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Popular

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POPULAR METHODOLOGY

methodology

Approaches, methods, procedures and

techniques

This chapter looks at how theory has been realised in

methodological practice. Within the and modT iTl U

2

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7 PePe bUt aPProach' ">' !> techni#$es proced$res

praaice of EngUsh ,eachin8-These terms,hou8h

fX^e^USe^fm TmCh refer',he0rkS a oUt the of!a"S#

whth% Z re '"& t T T'a (e "T are d"' classroom and

Toi$%t pr%t^^r 1 aT,acfh,&escri esho i8^is

describes how people acquire their !owleH " #$ % &U"'e co(Pete!ce)A!

approach the conditions which will prom)te s$ccess $l tag$ageT% d

*

ha+e arri+ed at daisions,l-* */t0iaPP/1h.Th' ri& nal! rs o a method

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(aterial which will be hel!$iil o ri

* eac+ers a!+ lear!ers, the i!ds o$

+ario$s proced$res and technio$ei mod syllab$s organisation. 2ethods incl$de

-he!

3tt W4W5 * Pa o their standard are.

the. are eas. to describe/ Howe0er, i$ a

+

artlculated approac!,

wi e ra!&e o$ sources 1so(e o$ which atp a - lS Pr% ures ar d tech!iques $ro( a

belie$s3, it is (ore di$$icult to co!ti!ue de ) 4 % (etho5ls or are i!$or(ed b.

other

disc$ssion when we disc$ss postmethod reah cta me h4!67 We Wi" ret$rn t4 this

6

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* B = a mew = as Firs, you M, then

T 1CUU DE a common techni!6 )

han F

3 ' t6&'.G 5'/s is Dhe tle toe/ p3H i'm mater al is called silen, viemng

p92:tr:ha! a !%sou!d);; ) ;

technique is used b. so(e tp

rather tha! a whole

teachers: the. hold up their ha!d

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sa!d allocate a word to each o$ their $i0e $i!&ers, e/&/ He is not playing tennis a!dthe! b. bri!&i!& the is a!d the not $i!&ers to&ether, show how the 0erb isco!tracted i!to isnt. A!other tech!ique is to tell all the stude!ts i! a &roup to(ur(ur a !ew word or phrase to the(sel0es $or a $ew seco!ds =ust to &et theirto!&ues rou!d it/

This use a!d (is)use o$ these ter(s ca! (a e discussio!s o$ co(parati0e(ethodolo&. so(ewhat co!$usi!&/ >o(e (ethodolo&ists, $or e?a(ple, ha0e!ew i!si&hts a!d clai( a !ew approach as a result/ Others clai( the status o$(ethod $or a tech!ique or procedure/ >o(e (ethods start as procedures a!dtech!iques which see( to wor a!d $or which a! approach is the! de0eloped/>o(e approaches ha0e to &o i! search o$ procedures a!d tech!iques with which to $or( a (ethod/ >o(e (ethods are e?plicit about the approach the.e?e(pli$. a!d the procedures the. e(plo.: others are !ot/

-hat the i!terested teacher !eeds to do whe! co!$ro!ted with a !ew(ethod, $or e?a(ple, is to see i$ a!d@or how it i!corporates theories o$la!&ua&e a!d lear!i!&/ -hat procedures does it i!corporate Are the.appropriate a!d e$$ecti0e $or the classroo( situatio! that teacher wor s withB! the case o$ tech!iques a!d acti0ities, two questio!s see( worth as i!&C Arethey satisfying for both students and teachers? a!d Do they actually achie e!hat they set out to achie e?

Popular (ethodolo&. i!cludes ideas at all the 0arious le0els we ha0ediscussed, a!d it is these (ethods, procedures a!d approaches whichi!$lue!ce the curre!t state o$ E!&lish la!&ua&e teachi!&/

A 1 Grammar-translation, Direct method and Audiolingualism

Ma!. o$ the seeds which ha0e &row! i!to prese!t)da. (ethodolo&. weresow! i! debates betwee! (ore a!d less $or(al attitudes to la!&ua&e, a!dcruciall., the place o$ the stude!ts* $irst la!&ua&e i! the classroo(/ e$ore the!i!etee!th ce!tur. (a!. $or(al la!&ua&e lear!ers were scholars who studiedrules o$ &ra((ar a!d co!sulted lists o$ $orei&! words i! dictio!aries 1thou&h,o$ course, cou!tless (i&ra!ts a!d traders pic ed up !ew la!&ua&es i! other wa.s, too3/ ut i! the !i!etee!th ce!tur. (o0es were (ade to bri!& $orei&!)la!&ua&e lear!i!& i!to school curriculu(s, a!d so so(ethi!& (ore was!eeded/ This &a0e rise to the Gra((ar)tra!slatio! (ethod 1or rather series o$(ethods3/

T.picall., Gra((ar)tra!slatio! (ethods did e?actl. what the. said/>tude!ts were &i0e! e?pla!atio!s o$ i!di0idual poi!ts o$ &ra((ar, a!d the!the. were &i0e! se!te!ces which e?e(pli$ied these poi!ts/ These se!te!ceshad to be tra!slated $ro( the tar&et la!&ua&e 1L23 bac to the stude!ts* $irstla!&ua&e 1Li3 a!d 0ice 0ersa/

A !u(ber o$ $eatures o$ the Gra((ar)tra!slatio! (ethod are worthco((e!ti!& o!/ B! the $irst place, la!&ua&e was treated at the le0el o$ these!te!ce o!l., with little stud., certai!l. at the earl. sta&es, o$ lo!&er te?ts/

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>eco!dl., there was little i$ a!. co!sideratio! o$ the spo e! la!&ua&e/ A!dthirdl., accurac. was co!sidered to be a !ecessit./

