the dimensions and influence of china's africa power

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7/21/2019 The Dimensions and Influence of China's Africa Power http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/the-dimensions-and-influence-of-chinas-africa-power 1/23 Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences Vol.6  No.2  2013 The Dimensions and Influence of Chinas African PowerApplying Theoretical Considerations in Practice Fanie Herman Andrew Szanajda Abstract  This study applies theoretical properties of internation influence to trace Chinas attempt to affect the behavior of African states. There are some important dimensions of power that place Chinas authority into the context of the African environment which include scope domain weight and means. In addition an analytical framework is employed to shed light on the attempt to influence African states by looking at the concepts of interdependence  the ability to influence the behavior of African states and Chinas preferences regarding this influencing behavior. It is argued that persuasion as an influencing technique expresses Chinas ability to induce African states to act how they might not otherwise do or even consider. This is in contrast to coercive diplomacy that aims to halt courses African states are already pursuing or to commence with a course they are not pursuing. Influencing the thoughts beliefs and ideas of African leaders in a multidimensional manner rather than acting as a single entity determines this set of interactions. Attempts to influence the behavior of African states to obtain outcomes are therefore an indispensable part of its African engagement. Key words influence behavior power dimensions preferences over outcomes persuasion mutual interaction 1. Introduction China is currently a major power in international politics. One way in which it manages to extend the scope of its power is in the exercise of influence in many regions of the world. Africa is particularly prone to the influence of China wherein it has the ability to influence African nations into bending to its will. The following analysis provides methods to determine Chinas influence in Africa  and provides insights into the operation of influence processes at the international level. There are some important dimensions of power that place Chinas authority into the context of the African environment which include scope domain weight and means. Chinas exercise of influence relies on one or a combination of these dimensions. Firstly the potential power problem or the ease with which power resources in one area can be used in other issueareas  ( fungibility ),

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Page 1: The Dimensions and Influence of China's Africa Power

7/21/2019 The Dimensions and Influence of China's Africa Power

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Fudan Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences 

Vol. 6 ,   No. 2 ,  2013 

The Dimensions and Influence of Chinas African Power:

Applying Theoretical Considerations in Practice

Fanie Herman Andrew Szanajda

Abstract: This study applies theoretical properties of internation influence to

trace Chinas attempt to affect the behavior of African states. There are some

important dimensions of power that place Chinas authority into the context of the

African environment,   which include scope,   domain,   weight,   and means. In

addition,  an analytical framework is employed to shed light on the attempt to

influence African states by looking at the concepts of interdependence, the ability to

influence the behavior of African states and Chinas preferences regarding this

influencing behavior. It is argued that persuasion as an influencing technique

expresses Chinas ability to induce African states to act how they might not

otherwise do, or even consider. This is in contrast to coercive diplomacy that aims

to halt courses African states are already pursuing or to commence with a course

they are not pursuing. Influencing the thoughts, beliefs and ideas of African leaders

in a multidimensional manner rather than acting as a single entity determines this set

of interactions. Attempts to influence the behavior of African states to obtain

outcomes are therefore an indispensable part of its African engagement.

Key words:   influence behavior;   power dimensions;   preferences over

outcomes; persuasion; mutual interaction

1. Introduction

China is currently a major power in international politics. One way in

which it manages to extend the scope of its power is in the exercise of influence in many regions of the world. Africa is particularly prone to the

influence of China wherein it has the ability to influence African nations

into bending to its will. The following analysis provides methods to

determine Chinas influence in Africa,   and provides insights into the

operation of influence processes at the international level. There are some

important dimensions of power that place Chinas authority into the context

of the African environment, which include scope, domain, weight, and

means. Chinas exercise of influence relies on one or a combination of thesedimensions. Firstly, the potential power problem, or the ease with which

power resources in one area can be used in other issueareas  (fungibility),

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the problem of intentions,   and the measurement problem also widens the

outlook. Secondly, the concept of power as it is observed as an attempt toinfluence the preferences,  desires,  and thoughts of Africa nations,   is to be

examined. Reciprocal interaction in political, cultural, and economic areas

follows as outcomes of such attempts. The following determinants shed light

on the attempt to exert influence: (1)  China decisionmakers perception

that China and African nations are,   or will be,   in a significantly

interdependent relationship,   and that African nations future behaviors

consequently could well exercise either a harmful or beneficial impact on

China; (2)  the prediction that Chinas decisionmakers make regarding thenature of African nations behavior: what are African nations likely to do in

the absence of any conscious attempt by China to exert influence? (3)

Chinas preferences regarding African nations future behavior. The

outcome is that Chinas influencing power is multidimensional in character

rather than monolithic or acting as a single dimensional entity. However, it

is difficult to arrive at an overall estimate of Chinas power due to the lack

of a standardized measurement for the former. This means that power could

increase on one dimension while simultaneously decreasing on another.

