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The IMPACTS of CLIMATE CHANGE in HONG KONG and the PEARL RIVER DELTA ALEXANDRA TRACY KATE TRUMBULL CHRISTINE LOH November 2006 氣候變化對香港及 珠江三角洲的影響 陸恭蕙 200611

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Page 1: The IMPACTS of CLIMATE CHANGE in HONG KONG and the … · involved with the G8+5 Legislators Climate Change Dialogue in a supporting capacity to help coordinate research for committees’

The IMPACTS ofCLIMATE CHANGE inHONG KONG and thePEARL RIVER DELTA

ALEXANDRA TRACYKATE TRUMBULLCHRISTINE LOH

November 2006

氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

陸恭蕙

2006年11月

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The Impacts of Climate Change in Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta

Table of Contents

Preface

About the Contributors

I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

II. INTRODUCTION

III. CLIMATE CHANGE PREDICTIONS

1. Global Climate Change Predictions

(a)RisingTemperatures

(b)AlteredWeatherPatterns

(c)SeaLevelRise

(d)InteractionBetweenClimateChangeImpactsandHumanActivities

2. Climate Change Predictions for the Greater Pearl River Delta Region

(a)IncreaseinTemperature

(b)Rainfall

(c)Storms

(d)RelativeSeaLevelRise

IV. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS

1. Impacts on Human Health

2. Ecological Impacts

3. Impacts on Infrastructure

(a)CoastalandRiverDefences

(b)GroundTransportation

(c)SeaandRiverPorts

(d)Airports

(e)WaterSupply

(f)PowerSupply

4. Economic Impacts

(a)ApproachtoEconomicAnalysisofClimateChange

(b)PotentialThreats

5. Impact by Industry Sector

(a)Property

(b)SupplyChain

(c)Transportation/Logistics

(d)FinancialServices

V. ADAPTATION

1. Adaptation Strategy Frameworks

2. Responsibility for Adaptation Strategies in the Greater PRD

3. Selected Public Policy Areas for Adaptation

VI. CONCLUSION AND INITIAL RECOMMENDATIONS

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Preface

WeatCivicExchangeaddedclimatechangetoourresearchagendasometimeago,recognisingthatitisacross-cuttingissuethatwillhavesubstantialimpact,notonlyonHongKongbutontheentirePearlRiverDelta.Overthepastyearwehavehadtheopportunitytodiscussclimatechangeissueswithsomeoftheworld’sleadingscientificexpertsonthetopic.Whatwehavelearntreinforcesourconvictionthatthisisanurgentchallengeonanunprecedentedscale,andonethatwillimpactonallofus.OurregionisthewealthiestpartofChina.Alongwithgrowingmaterialwealth,ourecologicalfootprint–andparticularlyourgreen-housegasemissions–haveincreasedexponentially.Wehaveaspecialresponsibilitytocontributetofindingeffectivemitigationmeasuresthatcanhelptoslowtheprocess;aswellasapressingneedtofindwaystoadapttothoseeffectsofclimatechangethatcannotbeforestalled.

Thispaperrepresentsourfirstattempttopulltogethertherelevantmaterials,withtheaimofprovidingabroad-brushviewofhowclimatechangemayaffectHongKong,MacaoandthePearlRiverDelta.Ourkeyrecommendationisthatmoreregion-specificresearchmustbedone.WehavealsotakennoteoftherecentlypublishedSternReview,whichwascommissionedbytheUnitedKingdomgovernment,toassesstheeconomicsofclimatechange.Wenotethereportcallsforurgentaction.Inthisrespect,thisreportthereforedoublesasafundingproposal.CivicExchangeisseekingfurtherfundstoallowustosharpenourfocusontheissueshighlightedhere.

WearegratefultoAlexandraTracyastheleadresearcherandauthorofthisreport.WealsowishtoacknowledgetheimportantcontributionsofKateTrumbull,aswellasthesupportingroleofDarrenLam.WemustalsothankAlexisLauandJimmyFungoftheInstituteoftheEnvironmentattheHongKongUniversityofScienceandTechnologyfortheiradviceonmeteorologyandcli-mate,Dr.JamesHansenoftheGoddardInstitute,NASA,USAonthelatestscientificevidence,andDrTimFlanneryforhisexpertcomment.WewanttoacknowledgeNomisFungandSimonNgforeditingandtranslatingthisreport,andMirrorProductionsforthelayoutanddesign.

ChristineLohChiefExecutiveOfficerNovember2006

Civic Exchange is a non-profit organisation that helps to improve policy and decision-making through research and analysis. The views expressed in this report are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the opinions of Civic Exchange.

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About the Contributors

Alexandra TracyisPresidentofHoiPingVentures,aprivateentityinHongKong,whichisactiveinresearchandconsultingonsustainabilityandinvestmentissuesaswellasprivatewealthmanagement.Previously,shewasChiefFinancialOfficerofastart-upsoftwarecompanyinSingapore,andsubsequentlyranherowncorporatefinanceconsultingbusinessinSingapore.Formanyyears,TracywasaninvestmentbankerinAsia,incorporateandprojectfinance,wheresheadvisedonconstruction,acquisitionandfinancingofmajorinfrastructureprojectsindevelopingcountriesintheregion.TracyhasanMBAfromtheHarvardBusinessSchoolandMAdegreesfromYaleUniversityandCambridgeUniversity.

Christine Loh istheCEOofCivicExchange,andhasworkedonenvironmental issuessincethe�980s.Priortohercurrentposition,shewasamemberoftheHongKongLegislativeCouncilfrom�992to�997andfrom�998to2000,beforestepping-downtocreatethethinktank.Lohisalawyerbytrainingandwasacommoditiestraderfrom�980to�992.SheiscurrentlyinvolvedwiththeG8+5LegislatorsClimateChangeDialogueinasupportingcapacitytohelpcoordinateresearchforcommittees’chairs.

Kate TrumbulltrainedasalawyerinAustralia,anddidabriefstintincommerciallawbeforemovingintothepolicyfieldwiththeNewSouthWalesgovernment.ShejoinedCivicExchangeasaresearcherinAugust2006,focusingonenvironmentalpolicyinHongKongandthegreaterPearlRiverDeltaregion.TrumbulliscurrentlycompletingaMasterofScienceinEnvironmentalManagementdegreeattheUniversityofHongKong.

Darren LamreadsociologyattheUniversityofEssexandUniversityofCambridge.LamworkedwithaprivatefuturologyfirmbeforereturningtoHongKong.HejoinedCivicExchangeasaninterninJune2006.SinceSeptember,LamhasbeenworkinginparttimecapacitywithCivicExchange,focusingonenvironmentalpolicyintheGreaterPearlRiverDeltaregion,andisworkingasaresearcherforapublicaffairsandstrategiccommunicationconsultancy.

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I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

IncreasedconcentrationsofgreenhousegasesintheEarth’satmospherearecausingtheplanet’sclimatetochange.Globally,climatechangewill leadto increasedtemperatures,risingsea levelsandalteredweatherpatterns(including lesspredictableprecipitationandapossibleincreaseintheintensityofstorms).

(a) Changes in sea level, temperatures and precipitation

ThecurrentandpredictedeffectsontheGreaterPearlRiverDelta(“GreaterPRD”)region(HongKong,MacaoandthePearlRiverDelta(“PRD”))largelyreflecttheseglobaltrends.Sealevelsandtemperaturesintheregionhavebeenrisingslowlybutsteadily.HongKong’sannualmeantemperatureispredictedtoriseby�.5°Cbytheendofthiscentury.Whileaverageannualrainfallwilllikelyincreaseonlyslightly,year-to-yearvariabilitywillincrease,meaningmoreyearswitheitherheavierthanusualorlessthanusualrainfall.Althoughthereisnotenoughevidenceatpresenttosaywithcertaintywhethertropicalstormsandtyphoonswillincreaseinfrequency,thescaleofthepotentialdestructionthatwouldoccurifthisdoeseventuatejustifiestakingeveryprecau-tionagainsttherisk.

RisingsealevelsareamatterofgreatconcernparticularlyforthePRD,whereboththephysicalgeography(theSouthernpartofthedeltaliesbetween-0.�mto0.4mrelativetomeansealevel)andtheurbandevelopmentoftheregionrenderitextremelyvulnerable.Within25years,thesealevelalongthecoastofGuangdongProvinceisexpectedtorise�0cm.Thisfigureitselfdoesnotrevealthetrueleveloftherisk:raisingthemeansealevelby�0cmdramaticallyincreasestheeffectofstormsurge(whichoccurswhenhighwindspushingontheoceanandlowpressureatthecentreofthestormcausewatertopileuphigherthantheordinarysealevel).Theresultwillbethatmanyexistingstormdefencesareovertoppedwithincreasingfrequency.Existingcoastalandriverdefencesbuilttoprotectlow-lyingareasoftheGreaterPRDwillbeinadequateifstormsurgesincreaseinheightandmajorfloodingincidentsoccurmorefrequently.

(b) Effects on ecology and human health

Risingtemperaturesarelikelytohaveanegativeimpactonthehealthofpeoplelivingintheregionbyincreasingcardio-respiratoryillnessandmortality,heighteningtheriskofmosquito-bornediseasessuchasmalariaanddenguefever,andcompoundingthealreadyhighlevelsofairpollutionbyacceleratingphotochemicalreactionratesamongchemicalpollutantsintheatmosphere.

Theecologyoftheregion,alreadydamagedbyrapidindustrialisation,willsufferasevereblow.DelicatewetlandecosystemssuchastheWorldHeritage-listedMaiPomarsheswillbeinvadedbyseawater,andifhemmedinbyconcretetheirnaturaladap-tivecapacitywillbeeliminated.

(c) Impacts on transport infrastructure

Therisksofclimatechangeimpactstotheregion’sphysicalinfrastructureappeartohavebeeninadequatelyconsideredbytheauthoritiesandinvestors,ifatall.

TheroadsandrailwaysthatkeeptheGreaterPRDmovingarelikelytosufferdamagefromanyincreaseintemperaturesorriseinsealevel.Higheraveragetemperaturesmaycauseroadsurfacestodeteriorate,rut,orsubside;whilerailwaysmaysuffershrinkagetofoundations,buckledrailsanddistortionofsolderedrails.Stormsandfloodingcancutabove-groundrailwaylinesandfloodundergroundtrainsystems.Theregion’sseaandriverportsarethreatenedbysealevelriseandassociatedeffectsonstormsurgeandflooding.Apartfrominundationofwharfsandbreakwaters,changesinsealevelarelikelytoalterpatternsofsedimentationaroundharbours.This

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couldaddtotheoperatingcostsofports,whicharealreadybattlingsedimentation.ThefiveairportsintheGreaterPRD–includ-ingHongKong’sChekLapKokairport,whichisbuiltonreclaimedland–arevulnerabletoseveredisruptioncausedbystormsandflooding.

(d) Impacts on utilities

SupplyoffreshwaterintheGreaterPRD,alreadylimited,willlikelycomeunderthreatfromlowerrainfallandsealevelriseassoci-atedwithclimatechange.Inyearswithreducedrainfall,boththequantityandqualityoffreshwaterinriverswillbereduced.Sealevelrisecouldpushsaltwaterupstreambyupto�km,orevenasfarasGuangzhou,affectingdrinkingwatersupply.Drainagesystemswillbechallengedbyrisingsea levelscausingback-flowofseawater intostormwaterdrainagepipes.Particularly inconjunctionwithhighrainfallevents,thiswillexacerbateexistingfloodingproblemsonthedeltaicplain.

