlie many disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder. Other common symptoms include complaints of physical symptoms that do not appear to have a medical cause. These may include palpitations, rapid heart rate, hyperventilation, muscle pain, abdominal pain, headache,numbness and tingling.

Symptoms of disorders that are considered a neurosis or neurotic disorder generally are severe enough to result in difficulties with interpersonal relationships. They can

42

also result in such symptoms as low self esteem, anger, irritability, obsessive thoughts, obsessive behaviors, dependency and perfectionism.

Stress  What Is Stress ?

What Are the Symptoms of Stress ? What Are the Consequences of Long-Term Stress ?

Help Is Available for Stress

Stress affects us all. You may notice symptoms of stress when disciplining your kids, during busy times at work, when managing your finances, or when coping with a challenging relationship. Stress is everywhere. And while a little stress is OK -- some stress is actually beneficial -- too much stress can wear you down and make you sick, both mentally and physically.

The first step to controlling stress is to know the symptoms of stress. But recognizing stress symptoms may be harder than you think. Most of us are so used to being stressed, we often don't know we are stressed until we are at the breaking point.

What Is Stress?Stress is the body's reaction to harmful situations -- whether they’re real or perceived. When you feel threatened, a chemical reaction occurs in your body that allows you to act in a way to prevent injury. This reaction is known as "fight-or-flight,” or the stress response. During stress response, your heart begins to race, breathing

43

quickens, muscles tighten, and blood pressure rises. You’ve gotten ready to act. It is how you protect yourself.

Stress means different things to different people. What causes stress in one person may be of little concern to another. Some people are better able to handle stress than others. And, not all stress is bad. In small doses, stress can help you accomplish tasks and prevent you from getting hurt. For example, stress is what gets you to slam on the breaks to avoid hitting the car in front of you. That's a good thing.

Our bodies are designed to handle small doses of stress. But, we are not equipped to handle long-term, chronic stress without ill consequences.

What Are the Symptoms of Stress?Stress can affect all aspects of your life, including your emotions, behaviors, thinking ability, and physical health. No part of the body is immune. But, because people handle stress differently, symptoms of stress can vary. Symptoms can be vague and may be the same as those caused by medical conditions. So it is important to discuss them with your doctor. You may experience any of the following symptoms of stress.

The following are some common signs of stress in different age groups.Signs of stress in children and teens

Preschool and toddlers

Elementary-age children

Preteens and teens

AngerAnxiety Eating and

sleeping problems, including nightmares

Fear of being

Being distrustful

Complaining of headaches or stomachaches

Feeling unloved

AngerDisillusionme

ntDistrust of

the worldLow self-

esteem

44

aloneIrritabilityRegressing

to infant behaviorsTrembling

with frightUncontrollab

le cryingWithdrawal

Having no appetite

Having trouble sleeping

Needing to urinate frequently

Bed-wettingNot caring

about school or friendship

Acting withdrawn

Worrying about the future

Stomachaches and headaches

Panic attacksRebellion

Relaxation Techniques That Zap Stress FastBy Jeannette MoningerWebMD FeatureReviewed by Michael W. Smith, MD

Relax. You deserve it, it's good for you, and it takes less time than you think.

You don't need a spa weekend or a retreat. Each of these stress-relieving tips can get you from OMG to om in less than 15 minutes.

1. Meditate

A few minutes of practice per day can help ease anxiety. “Research suggests that daily meditation may alter the brain’s neural pathways, making you more resilient to stress,” says psychologist Robbie Maller Hartman, PhD, a Chicago health and wellness coach.

It's simple. Sit up straight with both feet on the floor. Close your eyes. Focus your attention on reciting -- out loud or silently -- a

45

positive mantra such as “I feel at peace” or “I love myself.” Place one hand on your belly to sync the mantra with your breaths. Let any distracting thoughts float by like clouds.

2. Breathe Deeply

Take a 5-minute break and focus on your breathing. Sit up straight ,eyes closed, with a hand on your belly. Slowly inhale through your nose, feeling the breath start in your abdomen and work its way to the top of your head. Reverse the process as you exhale through your mouth.

“Deep breathing counters the effects of stress by slowing the heart rate and lowering blood pressure,” psychologist Judith Tut in, PhD, says. She's a certified life coach in Rome, GA.