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Direct (ethod, which arri0ed at the e!d o$ the !i!etee!th ce!tur., was the product o$ a re$or( (o0e(e!th was reacti!& to the restrictio!s o$ Gra((ar)tra!slatio!/ Tra!slatio! was aba!do!ed i! $a0our o$ the teacherhe stude!ts spea i!& to&ether, relati!& the &ra((atical $or(s the. were stud.i!& to ob=ects a!d pictures, etc/der to establish their (ea!i!&/ The se!te!ce was still the (ai! ob=ect o$ i!terest, a!d accurac. was allta!t/ ruciall. 1because o$ the i!$lue!ce this has had $or (a!. .ears si!ce3, it was co!sidered 0itall.ta!t that o!l. the tar&et la!&ua&e should be used i! the classroo(/ This (a. ha0e bee!a reactio! a&ai!stsa!t tra!slatio!, but, allied to the i!creased !u(bers o$ (o!oli!&ual !ati0e spea ers who started, i! thetieth ce!tur., to tra0el the world teachi!& E!&lish, it created a power$ul pre=udice a&ai!st the prese!ce o$ thela!&ua&e lesso!s/ As we shall see i! hapter D whe! we discuss (o!oli!&ual, bili!&ual a!d (ultili!&uales, this positio! has shi$ted dra(aticall. i! the last $ew .ears, but $or (a!. decades L2)o!l. (ethods were

o(oted all o0er the world/

-he! beha0iourist accou!ts o$ la!&ua&e lear!i!& beca(e popular i! the I2Js a!d I"Js

ee hapter ", A23, the Direct (ethod (orphed, especiall. i! the U>A, i!to the Audioli!&ual

hod/ Usi!& the sti(ulus)respo!se)rei!$orce(e!t (odel, it atte(pted, throu&h a co!ti!uous

ocess o$ such positi0e rei!$orce(e!t, to e!&e!der &ood habits i! la!&ua&e lear!ers/

Audioli!&ualis( relied hea0il. o! drills to $or( these habits: substitutio! was built i!to these

lls so that, i! s(all steps, the stude!t was co!sta!tl. lear!i!& a!d, (oreo0er, was shielded $ro(

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e possibilit. o$ (a i!& (ista es b. the desi&! o$ the drill/

The $ollowi!& e?a(ple shows a t.pical Audioli!&ual drillC

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teacher: Spoon.

students: Theres a spoon on the table.

teacher: Book.

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2$ch ($dioling$al teaching stayed at th

resentation, practice and production

+ariation on ($dioling$alism

$ o((u!icati0e procedure

ost !$t5K c

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ractice a!d prodi

U!&ua&e Teachi!& + be,o++tpJp$tpe+e$erred to 1si!ce the ad0e!t departure $r!( a " #$n +rew

out o$ str!rt! i -/ sta!c s $or presentation.

B! this procedure+T" + +tJ P ce the ,a!'uaee 7 ! TJJ+ teachi!& whose (ai!

to be tau&ht Th N eac i!troduces a situati! u) +ear s,tuatio!al co!te?ts/ usi!& accurate

reproduct 86 *t0 %u > + Prese!ted)The s+de %%!te?tualises the la!&ua&e a word) Phrase or

se!te!ce4 + %& + 35 choral +petitio! f'!h la!'Ua&e

1where i!di0idual ct A tJFether with the teacher = 1where the stude!ts repeat

c$e:response drills ;where

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Repeat a word, phrase or

se!te!c+t+ + !+ Q dua+ rePetitio! !a(e or b. loo i!& or !oLti F Qes a cue such+sc>p 31 +

teacher s ur>i!'3S a!d to C(me t0 the " !&, a!d the stude!t (a es the deseed a stude!t b.

($diolmg$a d r i l l E 6 . . t reI3ponse drills ha+e similariti Pnse> Would rou

u/// * U!ties with the classic i!d o$

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POPULAR METHODOLO

e! prese!ted, the. carr. (ore (ea!i!& tha! a si(ple substitutio! drill/ Later, the stude!ts, usi!& the !ew

&ua&e, (a e se!te!ces o$ their ow!, a!d this is re$erred to as productio!/ The $ollowi!& ele(e!tar. le0el

(ple de(o!strates the PPP procedureC

Prese!tatio!C the teacher shows the stude!ts the $ollowi!& picture a!d as s the( whether the people

i! it are at wor or o! holida. to elicit the $act that the. are o! holida./

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The teacher poi!ts to the tee!a&e bo. a!d atte(pts to elicit the se!te!ce Hes listening to musi

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sa.i!& Can anybody tell me... *ared...? or as i!& the questio! +hats *ared doing ... anybody?

teacher the! (odels the se!te!ce 1 Hes listening to music, be$ore isolati!& the &ra((ar she wa!ts to

$ocus o! hes, distorti!& it hes /// he is... he is, putti!& it bac to&ether a&ai! hes /// hes, a!d

&i0i!& the (odel i! a !atural wa. o!ce (ore /isten... Hes listening to music... hes listening to

music,. >he (a. acco(pa!. this de(o!stratio! o$ $or( rules b. usi!& so(e ph.sical (ea!s such as

bri!&i!& two ha!ds 1$or he a!d is, to&ether to show how the co!tractio! wor s, or b. usi!& the $i!&er

tech!ique 1see abo0e3/

PracticeC The teacher &ets the stude!ts to repeat the se!te!ce Hes listening to music i! chorus

(a. the! !o(i!ate certai! stude!ts to repeat the se!te!ce i!di0iduall., a!d she corrects a!.

(ista es she hears/ ow she &oes bac a!d (odels (ore se!te!ces $ro( the picture 1 0shas rea

a boo1 )rs Andrade is !riting an email etc/3, &etti!& choral a!d i!di0idual repetitio! where she

thi! s this is !ecessar./ ow she is i! a positio! to co!duct a sli&htl. $reer i!d o$ drill tha! the

Audioli!&ual o!e abo0eC

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CHER:

DENT:

CHER:

.

n anyone tell me?... Usha?... Yes, Sergio. She's rea ing a book. !oo .

