Steering Handbook

Manfred Harrer • Peter PfefferEditors

Steering Handbook

123

EditorsManfred HarrerWeissachGermany

Peter PfefferAutomotive Engineering (FK03)Munich University of Applied ScienceMunichGermany

ISBN 978-3-319-05448-3 ISBN 978-3-319-05449-0 (eBook)DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05449-0

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015930030

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or partof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmissionor information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilarmethodology now known or hereafter developed.The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thispublication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt fromthe relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in thisbook are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor theauthors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein orfor any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media(www.springer.com)

Preface

In recent years, steering system technologies have undergone rapid development.This was caused by increased regulatory requirements in the areas of environmentand safety, through the increased comfort requirements of the customer and notleast by the continuing cost pressure. New ways has been taken up for steeringcomponents such as steering wheel, steering column, and steering gear. The mostsubstantial change has been the progressive substitution of conventional hydraulicsteering systems with electrical steering systems. With this change in technology avariety of new steering functions have been made possible. It is therefore notsurprising that the steering system development as such occupies an ever-increasingrole in modern chassis development. Due to the lack of a standard English book onthe subject of steering systems/steering behavior, which describes the current stateof the art, we decided with Springer Verlag to publish the German SteeringHandbook also in English. We have taken into account the different interests andrequirements of automotive manufacturers, suppliers, and universities in such astandard work by the involvement of proven experts from these areas.

In the first part of this book, the kinematic and vehicle dynamics of steering isexplained and discussed, and also the influence of the suspension characteristics forthe steering operation is investigated. A chapter is devoted to the interactionbetween driver and vehicle to analyze the aspects of steering feel. The centralchapters of this book are devoted to individual steering modules, their design, andcomponent tests. Described in detail are the components steering wheel, steeringcolumn with intermediate steering shaft, and the steering rack in mechanical,hydraulic, and electro-mechanical design. Special steering system technologiessuch as the superimposed steering system and four-wheel steering are also dis-cussed in detail. Much attention was paid to illustrate the current state of thesteering system technology and its interaction with the entire vehicle comprehen-sibly. Also important secondary aspects such as acoustic performance, energyrequirements, and functional safety are treated in detail. Furthermore, the possi-bilities regarding driver assistance functions enabled by modern steering systemsare shown. The profound expertise of nearly 40 experts from industry and academia

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was utilized for the creation of the steering handbook. We would like to thank allthe authors for their expertise and perseverance. Also we thank Springer for pub-lishing. Only through the dedication of all those involved, this textbook has beenpossible.

The readers of this book were asked by us to give feedback for improvements.Please send your suggestions to the following email address: peter.pfeffer@hm.edu.We will accommodate your suggestions in the next editions.

Stuttgart, Feldafing Manfred HarrerJanuary 2014 Peter Pfeffer

vi Preface

Contents

1 Introduction and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Peter Pfeffer and Hartmut Ulrich

2 Basic Principles of the Steering Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Peter Pfeffer, Jens Holtschulze and Hans-Hermann Braess

3 Steering Requirements: Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53Sina Brunner and Manfred Harrer

4 Steering Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Trzesniowski Michael

5 Basics of Lateral Vehicle Dynamics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91Peter Pfeffer and Hans-Hermann Braess

6 Acoustics and Vibrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121Stefan Sentpali and Rupert Hintersteiner

7 Steering-Feel, Interaction Between Driver and Car . . . . . . . . . . . . 149Manfred Harrer, Peter Pfeffer and Hans-Hermann Braess

8 Layout of Steering Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169Sina Brunner, Manfred Harrer, Manuel Höll and Daniel Lunkeit

9 Steering Wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191Markus Walters

10 Steering Column and Intermediate Steering Shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215Jörg Hauhoff and Ralf Sedlmeier

11 Mechanical and Hydraulic Gears . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249Johannes Hullmann, David James, Alois Seewald, Eduard Spanand Alexander Wiertz