Supplyoffuelandelectricitycouldbesignificantlyimpactedbyclimatechange.Demandforenergyistemperaturesensitive:theresidential,commercialandindustrialsectorsallincreaseelectricityconsumptionforairconditioningastemperaturesrise.Atthesametime,electricaltransmissioncapacityisdegradedbytemperature.Disruptiontosupplywilloccurifthepowerlinesandpylonsthroughwhichelectricityisdistributedaredamagedbystormsorlandslipsfollowingheavyrain.Inaddition,transportationofrawmaterials,suchascoal,dieselandfueloilcouldbedisruptedbydamagetotransportnetworksdescribedabove.Thehydro-electricdamsthatproduceover20%oftheregion’spowerarealsovulnerabletoclimatechangeeffects:eitherreductionofwaterflowindryyears,or,conversely,dambreakageorovertoppinginextremerainfallevents.

(e) Economic impact

Thedevelopmentofmethodsofanalysingtheeconomicimpactofclimatechangeisatanearlystage.Nevertheless,itispossibletoidentifywaysinwhichthecontinuedeconomicgrowthoftheregion–and,bymultipliereffects,thewiderChineseeconomy–mightbethreatened.Governmentfundsmayhavetobeallocatedtodisastermanagement,aswellastodefensiveinfrastruc-turesuchassea-wallsanddykes.Theresultingpressureonthefinancialresourcesoflocalormunicipalgovernmentsmayleadtoincreasedtaxation,possiblyincludingdirectleviesforfloodcontrolprojects.Businessrevenuesmayfallifdeliveryofmaterialsorfinishedgoodsorsupplyofpoweraredisruptedduetofloodingandstorms.Shippingandtransportationcostscouldalsoincreaseasdisruptionanddelayscausecompaniestomakeshort-termoradhocarrangements.

(f) Impact by industry sector

Theclimatechangeeffectsdescribedabovewill impactdifferentlyonparticular industrysectors.Theproperty,supplychain,transportation/logisticsandfinancialservicessectorsarealllikelytofeeltheimpactsofdisruptionscausedbyheat,floodingandstorms.Theunavoidableconclusionisthatclimatechangeisabusinessissue,andonethatcompaniesintheGreaterPRDwillhavetoaddressintheverynearfutureiftheyaretoavoidriskingreductioninprofitsorevenbusinessfailure.Managingclimatechangerisk,andfactoringclimatechangeimpactsintobusinessplansandinvestmentdecisions,willbecomeincreasinglycriti-cal.

(g) Adaptation

Theoldadage–thatpreventionisthebestcure–holdstrueforclimatechange.Aconcertedandwidespreadefforttoreducegreenhousegasemissionsprovidesthebesthopeforavoidingpotentiallydisastrouseffects.Thatsaid,thelengthoftimethatittakesforexistinggreenhousegasconcentrationstobereabsorbedbytheEarth’snaturalsystemsmeanstheworldisalreadygoingtoexperiencesomelevelofchange.

Therefore,itisnecessarytodeviseanadaptationstrategytoincreasetheresilienceofnatural,humanandeconomicsystemstopossibleclimatechangeeffectsandtoreducethelevelofdamagethatmightotherwiseoccur.Thereisaneedforsuchstrategies

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tobedevelopedtoprotecttheeconomyandcommunitiesoftheGreaterPRD.Keypolicyareasincludeurbanplanning,waterresourcemanagement,floodmanagementsystems,coastalandriverdefence,andlong-termlanduseplanning.

(h) Observations and Initial Recommendations

Aroundtheworld,decision-makersarebeginningtorealisethattheymustbeproactive,andnotmerelyreactive,inthefaceofclimatechange.

OneofthebiggestchallengesforpolicymakersintheGreaterPRDwillbetoallocateresponsibilityformanagingandfundingclimatechangeinitiatives.Attheprovincialandmunicipallevel,itseemsthatgovernmentshavebeenreluctanttoinvestinanyareasthatarenotperceivedtohaveadirectimpactoneconomicgrowth.

There isanurgentneedformore in-depthresearch intoandmodellingofclimatechangeeffects intheGreaterPRD,sothatgovernments,businessesandcitizenscanbetterunderstandwhatneedstobedone.

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II. INTRODUCTION

“The likely speed and magnitude of climate change in the twenty first century will be unprecedented in human experience, posing daunting challenges of adaptation and mitigation for all life forms on the planet”.�

China’sfast-growingcontributiontoclimatechangeiswellrecognised.ThelargestemitterofanthropogenicgreenhousegasesiscurrentlytheUnitedStates,butindustrialisingChinaisalreadyinsecondplaceandcatchinguprapidly.ThePearlRiverDelta(“PRD”)regionofGuangdongProvinceisoneoftheworld’sleadingmanufacturingcentres,itselfbecomingamajorcontributortoChina’semissionstotal.

Figure 1 - Global Atmospheric Concentration of CO2Source: UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library.2

ThephysicalrealitiesofclimatechangearealreadybeingfeltinmanypartsofChina:fromdroughts,tofloods,todemonstrablesealevelrise.ThePRDregion,includingHongKongandMacao(togetherthe“GreaterPRD”),facesaseverethreatontwofronts:firstly,inthatitisparticularlyvulnerabletotheeffectsofclimatechange,especiallyariseinsealevel;andsecondlyinthatitisoneofthewealthiestareasinChina,withmuchtolose.

� Dupont,AlanandPearman,Graeme.HeatingupthePlanet-ClimateChangeandSecurity(Sydney:LowyInstitute,June2006)�4�pp.(Quoteonp.79).[Online].http://www.lowyinstitute.org/Publication.asp?pid=�9�

2 “GlobalatmosphericconcentrationofCO2.”UNEP/GRID-ArendalMapsandGraphicsLibrary.2005.UNEP/GRID-Arendal.26Oct2006http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/global_atmospheric_concentration

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Becauseclimatechangeisexpectedtohappenoverdecadesorcenturies,policymakersseemtosuccumbtothephenomenonof“creepingnormalcy”:thatis,afailuretorecognisefullythatconditionsareworseningbecausethebaselinestandardforwhatis“normal”isgraduallyshifting.�Otherissuesappearfarmoreimmediate,andindustrialdevelopmentandrapideconomicgrowthtendtotakepriorityinthedecisionmakingprocess.Thepurposeofthispaperistodemonstratethatclimatechangeisnotaremotepossibility,andthatitsimpactontheeconomyofthePRDcouldbeconsiderable.

Anyphysicalproblemsordisruptionthatmayoccurasaresultofclimatechangearelikelytohaveadamagingeffectonbusinessoperations.ThePRDhasbeenthemostdynamicregionaleconomyinChinaformorethantwodecades,attractingasignificantpercentageofForeignDirectInvestment(“FDI”)intoChinaandactingasamajorcontributortothecountry’stotalGrossDomesticProduct(“GDP”).TheimpactsofclimatechangeinthePRD,therefore,couldhaveseriouseconomicrepercussionsforthecountryasawhole.

Thispaperbeginswithanoverviewofthescientificdiscussionofthepotentialeffectsofglobalclimatechange,focusingindetailonpredictionsofclimate-relatedchangesfortheGreaterPRD.

Basedupontheseestimatesofenvironmentalchanges,thepaperthenidentifiesanumberoflikelypracticaleffectsonthere-gion’sinfrastructureandbuiltassets;andlooksatpotentialconsequencesofclimatechangefortheeconomyoftheGreaterPRD.Considerablecomputermodelling,forwhichthereisasyetnofirmlyestablishedacademicmethodology,wouldberequiredtoattempttoquantifytheeconomicimpactsofclimatechangeontheGreaterPRD.Whilethatworkfallsoutsidethescopeofthisanalysis,thispaperoutlinesthekindsoffinancialimplicationsthatmayresult.Thelikelyeffectsonselectedindividualindustrysectorsthatareimportanttotheregionarealsoexplored.

Thepaperconcludeswithadiscussionofthemeasuresthatgovernmentandbusinesseswillneedtoconsiderinordertoadapttothesefutureconditions.Complementarytostrategiesformitigation(theefforttolimitclimatechangebyreducinggreenhousegasemissions),astrategyofadaptationtoclimatechangeeffectsisvitalforbothbusinessandgovernment.4

The“adaptivecapacity”ofasystem,asdefinedbytheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(“IPCC”),consistsinitsabilitytoadjusttoclimatechange,tomoderatepotentialdamages,totakeadvantagesofopportunitiesortocopewiththeconse-quences.5AfailuretobuildupadaptivecapacityintheGreaterPRD,inlightoftheregion’sexistingsensitivitytoclimatechangeeffects,willleavetheareaparticularlyvulnerable.Duringthenext�0years,decisionsaboutreplacementandrefurbishmentofmanyoftheassetsintheGreaterPRDwillbemade,togetherwithinvestmentdecisionsonlonger-livedassets,whichmayfacesignificantlyincreasedclimatestressesinthefuture.Inordertosafeguardtheeconomyandsocietyoftheregion,itisessentialthatclimatechangebeincorporatedintodecision-makingprocessesassoonaspossible.

� Diamond,Jared.“WhyDoSomeSocietiesMakeDisastrousDecisions?”LewisThomasPrizeLecture,TheRockefellerInstitute,NewYork,27thMarch200�.

4 Whilstrecognisingthatmitigationeffortsarecrucial,thispaper’spurposeisnottodiscussmitigationstrategiesfortheregion.

5 White,K.S.etal,ClimateChange200�:Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerability(InternationalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),200�).

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Figure 2 - The Pearl River Delta from SpaceSource: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio

III. CLIMATE CHANGE PREDICTIONS

(1) Global Climate Change Predictions

Thereisnowcompellingevidencethathumanactivitiesarechangingtheworld’sclimaterapidly.Inthepastseveralyears,withimprovedclimatechangemeasurementtechniquesandobservationofthespeedofglaciersmeltingintheArcticandAntarctic,somescientistsarepredictingthattheimpactsofclimatechangecouldhappenmuchfasterthanpreviouslythought–althoughitremainsdifficulttobecertainaboutjusthowfast.

TheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(“IPCC”)wassetupbytheWorldMeteorologicalOrganisationandtheUnitedNa-tionsin�986,andisakeypartoftheinternationalregimeforassessingtheimpactofclimatechange.ThemainfunctionoftheIPCCistoprovidegovernmentsandtheinternationalcommunitywithauthoritativescientificassessmentsonclimatechange,itspotentialimpactandthepossibleresponsestrategies.

TheIPCC’sThirdAssessmentReport,releasedin200�,presentedacomprehensivereviewofcurrentandpredictedeffectsofclimatechangeondifferentregionsoftheglobe.TheFourthAssessmentReportisduetobereleasedin2007,6untilwhichtimetheThirdAssessmentReportisviewedasanauthoritativesourceofdata.ThediscussionthatfollowssetsouttheIPCC’sfindings,butalsohighlightsthegrowingbodyofscientificknowledgethatholdsthattheIPCC’spredictions–particularlywithregardtotherateofsealevelrise–areoverlyconservative.

6 IndicationsarethattheFourthReportwillreconfirmwhatisintheThirdReportwithupdatedinformation.

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(a) Rising Temperatures

GreenhousegasesintheEarth’satmosphere(themostimportantbeingwatervapour,carbondioxide,methaneandnitrousoxide)absorbinfrared(heat)radiationthatwouldotherwiseescapefromtheEarth’ssurfaceandatmospheretospace.Heatistrappedwithintheloweratmosphere,causinggradualwarmingoftheEarth.ThisisanaturalphenomenonthatprovidestheconditionsnecessarytosustainlifeonEarth:withoutit,theaveragetemperaturewouldbearound-�8°C.7However,thenaturalchemicalcompositionoftheEarth’satmospherehasbeenalteredbyhumanactivities,enhancingthegreenhouseeffectandcausingtheplanettowarmmorethanusual.