B! this cue)respo!se drill the teacher &i0es the cue 1 0sha, be$ore !o(i!ati!& a stude

Sergio, who will &i0e the respo!se Shes reading a boo1,. . cuei!& be$ore !o(i!ati!& she eeps

e0er.o!e alert/ >he will a0oid !o(i!ati!& stude!ts i! a predictable order $or the

sa(e reaso!/

all. the teacher puts the stude!ts i! pairs to practise the se!te!ces a bit (ore be$ore liste!i!& to a $ew e?a(pleso chec that the lear!i!& has bee! e$$ecti0e

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od$ction: the e!d poi!t o$ the PPP c.cle is productio!, what so(e tra(crs ha0e c i((ediate creati0it. / Heretude!ts are as ed to use the !ew la!&ua&e $ i! this case the prese!t co!ti!uous3 i! se!te!ces o$ their ow!/ orple, the teachcr (a. &et stude!ts to thi! about what their $rie!ds a!d $a(il. are doi!& at this (o(e!t/ T .ow co(e up with se!te!ces such as )y mothers !or1ing at the hospital , @thin1 y

brother's lying on the beach. 2'm sure. Hes on holiday etc/

P and alternatives to PPP

e PPP procedure, which was o$$ered to teacher trai!ees as a si&!i$ica!t teachi!& proce ure $ro( the (iddle o$

I

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&&ested that PPP i!adequate because it re$lected !either the !ature o$ la!&ua&e !or the !ature o$ lear!i!&

ewis II"C IJ3, a!d Vi( >cri0e!er e0e! wrote that it was $u!da(e!tall. disabli!&, !ot e!abli!&* 1>cri0e!er

6aC 83/

&u re : .r!e*s alter!ati0e

approach*

respo!se to these criticis(s

people ha0e o$$ered

iatio!s o! PPP a!d

er!ati0es to it/ As lo!& a&o as

2 7eith Voh!so! su&&ested the

ep)e!d strate&.* as a!

er!ati0e 1Voh!so! IF23, where

e!coura&i!& the stude!ts i!to

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ediate productio! 1throwi!& the( i! at the deep e!d3, .ou tur! the procedure o! its head/

e teacher ca! !ow see i$ a!d where stude!ts are ha0i!& proble(s duri!& this productio! phase a!d retur! to

her prese!tatio! or practice as a!d whe! !ecessar. a$ter the productio! phase is o0er/ A $ew .ears later,

!! .r!e su&&ested (uch the sa(e thi!& 1 .r!e IF

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$!r- cT h P -Srd ruciaU.S i! this (odel,

stud. (a. be part o$ a $ocus o!

$or( is drawlTt + %ut o$ a co!u!u(cati0e tas

where the stude!ts* atte!tio! to

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$or( K draw! to ; either b. the teacher or throu&h their ow! !otici!&acti0ities/ A sta!ds $or acti ate a!d this (ea!s a!. sta&e at which stude!tsare e!coura&ed to use all a!d@or a!. o$ the la!&ua&e the. !ow/o((u!icati0e tas s, $or e?a(ple, 1see pa&e 70 3 are

desi&!ed to acti0ate the stude!ts* la!&ua&e !owled&e/ ut stude!ts alsoacti0ate their la!&ua&e!owled&e whe! the. read $or pleasure or $or &e!eral i!terest/ B!deed a!.(ea!i!&)$ocusedacti0it. where the la!&ua&e is !ot restricted pro0o es stude!ts i!to la!&ua&eacti0atio!/

E>A allows $or three basic lesso! procedures/ B! the $irst 1 >trai&ht arrows*,see i&ure 23

the seque!ce is E>A, (uch li e PPP/ The teacher e!&a&es stude!ts b.prese!ti!& a picture or a situatio!, or b. drawi!& the( i! b. so(e other(ea!s/ At the stud. sta&e o$ the procedure,the (ea!i!& a!d $or( o$ the la!&ua&e are e?plai!ed/ The teacher the!(odels the la!&ua&e

a!d the stude!ts repeat a!d practise it/ i!all., the. acti0ate the !ewla!&ua&e b. usi!& it i! se!te!ces o$ their ow!/

A oo(era!&* procedure, o! the other ha!d, $ollows a (ore tas )based ordeep)e!d approach 1see i&ure "3/ Here the order is EA>: the teacher &etsthe stude!ts e!&a&ed be$ore as i!& the( to do so(ethi!& li e a writte! tas ,a co((u!icatio! &a(e or a role)pla./ ased o! what happe!s there, thestude!ts will the!, a$ter the acti0it. has $i!ished, stud. so(e aspect o$la!&ua&e which the. lac ed or which the. used i!correctl./

Patchwor * lesso!s 1see i&ure 63, which are di$$ere!t $ro( the pre0ioustwo procedures, (a. $ollow a 0ariet. o$ seque!ces/ or e?a(ple, e!&a&edstude!ts are e!coura&ed to acti0ate their !owled&e be$ore stud.i!& o!e a!dthe! a!other la!&ua&e ele(e!t, a!d the! retur!i!& to (ore acti0ati!& tas s,a$ter which the teacher re)e!&a&es the( be$ore doi!& so(e (ore stud., etc/ -hat the E!&a&e@>tud.@Acti0ate trilo&. has tried to capture is the $act thatPPP is =ust /// a tool used b. teachers $or one o$ their (a!. possiblepurposes* 1>wa! 2JJ8bC "FJ, (. italics3/ B! other words, PPP is e?tre(el.use$ul i! a $ocus)o!)$or(s lesso!, especiall. at lower le0els, but is irrele0a!ti! a s ills lesso!, where $ocus)o!)$or( (a. occur as a result o$ so(ethi!&stude!ts hear or read/ Bt is use$ul, perhaps, i! teachi!& &ra((ar poi!ts suchas the use o$ can a!d cant but has little place whe! stude!ts are a!al.si!&their ow! la!&ua&e use a$ter doi!& a

Engage Engage$i&ure "C A oo(era!& lesso! procedureStudyStudy

C $i&ure 2C A >trai&ht

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Activate arrows lesso! procedureActivate

EngageStudy

t

Activate$i&ure 6C A! e?a(ple o$ a Patchwor lesso!procedure

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co((u!icati0e tas / e0ertheless, a loo at (oder! courseboo s shows that PPP is ali0e a!d

well, but i! a co!te?t o$ a wide ra!&e o$ other tech!iques a!d procedures/ A!d while it is true

that PPP is still used i! o!e $or( or a!other all o0er the world, it is also the case that stude!ts

are e?posed to (a!. other tech!iques a!d procedures/ PPP is a i!d o$ E>A, as we saw, but

there are (a!. other lesso! seque!ces, too, such the oo(era!& a!d Patchwor seque!ces

1 1

(e!tio!ed abo0e/

our methods

B! the classic $or( o$ o((u!it. La!&ua&e Lear!i!&, a !ower sta!ds outside o$ stude!ts

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d helps the stude!ts sa. what the. wa!t to sa. b. tra!slati!&, su&&esti!& or a(e!di!& the

ude!ts* uttera!ces/ The stude!ts* uttera!ces (a. the! be recorded so t a the. ca! be a!al.sed

a later date/ >tude!ts, with the teacher*s help, re$lect o! how the. e

out the acti0ities/

>u&&estopaedia was de0eloped b. Geor&i LoXa!o0 a!d is co!cer!ed abo0e all with the ph.sic