3. Be Present

Slow down.

“Take 5 minutes and focus on only one behavior with awareness,” Tut in says. Notice how the air feels on your face when you’re walking and how your feet feel hitting the ground. Enjoy the texture and taste of each bite of food.

When you spend time in the moment and focus on your senses, you should feel less tense.

4. Reach Out

Your social network is one of your best tools for handling stress. Talk to others -- preferably face to face, or at least on the phone. Share what's going on. You can get a fresh perspective while keeping your connection strong.

5. Tune In to Your Body

Mentally scan your body to get a sense of how stress affects it each day. Lie on your back, or sit with your feet on the floor. Start at your toes and work your way up to your scalp, noticing how your body feels.

46

23 Scientifically-Backed Ways To Reduce Stress Right Now

1. Try Progressive Relaxation All the way from fingers to toes-- tense and then release each muscle group in the body (lower arm, upper arm, chest, back and abdominals, etc.). Once the body is relaxed, the mind will be soon to follow!

2. Try Some Light Yoga The combination of deep breathing techniques and poses makes this activity work to reduce stress, too.

3. Meditate The “mental silence” that goes along with meditation may have positive effects on stress (especially work-related stress).

4. Breathe Deep Taking a deep breath has been shown to lower cortisol levels, which can help reduce stress and anxiety. Studies suggest deep breathing can also cause a temporary drop in blood pressure.

5. Spark Some Scents Studies suggest aromatherapy can be a good way to relieve stress. Certain aromas (like lavender) have been consistently shown to reduce stress levels.

6. Listen To Music Research points to multiple ways in which music can help relieve stress, from triggering biochemical stress reducers to assisting in treating stress associated with medical procedures.

7. Laugh It Off Laughter can reduce the physical effects of stress (like fatigue) on the body.

8. Drink Tea One study found that drinking black tea leads to lower post-stress cortisol levels and greater feelings of relaxation.

9. Exercise That post-exercise endorphin rush is one way to sharply cut stress.

10.Try Guided Visualization Visualizing a calm or peaceful scene may help reduce stress and ease anxiety.

11. Join A Religious Community Surveys have shown a major underlying reason people practice religion is for stress relief. One study even found that college students who practiced a religion were less stressed than their non-religious counterparts. And other

47

research suggests religious people are less likely to experience stress-related mental illness.

12.Chew Gum Studies suggest the act of chewing gum can reduce cortisol levels, helping to alleviate stress.

13.Get A Massage Getting a good ol’ rub down may do more than alleviate physical pain. Studies suggest massage may also be beneficial for fighting stress. It may also help improve body image.

14.Try Self-Hypnosis Research suggests hypnosis can help reduce anxiety. Plus, it’s a great self-mediated technique for stress-relief.

15.Talk About Sex, Baby Studies have shown sex can actually decrease the physical symptoms of stress, like lowering blood pressure.

16.Take A Nap Napping has been shown to reduce cortisol levels, which aids in stress relief.

17.Hug It Out. Hugging may actually reduce blood pressure and stress levels in adults.

18.Hang With Your Pet Or, as we’ve put it before, just get a dog. Dog owners have been shown to be less stressed out -- most likely thanks to having a buddy to cuddle.

19.Do An Art Project Art therapy can potentially reduce stress-related behavior and symptoms.

20.Write It Out Keeping a journal may be one way to effectively relieve stress-related symptoms due to its meditative and reflective effects. A gratitude journal can really help us put things in perspective, so pick a time every day to write down a few things that make you happy.

21.Take A Walk A quiet, meditative stroll can do wonders for stress relief, especially when we step outdoors. Try not to rush, and take whatever pace feels most natural.

22.Kiss Someone! Research suggests kissing releases chemicals that ease hormones associated with stress, like cortisol. Forming positive relationships is also a key way to help reduce stress and anxiety.