Examining threat as an influence technique used by powerful states

over weaker ones is outside the scope of this work. China has expressed to

African states that if a certain preferred act,   such as opening the

telecommunications market for inexpensive mobile devices,   or restricting

Chinas access to oil exploration is not avoided, China will impose penalties

to induce African states to comply with Chinas demands. This is not within

the strategic objectives that Chinas decisionmakers intend to obtain from

cooperation. Such acts of punishments in the long term will cause greater

harm to China than bring benefits by limiting the opportunities for futurebehavior influence and determine their preferences over outcomes. It is

important for China not to penalize African states,   since this will exert

negative influence on African states capacity to clearly recognize

communications from China. Another point to emerge in regard to the role

of threat,   and promise to a lesser extent,   is that African nations must be

provided with two categories of information. One is the precise nature of 

the action that China prefers African states to see in granting

telecommunications concessions to avoid zero industrial growth. Withoutthis information,   African states are unable to respond in a mutually

advantageous fashion   ( Singer,   in Rosenau   391). African states power

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capabilities and the outcomes they desire in relation to each other are not

identical. They also differ in dimensions,   the level of interplay,   the formsof exercise of power,   and are involved in internation influences in their

unique ways. The strengths of one country may be the weakness of 

another. Therefore,   the goal is not to analyze Chinas influential power

over African states in a bilateral fashion,   where interaction is mostly based

on the principles of statetostate diplomacy. Power imbalances indeed exist

in such relationships. Determining how to pool the resources of African

countries so that they are not measured in particular aspects in their

relationship with China,   and instead on attributable areas which all thecountries share in common,   could serve to redress the balance between

them. Three such areas are:   economic interaction,   which takes on a

multilateral character through partnerships in the Forum on China African

Cooperation (Focac)   and the African Union  (AU);   security cooperation

in the form of peacekeeping operations and building of security

infrastructure,   defense planning and assistance;   and the technological

revolution,   in which African states are benefitting from Chinas stakes in

telecommunications industries and the media. The term  “African states,”

therefore, refers to the expression of these three areas as a unit that defines

how the influence of Chinas power is exerted in African states.

2. Dimensions of Power

The analysis of Chinas power dimensions starts with a distinction

between the old   “powerasresources”   approach developed by scholars

working in several disciplines,   including psychology,   philosophy,sociology,   economics and political science,   and the new   “ relational

power”   approach,   which developed the idea of power as causation

(Lasswell & Kaplan,  1950) . This causal notion conceives of power as a

relationship in which the behavior of A at least partially causes a change

in the behavior of actor B  (Baldwin,   in Carlsnaes,  Risse & Simmonds,

2004:  178) . Behavior in this context may be understood broadly to

include beliefs,   attitudes,   opinions,   expectations,   emotions and / or

predispositions to act. In this view,   power is an actual relationshipbetween two or more actors   ( persons,   states,   groups,   etc. ),   rather

than a property of any one of them   ( Baldwin,   in Carlsnaes,   et al,

3The Dimensions and Influence of Chinas African Power 

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2004:   178) . This study follows the relational power approach,   and

maintains that there is a possibility that the behavior of China as aninfluencing actor could affect African states. An example that will bring

this point into perspective is how African states that are engaged in trade

negotiations with China could be affected by Chinas bargaining power,

which is superior and overpowers the restraints on Africans states

abilities to negotiate as individual powers. The domain of Chinas power

comes into play here,   referring to the number of actors subject to its

influence. In the case of trade negotiations with African states,  all of the

actors that engage in mutual trade with China fall within the domain of Chinas influence. In addition, China can have a great deal of influence in

trade negotiations,   while in other areas,   such as education and social

studies, it may have little or no influence. The weight factor also plays a

role since there is the probability that China could affect African states

behavior. In actual fact, the weight dimension is instrumental for China to

achieve its trade negotiations with African states because it gives China a

greater degree of bargaining power. This dimension could also be labeled

the   “ reliability”   of As influence   (Baldwin,   in Carlsnaes,   et al,   2004:

178). To extend its trade and negotiation goals, China links issues of lesser

and greater importance, which increases the weight China has over the issue

area. Peacekeeping is one issue area where China plays a significant role in

influencing the behavior of the affected countries,   and is thus seen as a

reliable partner in bringing about peace and stability. The missions in

Liberia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo  (DRC)  and SudanDarfur

serve as examples of this dimension of power. Schelling   (1984:   268)

addresses both the costs to A and the costs to B as relevant in assessing

influence. How much cost is entailed for A to influence B? How costly is itfor B to comply with As demands?  Some have suggested that more power

should be attributed to an actor that can exercise influence cheaply than to

one for whom it is costly. If China can bring African nations  (AU/ Focac)

to do something that is costly, this can be indicative of more power than if 

China can only have the latter to do things that are cheap. Even if China is

unable to influence African nations into complying with its demands, it may

be able to impose costs on African nations for noncompliance. Some have

argued that this should be viewed as a kind of power  (Schelling, 1984: 267).Does China employ specific means of exercising influence in Africa?

Baldwin ( in Carlsnaes,  et al,  2004:  178)  classifies means of influence in

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international relations in the following categories:   symbolic,   economic,

military,   and diplomatic. Economic means plays a fundamental part inChinas courting of African states and their willingness to cooperate.