0iro!(e!t i! which the lear!i!& ta es place/ >tude!ts !eed to be co($ortable a!d rela?ed so

at their a$$ecti0e $ilter is lowered/ >tude!ts ta e o! di$$ere!t !a(es a!d e?ist i! a child)pare!t

atio!ship with the teacher 1LoXa!o0 calls this i!$a!tilisatio!*3/ Trau(atic topics are a0oide ,

d at o!e sta&e o$ a three)part procedure, the teacher reads a pre0iousl.)studied dialo&ue to

e acco(pa!i(e!t o$ (usic 1pre$erabl. aroque3/ Duri!& this phase there are also se0era

utes o$ sole(! sile!ce* 1LoXa!o0 I FC2 23 a!d the stude!ts lea0e the roo( sile!tl./

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ULAR METHODOLOGY

A t.pical Total Ph.sical Respo!se 1TPR3 lesso! (i&ht i!0ol0e the teacher telli!& stude!ts

to pic up the tria!&le $ro( the table a!d &i0e it to (e* or wal quic l. to the door a!d hit it*

1Asher I C 86)8ile!t -a. is the beha0iour o$ the teacher who,

rather tha! e!teri!& i!to co!0ersatio! with the stude!ts, sa.s as little as possible/ This is

because the $ou!der o$ the (ethod, aleb Gatte&!o, belie0ed that lear!i!& is best $acilitated

i$ the lear!er disco0ers a!d creates la!&ua&e rather tha! =ust re(e(beri!& a!d repeati!&

what has bee! tau&ht/ The lear!er should be i! the dri0i!& seat, i! other words, !ot the

teacher/

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ULAR METHODOLOGY

B! the >ile!t -a., the teacher $reque!tl. poi!ts to di$$ere!t sou!ds o! a pho!e(ic chart,

(odelli!& the( be$ore i!dicati!& that stude!ts should sa. the sou!ds/ The teacher is the!

sile!t, i!dicati!& o!l. b. &esture or actio! whe! i!di0idual stude!ts should spea 1the. eep

tr.i!& to wor out whether the. are sa.i!& the sou!d correctl.3 a!d the! showi!& whe!

sou!ds a!d words are said correctl. b. (o0i!& o! to the !e?t ite(/ ecause o$ the teacher*s

sile!t !o!)i!0ol0e(e!t, it is up to the stude!ts ) u!der the co!trolli!& but i!direct influence

o the teacher ) to sol0e proble(s a!d lear! the la!&ua&e/ T.picall., the >ile!t -a. also &ets

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e!ts to use uise!aire rods 1woode! bloc s o$ di$$ere!t colours a!d siXes, see pa&e FJ3 to sol0eu!icatio! proble(so(e, the >ile!t -a. has see(ed so(ewhat i!hu(a!, with the teacher*s sile!ce acti!& as a barrier rather tha!

ce!ti0e/ ut to others, the relia!ce stude!ts are $orced to place upo! the(sel0es a!d upo! each other isi!& a!d liberati!&/ Bt is stude!ts who should ta e respo!sibilit. $or their lear!i!&: it is the teacher*s =ob to

a!ise this/>o(e o$ the procedures e(plo.ed i! these $our (ethods (a. stri e us as bei!& 1or ha0i!& bee!3 outside the(ai!strea( o$ classroo( practice, or e0e! so(ewhat ecce!tric/ e0ertheless, i! their ow! wa.s, the. co!tai!truths about success$ul la!&ua&e lear!i!&/ o((u!it. La!&ua&e Lear!i!&, $or e?a(ple, re(i!ds us thatteachers are i! classroo(s to $acilitate lear!i!& a!d to help stude!ts with what the. wa!t to sa./>u&&estopaedia*s i!siste!ce o! loweri!& the a$$ecti0e $ilter re(i!ds us how i(porta!t a$$ect is i! la!&ua&elear!i!&/ or is there a!. doubt about the appropriac. o$ &etti!& stude!ts to (o0e arou!d i! lesso!s, as i!TPR/ or stude!ts with a (ore i!aesthetic i!cli!atio! 1see pa&e FI3, this will be especiall. use$ul/ i!all.,&etti!& stude!ts to thi! about what the. are lear!i!& a!d to rel. o! the(sel0es (atches our co!cer! $orco&!iti0e depth 1see pa&e 8 3, where close atte!tio! to la!&ua&e b. i!di0idual stude!ts has a be!e$icial e$$ecto! the lear!i!& process/

ommunicative !anguage "eaching # !"$The real proble( whe! atte(pti!& to de$i!e LT 1or the o((u!icati0e approach as it was ori&i!all. called3is that it (ea!s di$$ere!t thi!&s to di$$ere!t people/ Or perhaps it is li e a! e?te!ded $a(il. o$ di$$ere!tapproaches, a!d ///as is the case with (ost $a(ilies, !ot all (e(bers li0e har(o!iousl. to&ether all o$ theti(e/ There are squabbles a!d disa&ree(e!ts, i$ !ot outri&ht wars, $ro( ti(e to ti(e/ Howe0er, !o o!e iswilli!& to assert that the. do !ot belo!& to the $a(il.* 1 u!a! 2JJ6C 3/

O!e o$ the thi!&s that LT e(braces withi! its $a(il. is the co!cept o$ how la!&ua&e is used/ B!stead o$co!ce!trati!& solel. o! &ra((ar, pio!eers such as Da0id -il i!s i! the I Js loo ed at what !otio!sla!&ua&e e?pressed a!d what co((u!icati0e $u!ctio!s people per$or(ed with la!&ua&e 1-il i!s I o(eti(es the. ha0e to write a poe( or co!struct a stor. to&ether/

rder $or these acti0ities to be trul. co((u!icati0e, it was su&&ested $ro( the 0er. be&i!!i!&, stude!ts shoulda desire to co((u!icate so(ethi!&/ The. should ha0e

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apurpose $or co((u!icati!& 1e/&/ to (a e a poi!t, to bu. a! airli!e tic et or to write a letter to a!ewspaper3/ The. should be $ocused o! the co!te!t o$ what the. are sa.i!& or writi!& rather tha! o! aparticular la!&ua&e $or(/ The. should use a 0ariet. o$ la!&ua&e rather tha! =ust o!e la!&ua&estructure/ The teacher will !ot i!ter0e!e to stop the acti0it.: a!d the (aterials he or she relies o! will!ot dictate what speci$ic la!&ua&e $or(s the stude!ts use either/ B! other words, such acti0ities shouldatte(pt to replicate real co((u!icatio!/ All this is see! as bei!& ( (ar ed co!trast to the i!d o$teachi!& a!d lear!i!& we saw i! At abo0e/ The. are at opposite e!ds o$ a co((u!icatio! co!ti!uu(*as show! i! i&ure 8/

)ommunicati*e acti*ities+on-communicati*e acti*ities

!o co((u!icati0e

desire

!o co((u!icati0e

purpose

$or( !ot co!te!t

o!e la!&ua&e ite( o!l.

teacher i!ter0e!tio!