23. Don’t Write A List Of The Top 23 Ways To Reduce Stress!

48

learning   learning is the act of acquiring new, or modifying and reinforcing, existing knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Progress over time tends to follow learning curves. Learning is not compulsory; it is contextual. It does not happen all at once, but builds upon and is shaped by what we already know. To that end, learning may be viewed as a process, rather than a collection of factual and procedural knowledge. Learning produces changes in the organism and the changes produced are relatively permanent.[1]

Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training. It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of educational psychology, neuropsychology, learning theory, and pedagogy. Learning may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals.[2]

[3]Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. Learning that an aversive event can't be avoided nor escaped is called learned helplessness.[4] There is evidence for human behavioral learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development.[5]

Play has been approached by several theorists as the first form of learning. Children experiment with the world, learn

49

the rules, and learn to interact through play. Lev Vygotskyagrees that play is pivotal for children's development, since they make meaning of their environment through play. 85 percent of brain development occurs during the first five years of a child's life.[6]

MotivationDefinition

The following definitions of motivation were gleaned from a variety of psychology textbooks and reflect the general consensus that motivation is an internal state or condition (sometimes described as a need, desire, or want) that serves to activate or energize behavior and give it direction (see Kleinginna and Kleinginna, 1981a).

internal state or condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;

desire or want that energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior;

influence of needs and desires on the intensity and direction of behavior.

50

Franken (2006) provides an additional component in his definition:

the arousal, direction, and persistence of behavior.While still not widespread in terms of introductory psychology textbooks, many researchers are now beginning to acknowledge that the factors that energize behavior are likely different from the factors that provide for its persistence.Importance of motivation

Most motivation theorists assume that motivation is involved in the performance of all learned responses; that is, a learned behavior will not occur unless it is energized.  The major question among psychologists, in general, is whether motivation is a primary or secondary influence on behavior.  That is, are changes in behavior better explained by principles of environmental/ecological influences, perception, memory, cognitive development, emotion, explanatory style, or personality or are concepts unique to motivation more pertinent.

For example, it is known that people respond to increasingly complex or novel events (or stimuli) in the environment up to a point and then the rate of responding decreases.  This inverted-U-shaped curve of behavior is well-known and widely acknowledged (e.g., Yerkes & Dodson, 1908).  However, the major issue is one of explaining this phenomenon.  Is this a conditioning (is the individual behaving because of past classical or operant conditioning), another type of external motivation such as social or ecological, an internal motivational process (e.g., cognition, emotion, or self-regulation), or is there some better explanation?

51

Explanations of influences/causes of arousal and direction may be different from explanations of persistence

In general, explanations regarding the source(s) of motivation can be categorized as either extrinsic (outside the person) or intrinsic (internal to the person).  Intrinsic sources and corresponding theories can be further subcategorized as either body/physical, mind/mental (i.e., cognitive/thinking, affective/emotional, conative/volitional) or transpersonal/spiritual.

In current literature, needs are now viewed as dispositions toward action (i.e., they create a condition that is predisposed towards taking action or making a change and moving in a certain direction; Franken, 2006).  Action or overt behavior may be initiated by either positive or negative incentives or a combination of both.  The following chart provides a brief overview of the different sources of motivation (internal state) that have been studied.  While initiation of action can be traced to each of these domains, it appears likely that initiation of behavior may be more related to emotions and/or the affective area (optimism vs. pessimism; self- esteem; etc.) while persistence may be more related to conation (volition) or goal-orientation. 

Sources of Motivational Needs

behavioral/external 

elicited by stimulus associated/connected to

52

innately connected stimulusobtain desired, pleasant

consequences (rewards) or escape/avoid undesired, unpleasant consequences

social   

imitate positive modelsacquire effective social

competence skillsbe a part of a dyad, group,

institution, or community

biological

increase/decrease stimulation (arousal)

activate senses (taste, touch, smell, etc.

decrease hunger, thirst, discomfort, etc.

maintain homeostasis, balance

cognitive maintain attention to something interesting or threatening

develop meaning or understanding

increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium; uncertainty

solve a problem or make a decision

figure something out

53

eliminate threat or risk

affective 

increase/decrease affective dissonance

increase feeling gooddecrease feeling bad

increase security of or decrease threats to self-esteem

maintain levels of optimism and enthusiasm

conative 

meet individually developed/selected goal

obtain personal dreamdevelop or maintain self-

efficacytake control of one's life

eliminate threats to meeting goal, obtaining dream

reduce others' control of one's life

spiritual 

understand purpose of one's life

connect self to ultimate unknowns

Theories of motivation

54

Many of the theories of motivation address issues introduced previously in these materials. The following provides a brief overview to any terms or concepts that have not been previously discussed.Behavioral