China augments goods,   services,   and products through economic

interaction;  and this means of power certainly stands at the core of Sino

African relations. In the military sphere,   China sells weapons and

equipment to African regimes to boost their military and defense

capabilities. Chinese arms manufacturers undertake these transactions in

their effort to satisfy demand in the African market,   and to expand

military exchanges and cooperation. Chinas military power is alsovaluable in their peacekeeping operations  (PKOs) . In this case,  China

intends to show goodwill and become a responsible stakeholder in

international politics. Is there a specific measure that can explain Chinas

power,   or are the dimensions the sum total of all the parts?  There is no

single right or wrong answer in analyzing this point. However,   it is

important to look at the causal concept of power to imply a minimum

set of specifications. This point is effectively expressed by Jack Nagel:

Anyone who employs a causal concept of power must specify domain and scope. To say “X

has power”  may seem sensible, but to say  “X causes”  or “X can cause”   is nonsense. Causation

implies an X and a Y —  a cause and an effect. If power is causation, one must state the outcome

caused. Stipulating domain and scope answers the question  “Power over what?”(14)

A cause and effect relationship is detected when studying SinoAfrican

cooperation. China does not exercise power over other states owing to its

economic clout and status in world politics,   without taking the preference

over the outcome into consideration. China has influence over a state suchas Sudan because of the weight dimension. The behavior of Sudan is

affected by the position China takes on human rights,  nonintervention in

the domestic affairs of the country,   and securing its oil interests.

Peacekeeping troops act under a mission mandate,   and following the

traditional style of peacekeeping and protection of civilians is not the main

priority. The main task is to keep warring groups apart, but this is done as

a gesture of goodwill to the Khartoum government,   and not truly as an

obligation to keep the peace. In this case,   China causes the Khartoumgovernment to behave on the conditions of the bilateral relationship,   and

intentionally adapts a position of goodwill and reciprocity.

5The Dimensions and Influence of Chinas African Power 

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However,  according to Nagel  (15) , there must be an outcome of 

this causal concept of power,   or otherwise the power A has over B isnonsense. An important outcome for China is the allocating of oil

drilling rights. Sudan is affected by the soft and promising policies of 

China, and then grants oil concessions in return. Waltz rejects the causal

notion of power, and proposes  “ the old and simple notion that an agent

is powerful to the extent that he affects others more than they affect

him” ( Waltz   192) . However,   African states simply do not have the

resources to affect China on their own and therefore build relationships

on the relational power concept. Some neorealist and neoliberal scholarshave sought to avoid the need to specify scope and domain by using the

terms   “ capabilities,”   or “ power resources,”   in their analyses. This

merely shifts the analytical focus from actual causes to potential causes.

Any statement about a states capabilities is based on a prediction about

which other actors can be affected and in which ways  ( Baldwin,  1993:

17) . Although Chinas state capabilities surpasses any given or all African

countries in terms of population and territory,   resource endowment,

economic capability,   military strength,   political stability and

competence,   some of these are used as capabilities to promote Chinas

interests. What capabilities does China have to influence African

countries?   Chinas economic strength and resource endowments are two

capabilities that are utilized in SinoAfrican relations. Lampton describes

the three faces of Chinas ability to act through might,   money,   and

power. These three terms are also expressed in African cooperation.

Firstly,  China has the ability to control and accommodate the agendas of 

cooperation. Secondly,   China controls the desires and thoughts of 

African actors to their advantage. The basic causal concept of power caneasily accommodate either of these phenomena. As Baldwin   (1993:

179)   notes,  A can cause B to do something that B would otherwise not

do by controlling Bs agenda or its options,   or by affecting Bs

preferences,   desires,   and thoughts. For example,   China is considered

by the Forum on Chinese African Cooperation  ( FOCAC)   as possessing

the ability to exercise military,  economic, diplomatic and soft power on

the African continent,   and is therefore regarded as a great power. Great

powers cause small powers to take note of the opinions of the latterbefore taking actions of their own. International relations scholars have

posited that great power status can be characterized into power

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capabilities,   spatial aspects,   and status dimensions  (Buzan  70) .

One of the problems encountered with economic strength andresource endowment as elements of Chinas power analysis is if they are

treated as powerasresources or power itself. Chinas economic strength

as a power asset in financing development projects,   infrastructure

building,   foreign direct investments and assisting small and medium

enterprises in establishing trading networks may be a power liability if the

recipients become dependent on China for economic prosperity and

there is not a mutually beneficial relationship evolving. The poweras

resources approach should focus on the means of achieving power,   andnot replace the end result. A failure to designate or imply a framework

of assumptions about whom China is trying to get to do what are

comparable to calling a meeting without specifying the agenda. Sprout

and Sprout called this set of assumptions a   “  policycontingency

framework.  ”   Focusing on Chinas capabilities is simply a way of 

drawing attention to their potential power. If one wants to know the

potential power of China in Africa,   it is imperative to know whether a

situation of dependency or interdependency exists between China and its

African partners. It is possible to make predictions or generalize about

the potential power of China without reference to its goals or capabilities

of the African states. Chinas power resources are the raw materials out

of which relationships with African states are forged. Even though it

might seem that the predictive value of power resource inventories is

impaired by insistence on prior specification of scope and domain,   the

opposite is true   ( Nagel   27 ) . Whether the accuracy of Chinas

estimation of the adequacy of raw materials to complete its African

projects is likely to improve depends on whether China can first ascertainwhether it plans to be a friendly trading partner or leader.

In addition, the debate on Chinas power politics raises the problem of 

fungibility, which refers to the ease with which power resources that are

useful in one issuearea can be used in other ones. Money in a market

economy is the prototypical fungible resource. Indeed,   this is one of the

defining characteristics of money. One does not usually need to specify the

scope or domain of the purchasing power of money in a market economy

because the same value of currency can be used to purchase items(Baldwin, in Carlsnaes, Risse and Simmonds, 2004: 180). Chinas uses of 

money, time, and information serve as an example of where the fungibility

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of the resources in their given areas can also be useful in others,   such as

agricultural and security cooperation. There is no need to specify scope anddomain in these instances,   as they fall within the overall framework of 

Chinas Africa relations. The fungibility of Chinas power resources will

increase as the amount,   in terms of more aid and investment,   increases.