(aterials co!tro

l

$ i& u re 8C The co((u!icatio! co!ti!uu(

ot all acti0ities i! LT occur at either e?tre(e o$ the co!ti!uu(, howe0er/ >o(e (a. be

A t i

!o (aterials co!trol

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$urther towards the co((u!icati0e e!d, whereas so(e (a. be (ore !o!)co((u!icati0e/ acti0it. i!

which stude!ts ha0e to &o rou!d the class as i!& questio!s with a co((u!icati0e purpose, but usi!&

certai! prescribed structures 1e/&/ Ha0e you e er done a bungee 3ump? Ha e you e er climbed a

mountain Ha e you e er been !hite-!ater rafting?, (a. be ed&i!& towards the !o!)

co((u!icati0e e!d o$ the co!ti!uu(, whereas a!other, where stude!ts ha0e to i!ter0iew each other

about a holida. the. we!t o!, (i&ht be !earer the co((u!icati0e e!d/

A e. to the e!ha!ce(e!t o$ co((u!icati0e purpose a!d the desire to co((u!icate is the

i!$or(atio! &ap/ A traditio!al classroo( e?cha!&e i! which o!e stude!t as s +here s the library?

a!d a!other stude!t a!swers 2ts on 4reen Street opposite the ban1 whe! the. ca! both see it a!d

both !ow the a!swer, is !ot (uch li e real co((u!icatio!/ B$, howe0er, the $irst stude!t has a (ap

which does !ot ha0e the librar. show! o! it, while the other stude!t has a di$$ere!t (ap with library

writte! o! the correct buildi!& ) but which the $irst stude!t ca!!ot see ) the! there is a &ap betwee!

the !owled&e which the two participa!ts ha0e/ B! order $or the $irst stude!t to locate the librar. o!

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their (ap, that i!$or(atio! &ap !eeds to be closed/

UT, there$ore, with its di$$ere!t stra!ds o$ what to teach 1uttera!ces as well as se!te!ces,

$u!ctio!s as well as &ra((ar3 a!d how to teach it 1(ea!i!&)$ocused co((u!icati0e tas s

as well as (ore traditio!al stud. tech!iques3, has beco(e a &e!eralised u(brella* ter( to

describe lear!i!& seque!ces which ai( to i(pro0e the stude!ts* abilit. to co((u!icate/ This

is i! star co!trast to teachi!& which is ai(ed (ore at lear!i!& bits o$ la!&ua&e =ust because the.

e?ist ) without $ocusi!& o! their use i! co((u!icatio!/

Howe0er, LT has co( !rK@- + r-

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o$$e!d a&ai!st educatio!al traditio!s which rel. o! a (ore teacher)ce!tredapproach/ LT has so(eti(es bee! see! as ha0i!& eroded the e?plicit teachi!& o$&ra((ar with a co!seque!t loss a(o!& stude!ts o$ accurac. i! the pursuit o$$lue!c./ Perhaps there is a da!&er i! a &e!eral o0er)e(phasis o! per$or(a!ce atthe e?pe!se o$ pro&ress* 1-ic steed IIFC "3/ i!all., so(e co((e!tators su&&estthat (a!. so)called co((u!icati0e acti0ities are !o (ore or less real tha!traditio!al e?ercises/ Getti!& people to write a letter, bu. a! airli!e tic et, $i!d outtrai! ti(es 1see Prabhu, quoted below3, or &o a!d loo so(ethi!& up 1see Allwri&ht*s stud. o! pa&e 823, is =ust as co!tri0ed as (a!. (ore traditio!ale?ercises, a!d does !ot, i! $act, arise $ro( a!. &e!ui!e co((u!icati0e purpose/

Despite these reser0atio!s, howe0er, the o((u!icati0e approach has le$ta! i!delible (ar o! teachi!& a!d lear!i!&, resulti!& i! the use o$co((u!icati0e acti0ities i! classroo(s all o0er the world/

A% "as&-'ased learning #"(!$Tas )based lear!i!& 1so(eti(es re$erred to as Tas )based i!structio!, orT B3 (a es the per$or(a!ce o$ (ea!i!&$ul tas s ce!tral to the lear!i!&process/ Bt is i!$or(ed b. a belie$ that i$ stude!ts are $ocused o! theco(pletio! o$ a tas , the. are =ust as li el. to lear! la!&ua&e as the. are i$the. are $ocusi!& o! la!&ua&e $or(s/ B!stead o$ a la!&ua&e structure or$u!ctio! to be lear!t, stude!ts are prese!ted with a tas the. ha0e to per$or(or a proble( the. ha0e to sol0e/ or e?a(ple, i! a! earl. e?a(ple o$ T L,a$ter a class per$or(s so(e pre)tas acti0ities which i!0ol0e questio!s a!d 0ocabular. chec i!& 1e/&/ +hat is this? 2ts a timetable. +hat does 5arri almean?, the. as a!d a!swer questio!s to sol0e a proble(, such as $i!di!&trai!) ti(etable i!$or(atio!, e/&/ +hen does the 6rinda an e7press lea e )adras8arri e in 6angalore? 1Prahbu IF C"23/ Althou&h the prese!tsi(ple (a. $reque!tl. be used i! such a! acti0it., the $ocus o$ the lesso! isthe tas , !ot the structure/

/ Pre-task \ / Introduction to / topic and task

Task cycleTask

PlanningReport

\ Language focusAnalysis \ Practice /

$i&ure

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per$or(a!ce o$ the tas has show! to be desirable/ This is si(ilar to theoo(era!& procedure we (e!tio!ed o! pa&e < / Howe0er, as -illis hersel$ (a esclear, tas )based (ethodolo&. is, i! $act, co!siderabl. (ore co(plicated tha! this/>he su&&ests three basic sta&esC the Pre)tas , the Tas c.cle a!d the La!&ua&e

$ocus 1see i&ure

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he Pre)tas sta&e, the teacher e?plores the topic with the class a!d (a. hi&hli&ht use$ul words a!d phrases,!& stude!ts to u!dersta!d the tas i!structio!s/ The stude!ts (a. hear a recordi!& o$ other people doi!& thetas / Duri!& the Tas c.cle sta&e, the stude!ts per$or( the tas i! pairs or s(all &roups while the teacherors $ro( a dista!ce/ The stude!ts the! pla! how the. will tell the rest o$ the class what the. did a!d how it a!dthe. the! report o! the tas either orall. or i! writi!&, a!d@or co(pare !otes o! what has happe!ed/ B!