Levelsofgreenhousegasesintheatmospherehaveincreasedduringthelasttwocenturies,largelyasaresultoftheburningoffossilfuels,agricultureandtheclearingofvegetationcoverthatactsasanaturalsinkforcarbondioxide.By20�0,concentra-tionsofcarbondioxidearelikelytobe60%higherthantheywerebeforetheIndustrialRevolution.8

Figure 3 - Increase in Temperature AnomalySource: NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies

TheglobalmeansurfacetemperatureoftheEarthhasincreasedbyapproximately0.6ºCduringthetwentiethcentury.9AccordingtoDr.JamesHansen,DirectoroftheGoddardInstituteattheNationalAeronautics&SpaceAdministration(“NASA”),anincreaseofabout0.5ºCoccurredafter�950,thesameperiodduringwhichman-madegreenhousegasesincreasedby70%.�0TheIPCCpredictsthatgloballyaveragedsurfacetemperaturewillrisebyabout�°C(witharangeof�.4°Cto5.8°Cdependingontheemis-sionscenarios)overtheperiod�990to2�00.��Thiswarmingtrendwillbemoremarkedatthepolesthanattheequator.Eveniflevelsofgreenhousegasesarestabilised,temperatureswillcontinuetoriseforseveraldecades.�2

7 HongKongObservatory,200�,“WhatisGreenhouseEffect?”[Online].http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/greenhs/e_grnhse.htm

8 DupontandPearman:p.�0.

9 Houghton,J.T.etal(eds.),ClimateChange200�:TheScientificBasisContributionofWorkingGroupItotheThirdAssessmentReportoftheIPCC(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,200�).

�0 Hansen,James,“DefusingtheGlobalWarmingTimeBomb”.ScientificAmerican,290No.�,March2004:pp.68-77.[Online]http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/2004/2004_Hansen�.pdf

�� Houghton,J.T.etal:chap.9.

�2 Houghton,J.T.etal:chap.9.

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Thiswarmingisexpectedtohavewide-rangingeffectsonecosystems,aswellassealevelsandweatherpatterns,asdiscussedbelow.Oneofthemostworrisomeeffectsofthewarmingisitseffectontheworld’sicereserves–notonlyintheArctic,AntarcticandGreenland,butalsoonglaciersfarfromtheseathatprovideplant,animalandhumancommunitieswithmeltwateressentialtotheirsurvival.Forexample,a24-yearstudybyscientistsinChinastatedin2004thatthetotalareaofChina’sglaciershadshrunkbyapproximately5.5%sincethe�960s.��Ifcurrentwarmingtrendscontinue,itisestimatedthatasmuchas64%oftheglaciermassmaybegoneby2050.�4Significantmeltingwouldreleaseamoregenerouswatersupplyintheshortterm,buttheflowwouldultimatelydryup,withdevastatingimpactonthe2�%ofChina’spopulationlivinginthewesternregionthatdependsonglacialmeltforsummerwatersupply.�5

Figure 4 - Icebergs CalvingSource: The Goddard Institute of Space Studies

(b) Altered Weather Patterns

Globalwarmingmayresultinalteredweatherpatterns,withpotentiallyseriousimplicationsforsomepartsoftheworld.Whileglo-balaveragerainfallmayincrease,largeryear-to-yearvariationsinrainfallarelikelytooccurovermanyareas,causingextremesofdroughtandflood.Highertemperatureswillincreasetheriskofdroughtinsomeareas,iftherateofwaterevaporationincreaseswithoutacompensatingincreaseinrainfallandsomewatercoursesdryup.Suchconsequencesarehardtopredict,though,asevaporationratesinsomeareashavefallendramaticallyasaresultofincreasedparticulatepollutionandcloudcover.

PartsofnorthernandwesternChinahavebeenenduringseveredroughtsinrecentyears,whichcouldbegreatlyworsenedbycontinuedwarming.

TheThirdAssessmentReportalsoindicatedthathighersurfacetemperaturesmayincreasethefrequencyandseverityofextraor-dinaryweatherevents,suchasstormstriggeredbyclimaticextremessuchasElNiño.�6Analysissuggeststhatweather-relatedeventssuchasfloodsandstormshavealreadyriseninfrequencyandintensitysincethe�950s,andarecentreportbytheinsur-anceindustryestimatesthatlossesrelatedtoclimatechangecouldexceedUS$�00billionayearoverthenextcentury.�7

�� Shi,Yafeng,ChinaGlacierInventory(Shanghai:ShanghaiKexuepujiPress,2005).

�4 YaoTandong,headoftheQinghai-TibetPlateauResearchInstitute.Quotedin“GlacierStudyRevealsChillingPrediction”,ChinaDaily,2�rdSeptember2004.

�5 Stern,Nicholas,“SternReviewontheEconomicsofClimateChange”,November2006,p.6�.[Online].http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/inde-pendent_reviews/stern_review_economics_climate_change/sternreview_index.cfm

�6 Houghton,J.T.etal:chap.9.

�7 MunichRe,Topics2000:NaturalCatastrophes:theCurrentPosition(Munich:MunichReinsuranceCompany,�999)�26pp.

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(c) Sea Level Rise

Risingatmospherictemperaturescausesealevelrisethroughtwomechanisms:bytransferringheatdirectlytotheocean,caus-ingthewatertoexpand;andbycausingland-iceinmountainglaciersandthemajoricesheetstomelt,andthefreshwatertoflowintotheocean.�8AccordingtotheIPCC,sealevelshaverisenbetween�0cmand25cminthetwentiethcentury.�9ResearchdemonstratesthatsealevelsaroundthecoastofChina,forexample,haverisenbyanaveragerateof2.�mmperyearbetween�965and�995,whileoceantemperaturesoffChina’scoasthavealsorisensignificantlyoverroughlythesameperiod.20

TheThirdAssessmentReportprojectedthatglobalmeansealevel(“MSL”)willriseby9-88cm(dependingonemissionscenariosandclimatemodels)by2�00,withacentralvalueof48cm,whichis�.�timestheobservedrateoverthetwentiethcentury.Evenwithdrasticreductionsingreenhousegasemissions,itisexpectedthatsealevelwillcontinuetoriseforcenturiesbeyond2�00becauseofthelongresponsetimeoftheglobaloceansystem.

Thesecalculationsofsealevelrisearebasedonthegradualeffectsofchangesinsnowfall,evaporationandmelting.Othersci-entists,however,believethattheIPCC’sfiguresgreatlyunderestimatetherisks.

AccordingtoHansen,thecriticalfactorinpredictinghowfastsealevelswillriseishowfastthemajoricesheetsrespondtothewarmingoftheocean.Hansenarguesthaticesheetdisintegrationcouldhappenveryrapidly,asrisingsealevelitselftendstoliftmarineiceshelvesanddetachthemfromlandice.Asiceshelvesbreakup,thisacceleratesmovementoflandicetotheocean.Theprocesscouldbefurtheracceleratedbyincreasedabsorptionofsunlightbyicesheetsdarkenedbypollutionormeltwater.2�Thesereinforcingeffectsmeanthattherateofchangewouldbemoderateuntilrealcollapsebegins,afterwhichchangescouldbeextremelyrapid.

Figure 5 - The Southern Tip of the Greenland Ice SheetSource: NASA MODIS Land Rapid Response Team

�8 DupontandPearman:p.7ff.

�9 Houghton,J.T.etal:chap.��.

20 Han,M.etat,“PotentialImpactsofSeaLevelRiseonChina’sCoastalEnvironmentandCities:ANationalAssessment,”JournalofCoastalResearch,SpecialIssue�4,�995:pp.79-95.

2� Hansen:p.74.

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ObservationsoftheArcticicecapleadsomescientiststoarguethatatippingpointhasalreadybeenpassed,afterwhichicelosscanonlyaccelerate.By2004,theicecaphadlostover20%ofitsextentaswellasmuchofitsthickness,promptingscientiststowarnthatitmaymeltawayentirelyinsummerby2�00.Duringsummerof2005,themeltrateacceleratedsharply,shrink-ingtheArcticicecapby�00,000km2.NewestimatesoftherateofmeltoftheGreenlandicecap,obtainedin2006fromtwostationarysatellites,indicatethatGreenland’siceisvanishingatarateof2�5km�peryear.ExtrapolatingfromhistoricclimateconditionsmanycenturiesagowhenhighertemperaturesmeltedmuchoftheGreenlandicecap,somescientistsestimatethatiftheGreenlandicesheetwerenowtocollapseentirely,world-widesealevelcouldriseby6m.22

Figure 6 - Increase in Melt Area of Greenland Ice SheetSource: Konrad Steffen and Russell Huff, CIRES, University of Colorado at Boulder

Itisbeyondthescopeofthispapertoevaluatethescientificevidencefortherateandextentofsealevelrise.DespitetheworkcarriedoutbytheGoddardInstituteandotherorganisations,thereisstillabodyofconsensusaroundthemoreconservativeIPCCforecasts.SincethepurposeofthisstudyistodemonstratethatevenaverysmallchangeinclimatecouldhaveenormousrepercussionsfortheGreaterPRD,thispaperusesestimatesbasedonIPCCforecastsasbasecaseassumptions.However,itisimportanttonotethatthepaceofchangecouldbemuchmorerapid.

Allseaboardsarevulnerabletosomedegreetotheeffectsofsealevelrise.2�Evenasmallincreaseinaveragesealevel,aspredictedbytheIPCC,hasthreateningimplicationsforcoastalcommunitiesbecausehistoricalbenchmarksforhightideorspringtidelevelswouldbesurpassedandtheycouldbehitbyfargreaterstormsurge.

22 NASA,,“GreenlandIceSheetFlowsFasterDuringSummerMelting”,NASANewsArchive,6thJune,2002.[Online].http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NasaNews/2002/2002060694��.html

2� DelaVega-Leinert,A.C.etal(eds.),ProceedingsoftheSURVASExpertWorkshoponEuropeanVulnerabilityandAdaptationtoAcceleratedSea-LevelRise.Hamburg,,�9-2�June2000(Enfield:FloodHazardResearchCentre,MiddlesexUniversity,2000)�52pp.

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Figure 7 - Storm SurgeSource: NASA’s Earth Observatory24

Stormsurge,whichisassociatedwithalowpressureweathersystemlikeatyphoon,occurswhenhighwindspushingontheoceanandlowpressureatthecentreofthestormcausewatertopileuphigherthantheordinarysealevel.25Stormsurges,particularlywhentheyoccurduringahightide,cancauseconsiderabledamagetocoastalcommunities.WithMSLriseof50cm(closetothecentralleveloftheIPCC’sThirdAssessmentReport’sestimate),computermodellingindicatesthatnearly92millionpeopleperyearworldwidewouldbeaffectedbyflooding.26

(d) Interaction Between Climate Change Impacts and Human Activities

Thenaturalconsequencesofclimatechangeareexacerbatedbyhumanactivityandurbandevelopment.Changestowaterta-blesandnaturalwatercoursesmayincreasesalinisationandfloodflows,forexample,whiledeforestationandlanddegradationworsendrought-inducedduststormsandsoilerosionevents.