Thus, power is said to be more fungible for powerful states than for weaker

ones   (Art   40). More power resources can allow China to operate more

widely,   such as by influencing more African actors and / or more issues.

However,   it is also defined by the given amount of a particular power

resource and not the uses of varying amounts. In the economic sphere,where African countries benefit from loans and investments, richer countries

can buy more than poor countries, but this is not because richer countries

money is more fungible than that of poor countries. The argument is that

China calculates and compares economic aid and political gains in more or

less the same way that consumers calculate and compare the value of goods

in a market,   and that money attributes economic value to the PRCs

political capability. Chinas use of money as an economic bargaining tool

and sending peacekeeping troops as a security objective indicates that

interplay between hard power and soft power is taking place. This

reinforces the thesis that China can translate economic power into military

power, and that Chinas practice of power on the African continent shows

signs of fungibility. Many of the most interesting and important questions

on Chinas African relations are related to the ability or inability to realize its

goals. Does the probability exist that China as a powerful actor can further

its interests with African countries,   regardless of the basis on which this

probability rests?  This point raises the issue of a states contentions  (Legro

515)  and what China should do with its growing power capabilities. Thereare two arguments that dominate the debate on Chinas intentions. One

focuses on power and likely Chinese revisionism,   and the other highlights

Chinas growing interdependence and likely future satisfaction  (Legro 515).

Is Chinas future cooperation with African states based on linear projections

of contingency, especially on the exchange of ideas in forums such as Focac

and diplomatic interaction with African counterparts, or is China attempting

to establish power through relative means?   Power and interdependence are

important, but their impact is mediated through the doctrines PRC leadersuse to justify action to achieve permanent acceptance and authority. These

ideas are prone to change in regular ways, and Chinas intentions along with

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them   ( Legro   515). In the case of China,   both its relative power and

economic interdependence affect its foreign relations with Africa. The issueis how the two will do so over time. Chinese leaders do not know for

certain what their country wants in Africa,   because of Chinas very own

growth and the process by which it unfolds. Intentions refer to what China

plans to do. An intention is a term that is often associated with aims or goals

or interests. However,   it is useful to distinguish between interests and the

ideas that states adopt to attain their interests. Broad interests show relatively

little variation both within and among states. Legro (517)   makes the point

that Chinas current intentions are mostly integrationist. China hasmanifested itself in significant increases in cooperative behavior with African

countries and is not seeking separation from the system or aspiring to

overturn it. In addition, China is giving less emphasis to its selfproclaimed

role as  “leader of the Third World” (Legro  517). On one hand,   China

shows most of the markers of a conservative great power by accepting the

basic principles of the rules of the game in Africa, but on the other hand,

some African states accuse China of hegemonic behavior demonstrating their

intentions to control the system.

Walt emphasizes the notion that states are shaped not just by raw

power, but also by  “ intentions.  ”  It is difficult to understand and predict

Chinas African ambitions without knowing what the government

considers to be appropriate action. Overall,   the more China is

economically and socially entwined with other countries,   the more it

gains from the system,   and the more it has to lose in changing the

system or engaging in any major conflict   ( Russett & Oneal) . China

might want to change the African economic system,   sometimes in

consultation and agreement with African trading partners and sometimesat its own discretion. Arguments that support engagement certainly

capture an important influence on Beijings thinking today   ( Legro

523) . As a result,   interaction with African markets generates significant

economic growth and political interests that favor openness to the

international political economy. However,   there is also a problem;   the

excessively deterministic nature of Chinas economic model for Africa

does not guarantee that integration will continue to develop. Future

directions can still be changed,   leading to new policy initiatives andengagement methods. The interdependence of China on African states is

not driven simply by the march of technology,   investments,   and

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economic aid,   but by Chinese ideas as well as those of others regarding

how much China should be engaged with Africa   ( Legro   523) . Theway in which power and interdependence might jointly interact with

ideas through predictable mechanisms to cause outcomes provides the

best means for economic development. The opening up policy with

African markets can accelerate integration and rejuvenate the

modernization drive. Power can be conceived in terms of control over

other parties or outcomes. An analyst can look at the initial power

resources that give an actor a potential ability,   or they can look at the

actors influence over patterns of outcomes. When an analyst claims thatasymmetrical interdependence can be a source of power,  the focus is on

control over outcomes,   or the potential to affect outcomes. A less

dependent actor in a relationship often has significant political resources,

because changes in the relationship, which the actor may be able to initiate

or threaten, will be less costly to that actor than to its partners. However,

this advantage does not guarantee that political resources provided by

favorable asymmetries in interdependence will lead to similar patterns of 

control over outcomes. There is rarely a onetoone relationship between

power measured by any type of resources and power measured by effects on

outcomes. Political bargaining is usually a means of translating potential

effects, and a lot is often lost in the translation   ( Keohane & Nye   9). As

 Jiang Zemin said at the   2002   address to the   16th Party Congress, “ It is

essential for the Party to give top priority to development in governing and

rejuvenating the country and open up new prospects for the modernization

drive . . . the progressiveness of the Party is concrete and historical,  and it

must be judged by whether the Party promotes the development of the

advanced productive” (Fewsmith  3).Integration facilitates access to institutional fora in Africa where