La!&ua&e $ocus sta&e, the stude!ts e?a(i!e a!d discuss speci$ic $eatures o$ a!. liste!i!& or readi!& te?t whichha0e loo ed at $or the tas a!d@or the teacher (a. co!duct so(e $or( o$ practice o$ speci$ic la!&ua&e $eaturesh the tas has pro0o ed/

O!e o$ the e?a(ples that Va!e -illis &i0es o$ such a procedure co!cer!s a

(a!*s phobia about spiders 1-illis II

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the! directs stude!ts bac to the

article a!d the. a!al.se it $or topic

0ocabular., ti(e e?pressio!s,

s.!ta? ele(e!ts, etc/

A!other i!d o$ tas (i&ht be to as stude!ts to &i0e a short prese!tatio! o! the li$e J

a $a(ous historical $i&ure o$ their choice/ -e could start b. &etti!& the( to loo at so(e

e?a(ples o$ brie$ bio&raphies 1o! the B!ter!et, $or e?a(ple3 be$ore discussi!& what is ( sue

bio&raphies a!d how we (i&ht cha!&e the seque!ce o$ the i!$or(atio! i$ we were &oi!& to

tell people about our $i&ure/ B! pairs or &roups, stude!ts !ow choose a $i&ure a!d pla! their

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prese!tatio!/ The. (i&ht co!sult la!&ua&e boo s or as us to help the( with &ra((ar a!

0ocabular./ The. the! &i0e their prese!tatio!s a!d subseque!tl. we a!d the. a!al.se what

the. ha0e said a!d wor with la!&ua&e ite(s that !eed atte!tio!/ -he! all that is o0er, we

(i&ht &et the( to re)pla! a!d re)deli0er their prese!tatio!s i! order to ta e ad0a!ta&e o$

what the. lear!t $ro( the $eedbac o! their $irst atte(pts 1see The i(porta!ce o$

repetitio! o! pa&e 8

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Da0id u!a!*s tas seque!ce is so(ewhat di$$ere!t 1 u!a! 2JJ6C hapter 23/ Hestarts with the sa(e i!d o$ pre)tas to build the stude!ts* sche(a 1see pa&e 2 3, but he the! &i0es stude!ts co!trolled la!&ua&e practice $or the 0ocabular. the.

(i&ht !eed $or their tas / The. the! liste! to !ati0e spea ers per$or(i!& asi(ilar tas a!d a!al.se the la!&ua&e that was used/ i!all.,a$ter so(e $reepractice o$ la!&ua&e, the. reach the peda&o&ical tas where the. discuss issuesa!d (a e a decisio!/ This is !ot at all li e PPP upside dow!* si!ce la!&ua&e $ocusacti0ities lead towards a tas rather tha! occurri!& as a result o$ it/ This, u!a!su&&ests, is because lear!ers should be e!coura&ed to (o0e $ro( reproducti0e tocreati0e la!&ua&e use* 12JJ6C" 3/

There is so(e co!$usio!, the!, about what Tas )based lear!i!& (ea!s/ B! o!e 0iew, tas s are the buildi!& bloc s o$ a la!&ua&e course/ >tude!ts per$or( thetas s a!d $ocus o! la!&ua&e $or( as the. do the tas s, or as a result o$ ha0i!&do!e the(/ B! a!other 0ersio!, howe0er, tas s are still the buildi!& bloc s o$ the

course, but we will pro0ide stude!ts with the la!&ua&e to do the( be$ore the. setout to per$or( these tas s/ Bt is the $irst o$ these two approaches to T L that isesse!tiall. based o! the belie$ that &et per$or(a!ce ri&ht a!d co(pete!ce will, with so(e pro(pti!&, ta e care o$ itsel$* 1-iddowso! 2JJ"C F3/

Da0e a!d Va!e -illis are quite clear that despite di$$ere!t approaches to T L1see abo0e3, its ad0ocates ha0e re=ected a relia!ce o! prese!tatio! (ethodolo&.*a!d that $arther the basis $or la!&ua&e de0elop(e!t is the lear!er*s atte(pt todeplo. la!&ua&e $or (ea!i!&* 1-illis a!d -illis 2JJ"C 23/

ritics o$ T L ha0e raised a !u(ber o$ co!cer!s about its o0erall applicabilit./ -illia( Littlewood, $or e?a(ple, has di$$icult., as we ha0e do!e abo0e, i!

pi!!i!& dow! e?acti. what it (ea!s a!d so wishes to aba!do! the ter(alto&ether 1Littlewood 2JJ6a3/ Paul >eedhouse su&&ests that while it (a. behi&hl. appropriate to base so(e lear!i!& o! tas s, it would be u!sou!d* to (a etas s the basis $or a! e!tire peda&o&ical (ethodolo&.* 1>eedhouse IIIC 883/ Hepoi!ts out that the i!d o$ i!teractio! which t.pical tas s pro(ote leads to theuse o$ speci$ic tas )sol0i!&* li!&uistic $or(s/ These $ail to i!clude the i!d o$la!&ua&e we (i&ht e?pect $ro( discussio!, debate or social i!teractio!s o$ otheri!ds/ As we saw o! pa&e wa! worries that while T B (a.success$ull. de0elop lear!ers* co((a!d o$ what is !ow!, it is co!siderabl. less

e$$ecti0e $or the s.ste(atic teachi!& o$ !ew la!&ua&e* 12JJ8bC "

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as so(eo!e who wrote a boo o! tas )ce!tred discussio!s* 1Ur IF 3, she does!ot ar&ue that there is !o place $or co((u!icati0e tas s, but rather that the. area !ecessar. added co(po!e!t o$ a structured, la!&ua&e)based s.llabus a!d

(ethodolo&.* 12JJ

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! this e?a(ple $or

e?pressio!s with g

e?t, to u!derli!e all the !ou!s the. ca! $i!d a!d the! to u!derli!e a!. 0erbs that collocate with thoses 1BZZTC > -hat(C

yo$ the +ery weren't happy

W9e +e we as as the or can ar

be to don t anywhere M Whatyo$ C can get-

: ....

m

Senten

t collocate with those !ou!s4+:ClooT-+V + + !d the! to u!derli!e a!. 0erbs Pdr iUi ar phrase

po!e!ts, as i! this e?a(+ e?ercises ca! be adapted to $ocus o!