12 Tie Rods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339Dirk Adamczyk, Wolfgang Kleiner and Dirk Maehlmann

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13 Hydraulic Power Supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357Dieter Semmel

14 Electrically Powered Hydraulic Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381Jochen Gessat, Alois Seewald and Dirk Zimmermann

15 Electric Power Steering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403Alexander Gaedke, Markus Heger, Michael Sprinzl, Stefan Grünerand Alexander Vähning

16 Superimposed Steering System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469Mirko Reuter and André Saal

17 All-Wheel Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493Peter Herold and Markus Wallbrecher

18 Steer by Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513Pei-Shih Huang and Alfred Pruckner

19 Overview: Driver Assistance System Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527Stefan Brosig and Markus Lienkamp

20 Outlook: The Future of Steering Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545Manfred Harrer and Peter Pfeffer

Advertisements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559

viii Contents

Abbreviations and Symbols

Abbreviations

4WAS 4 Wheel Active Steer (Nissan)ABS Anti-Lock Brake SystemAC Alternating CurrentAD Analog-Digital ConverterAFS Active Front SteeringAHK Aktive rear axle kinematicAMR Anisotropen MagnetoresistivAPA Paraxial drive unitASIC Application-Specific Integrated CircuitASIL Automotive Safety Integrity LevelASM Asynchronous MotorASM AssemblyATF Automatic Transmission FluidBCM Body-Control-ModulBLDC Brushless Direct Current MotorBRIC Brasil, Russia, India, ChinaCAE Computer Aided EngineeringCAN Controller Area NetworkC-EPS Steering Column Assisted EPSCFD Computational Fluid DynamicsCFK Fiber-Reinforced Plastic MaterialCGR Constant Gear RatioCPU Central Processor UnitCR Chloroprene RubberCR-EPS Rack Concentric EPSCS Circular-SplineCSM Chlorosulphonated-Polyethylene-RubberCV Concept VerificationDBC Direkt Bonded Copper

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DBV Pressure Limitation ValveDC Direct CurrentDCM Direct Current MotorDMS Strain gaugeDP-EPS Dual Pinion EPSDV Design VerificationEC Electronically Commutated MotorECE Economic Commission for EuropeECU Electronic Control UnitEHPS Electro Hydraulic Power SteeringEMC Electro Magnetic CompatibilityEPS Electric Power SteeringEPSapa EPS with Paraxial DriveEPSc Column EPSEPSdp Dual Pinion EPSEPSp Pinion EPSEPSrc Rack Concentric EPSESD Electrostatic DischargeESP Elektronisches Stability ProgramESV Experimental-Safety-VehicleEU European UnionEV Electric VehicleEVLS Elektric adjustable steering columnEWG European Economic Community (Europäische

Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft)FA Front AxleFAD Front Axle DamperFB Flex-BearingFCV Fuel Cell VehicleFEA/FEM Finite-Element-Analysis/MethodFMVSS Federal Motor Vehicle Safety StandardFS Flex-SplineFS (FDR) Vehicle Stability (Vehicle Dynamics Control)FS (VS) Vehicle Stability (Feedforward)GAAI German Association of the Automotive IndustryGFK Glass fiber reinforced plasticGIS German Institute for StandardizationGND GroundHA Rear AxleHAD Rear Axle DamperHEV Hybrid Electric VehicleHICAS High Capacity Actively Controlled SuspensionHNBR Hydrierter Acrylnitrilbutadien-KautschukHPS Hydraulic Power SteeringIAS Integral Aktiv Steering