regional politics are decided that might affect Chinas autonomy. Such

integration also provides the imprint of major power status, confirming that

the country is no longer simply an African actor without a goal, and in fact

has a high stake in influencing regional politics. It is also quite possible to

differentiate between situations in which China intentionally causes a change

in African states behavior and situations in which China does so

unintentionally  (Frey, 1989). For example, the visits by high ranking partyofficials to African states and the meetings with leaders intend to strengthen

economic ties and promote cooperation. These are clear policy objectives

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with desired outcomes. One can refer here to the no strings attached

policies of China in business negotiations with African partners. All theparties accept the nonzero sum nature of the negotiations with a winwin

situation. Africa indeed benefits from Chinese aid and assistance programs,

which is a true reflection of their intentions because the money China

promises is what African states receive. The unintended effect of the aid and

assistance programs tends to imply that they are detrimental to the interests

of the countries who receive the money  (Stefano  55).

The following section describes the measurement of Chinas power in

the African context. What factors account for a measurement of Chinaspower?  Can Chinas power be measured on a single dimension based on a

ranking system compared to other major powers, such as the United States,

France, or the United Kingdom? The difficulty of measuring power leads to

redefinition in order to make operationalization easier   (Frey   181). In this

fashion,   the measurement of Chinas power can be defined in terms of 

supposed resources,  e. g. ,   the ability to mobilize resources,   possession of 

resources,   and other forms of what Elster calls   “ generalized fetishist

theories”   that attempt to regard relations as properties. Like in economic

transactions,   a standardized unit of currency is necessary to evaluate

Chinas power in relation to its political and economic interactions with

African states. Comparing the different dimensions of Chinas power

relations makes the measurement problem a difficult task. Is China

currently the primary contender in exerting influence in Africa?   What

issue areas give China the edge in comparison with other major powers

in playing power politics?  A partial answer to this question is to look at

the indices of Chinas overall international power, in which diplomacy is

highlighted by persuading African states to do what they otherwisewould not do. The quality of a nations diplomacy gives direction and

weight,  and awakens the slumbering potentialities of actual power. The

conduct of a nations foreign affairs by its diplomats is for national power

in peace what military strategy and tactics by its military leaders are for

national power in war   (Morgenthau & Thompson   159) . Chinas long

term objectives will be to use diplomacy to make the most of whatever

elements of national power are at its disposal. In the context of Africa,

this means using power potentialities to its best advantage. Competentdiplomacy can increase Chinas power beyond what one would expect it

to be in the view of restraints found in the African environment. High

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quality diplomacy will bring the ends and means of foreign policy into

harmony with the available resources of national power  (Morgenthau &Thompson  159) . By giving direction to the national effort,  China can

increase the independent weight of certain factors,   such as assisting

African countries with industrial growth,   exchanges in military exercises

and cooperation with African partners,   and projecting an image of 

national character and morale. China must be willing to use these

elements of national power to distribute power within specified scopes and

domains, and provide a means to establish political and economic influence.

These demonstrate power and influence as instruments of foreign policywith the focus on the actions governments take toward others in order to

defend or achieve their purpose  (Holsti  117). An act is basically a form of 

communication intended to change or sustain the attitudes and behavior of 

those upon whom the acting government is dependent on for achieving its

own goals. It can be viewed as a  “signal”  sent by one actor to influence the

receivers image of the sender  ( Jervis,  1970).

In international politics,   acts and signals take different forms. The

promise of granting aid,   such as China in connection with Africa,   is an

act,  as are their propaganda appeals in peacekeeping,   and the flexing of 

their military muscle by selling arms and ammunition to African states.

The textile dispute between China and South Africa serves as an example

where the signals sent by China influenced the South African

governments resolve to sign an agreement in  2004. These types of acts

and signals are likely to succeed if diplomatic persuasion is used as an

influencing technique. Diplomatic persuasion appears to involve the least

amount of threats and is an ordering principle that can sustain or change

the behavior of other states   ( Holsti   118 ) . Diplomacy has beencharacterized as   “ the master institution,”   or more prosaically,   as the

“engine room”   of international relations. These and other labels point

to diplomacy as an essential institution for the conduct of interstate

relations  (Sharp   36) . One element of diplomacy that bears particular

relevance to Chinas African relations is its peaceful character,  juxtaposed

to the view that diplomacy is seen as the opposite to war or any use of 

force. Chinese decision makers regard diplomacy as an instrument of 

foreign policy that aims to establish and develop peaceful contactsbetween the PRC government and the African states, through the use of 

intermediaries recognized by the respective parties. Two generic

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concepts are represented in the practices of the specific Chinese actors:

representation and communication   (Sharp   51) . Chinese agents act onbehalf of their government,   as a response to a common problem of 

living separately and wanting to do so, while having to conduct relations

with African counterparts,   and communication that emphasizes the

logical and necessary conditions for the existence of these relationships.