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teachi!& a!d lear!i!& purposes or, i$ we belie0e that e?posure to e!ou&h suitable i!put is

the e., decidi!& what i!d o$ i!put that should be/

i!all., we !eed to as i! what wa. a Le?ical approach di$$ers $ro( other accou!ts o$

la!&ua&e teachi!& si!ce there are as .et !o sets o$ procedures to e?e(pli$. such a!

approach to la!&ua&e lear!i!&/

Despite these reser0atio!s, howe0er, the Le?ical approach has certai!l. draw! our

atte!tio! to $acts about the co(positio! o$ la!&ua&e: what it has !ot .et do!e is to (a e

the leap $ro( that to a set o$ peda&o&ic pri!ciples or s.llabus speci$icatio!s which could be

i!corporated i!to a (ethod/ Howe0er, we will retur! to the issue o$ le?ical phrases i!

hapter 6/

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d students in dialogue together

B! II8 a &roup o$ $il()(a ers led b. the Da!ish director Lars Qo! Trier dra$ted the

(a!i$esto o$ the Do&(e I8 il()(a ers* ollecti0e i! which the. pled&ed to rescue ci!e(a

$ro( bi& bud&et, special e$$ects)do(i!ated Holl.wood (o0ies/ The. wa!ted to retur! to

core 0alues, usi!& !o arti$icial li&hti!&, !o special e$$ects, etc/ This pro(pted >cott

Thor!bur. to write a short u!characteristicall. pro0ocati0e article* 1Thor!bur. 2JJ8c,

describi!& the ori&i!al article published i! 2JJJ3 su&&esti!& that ELT !eeded si(ilar

rescue actio!, !otabl. a retur! to a (aterials) a!d tech!olo&.)$ree classroo( i! which

la!&ua&e e(er&es as teachers a!d stude!ts e!&a&e i! a dialo&ic relatio!ship/ This ori&i!al

article pro0o ed co!siderable i!terest a!d a &roup o$ teachers e(er&ed who wa!ted to

appl. certai! pri!ciples to la!&ua&e lear!i!&/ The. reaso!ed that la!&ua&e is co)

co!structed betwee! teachers a!d stude!ts, where it e(er&es 1as it is sca$$olded b. the

teacher3 rather tha! bei!& acquired/ The. were hostile to (aterials bei!& brou&ht i!to the

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teacher a!d stude!ts/

at

th so (a!. di$$ere!t approaches a!d (ethods a0ailable, (a!. teachers are u!sure o$ which

choose a!d howto &o about (a i!& that choice/ B! this sectio! we will loo at so(e o$t e

ultural i(plicatio!s o$ the (ethods we use, a!d co(e to so(e co!clusio!s about the bases o! which we ca!

ecide o! our approach to teachi!&/

thods and culture

he writer Adria! Hollida. has co(e up with the ter( nati e spea1erism to describe the wa. that ritish a!d

(erica! teachi!& (ethodolo&. a!d practices ha0e bee! e?ported arou!d the world, al(ost without questio!

the e?porters, thou&h the. are i!creasi!&l. questio!ed b. co((e!tators, both !ati0e spea er a!d !o!)!ati0e

pea er ali e/ Hollida.*s worr. about !ati0e spea eris( is that it is o$te! pre(ised o! a 0iew o$ us* a!d the(*/

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ti0e spea eris(, he worries, cuts i!to a!d di0ides -orld TE>OL b. creati!& a !e&ati0el. reduced i(a&e o$

e $orei&! Other o$ !o!)!ati0e spea er stude!ts a!d educators* 12JJ8C

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The $act is that (a!. o$ the approaches a!d teachi!& (ethods we ha0e discussed i! this chapter are based

a 0er. wester! idea o$ what co!stitutes &ood* lear!i!&/ or e?a(ple, we ha0e

?pected acti0e participatio! i! class, a!d we ha0e e!coura&ed ad0e!turous stude!ts who are

repared to ha0e a &o e0e! whe! the. are !ot co(pletel. sure ))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))

)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))

9

se/ -e so(eti(e acl@ )

ay. NNe tell st$dents that thpv'. T CaC a o$t themsel+es and .E : N:

ey are trying to

n g$ide rather than the so$rc ri * cllar c o their ip * * * a Potentia iy re+ealing 8n ">OJ ace o ed$cational

WWge md

at the teacher is a helper

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hu(a!istic teachi!&, who tr. dra(a a!d role)pla. a!d other co((u!icati0e tech!iques, $all $lat o! their $aces

eco!dar. classes where the stude!ts are !ot i!terested a!d (erel. wish to &et &ood &rades/ He ar&ues

sio!atel. $or a !ew i!d o$ (ethodolo&. to suit that i!d o$ realit. si!ce the ideas de0eloped i! co($. little

ools with hi&hl. (oti0ated stude!ts*=ust are!*t ri&ht $or less pri0ile&ed* co!te?ts/ ot,* he writes, because there

o(ethi!& wro!& with the ideas, but the. =ust were !ot (ade $or our teachi!& realit., a!d do !ot deal with our

ble(s/* Adria! Hollida. would al(ost certai!l. a&ree/ He describes his ow! use o$ a basic Audioli!&ual

odolo&. at the be&i!!i!& o$ his career i! I Js Bra!/ His approach, he writes, was e!tirel. (ethodolo&.)

red i! that stude!ts a!d busi!ess clie!ts ali e were e?pected to sub(it to its wisdo(, as recipie!ts o$ a

erior treat(e!t* 12JJ8C

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PTER 6

orps solutio! was to (a e a bar&ai! so that two esse!tiall. opposi!& (ethodolo&ical belie$s could be((odated to&ether as a result o$ !e&otiatio! betwee! teacher a!d stude!ts/