Theeffectsofsealevelrisemaybecompoundedbythesubsidenceofcoastal lands.RapiddevelopmentofcoastalcitiesinChina,whichhasledtoenormousover-exploitationofgroundwater,hasacceleratedgroundsubsidenceinmanyareas.27DeltaiccoastsinChinaarealreadyencounteringsevereproblemsofrelativesealevelriseasaconsequenceoftectonicallyandanthro-pogenicallyinducedlandsubsidence.28

Manylocalenvironmentsarealreadyareunderpressureasaresultofacombinationoffactors,includingincreasedpopulationpressure,habitatdestructionandseverepollution.Theeffectsofclimatechangewillcreateanadditionalandlargelydeleteri-ousseriesofimpactsonalreadyover-stressednaturalresources,withthepotentialforseriousecologicalandsocio-economicconsequences.

24 [Online].http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Hurricanes/Images/storm_surge.gif

25 UniversityofIllinoisDepartmentofAtmosphericSciences,“StormSurge–aconcerntocoastalresidents,”(n.d.)[Online].http://ww20�0.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hurr/damg/surg.rxml

26 Baarse,G.,DevelopmentofanOperationalToolforGlobalVulnerabilityAssessment(GVA)-UpdateoftheNumberofPeopleatRiskDuetoSeaLevelRiseandIncreasedFloodingProbability(TheHague:CZMCentre,MinistryofTransport,PublicWorksandWaterManagement,�995)�7pp.

27 ChineseStateOceanicAdministration,“BulletinonSeaLevels”,February2004.

28 Watson,Robert,Zinyowera,MarufuandMoss,Richard,TheRegionalImpactsofClimateChange:AnAssessmentofVulnerability(IPCC,2000)��0pp.[Online].http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/regional/275.htm

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(2) Climate Change Predictions for the Greater Pearl River Delta Region

Accuratepredictionsofclimatechangeeffectsbecomeevenmoredifficultatthesub-systemlevel,astherearemanymorefac-torstoconsider.29SpecificestimatesoftheeffectsintheGreaterPRDaresubjecttoahighdegreeofuncertaintyandarethesubjectofdebate.Nevertheless,publishedclimateprojectionsfortheGreaterPRDbroadlyconcurwiththeIPCC’sanalysis.

TheGreaterPRDencompassesHongKong,MacaoandthePRDofsouth-centralGuangdongProvince,analluvialplainformedbythelowerWest,NorthandEastRiversofthePearlRiverwatersystem,characterisedbyanetworkofcriss-crossingriversandlowelevations.�0GroundlevelinthedeltaisclosetoMSL,withthenorthernandcentralpartslyingat0.4-2.4maboveMSLandthesouthernpartofthedeltaslightlylower,rangingfrom0.4mto-0.�mrelativetoMSL.��

ThePRDisthethird-largestdeltainChina,withapopulationofover40million,accordingtothecensusin2000.�2Asametro-politanregion,theGreaterPRDisanchoredbythecitiesofHongKongandGuangzhou,andwelloverhalfthepopulationarenowurbanresidents.Since�979,theareabetweenHongKongandGuangzhouandaroundMacaohasbeenrapidlydeveloped,andformeragriculturallandconvertedtoindustrialuse.

Figures 8 & 9 - Hong Kong and Shenzhen from Space in 1979 & 2004

29 DupontandPearman:p.�6.

�0 Yang,H.“Potentialeffectsofsea-levelriseinthePearlRiverDeltaarea:Preliminarystudyresultsandacomprehensiveadaptationstrategy”,inSmith,J.N.etal(ed.),AdaptingtoClimateChange:AnInternationalPerspective(NewYork:Springer-Verlag,�996)475pp.

�� Huang,Zhenguoetal,“CoastalinundationduetosealevelriseinthePearlRiverDelta,China”,NaturalHazards��,2004:pp.247-264.

�2 Enright,Michaeletal,TheGreaterPearlRiverDelta(HongKong:InvestHK,�rdedition,October2005)�46pp.[Online]http://www.investhk.gov.hk/doc/InvestHK_GPRD_Booklet_English57�.pdf

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Figure 10 - Land use in Greater PRD: red colour represents urbanised areas.The image on the left is from 2004; the image on the right is from 1990.

Source: Institute for the Environment, HKUST

ThenorthernfringeofthedeltaicplainwasreclaimedasearlyastheTangDynasty(around�,400yearsago).Thespeedofreclamationhasgraduallyincreasedsincethen,andduringthelast50years,reclaimedlandsweremergedintojustover�00enclosures,protectedbyflooddefences.��MuchofthelandthathasbeenrecentlydevelopedintourbanareasandindustrialfacilitiesliesinthefloodplainofthePearlRiveranditstributaries.

Duetoitstopography,thehistoryoflandreclamationandthefactthatmuchoftheareaisanaturalfloodplain,theGreaterPRDhasalwaysbeenunderthreatfromnaturalhazardssuchasriverortidalflooding,typhoonsandsalinewaterintrusion.Thesehazardswillbeintensifiedbyclimatechange.Thesectionsthatfollowlookatpredictedchangesintemperature,rainfall,stormsandsealevelintheregion.

(a) Increase in Temperature

BasedondatacollectedbytheNationalClimateCentreoftheChinaMeteorologicalAdministrationfrom28stationsinsouthernChinafortheperiod�95�-2000,theHongKongObservatory(“HKO”)hasconfirmedthataveragetemperaturesintheregionhaveincreased.�4TheannualmeantemperatureattheHKOheadquartershasalsorisenbyapproximately0.�2°Cperdecadesince�885(approximately�.44°Cintotal).�5

�� Huang:p.249.

�4 IthasbeendifficulttoestablishaclearhistoricalrecordfortemperaturesexperiencedindifferentpartsofChina.SomeIPCCdatasuggeststhatoverthepastonehundredyears,therehasbeena�°C-2°CtemperaturedecreaseintheeasternhalfofsouthChina,exceptforthecoastalarea.(Watson,ZinyoweraandMoss:p.265.)MorerecentstudieshaveconfirmedawarmingtrendforChinaasawhole(WangZetal,“Anupdat-inganalysisoftheclimatechangeinChina”,ACTAMet.Sinica.62,2004),andreportthatsouthernChinahasalsoexperiencedwarmingoverthelastfiftyyears(Wang,Zetal,“Impactofclimatechangeonagriculture”,,inQin,D.(ed.)PopularTopicsonGlobalClimateChangeSeries,200�).Itisbelievedthatwarmingwillcontinueuntiltheendofthiscentury.(Hui,JandErda,L,“BuildingadaptivecapacityforsustainablefoodproductioninChina”,2006.[Online]http://developmentfirst.org/Dakar/adaptivesustainablefoodproductionchina_hui&erda.pdf).

�5 Leung,Y.K.etal,“ClimateForecasting–WhatTheTemperatureAndRainfallInHongKongAreGoingToBeLikeIn�00Years”(HongKong:HongKongObservatory,2006)�4pp.[Online].http://www.science.gov.hk/paper/HKO_YKLeung.pdf

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TheHKOhasalsopublishedpredictionsoftemperatureinHongKonginthelastdecadeofthiscenturyrelativetotheperiod�96�-�990.�6Bytheendofthiscentury,theHKOpredictsthatannualmeantemperatureswillhaverisenby�.5ºC.Theannualnumberofveryhotdays(maximumtemperatureof��ºCorabove)insummerwillroughlydouble,risingfrom��daysto24days;whilehotnights(minimumtemperatureof28ºCorabove)willriseto�0peryear–fourtimesthecurrentnormallevel.Thenumberofcolddays(minimumtemperatureof�2ºCorbelow)inwinterwilldecreasefrom2�tolessthanonedayperyear.�7

Figure 11 - Past and Projected Annual Mean Temperature for Hong KongSource: Hong Kong Observatory

SimilareffectsarelikelytobefeltintheGreaterPRDasawhole,withaparticularimpactonitscities,manyofwhichalreadyexperiencethe“urbanheatislandeffect”(i.e.highertemperaturesindenselybuilt-upurbanareasduetoheatemittedfrombuild-ingsandthecharacteristicsoftheairflow).

(b) Rainfall

SimulationshaverevealedthatrainfallinEastAsiaandChinawouldincreaseunderascenarioofdoubledcarbondioxideconcen-tration.�8TheHKOpredictsthataverageannualrainfallwillincreasebyabout�%perdecadeinthe2�stcentury.ThisresultissimilartothatobtainedforGuangdongbytheNationalClimateCentreoftheChinaMeteorologicalAdministration.�9

�6 Leungetal:p.�.

�7 Leungetal:,p.�ff.

�8 Zhao, Z. et al, “Advancesondetection andprojection of impacts of humanactivity upon climate changeoverEast Asia andChina”, in�999-2002 China National Report on Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences for the 2�rd General Assembly of International Union of Ge-odesy and Geophysics June �0-July �� 200� (Beijing: China Meteorological Press, 200�). [Online]. http://led.scsio.ac.cn/IAMAS/0�%20ADVANCES%20ON%20DETECTION.htm

�9 Leungetal:p.4.

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Thisadditionalrainfallwillnotbeevenlyspread:theHKOalsowarnsthatyear-to-yearvariabilityinrainfallwillincrease,meaningmoreyearswitheitheraboveaverageorbelowaveragerainfall.40Bytheendofthiscentury,thenumberofheavyraindays4�inayearisprojectedtoincreasebyaroundonedayperyear.42

SimilarweatherpatternsarelikelytooccurthroughouttheGreaterPRD,withallowancesforlocalanomalies.Giventheexpectedvariabilityinfuturerainfall,itisnecessarytoexamineawiderangeofimpactsontheregionthatcouldbecausedbydifferentweatherpatterns.

Intheyearsof lowrainfall, therewillbe increasedpressureonwaterresources intheGreaterPRD,whicharealreadyunderenormousstressfromincreasedpopulation,urbandevelopmentandlarge-scalemanufacturingoperations,manyofwhichareextremelywater-intensive.AgriculturalandindustrialwaterusageinChinatendstobeextremelyinefficientandthewatersectorinfrastructureinthePRDisofteninadequatetomeetthedemandsbeingmadeuponit.

Conversely, heavy and prolonged rainfall may produce excess run-off (rainwater that neither evaporates nor penetrates thesurfacetobecomegroundwater4�),whichwillincreasetherisksofflooding(alreadyaseriousproblemthroughouttheGreaterPRD)andlandslidedamage.Thiswouldimpactbuildingsandinfrastructure,andcauseregulardisruptiontotransportationandbusinessactivities.Evenahighly-developedcitycansufferheavylossesfromasingleheavyrainepisode.Forexample,theheavyrainassociatedwithTyphoonNariinSeptember200�causedseverefloodinginTaipei,inflictinganinsureddamageofaroundUS$500million.44

Figure 12 - Landslide Damage in Hong KongSource: Norwegian Geotechnical Institute

40 TheHKOpredictsthattherewillbe6yearswithannualrainfallabove�,�4�mm(thehighestrainfallrecordedattheHKOheadquartersinthepast�20years)and�yearswithannualrainfalllessthan90�mm,thelowestfigurefor�20years.

4� Thatis,dayswithhourlyrainfallgreaterthan�0mm,whichisoneofthecriteriaforissuinganAmberRainstormwarning.

42 TheHKOpredictsthatthenumberofdayswithheavyrainfallwillincreasefromthe�96�-�990normalof5.6daysto6.5days:Leungetal:p.5.

4� UniversityofIllinoisDepartmentofAtmosphericSciences,“Runoff:TransferofLandwatertotheOceans”,[Online].http://ww20�0.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/run.rxml.