Each of the major theoretical approaches in behavioral learning theory posits a primary factor in motivation.  Classical conditioning states that biological responses to associated stimuli energize and direct behavior (Huitt & Hummel, 1997a).  Operant learning states the primary factor is consequences: the application of reinforcers provides incentives to increase behavior; the application of punishers provides disincentives that result in a decrease in behavior (Huitt & Hummel, 1997b).Cognitive

There are several motivational theories that trace their roots to the information processing approach to learning (Huitt, 2003b).  These approaches focus on the categories and labels people use to help identify thoughts, emotions, dispositions, and behaviors.

One cognitive approach is attribution theory (Heider, 1958; Weiner, 1974).  This theory proposes that every individual tries to explain success or failure of self and others by offering certain "attributions."  These attributions are either internal or external and are either under control or not under control.  The following chart shows the four attributions that result from a combination of internal or external locus of control and whether or not control is possible.

What is Social Support ? 55

Social support is the physical and emotional comfort given to us by our family, friends, co-workers and others. It's knowing that we are part of a community of people who love and care for us, and value and think well of us. We all need people we can depend on during both the good times and the bad. Maintaining a healthy social support network is hard work and something that requires ongoing effort over time.Forms of Social Support

Support can come in many different forms:Emotional Support: This is what people most often

think of when they talk about social support. People are emotionally supportive when they tell us that they care about us and think well of us. For example, if you separated from your partner or lost your job, a close friend might call every day for the first few weeks afterwards just to see how you are doing and to let you know that he or she cares.

Practical Help: People who care about us give us practical help such as gifts of money or food, assistance with cooking, child care, or help moving house. This kind of support helps us complete the basic tasks of day-to-day life.

Sharing Points of View: Another way for people to help is to offer their opinion about how they view a particular situation, or how they would choose to handle it. In sharing points of view, we can develop a better understanding of our situation and the best way to handle it. For example, if you tell a friend about difficulties you are having with your teenage son, she may offer a point of view you hadn't considered, and this may help you to better address the situation with your child.

56

Sharing Information: It can be very helpful when family, friends or even experts give us factual information about a particular stressful event. For example, a friend who recently married might provide information about the cost of various components of their wedding, or a cancer survivor might provide information about what to expect from different types of cancer treatment.

Getting Your Support Needs Met

Many of the people who are a part of our lives can provide social support. These can include our parents, spouse or partner, children, siblings, other family members, friends, co-workers, neighbours, health professionals and sometimes even strangers. We are unlikely to have all of our support needs met by just one person. Also, different people may be able to provide different types of support (e.g., our mother may be great at helping with child care, and our best friend might give great advice).

In general, the best support comes from the people we are closest to. Research has shown that receiving support from people we have close emotional ties to does more for our emotional and physical health than support provided by people we are not particularly close to. For example, having close friends listen and care for you during a stressful time will likely do more for you than receiving the same support from someone whom you don't know very well.Social Support and Mental Illness

There is good evidence that social support plays an important role in mental health or substance use problems. For example, people who are clinically

57

depressed report lower levels of social support than people who are not currently depressed. Specifically, people coping with depression tend to report fewer supportive friends, less contact with their friends, less satisfaction with their friends and relatives, lower marital satisfaction, and confide less in their partners. It is likely that lack of social support and feelings of loneliness can make us more vulnerable to the onset of mental health or substance use problems like depression. However many of us will pull back from other people when we are experiencing mental health or substance use problems. In this way, mental health or substance use problems can lead to problems with social support and aggravate our feelings of loneliness. For these reasons, reconnecting with others in healthy, supportive ways is often an important component of managing most mental health or substance use problems.

Intimate relationships with a spouse or partner are particularly important when it comes to well-being. For example, not having a close intimate relationship (i.e., a spousal type relationship) puts us at risk for depression. However, it isn't being unmarried (single, widowed, divorced, etc.) that makes us vulnerable to depression, it's having a bad marriage! This is particularly true for women. Unsupportive relationships with our family (e.g., negative or overbearing attitudes and behaviours) have also been related to the relapse of symptoms in both schizophrenia and depression.

58