%re is that we ha0e reached a post(ethod

se/ Loo ed at this wa.,

& a (ethod i!to class 1sa. Tas )based lear!i!&3, is actuall. li(iti!& si!ce it &ets i! the

8id s $ den s Tt& 6/ o earn

od he s 2 # [ alttr4a

hod 52JJ

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PTER 6

oTc _ a-are4>> P %(J,e #r aU,J!+4

u(ara0adi0elu

co!$i!ed to a o!e siXe $it4 T repr[ 4 a i!d o$ (ethodolo&ical wishlist , a!d while assu(ptio!s which (i&ht,

44$ *1'55 (a e (ethodolo&ical

practices Pablo Toledo howled about 1see pa&e 3

ppropria7 as so(e o$

((( an& teaching mo&e!s

or a classic descriptio! o$ PPP, see D .r!e 1 IFo(e o$ the boo s a!d articles which

i!$lue!ced the PPP debate o$ the IIJs are M Lewis 1 II", IIectio!s a!d 2 o$ V -illis a!d D -illis 1eds3 1 II

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PTER 6

ut teachi!$ or hiraa qualit.oTli$e i B [ethods 38 the [!tral $ocus o$ decisio!s

ructio!al e$$icie!c./ B! what u ,

> (uch (ore i(porta!t tha!

wri&ht 2JJ"3, teachers should deter(iL+d+T+ pmCttCe +AllwriFht a!d Le!Xue! II /

should ide!ti$. a lear!i!& puXXle 1$i!d so( tQ

assroo( +ualit` o$ li$e)The!

gs happen or don7t h a p p e d T +F in da33 B

dn di erent ways o sol+ing the p$QQle rp l t:

5 re lect on it gather data and try o$t

at to do !e?t -e will discuss re$lecti0e + Ma&e o! wtlat happe!s i! order to decide

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PTER 6

>tephe! a? has sMarT!++ (& [ (%r d;ail i! haP [ conteRt where the learning is haSSpninn <

os*on a method witho$t taking the

t o!e $actor i! la!&ua&e lear!i!&/ Other $ectorrJ++ P%(t> %Ut that methodolg>' is

proaches (a. be equall. 0alid 12JJQ u t l(Porta!t , a!d other (ethods a!d co!te?t a!al.sis be$ore

start teachi!& on a + Ut o! s +or teachers to do so(e i!d o$ t e ra!&e o$ (ethodolo&ical !owled&e a!rl tp

+ a! de0elop their ow! procedures $ro(

lect o! a!d e0aluate what has happe!ed i! orderTN+ + & 0 aQailable tJ the() The.the!

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PTER 6

ing choices

eed to be able to

atio)r a*'b* hat a chi=3e1w'Vr*' " methodol3l

& T m r dis==ion ini ' d e th!/- st$dents leara * h s

d m the pre+io$s ch erJ

a!d attitudes (atter 7!th , are e!&a&ed wlt7 u

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PTER 6

"> "/s the learning eRl et ' heir O2e.* *Wwiing. Th= lings

B ! p u t / ! &e

la!&ua&e itsel$, a!d also

put stude!ts !eed co!st

^ t@@f=r@ '"@rr- " - - -

se#$ences inely:t$ned 1n * u r4U&hXY$ned ;see $a % r in the way the teacher lang$age st$dy

inp$t is* en * 3 or more orm: oc$sed

+(e(ber speci$ic la!&ua&++ $%r !otici!& or co!sc $ [ " U!Ness there is so(e

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PTER 6

$c) ) a Qi; cor!er J+T ) a!d

]

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la!&ua&e lear!i!&/ *o! anSuaSe POPULAR METHODOLOGY

.utput stude!ts !eed cha!ces to acti0ate their la!&ua&e

!owled&e throu&h (ea!i!&) $ocused tas s/ This acti0atio! is

achie0ed whe! the. tr. to deplo. all or a!. o$ the la!&ua&e the.

!ow either to produce la!&ua&e 1spo e! or writte!3 or to read or

liste! $or (ea!i!&/

)ogniti*e effort stude!ts should be e!coura&ed to thi! about

la!&ua&e as the. wor with it si!ce, we are sure, this aids rete!tio!/

-here appropriate, we should e!coura&e stude!ts to do so(e o$ the

wor $or the(sel0es, disco0eri!& how la!&ua&e wor s rather tha!

bei!& &i0e! i!$or(atio! about la!&ua&e co!structio! o! a plate*/

/rammar an& !e is le?is is as i(porta!t as &ra((ar/ >howi!&

how words co(bi!e to&ether a!d beha0e both se(a!ticall. a!d

F

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&ra((aticall. is a! i(porta!t part o$ a!. la!&ua&e)lear!i!&

pro&ra((e/

1o , h2 an& here the actual wa. we do thi!&s depe!ds !ot

o! the choice o$ a (ethod 1thou&h it is possible that a (ethod ) or a

0ersio! o$ a (ethod ) (a. be appropriate3, but rather o! wh. a!d

where we are teachi!&/ -hat do we wa!t to achie0e, with who( a!d

i! what co!te?t -e !eed to a!al.se these $eatures a!d the! choose

$ro( the procedures a!d tech!iques at our co((a!d those that best

$it the situatio! we are i!/ At all le0els a!d at all sta&es o$ teachi!&

we should be able to sa. clearl. wh. we are doi!& what we are doi!&

) a! issue we will discuss i! (ore detail i! hapter 2 /

I

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hapter notes and .urther reading

pproaches an& metho&s

or a discussio! o$ approach* 0ersus (ethod*, etc/, see V Richards a!d T

Rod&ers 12JJ C

hapter 23/

Ma!. teachers use (etaphors to separate out these di$$ere!t le0els o$ abstractio!/or e?a(ple, the trai!er Da0id Qale!te tur!s to the art o$ coo i!&/ The approachis our belie$ about coo i!&, the (ethod is the recipe boo , the procedures areactio!s such as (i?i!&, choppi!&, (ari!ati!&, etc/ a!d the tech!iques are how we(i? a!d chop, $or e?a(ple

FJ

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esire to co((u!icate

a co((u!icati0e purpose

co!te!t !ot $or(

0ariet. o$ la!&ua&e

!o teacher i!ter0e!tio!