44 MunichReGroup,Megacities-Megarisks.TrendsandChallengesforInsuranceandRiskManagement(Munich:MunichReGroup,2004).

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(c) Storms

Thereissomedebateamongclimatescientistsconcerningtheimpactofglobalwarmingonthefrequencyandintensityoftropi-calcycloneactivity.

Notheoreticalbasiscurrentlyexistsforprojectingchangesinthefrequencyoftropicalcyclones,45andtheHKOrecentlycon-firmedthatthereisnotyetadefinitiveanswertowhethertropicalcycloneactivityhasorwillincreaseduetoglobalwarming.46Indeed,observationsoverthelast40yearssuggestthattheannualnumberoftropicalcycloneslandingoverthesouthChinacoastwithin�00kmofHongKonghasbeendecreasingatarateofabout0.�7perdecade,fromabout�inthe�960stoabout2.5inthe�990s.47ScientistsfromtheHongKongUniversityofScienceandTechnology(“HKUST”)believethatwarmingofthewesternPacificwarmpoolmaycausetyphoonstotrackfurthereast,meaningthattheywillbemorelikelytomissHongKongandhitJapan-thiswouldinfactbelikelytoresultinmorerainfalloverHongKong,andsoincreasetheriskofflooding.

Thereissomeemergingevidence,however,tosuggestthatrisingseasurfacetemperaturescouldleadtoanincreaseintheintensityoftropicalcyclones.48Somescientistsclaimtohaveidentifiedatrendoverthepast�0yearstowardmorefrequentandintensetropicalcyclones49–atrendthattheysaycanbedirectlylinkedtowarmerseasurfacetemperatures.50Theseclaimshave,however,sparkedcontroversyamongstthescientificcommunity,withanalternativeviewthattherecentincreaseinoccur-renceofintensetyphoonsisnotatrend,butpartoflargeinterdecadalvariationsoftropicalstormactivity.5�

SomeChinesescientistsmaintainthattheunusualferocityofthe2006typhoonseason,whichbeganaboutamonthearlierthanusualandhasleftthousandsdeadinsouthernChina,wasrelatedtoglobalwarming.QinDahe,DirectoroftheChinaMeteorologi-calAdministration,recentlysaidthat“againstthebackdropofglobalwarming,moreandmorestrongandunusualclimaticandatmosphericeventsaretakingplace.Thestrengthoftyphoonsisincreasing,thedestructivenessoftyphoonsthathavemadelandfallisgreaterandthescopeinwhichtheyaretravellingisfartherthannormal.”52

45 Landsea,Chris, “FrequentlyAskedQuestions–WhatMayHappen toTropicalCycloneActivitydue toGlobalWarming?”,AtlanticOceano-graphicandMeteorologicalLaboratory,HurricaneResearchDivision,October,2005.[Online].http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G�.html.

46 Yeung,K.H.,“KeynoteAddressIII.Issuesrelatedtoglobalwarming–myths,realitiesandwarnings”,HongKongObservatory,June2006.�6pp.[Online].http://www.weather.gov.hk/publica/reprint/r647.pdf

47 HongKongObservatory,“Globalwarming-theHongKongconnection”,August200�.[Online].http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/news/200�/pre080�e.htm

48 Landsea,Chris.

49 Webster,P.J.etal,“Changesintropicalcyclonenumber,durationandintensityinawarmingenvironment”,Science�6thSeptember2005,Vol.�09No.5742:pp.�844-�846.

50 Webster,P.J.etal,“ResponsetoCommenton‘ChangesinTropicalCycloneNumber,DurationandIntensityinaWarmingEnvironment’”,Sci-ence24March2006,Vol���No.5768p.�7��c;andHoyos,C.D.etal,“DeconvolutionoftheFactorsContributingtotheIncreaseinGlobalHurricaneIntensity”,Science��2(5770),7thApril2006:p.94.

5� Forexample,Chan,JohnnyC.L.,“Commenton“ChangesinTropicalCycloneNumber,Duration,andIntensityinaWarmingEnvironment”,Science���(5768),24thMarch2006:p.�7��b.[Online]http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/���/5768/�7��b;Yeungetal:p.9

52 AgenceFrancePress,“WarmingReportedlyBehindChina’sKillerTyphoons”,Beijing,�5thAugust2006. [Online].http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2006/08/�5/200��2�278

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Asitis,typhoonsregularlyhitsouthernChinaandcancauseenormousdestructionandlossoflifewheretheymakelandfall.Forexample,TyphoonPrapiroon,inAugust2006,killedoverfiftypeopleandcausedanestimatedUS$675millionindamagesinGuangdongProvincealone.5�Inthesamemonth,TyphoonSaomai,themostpowerfultohitChinafor50years,wreckedmorethan50,000homesandsankover�,000ships.54Violentwindstormsbringadditionalloadstobearonbuildings,affectingbothstructuralandnon-structuralelements,55andthreatenpowerlinesandotherinfrastructure.Highwindspeedsalsoaffectthesafeuseofequipmentsuchascranesandscaffolding,causingregulardisruptiontoconstructionandtotheoperationofmajorfacili-ties,suchasportsandairports.

Evenifthereisnochangetothecurrentleveloftropicalcycloneactivity,thedestructionwreakedbystormsoncoastalregionscanbeexpectedtoincreasebecauseofhigherstormsurgesassociatedwithhighersealevels.Thelikelihoodandfrequencyofovertoppingandbreachesofcoastaldefenceswillbegreatlyincreased.IfclimatechangedoesinfactleadtomorefrequentormoreviolenttropicalstormshittingtheGreaterPRDregioninthefuture,thedamageinflictedbythesesevereweathereventscouldbeintensifiedevenfurther.

Figure 13 - Storm Surge, Supertyphoon 18W (Bilis), August 2000.Photograph by Geoff Mackley.

(d) Relative Sea Level Rise

AnumberofdetailedstudieshavebeencarriedoutinChinaoverthelast�0-�5yearsthatattempttopredictrelativesealevelriseintheGreaterPRDandtheconsequentriskoffloodingandinundationofpartsoftheregion.Thereisstillagreatdealofworktobedonetoreachagreementontheextentoftheriseinsealevel,itseffectsonwaterlevelsintheestuaryandriversystemsandtheconsequentimpactontheregion.

Thereisaconsensus,however,thatsealevelriseofsomemagnitudeishappeningandwillcontinuetotakeplaceintheGreaterPRD,andthatboththephysicalgeographyandurbandevelopmentoftheregionrenderitextremelyvulnerabletotheeffectsof

5� DartmouthFloodObservatory2006GlobalRegisterofMajorFloodEvents,2ndOctober,2006.[Online].http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2006sum.htm

54 AssociatedPress,“ChinaDeathTollFromTyphoonClimbsto��9”,MSNBCWeather,�5thAugust2006.[Online].http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/�4284650/

55 EconomicCommissionforLatinAmericaandtheCaribbean(ECLAC),ManualforEstimatingtheSocio-EconomicEffectsofNaturalDisasters(WashingtonD.C.:UnitedNations,�999)295pp.

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thatsealevelrise.Manylowlandareasarelikelytobeinundated.56ResearchledbyDuBilanofChina’sNationalBureauofOcea-nographyin2002notedthattheGreaterPRDisoneoftheregionsmostvulnerabletorisingsealevels.57

InvestigationbytheChineseAcademyofSciencesin�994foundthatnaturalprogradation(seawardchangeintheshapeofthecoastlineduetobuild-upofsediment)ofthecoastandactivelandreclamationactivitieshaveresultedinannualsealevelriseof0.5-�mminthedistributariesintheestuarinearea,whichisexpectedtocontinueforsometime.TheAcademypredictedthatsealevelinthePRDwillrise�5-�0cmby20�0,�0-40cmby20�0and40-60cmby2050.58Becauseofverticalcrustalmove-mentvariations,groundsubsidenceandrisingestuarylevels,therateatwhichthesealevelriseswilldifferinvariouspartsofthedelta.59

Inaneight-yearstudypublishedin200�,theGuangdongAcademyofSciencesannouncedthatthesealevelalongthecoastofGuangdongProvinceisrisingat�cmeachyearandcouldrise�0cmby20�0.AccordingtocalculationsbyChina’sNationalMa-rineDataandInformationService,ifsealevelrises�0cm,itcouldinundateanareaof�,�54km2ofcoastalregionsandislandsatitshighesttidemark.Guangzhou,DoumenCountyandFoshanareparticularlyvulnerabletoflooding.60

ArecentstudybyZhenguoHuangetal(the“HuangResearch”),basedontidalrecordsofHongKongandMacaoandfactorssuchasestuarinebackwatereffectsandlong-termsubsidence,agreesthatariseofapproximately�0cminrelativesealevelatthemouthofthePearlRiverestuaryispossibleby20�0.6�Theresearchalsopointsoutthatsealevelwillvaryatdifferentpointswithintheestuary,reflectingestuarinebackwatereffectsandotherphysicalfactors.

FloodingisalreadyarecurrentprobleminmanypartsofthePRD,includingmanyurbanareas.Forexample,Guangzhouregularlyfloodsafterheavyrainsorhightides.FloodingisalsoaconcerninHongKong,whererurallow-lyingareas,naturalfloodplainsinthenorthernpartoftheterritoryandsomelocationsintheolderurbanareassufferseriousfloodingduringheavyrain.62

Figures 14 & 15 - Flooding in Guangzhou (Left) & Foshan (RIght)Source: www.ycwb.com (left), www.news.bbc.co.uk (right)

56 Yang:p.265ff.

57 Zhang,Zhiping,“RisingSeasThreatenCoastalCities”,BeijingReview,47no.9,4thMarch2004:pp.24-25.[Online].http://www.bjreview.com.cn/200409/Nation-200409(A).htm

58 EarthScienceDivision,ChineseAcademyofSciences(eds.), ImpactofSeaLevelRiseontheDeltaicRegionsofChinaanditsMitigation(Beijing:SciencePress,�994)�5�pp.(inChinese)

59 Yang:p.267ff.

60 Heng,Li,“GuangzhouLikelytobeInundatedDuetoRiseofSeaLevelby20�0”People’sDaily,25thJuly200�.[Online].http://english.people.com.cn/200�07/25/eng200�0725_�20967.shtml

6� Huang:p.254.

62 FungWingYee,CharacterisingtheClimateChangeImpactinHongKong(HongKong:EnvironmentalProtectionDepartment,2004):��2pp.[Online].http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/studyrpts/files/Climate_Change_Report_final.pdf

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CoastalandriverfloodingintheGreaterPRDisinfluencedbyseveralfactors:rainfall,hightide,highwindsandtyphoonsandstormsurge.Duetobackwatereffectsandthefunnel-likeshapeoftheestuary,waterlevelsarehigherupstream.Acombinationofweatherandtidalfactorsthatcauseswaterlevelstoreachmorethan�misalreadywell-knowninpartsofthePearlRiverestuary.AccordingtotheHuangResearch,thepresent-daymaximumtidalrangeincreasesup-estuaryfrom2.�4mnearHongKong,to�.��matZhewanand�.�5matNansha.6�A�0cmriseinsealevelwouldhaveasignificantimpactonthehightidelevelsintheGreaterPRD.Similarly,increasedsealevelwouldmagnifytheeffectofstormsurges.Ontheoccasionswhenalltheseweatherandtidalfactorscoincide,stormsurgeintheregioncanbedramatic.Whensealevelriseisaddedintotheequation,thepotentialforextensivefloodingisconsiderable.