3. Chinas Power to Influence

Influence politics,  which is essentially a means to an end,  is an aspect of 

power that encapsulates Chinas capacity to control the behavior of 

African governments through their acts,   images,   and policies. China

seeks influence for its own sake, mainly for prestige and use of economic

tools and relationships to achieve foreign policy objectives. Further to

this point is the strengthening of security frameworks in the form of 

peacekeeping and increasing its communication networks in the African

media sector. China in its acts towards individual or a multitude of 

African actors uses or mobilizes certain resources. The resources cited

here refer to physical or mental objects or qualities available to persuade,

reward,   threaten,   or punish. For example,   China influences the

behavior of African governments by offering economic incentives and

rewards that are highly efficient in bringing about the compliance of 

these governments with Chinas actions. It is likely that the diplomatic

gestures and words accompanying Chinas actions are as important as the

acts themselves. In addition,   the impact of peacekeeping troops in

African countries signals an intention to assert a stronger security and

military presence, although peacekeeping is not seen as an act of military

intervention or threat,   but a process to act as mediators in postconflict

societies and to facilitate diplomatic communication. If China can

influence African states into following its economic model,   while the

latter does not have a plan of its own that offers a better solution to

economic problems,   then China has more power regarding economic

issues. Power,   therefore,   can thus be viewed as a quantity;   but as a

quantity,   it is only meaningful when compared to the power of others.Power is therefore relative according to Holsti   ( 119 ) . The

concept of power can be broken up into three distinct analytic elements:

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Power comprises: (1)   the acts   ( process,   relationship)   of influencing

other states; (2)  the resources or leverage used to make the wielding of influence successful;  and  (3)   responses to the acts. The three elements

must be kept distinct   ( Holsti   119) . In terms of defining operational

goals,   China should ask the following questions,   as generalized from

Holsti  (119) .   (1)  What do they wish African states to do? (2)   How

shall China get African states to do or not to do   ( the relationship and

process) ? (3)   What resources are at Chinas disposal to induce African

states to do or not to do? (4 )   What would be the African states

probable responses to Chinas attempts to influence their behavior? (5)What are the costs of taking actions,   as opposed to other alternatives?

The very classification of African states economic behavior by China as a

potential influencing party immediately leads to some degree of influence

by African states upon China,   even when African states do not make

conscious attempt at influence. Singer (381)  denotes a general property of 

influence as the distinction between an attempt at influence and the

outcome of such an attempt. Not only are they not the same phenomena,

but they are also described and measured in terms of different variables. The

model Singer proposes can be applied to SinoAfrican relations in the

following manner: ( a)   Chinas prediction as to how African states will

behave in a given situation in the absence of the influence attempt; ( b)

Chinas preference regarding African states behavior;   and   ( c )   the

techniques and resources China utilizes to make   (a)   and   (b)   coincide as

nearly as possible. The outcome of such an attempt will be a function not

only of  (c)   but also  (d)   the accuracys prior prediction;(e)   Chinas own

value,   utility,   or preference system; ( f )   African states estimate of the

probabilities of various contemplated outcomes; ( g )   African statesresistance  ( or counterinfluence)   techniques and resources;   and   ( h)   the

effects of the international environment. The exercise of Chinas influence

implies more than the ability to change the behavior of African states.

Influence is also seen in Chinas continuing its economic diplomacy that is

useful to or in its national interests  (Singer  426).

Focac is an example in which the exercise of Chinese influence

does not cease to exist because the members of this group continue

reinforcing Chinas behavior. It is almost impossible to assume asituation where Focac does not influence the behavior of China.

Influence in this model is exercised multilaterally rather than in one

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direction. For example,  China would not seek particular goals in Focac

unless it is influenced in a direction by the members of this group. At aminimum,  the problem of feedback contributes to behavior where both

China and the member states change their behavior to satisfy the

demands of the other group. Focac members can also,   in anticipating

rewards from China,   change their behavior before China makes any

“ signals”   about possible action   ( Jervis   2000) . The member states can

then assess their situations and compile economic agendas based on

perceptions of reality and foreign policy needs. China may also try to

influence Focac members not to carry out certain actions,  such as votingagainst Chinese oil extraction policies and closing markets to Chinese

goods because of tariff and quota regulations. This is a relationship that

China tries to avoid because of the negative power connection and the

undesirability to Chinas economic interests.

The second element of the concept of power consists of those

resources that are mobilized in support of the acts taken to influence

African states behavior   ( Holsti   120 ) . Chinas wielding influence

includes tangibles,   such as money,   wealth,   information,   time,   control

over infrastructure building projects,   investments,   personality,   and

leadership qualities   (Dahl   2005) . However,   it is crucial for China to

command the obedience of African governments to mobilize these

resources for political purposes along with the skills to mobilize them.

For example,   the amount of influence China wields in peacekeeping

support is a direct consequence of its growing military capability in

pursuit of foreign policy objectives. On the other hand,   Chinas

growing military capabilities do not necessarily determine the uses to

which they will be put. Chinas peacekeeping capabilities can also beseen as a function of promoting universal peace and development rather

than as an outcome of its foreign policy.

Hence, the types of objectives China formulates and how it attempts

to implement them depend on the resources available instead of their

quality and quantity. In contemporary international relations,   it is also

true that   “ strong”   states do not achieve their objectives,   even when

attempting to influence the behavior of   “ weak”   ones   ( Holsti   121) .