x Abbreviations and Symbols

IC Electrical CircuitIEC International Electrotechnical CommissionIGBT Insulated-Gate Bipolar TransistorIMS Insulated Metal SubstrateISO International Standards OrganizationKGT Recirculating ballKTL Cathodic dip paintingLCV Light Commercial VehicleLDM Free steering torqueLDS Steering nibble (steering torsional vibrations)LDW Lane Departure PreventionLED Light Emitting DiodeLIN Local Interconnected NetworkLKS Lane Keeping SupportMAC Manual Adjustable columnMFS Magnetic Field SensorMFS Multi-Function SwitchML Engine MountMOST Media Oriented Systems TransportMPA Motor-Pump-UnitMR MagnetoresistivMS Manual SteeringNBR Nitrile Butadiene RubberNEDC New European Driving CycleNfz CV Commercial VehicleNHTSA National Highway Safety Traffic AdministrationNVH Noise Vibration HarshnessOA-EPS Offset Axis-EPSOEM Original Equipment ManufacturerOOP Out Of PositionOSEK/VDX Offene Systeme und deren Schnittstellen für die Elektronik

in Kraftfahrzeugen/Vehicle Distributed eXecutivePA PolyamidePC Passenger CarPCB Printed Circuit BoardPDC Park Distance ControlPEEK PolyetherketoneP-EPS Pinion EPSP-EPS Paraxial EPSPMSM Permanent Magnet Synchronous MotorPOM Polyoxymethyleneppm parts per millionPTFE PolytetrafluoroethylenePUR PolyurethanePV Product Validation

Abbreviations and Symbols xi

PVD Physical Vapour DepositionPWM Pulse Width ModulationQM Quality ManagementRAM Random Access MemoryROM Read Only MemoryROW Rest of the WorldRTLG Road Traffic Licensing regulationsSA Steering ArmSAE Society of Automotive EngineersSAW Surface Acoustic WaveSCU Steering Control UnitSH Sensor HostSIL Safety Integrity LevelSISO Single Input Single OutputSMD Surface Mounted DeviceSR Switched ReluctanceSUV Sport Utility VehicleTCR Turning Circle ReductionTFC Thick Film CopperTHC Through Hole ComponentUV Ultra VioletteVCC Common-Collector VoltageVGR, VGS Variable Gear RatioWG Wave GeneratorZFLS ZF Lenksysteme GmbH (now Robert Bosch Automotive

Steering GmbH)

Formula Index

α Tire side slip angle (rad)α Working angle of joint steering countershaft (rad)β Slip angle (rad)β Angle between joint planes (rad)β T/β U Transmission angleβ x Separation ratioβ z Helix angle (rad)γ Shearing angle (rad)γ Offset angle steering countershaft (rad)γ Installation angle bevel axle (rad)δ * Steering arm rotation angle (rad)δ, δ Steering angle, velocity (rad, rad/s)δ A Ackermann angle (rad)δ D Dynamic reference steering angle (rad)δ G Rotation angle of steering arm lever (rad)

xii Abbreviations and Symbols

δ h Rear steering angle (rad)δ H Steering wheel angle (rad)δ H * Bevel rotation axle (rad)δ LS Steering column angle (rad)δ M Superposing angle (rad)δ o, max Maximum steering angle of front outer wheel (rad)δ v Front steering angle (rad)Δδ Required difference steering angle (rad)Δδ A Track difference angle, difference steering angle according

to Ackermann (rad)Δδ F Difference steering angle (rad)Δδ H Steering wheel angle (rad)Δδ H,e Steering system compiance at steering wheel (rad)Δδ H,Re Steering wheel rest angle (rad)ε Wheel camber angle (rad)ε V,ϕ,F Roll induced steering factor (rad)ε α Gearing transverse contact ratioε β Gearing overlap ratioε γ Gearing overall overlapΔε V,ϕ,F Camber part due to rolling (rad)ζ Attenuation ratioη Efficiencyη Frequency ratek Is Curvature (1/m)λ Direction of steering arm (rad)ρ Path curve radius (m)σ Spread (rad)τ Castor angle (rad)ϕ Rotation angle (rad)χ Roll angle (1/m)ψ, ψ Yaw angle, yaw angle velocity (rad), (rad/s)ω Angle velocity (rad/s)ω E Cutt-off frequency (rad/s)ω n Steering system natural frequency (1/s)

Symbol Description

a Airdyn Dynamico (curve) Outsidei (curve) InsideF FrontR Rear

Abbreviations and Symbols xiii

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