ExtensivemodellingworkhasbeencarriedoutbytheInstitutefortheEnvironmentatHKUSTinordertoassesstheimpactofsealevelriseduringfloodseasonsandtoestimatethegeographicalextentofpossiblefuturefloodingintheGreaterPRD.Projectionshavebeendevelopedassumingarangeofscenariosinwhichsealevelsinthedeltaareincreased,duetohightideorstormsurge,andfloodingoverwhelmsanycoastaldefencesthatmayhavebeenconstructed.ThefollowingsimulationsillustratetheareaoflandintheGreaterPRDthatwouldbeunderwaterifwaterlevelsweretorisebetween�and6mabovetoday’sMSL.

Figure 16 - Greater PRD at today’s mean sea level(light blue represents sea and dark blue represents the most low-lying land)

6� Huang:p.25�.

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Figure 17 - Greater PRD if water level rises 3m - (average level of severe floods today):Inundation of Guangzhou Metropolitan Area, Zhuhai and Jiangmen, as well as floodplain.

Figure 18 - Greater PRD if water level Rises 4m: inundation of almost entire areabetween Zhuhai, Jiangmen and Guangzhou, flooding towards Dongguan.

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Figure 19 - Greater PRD if water level rises 6 m: inundation spreads further intoWestern PRD and around Dongguan; Hong Kong severely affected.

Source: Institute for the Environment, HKUST

Return periods

Overthelast40years,�90floodeventswererecordedat�9tidegaugesintheGreaterPRD.Usingthese,theHuangResearchcalculatedbase-line“returnperiods”(i.e.thetimeperiodbetweenonefloodofacertainmagnitudeandthenextoneofthesamemagnitude)andprojectedfuturereturnperiodsassumingasealevelriseof�0cm.Forasignificantportionofthedelta,itisexpectedthatreturnperiodswouldbesignificantlyreduced,sothat,forexample,afloodlevelthathistoricallyoccurredonlyoncein�00yearsmayinfuturehappenoncein50or20years.64

SimilarresearchbytheHKO,lookingatHongKongspecifically,estimatedthatifMSLinHongKongweretoriseby48cm(themeanlevelforglobalsealevelriseby2�00statedintheIPCC’sThirdAssessmentReport),ahighwaterlevelwithahistoricalreturnperiodof50yearsoriginallywouldhaveitsreturnperiodshortenedtoabout�years.65

IV. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS

(1) Impacts on Human Health

Veryhotweatherisnotjustuncomfortable–itcanbedeadly.Anincreaseinthefrequencyorseverityofheatwavesislikelytoincrease(predominantlycardio-respiratory)illnessandmortality.TheIPCCfound,basedonastudyofShanghairesidentsover65yearsofage,that�4°Cwasthethresholdtemperatureforheat-relatedmortality;andthatby2050therewillbe�.6to7.�times

64 Huang:p.254ff.

65 Yeung:p.8.

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moreheat-relateddeathsinthatcity.66

Diseasesofmanykindsaresensitivetochangesinclimaticconditions.Increasedtemperatureislikelytomakeconditionsmorefavourableformosquitoes,increasingtheriskofmosquito-bornediseasessuchasmalariaanddenguefever.Food-borneandwater-bornediseasesarealsopredictedtobecomemoreintenseandmorefrequent,asconditionsbecomemorefavourableforbacteriaandmicro-organisms.67

Climatechangemayalsoleadtomorefrequentoccurrencesofbothveryhotweatherandveryhighlevelsofairpollution.TheIPCCpredictsthatglobalwarmingwillacceleratephotochemicalreactionratesamongchemicalpollutantsintheatmosphere,increasingoxidantsinmanyurbanareas.Highlevelsofphotochemicaloxidantsareassociatedwitheyeirritation,severerespira-toryirritation,increasedfrequencyofasthmaticattacksofsusceptiblepersonsanddecreasedpulmonaryfunctions.68

Totheextentthathighertemperaturescauseinconveniencetoresidentsandvisitors–beituncomfortableworkingconditions,higherairconditioningcosts,or,farmoreseriously,increasedairpollutionandattendanthealthrisks–HongKongandthecitiesofthePRDwillsufferanegativepublicresponse,whichcouldhaveaseriousimpactonthelivelihoodofthosecitiesinthefuture.AirpollutioninHongKongisalreadyaseriousproblem.69Evenaseffortsmaybemadetousecleanerenergyandreduceairpollutioninthedeltaregion,ariseintemperatureislikelytoworsenthissituation.

(2) Ecological Impact

TheeffectsofclimatechangeupontheecologyoftheGreaterPRDarelikelytobesignificantandwillcompoundthealreadyfar-reachingimpactsofrapidurbandevelopmentandindustrialisation.Coastalecosystemsaresensitivetotheimpactsofclimatechange,andlossoralterationofhabitatmayreducethepopulationsofmanyspeciesoffloraandfauna.Sealevelrisewilldestroytheecologicalandenvironmentalbalancealongthecoastalareas.70

For example, according to the IPCC, changes in temperature, rainfall patterns and evapotranspiration (evaporation ofwaterintotheatmospherefromtheleavesandstemsofplants)maycauselakeandstreamlevelstodeclineorfluctuatewidely.Thiscouldalterhabitatcharacteristicsandvegetation,andmaycauseadeclineinspeciesproductivity,especiallyoffishandinver-tebrates.Declinesinbiodiversitywouldresultfromseverewaterqualitydeterioration(forexample,lowdissolvedoxygenlevels,highconcentrationsoftoxicsubstancesorhightemperatures)duringextendedlow-flowperiodsinthesummer,orfromdryingofpreviouslyperennialstreams.Theseeffectswouldbeworsenedinsystemsthatarestronglyaffectedbyhumanactivitiesandincreaseddemandsforwaterresources.7�

EcologicalproblemsthatarelikelytooccurintheGreaterPRDduetosealevelriseincludecoastalerosion,salinisationofsoilandgroundwateranddeteriorationofshoalsandmarshes.Thiscouldcausethelossofcoastalwetlands,asubstantialchangein

66 Watson,ZinyoweraandMoss:p.276.

67 AustralianGreenhouseOffice,DepartmentoftheEnvironment&Heritage,Australia,“Impacts&Adaptation–Health”,2006.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/health.html

68 Watson,Zinyowera,andMoss:p.277.

69 Increasingmediacoverageandresearchonthisissue,including:Loh,Christine,BoomtowntoGloomtown:TheImplicationsofInaction(HongKong:CLSA,September2006)60pp.;Barron,Billetal,OwninguptoResponsibilityforManufacturingContributionstothePearlRiverDelta’sPoorAirQuality(HongKong:InstitutefortheEnvironment,HKUST/CivicExchange,March2006)56pp.

70 AccordingtoDingYihui,aclimateexpertwiththeChinaMeteorologicalAdministration,speakingin2002.See“GlobalWarmingAcceleratesChina’sSeaLevelRise”,People’sDaily,��thApril2002.[Online].http://english.people.com.cn/200204/��/eng200204��_9�966.shtml

7� Watson,Zinyowera,andMoss:p.268.

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theecosystemandafurtherencroachmentonthehabitatofrarespecies.72

Floodingcouldresultinincreasedsedimentandnutrientlevelsinestuariesandcoastalecosystems,withanenormousimpactonhabitatareasessentialtomanyfishspecies.7�WetlandsintheGreaterPRD(suchasMaiPoinHongKong,thesixthlargestcoastalwetlandinChina)74areimportantbirdhabitatsandvitalspawninggroundsformanyspeciesoffishandinvertebrates.Thesewetlandsareseriouslythreatenedbysealevelriseandsaltwaterintrusion,andtheirabilitytoadaptnaturallybyretreatinginlandisblockedbyhumanconstructions,suchasconcreteroadsanddykesorcoastaldefences.

Figure 20 - Spoonbills feeding at Mai Po MarshesPhotograph by Eric Fletcher

(3) Impacts on Infrastructure

“Worldwide losses from natural catastrophes increased in the second half of the twentieth century in a dramatic and disturbing way. This trend appears to have become even more firmly entrenched since the mid-�980s.”75

Extremeweathereventsdamageinfrastructure.Citiesandinfrastructurearebuilttoacceptedrisklimitsbasedontheexpectedreturnfrequencyofseverewinds,heavyrainfallevents,stormsurgesandsoon.Abovethesethresholds,damagecanaccelerateinanon–linearway.76

Asdiscussedabove,thereisnofirmconsensusastowhetherclimatechangeisinfluencingtheoccurrenceofmorefrequentormoreseveretropicalcyclones,butitisclearthatlargerconcentrationsofassetsandpopulationsinhazardproneregions,liketheGreaterPRD,contributesubstantiallytohigherfinanciallossesfromsuchevents.77

72 ProfessorChenManchun,directoroftheEnvironmentDepartmentofChina’sNationalMarineDataandInformationService,speakingin2004,asreportedbyZhang:p.24ff.

7� AustralianGreenhouseOffice,DepartmentoftheEnvironment&Heritage,Australia,“Impacts&Adaptation–Biodiversity”,2006.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/biodiversity.html

74 Fung:p.��2.

75 MunichRe,�999.

76 AllenConsultingGroup,ClimateChange:RiskandVulnerability(Sydney:AustralianGreenhouseOffice,DepartmentoftheEnvironment&Herit-age,2005)�59pp.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/publications/pubs/risk-vulnerability.pdf

77 Freeman,P.andWarner,K.“Vulnerabilityofinfrastructuretoclimatevariability:howdoesthisaffectinfrastructurelendingpolicies?”(Wash-ingtonD.C.,WorldBank,October200�).

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Bysomeestimates,directlossesfromextremeweathereventscouldreachashighasUS$�00billionannuallyduringthenextcentury.78AccordingtotheWorldBank,24%ofinvestedcapitalstockispublicinfrastructure.79Evenassumingthatinfrastructureisnomorevulnerabletolossthanothertypesofcapitalstock,infrastructure’sshareofthatglobaltotalcouldreachinexcessofUS$25billionayear.80

Asdiscussedintheprevioussection,theGreaterPRDcouldbeextremelyvulnerabletolarge-scalefloodingfromheavyrainfall,typhoonsandstormsurges.ResearchontheeffectsofnaturaldisasterspublishedbytheWorldBankhighlightsthatfloodingcancauseextensivedamagetoinfrastructureandotherproductivecapacity,aswellasdecimatingagriculturalyields.8�

Thetablebelowsummarisesselectedeffectsofweathereventsoninfrastructure.