Despite its overwhelming economic superiority and negotiation powerwith African states,   why is there still a sense of uncertainty over Chinas

capability to achieve its major foreign policy objectives? How can “small”

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African states gain trading privileges and all sorts of diplomatic concessions

from China considering its great economic wealth and military power?The assumption is that Chinas ability to influence the behavior of African

governments is also enhanced by various factors,   such as personality,

perceptions,   friendships,   and traditions. These factors render power

calculations and equations difficult due to their intangibility.

Diplomatic persuasion by means of economic rewards and grants is

probably the most successful influencing factor in Chinas ability to

change the behavior of African states. The quantity of Chinas resources

cannot always be equated with effective influence due to the distinctionbetween overall capabilities and the relevance of resources to a particular

diplomatic situation. The extent to which Chinas military is modernized

increases diplomatic influence in countries that seek to buy Chinese

weaponry. In addition, the sending of peacekeeping troops to Africa is an

important element for the military to fulfill strategic goals in the African

peacekeeping environment. Although Chinese peacekeeping troops boost

prestige abroad,   the amount of serving troops is not most significant.

What is of greater relevance is Chinas ability to signal its determination to

use them. African states must know that the capability to send

peacekeeping troops is not of mere symbolic significance. They are in fact

mobilized in support of foreign policy objectives being made credible.

An important variable that determines the success or failure of acts

of influence is the extent to which there are needs between the two

countries in any influence relationship. In general,  a country that needs

something from another is vulnerable to its act of influence   ( Holsti

123) . African states that are deficient in many capabilities can obtain

concessions from China in exchange for other goods and commodities,considering Chinas dependency on African oil and mineral resources to

satisfy their domestic economic needs. On the other hand,   the African

countries that have these resources may not be so dependent upon China,

particularly if they can sell these resources to other countries. In this

situation,   needs are not equal on both sides. The African states that are

independent in terms of needs can make demands on China and obtain

important concessions,  or at least resist demands made against them. The

Chinese government knows that if they do not make concessions toAfrican states,   especially in trade and business deals,  or if they press their

own demands too aggressively,   African states can threaten to cut off 

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supplies. China is thus vulnerable to the demands and influence acts of its

African trading partners and has to wield influence in a promising andrewarding manner to sustain or change the behavior of African states.

The level of technical expertise is another variable that has an effect

on the relationship between China and its African trading partners. The

number of issues discussed in Focac and bilateral meetings is indicative of 

how leadership often depends more on knowledge of technical issues

than on other types of resources. Chinas heavy investments in African

technology shows that the government is prepared to put forth realistic

solutions to African governments that only have a rudimentaryknowledge of many technological problems. Chinese takeovers of 

African telecommunication systems demonstrate conclusively that

outcomes of negotiations on technical questions cannot be predicted

from the gross power of the participants while it relies on knowledge.

One final variable involving costs and commitments should also be

identified   ( Holsti   124 ) . Chinas success in wielding influence over

African states is also related to the extent to which the objectives of all

the countries involved are compatible,   or the degree of commitment

each government has toward those objectives. Chinas influence is

indeed based on strong engagement factors that have a mutual resolve for

African states. Focac members are aware that commitment serves their

interests and that cooperation is preferred to defection.

4. Persuasive Diplomacy

Chinas persuasion politics are regarded as an identifiable mode of 

connecting with the thoughts, beliefs, and behaviors of African states. The

concept used here refers to negotiations that form the backbone of Chinas

diplomacy with its African partners, and is the formalized process relying on

verbal communication. However,   the parties also use bargaining,   which

can be seen as a broader concept,  including the exchange of verbal as well

as nonverbal communication,   and formal as well as informal exchanges

( Jonsson). Bargaining is an important element in Chinas intentions to

influence the behavior of African leaders and officials because it ischaracterized by the coincidence of cooperative,   conflicting,   and

interdependent decisions. As such,   Focac is an example in which member

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states and China aggregate conflicting and similar interests into a single

decision. Regardless of a formal decision rule,   an element of negotiationusually precedes social decisions,   and negotiation is the primary and

predominant mode of reaching joint decisions   ( Zartman & Jeffrey ):

“Without common interest, there is nothing to negotiate for, and without

conflict, nothing to negotiate about” (Ikle  2).

Interdependence between China and Africa entails the need for

mutual rather than unilateral action and renders the best course of action

by individual actors dependent on the behavior of others   ( Jonsson) .

China and African parties may exchange nonverbal signs,   orbargaining. Each party is aware that their own actions are being

interpreted and anticipated,   and each acts with a view to the

expectations that they create  ( Schelling  ) . The proposals put forward by

Chinese diplomats ostensibly influence the realizations of common

interests for African actors and lead to reaching an agreement. By

initiating and discussing proposals with African countries in Focac,

China can use persuasion as an influencing technique to elicit favorable

responses without holding out the possibility of punishments. The

assumption is that China does not exercise influence to go against the

wishes of the Focac members, and that cooperation is based on only two

outcomes:   the one favoring China and the other favoring Focac. This

results in reciprocal interaction that leads to positive results for both

parties and the gaining of rewards in the future. For example,   China

promises different types of rewards to Focac members if they comply

with Chinas wishes. In order to gain the diplomatic support of African

countries at multilateral organizations,   such as the United Nations,   the

nonaligned movement and southsouth relations in general,  China mayoffer to increase foreignaid payments and lower tariffs on imported

goods. The offering of rewards plays an important role in the

negotiations at Focac and keeps members committed to the agendas

being discussed. In some instances,  China also grants rewards to African

countries on issuespecific contexts,   such as communication facilities.