Type of event Surface effect Infrastructure impact

Hurricane,typhoonandcyclone StrongwindsFlooding(throughrainfall)Flooding(throughstorms)

•••

Damage to buildings, distributionandhigh-tensionlinesDamage to bridges and buildings;landslidesDamage to bridges, roads andbuilding

Drought DrynessofearthWindgustsDesertification

•••

Shrinkagedamagesbuildingfounda-tions&undergroundinfrastructureWinddamagetorooftops

Flood SoilerosionWatersaturationandlandslidesSedimentation

•••

SofteningofbuildingfoundationsBuried buildings; damage to otherstructuresDamagetofunctionsofhydro-pow-er dams and water managementsystems

••

TableadaptedfromFreemanandWarner82

Floodsmaydamagebuildingstructuresandcausesoilerosion,whichcanleadtosofteningofbuildingfoundations.Resultingsedimentationcanimpactwatermanagementsystems,damageburiedpipesandsemi-buriedtanksandharmdamstructuresandpumpequipment.8�Conversely,indryperiods,assoilmoisturedecreases,subsidencemayaffectundergroundpipesandcables.84Windstormsbringadditionalloadstobearonbuildings,affectingbothstructuralandnon-structuralelements,butonlyminimallyaffectingfoundationsandundergroundelements.Theycanalsodamagedistributionandhightensionlines.85

78 MunichRe,�999.

79 WorldBank,WorldBankDevelopmentIndicators(WashingtonD.C.:WorldBank,�999).

80 FreemanandWarner:p.��.

8� Benson,C.andClay,E.J.,“DevelopingCountriesandtheEconomicImpactsofNaturalDisasters”,inKreimer,A.etal(eds.),ManagingDisas-terRiskinEmergingEconomies(WashingtonD.C.:WorldBank,2000).

82 FreemanandWarner:p.�5.

8� FreemanandWarner,p:�4.

84 EntekUKLimitedetal,London’sWarming:ImpactsofClimateChangeonLondon(London:LondonClimateChangePartnership,2002)��pp.[Online]http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/documents/London_summary.pdf

85 FreemanandWarner:p.�4.

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HongKongcurrentlyhasinfrastructurethatisbetterthananywhereelseinChina.PlannedinvestmentsintherestoftheGreaterPRDregionwilldramaticallyexpandthehighway,railandsubwaysystems.Therearesubstantialurbandevelopmentprojectsun-derwayinGuangzhou,Shenzhen,DongguanandFoshan,amongothers,andMacaoisseeingmajorinvestmentsininfrastructureandleisurefacilities.86TheextentofpotentialdamagetoinfrastructureandbuildingsintheGreaterPRDduetoclimate-relatedeventsisthereforesignificant.

Thesub-sectionsbelowillustratesomelikelyeffectsofclimatechangeonselectedtypesofpublicinfrastructureintheGreaterPRD:

(a) Coastal and River Defences

Floodcontrolandmanagementof largerivers,aswellasconstructionandmaintenanceofcoastaldefences,areofvital im-portancetoChina’scontinuingeconomicdevelopment.Large-scaledefensivestructures,suchasdykesandseawalls,aswellasfloodstoragereservoirsandpumpingstationsinsomeurbanareas,areinplacethroughouttheGreaterPRDinanefforttoprotectlow-lyingareas.

FloodcontrolonthePearlRiverreliesmainlyonleveesandreservoirs.87 In200�,therewere�4largereservoirswithatotalstoragecapacityof��2billionm�,and��,000kmofdykesorlevees.Leveesalongthemainstreamandthedeltaareaaredesignedtowithstandaten-totwenty-yearflood.88Onlythemostimportantdykeshavebeendesignedaccordingtoafifty-toonehundred-yearfloodandtidestandard.Mostinfrastructurewasoriginallyplannedinthe�950s,andwasdesignedinaccordancewiththeclimaterelatedestimatesatthattime.

Asdiscussedabove,MSLriseof�0cmisexpectedtohaveasignificantimpactontheheightofstormsurgesinthefutureandon the returnperiodsbetweenmajor flooding incidents,whichcouldoverwhelmtheexisting floodcontrol infrastructure.TheaftermathofHurricaneKatrinaintheUnitedStatesin2005demonstratedthedisastrousimpactoffailureofaleveestructureprotectinglow-lyingland.ClimatechangecanonlyincreasethepressureonthefloodcontrolinfrastructureintheGreaterPRD.

The200�studybytheGuangdongAcademyofScienceswarnedthatthepresentnetworkofdykesandanti-floodmeasureswouldbe inadequate inthesecircumstances.ThestudyhasbeensubmittedtotheprovincialauthoritiesaswellasmunicipalgovernmentsofGuangzhou,Shenzhen,ZhuhaiandZhongshanforplanningofadditionalmeasures,includingtheconstructionofnewdykesatahighertidemarklevel.IntheopinionofZhenguoHuangoftheAcademy,theenormousinvestmentrequiredfortheconstructionofdykesandanti-floodworkswouldbesmallincomparisonwiththehugelossescausedbyadisastrousflood.89

(b) Ground Transportation

Ageneralincreaseintemperaturecouldhavenegativeeffectsonelementsoftransportationinfrastructure,whichwouldcausedisruptionandrequireincreasedspendingonrepairandmaintenance.

86 Enrightetal:p.�6.

87 Zhang,Hai-LunandWen,Kang,“FloodcontrolandmanagementforlargeriversinChina”, inProceedingsofWorkshoponStrengtheningCapacityinParticipatoryPlanningandManagementforFloodMitigationandPreparednessinLargeRiverBasins:RegionalCooperationinFloodControlandManagementinAsiaandthePacific,PhaseII,Bangkok,November200�:pp.4�-67.

88 ZhangandWen:p.5�.

89 Pun,Pamela,“42pcofDeltaFacesSeaThreat:Study”,TheStandard,28thJuly200�.[Online].http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=�4�9&sid=&con_type=�&d_str=200�0728&sear_year=200�

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EnormousinvestmentisplannedtodevelopanextendednetworkofhighwaysthroughouttheGreaterPRD,someofwhichwillinvolvemajorbridgeconstructionprojects.Forexample,theShenzhenWesternCorridor,whichwillopenin2007,includesa4kmbridgespanningDeepBay.90ThemostambitiousprojectcurrentlyunderdiscussionisabridgelinkingHongKong,ZhuhaiandMacao,whichwillspanthePearlRiverfor�0km.ThebridgeisexpectedtotakefiveyearstocompleteandtorequireinvestmentofUS$4billion.9�

Any infrastructureof this typewillbeexposedto incrementalweatherpressuresbroughtaboutbyclimatechange.Flooding,stormsandlandslidesresultingfromheavyraincancauseseriousdamagetomajorworks,suchasbridgesandroaddevelop-ments.Inlow-lyingcommunities,roadstendtobelowerthanthesurroundinglandssothatlandcandrainintothem,andareconsequentlythefirsttoflood.92

StudiesinEnglandhaveshownthatroadscouldalsobeaffectedbyhighertemperaturesinanumberofways,includingruttingoftheroadsurface,embankmentsubsidence,deteriorationofconcrete,problemswithexpansionjoints,increaseindustlevelsandreductioninskidresistance.9�Verydryweathercanalsodamagehighwaysthroughfoundationshrinkage.94FurtherresearchisneededtodeterminewhethertheincreaseinaveragetemperaturesprojectedfortheGreaterPRDwillhavesimilareffectsonthesoilsandconstructionmaterialsusedhere.

Figure 21 – Flood-damaged road in Guangdong ProvinceSource: Cable News Network

Incities,roadtransportationisoftengreatlydisruptedbyrepairstoundergroundwatermains,pipesorelectriccables.InLondon,increasedshrinkageandexpansionof the localclaycausedbyrisingtemperatures isexpectedtodamageunder-roadwatermains,meaningmorefrequentrepairsandconsequentlygreaterdisruptiontoroadtraffic.95Again,furtherresearchisneededtodeterminewhethersimilareffectswillbefeltintheGreaterPRD.

90 What’sNew:Cross-BoundaryTraffic”,Environment,Transport&WorksBureau,GovernmentofHongKong,October2006.[Online].http://www.etwb.gov.hk/whats_new/Cross_Boundary_Traffic/Cross_boundary_Traffic_�/index.aspx?langno=�&nodeID=�586

9� “Building of Mega-Bridge Set to Start at Year End”, People’s Daily Online, �2th January 2006. [Online]. http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/20060�/�2/eng20060��2_2�487�.html

92 Titus,Jim,“DoessealevelrisemattertotransportationalongtheAtlanticcoast?”,inThePotentialImpactsofClimateChangeonTransporta-tion:WorkshopSummaryandProceedings(UnitedStatesDepartmentofTransportation,October2002)pp.�-�6.[Online]http://climate.dot.gov/workshop�002/titus.pdf

9� LondonClimateChangePartnership,ClimateChangeandLondon’sTransportSystems(London:GreaterLondonAuthority,2005)�0pp.[Online]http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/documents/�09.pdf

94 FreemanandWarner:p.�4.

95 GreaterLondonAuthority:p.�8.

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Raillinks,suchastheexpressrailtrainbetweenGuangzhouandHongKong,arealsoanimportantelementofthetransportationnetworkintheGreaterPRD.Stormsandfloodingcandisruptrailtransportandtemporarilyclosestations,aswellascausingdamagetoinfrastructure.Forexample,duringTyphoonBilisinJuly2006,floodingcutthemainGuangzhoutoBeijingrailwayline,strandingthousandsofpassengers.96Onanevenlargerscale,afterHurricaneKatrina,railyardsinandaroundNewOrleanswereeitherdestroyedorseverelydamaged.97Highertemperaturesandverydryweathercanalsodamagerailwaysthroughfoundationshrinkage,buckledrailsanddistortionofsolderedrails.98

Figure 22 - Storm damage to railway in ChinaSource: www.china.org.cn

TheundergroundtrainsystemsinHongKong,GuangzhouandShenzhen,whicharebeingrapidlybuiltoutatpresent,willalsobevulnerabletoflooding,aswellastopossibleeffectsontunnelstructurescausedbychangesingroundwater,suchasgreaterhy-draulicpressureonthetunnelwalls.99Heavyraincanalsocauseelectricalproblemsforrailsystems:forexample,inSeptember2006,railservicesinHongKongweredisruptedbywiringproblemsafterheavyrain.�00

Inadditiontodamagingtransportationinfrastructureitself,severeweathereventscouldalsodisruptthedistributionoftransporta-tionfuels,whichmightpreventsomerailandroadvehiclesfromoperating.

(c) Sea and River Ports

TheeconomicsuccessoftheGreaterPRDwasbuiltoninternationaltrade,andtheshippingandlogisticssectorscontinuetomakeanimportantcontributiontoeconomicgrowth.Seaportsareavitalelementofthetransportationinfrastructureofthere-gion,playingacriticalroleintransportingmanufacturedgoodsabroad.Theupperdeltaandwesterndeltaareashaveserious

96 BBCNews–AsiaPacific,“ChineseStormKillsMoreThan�80”,�8thJuly2006.[Online].news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5�85��4.stm

97 D’Amico,EstherandBryner,Michelle,“TransportationMovingOnintheGulf”,ChemicalWeek,�9thOct2005,Vol.�67,Iss.�4:pp.�9-22.

98 FreemanandWarner:p.�4.

99 Titus:p.5.

�00 Parwani,Audrey,“Torrentialraincauseswidespreadflooding,Observatoryrecord isbroken,600mmofrain isdumpedonShaTin,andJockeyClubcancelsnightmeeting,”SouthChinaMorningPost,�4thSeptember2006.