The huge investment drives to develop the telecommunication

infrastructure of African countries shows that rewards are offered on the

premises of compliance. First,   African states accept that China has theability to improve the communication sector and complies with the rules

of the trade. Second,   the rewards are seen as an incentive that can

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strengthen future cooperation in communication,   and lowers the

possibility of punishments. For example,   China can protractnegotiations and slow down the overall development of the

communications sector,   which will have a negative impact for African

countries that intend to comply with Chinas future negotiations on

communication and technology. In some instances,   African countries

insist that China provide a reward before they will comply with Chinas

demands. The building of schools and roads in postconflict societies

serves as an example where the actions China takes to repair the

countrys infrastructure are more important than the discussions betweendiplomats at the negotiating table. The new African Union headquarters

office in Addis Abbeba,   completely built by China,   illustrates African

states compliance with Chinas preferences regarding future behavior

(African Union Opens ChineseFunded HQ in Ethiopia,   2012) . A

statement released by the AU revealed that the building of the new AU

Conference and Office Complex free of charge to the AU is testimony

to the real value this partnership brings to Africa   (The African Union,

2012) . The perception is also shared by the Chinese decisionmakers

who believe that both parties are,   or will be,   in a relationship of 

significant interdependence,   and that future behavior with the AU

consequently could exercise either a harmful or beneficial impact on

China. China also examines the economic behavior of some African

countries,   and if the behavior is favorable to the advancement of its

economic interests,   preferential trade agreements are established   (Zero

tariff trade to aid African trade,   2005) . However,   Chinese decision

makers will make probability predictions about the future behavior of the

countries they want to sign deals with before trade agreements aresigned. The decisionmakers might ask what the target countries are

likely to do in the absence of any conscious influence attempt by China.

5. Conclusion

Two aspects of power are identified in this paper:   the first one is the set

of national attributes or capabilities China uses to convert resources intoinstruments of foreign policy and second,   the actual set of interactions

between China and the African states deemed important for achieving

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their respective goals. In looking at Chinas influence over African states,

power means the ability to have an impact on the behavior of Africanactors,   to affect opportunities available and their willingness to choose

particular courses of action. Chinas power influence is not concerned

with a comparison of capabilities built on sets of national attributes but

more with the ability to overcome obstacles and influence outcomes. This

is a useful formulation because it indicates that China uses power as an

ability to get what it wants and to achieve a desired outcome through

changing the behavior of African states. The interactions do not mean

that China influences every outcome or controls African social andphysical environments. Control over African states would mean these

actors have lost all autonomy and have no decisionmaking capacity. The

influence is also not one of establishing authority because authority is

something that can only emerge in legitimate relationships,   which   ex

hypothesis  do not exist between states  (Brown & Ainley  90). An essential

feature of the nature of authority is that those over whom it is exercised

acknowledge that those exercising it have a right to do so,   they are

authorized to act. In international relations there is no authority in this

sense of the term, or at least not with respect to issues of any real political

significance (Brown & Ainley   90) . China would rather like to control

the African environment and not control the sovereign,   independent

status or legitimacy of African states. By exercising power over the

environment a method is established by which the Chinese government

can achieve their outcomes and not depend on changing the behavior of 

states alone. China uses behavioral power to a great extent in influencing

the thoughts,   beliefs,   and ideas of the leaders of these states and move

diplomacy and negotiations in a certain direction. Even though Chinainfluences African states to halt a course it is already pursuing or to

commence with a course of action it is not pursuing,   an exercise of 

power known as compliance and explained by the model of Singer,   it

stops short of coercive diplomacy. Looking at Chinas interaction with

African states and its role in Focac,   coercive diplomacy or   “ forceful

persuasion”   that relies on the threat of force or the threat to use force will

not include positive inducements from its African partners. The influence

techniques explained in the study aim to induce SinoAfrican powerrelationships through compliance and negotiation without resorting to the

use of force by any means. China motivates African states to submit to its

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wishes,  while appearing nonthreatening at the same time. The need for

development capital (money and goods)  and for technical and technologicalskills to build modern economies is very high on the agenda for African

states. Aid from China is therefore very useful in the SinoAfrican influence

relationship. Giving or withholding aid, or attempting to create dependencies

through its use strengthens trading interests and establishes new investments. In

dependency relationships it is said that aid is provided with strings;   the

recipient may be required to buy or trade for goods it does not want or need

if it is to receive the aid it desires. China expects to gain some clear benefit

for its foreign and national security goals through these dependencyrelationships. Attempts to influence the behavior of African states to obtain

outcomes are therefore an indispensable part of its African engagement.

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C o p y r i g h t o f F u d a n J o u r n a l o f t h e H u m a n i t i e s & S o c i a l S c i e n c e s i s t h e p r o p e r t y o f F u d a n      

J o u r n a l o f t h e H u m a n i t i e s & S o c i a l S c i e n c e s a n d i t s c o n t e n t m a y n o t b e c o p i e d o r e m a i l e d t o      

m u l t i p l e s i t e s o r p o s t e d t o a l i s t s e r v w i t h o u t t h e c o p y r i g h t h o l d e r ' s e x p r e s s w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .  

H o w e v e r , u s e r s m a y p r i n t , d o w n l o a d , o r e m a i l a r t i c l e s f o r i n d i v i d u a l u s e .