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siltingproblemsthatlimittheoperationsoftheirports,andformanyyearsHongKongpossessedtheonlydeep-water,moderncontainerfacilitiesintheregion.SeveralcontainerportshaverecentlybeendevelopedinShenzhen.�0�

Sealevelrise,anditseffectsonstormsurgeandflooding,isaseriouspotentialthreattoharbourandwharfinstallations.AsdescribedbyRobertMackenzieoftheDoverHarbourBoardintheUnitedKingdom:“Riseinsealevelisprobablyourgreatestfuturethreatfromanoperationalviewpoint.Anincreasingincidenceofstormsurgetides,especiallyifaccompaniedbystrongwindsandwaveactivity,alsoposeseriousproblems.”�02

Sealevelriseandassociatedincreaseinstormsurgewouldincreasetheprobabilityofinundationofwharfsandbreakwaters,reducingthewharfs’workingplatforms.Heightenedwaveactionwouldalsoacceleratethescouringeffectofthetideonhydraulicequipment,whichcouldshortenitsservicelife.Changesinsealevelarelikelytoalterthebalanceofcoastandbeacherosionandsedimentationaroundharboursandtheiraccesschannels.�0�Thiscouldposesignificantoperatingchallengesforportsintheregion,whichalreadyhaveaproblemwithsedimentation,andislikelytoincreasetheiroperatingcostsforadditionaldredging.Itispossiblethatotherfactors,suchashigherwatertemperatureandincreasedsalinity,couldalsoaffectportinfrastructure.

Portareastypicallyhaveagreatdealoftransportationinfrastructurelinkingthemtotheinlandareas,includingroadandrailsys-tems.Anyclimate-relateddisruptiontothesetransportationnetworkscouldcauseproblemssuchasunavailabilityofmarinefuelornon-deliveryofgoodsforshipment,whichwouldalsohavenegativeimpactsontheoperationsoftheport.

Inthelongerterm,themostfundamentalvariableforportoperatorswillbethedefensiveinfrastructurestrategytobepursuedintheGreaterPRD.Inascenariowherethegovernmentdecidestobuildanextensivedykesystemtoprotecttheregion,thequestionwillbewhethertofollowthecoastasitistoday,ortofollowtheDutchapproachofshorteningthecoast(i.e.buildingalargedykeacrossthemouthofabayorestuary).Inthelattercase,someoftheexistingportscouldthenbeinsidethedyke.Eithershipswouldhavetopassthroughlocksornewdeepwaterportswouldbebuiltoutsidethedyke,whichwouldtakebusinessawayfromtheincumbents.�04

�0� Rohlen,ThomasP.,HongKongandthePearlRiverDelta:“OneCountry,TwoSystems” intheEmergingMetropolitanContext(Stanford:StanfordUniversity,2000)�5pp.[Online].http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/��897/Rohlen2000.pdf

�02 Wade,S.etal,Risingtothechallenge.ImpactsofClimateChangeintheSouthEast.TechnicalReport(Epsom:SouthEastClimateChangePartnership,�999)94pp:(quotedonp.29).[Online]http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/documents/south_east_tech.pdf

�0� Yang,GuishanandShi,Yafeng,“ImpactsofsealevelriseonmajorprojectsandurbandevelopmentinChina’scoastalplains”,JournalofChineseGeography,Vol6,No4,�996:pp.66-74.

�04 Titus:p.9.

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Figure 23 - “Deltaworks” dyke system in HollandSource: Stichting Deltawerken Online

(d) Airports

TherearefiveairportsintheGreaterPRD,includingHongKongandMacao.HongKonghastheleadingairportintheGreaterPRD,atChekLapKok,withover�6millionpassengersin2005.TheHongKongInternationalAirport(“HKIA”)MasterPlan2020schedulesdevelopmentofairportcapacitytoaccommodate87millionpassengersandhandle9milliontonnesofcargoperyeararound2020.�05ThenewBaiyunAirportinGuangzhou,oneofthethreeairhubsofChina,isthelargestandmostadvancedairportinChina,�06handlingover20millionpassengersandnearly650,000tonnesofcargoin2004.�07

Coastalcities,likeHongKong,tendtohaveairportsbuiltalongtidalwaters,sometimesonreclaimedland.Therefore,theirrun-waysareexposedtoflooding.�08AlthoughChekLapKokairportiscurrentlyat6mabovesealevel,thesealevelrisepredictedfortheregionandassociatedstormsurgeeffectscouldincreaseitsvulnerability.Incrementaldamagecouldbecausediftyphoonsincreaseinintensity,includingdamagetoparkedaircraft,hangarsorterminalbuildings.Asisthecaseforroadsthroughouttheregion,highertemperaturescouldalsoaffectrunwaysandairportroads,forexamplethroughdeteriorationofconcrete,ruttingorsubsidence.

AirportsintheGreaterPRDmayalsobeaffectedbydamagetoothertransportationnetworksthataffectsdeliveryofaeroplanefuelorcargos,thusslowingaeroplaneturnaroundtime,orotherwiseimpactingtheoperationsofthefacility.

Stormsandfloodingcouldseriouslydisruptairtransportandcauseairportsintheregiontobeclosedforlongerperiodsthanisthecasetoday.Interruptionstopassengertransport,inparticular,putenormousstrainonairportfacilitiesandcreatesignificantmanagementproblemsforairportoperators,aslargenumbersofpassengersarestrandedattheairport.

�05 InvestHK, “IndustryToday.HongKong’sTransportationandLogistics IndustryToday”, June2006. [Online].http://www.investhk.gov.hk/pages/�/���.aspx

�06 HongKongTradeDevelopmentCouncil,“MarketProfilesonChineseCitiesandProvinces.PRDEconomicProfile”,February2006.[Online].http://www.tdctrade.com/mktprof/china/prd.htm

�07 GuangdongAirportManagementCorporation,“AboutGAMC”,2006.[Online].http://www.baiyunairport.com/english/about.jsp

�08 Titus:p.4.

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(e) Water Supply

WaterresourcesintheGreaterPRDarealreadyunderpressureduetoincreasesindemandcausedbypopulationgrowthandindustrialisation.Developmentofwaterandseweragesystemsisnotalwaysadequatetomeetthesedemandsincertainareas,whileunregulatedexploitationofgroundwaterexacerbatesproblemsofwaterqualityandlandsubsidence.

Fresh water supply

Climatechangeislikelytoincreasethestressonriversalreadyunderpressurefromsalinity,over-allocationanddecliningwaterquality.Reducedrainfallwouldmeanthatlesswaterisavailableforhumanconsumption.Reducedwatersupplycanalsoaffectwaterqualityinrivers,whiledroughtconditionscanincreaseerosion,leadingtohighersedimentloadsenteringriversfollowingrainfallevents.�09ItislikelythatwatertreatmentfacilitiesthroughouttheGreaterPRDwouldneedextensiveexpansionandupgrad-ingtocopewithlowerrawwaterquality.

Arisingseawillcausea largeamountof tidalwater totravelupstreamin thedelta.AccordingtotheChinaClimateChangeCountryStudy’spreliminaryresultsin�994andinvestigationsbytheChineseAcademyofSciences,thetidalboundarywillmove,bringingsaltwaterfurtherupstream:perhapsasfaras�kmfurtherifthereisasealevelriseof40cmto60cmintheGreaterPRDregion.SaltwaterwillintrudeeventoGuangzhouinalow-waterperiod,affectingtheresidents’drinkingwatersupply.��0

Wastewater and sewage

Risingsealevelsandheavyrainsputpressureondrainagesystems.Whenthesealevelrisesrelativetogroundlevel,stormwaterdrainagepipesfillwithseawater.Theseawatermayflowbackupthepipes;orsimplymakeitharderforrainwatertobedis-chargedtothesea,resultinginbothcasesinflooding.���ExistingdrainagesystemsinmanyGreaterPRDcitiesareinadequate.Guangzhou,forexample,regularlyexperiencestidalfloodingcausedbywaterintrudingupthroughthedrainagesystems.Thiswouldclearlybeworsenedbysealevelrisewithresultanthighertides.��2

InHongKong,theDrainageServicesDepartment’sviewasofNovember2005wasthata“wait-and-seeapproach…atleastforthetimebeing”wasappropriatewithregardtodesignforsealevelrise.���Giventhatsomelow-lyingareasofHongKongarealreadysubjecttofloodingduetoseawaterbackflowwhenhightidescombinewithheavyrain–whichwouldbeconsiderablyworsenedbyariseinsealevel–itmaybecomenecessaryinthenearfuturetodevelopamoreproactivepolicy.

SealevelriseandtidalsaltwaterintrusionupstreamwillalsocausethePRD’snaturalirrigationanddrainagesystemtoloseitseffectiveness.Itwillbecomemoredifficulttodrainwastewaterfromcitiesandtowns,whichwillincreasepollutionoftherivernetworkandembankmentarea.Thepresenttwentyyearfloodfrequencycoulddecreasetoafrequencyofapproximatelyfiveyears,increasingthecostofirrigationanddrainageby�5-20%.��4

�09 AustralianGreenhouseOffice,Departmentof theEnvironment&Heritage,Australia, “Impacts&Adaptation–WaterResources”,2006.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/water.html

��0 Yang:p.269.

��� DrainageServicesDepartment,HongKong,“FloodPrevention:HowtoReduceFloodDamage”,June2006.[Online].http://www.dsd.gov.hk/flood_prevention/how_to_reduce_damage/sheungwan_low_area/index.htm

��2 ChenManchundirectoroftheEnvironmentDepartmentoftheNationalMarineandDataServiceCentre.SeeZhang:p.24ff.

��� DrainageServicesDepartment,GovernmentofHongKong,StormWaterDrainageManual.Planning,DesignandManagement(HongKong:updatedNovember2005)�08pp.[Online].http://www.dsd.gov.hk/FileManager/EN/publications_publicity/other_publications/technical_manu-als/Stormwater%20Manual.pdf

��4 Yang:p.270.

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Conversely,withmoreextremeweatherpatterns,intheyearswithlowrainfall,theremaybelesswateravailableinthePRDrivernetworktodilutesewagetreatmentworkdischarges.ItislikelythatimprovedtreatmenttechnologywillberequiredtomanagethesephysicalchallengesandtocopewiththeincreasedvolumeofsewageproducedbygrowingcitiesinthePRD.Ifpressureonwaterresourcesfromindustryandthecitiescontinuestogrow,itmaybenecessarytodevelopwaterrecyclingsystemstoallowsomewastewatertobere-used.

(f) Power Supply

Climatechangecouldhaveasignificantimpactontheinfrastructureassociatedwithfueldistributionandelectricitytransmission,bothbyincreasingdemandanddisruptingsupply.

Demand

DemandforelectricpowerintheGreaterPRDhasgrownenormouslyinthelasttwodecades.InGuangdongProvince,theover-burdenedgridsystemdoesnothavethecapacitytomaintainfullpowerallthetime.Inrecentyears,themanufacturingsectorhassufferedregularshortagesinpublicpowersupplyandmostmanufacturingplantshaveresortedtobuyingtheirowngenera-tors.��5

Demandforenergyistemperature-sensitive–increasinglysoasgreaterpercapitaincomesintheGreaterPRDincreasetheuseofdomesticairconditioningandasindustryintheregionadoptssophisticatedmanufacturingprocessesthatrequirecoolingandconstanttemperatures.ResearchcarriedoutforHongKong’sEnvironmentalProtectionDepartmentin2004intotheimpactofglobalwarmingontheenergysectorconcludedthatanincreaseintheambienttemperatureof�ºCwouldincreaseelectricityconsumptionby9.02%,�.��%and2.64%inHongKong’sdomestic,commercialandindustrialsectorsrespectively.��6AsHongKong’sindustrialsectorisextremelysmall, itcanbeestimatedthatthisfigurewouldbeconsiderablyhigherelsewhereintheGreaterPRD.

InmanypartsoftheGreaterPRD,includingHongKong,ZhuhaiandShenzhen,floodwaterisregularlypumpedoutofthedrainagesystemsafterstormsandveryhightides.Pumpinguseselectricpower,whichisdrawnfromthepublicgrid.Increasedfloodingcouldputmoreofaloadonthesystem,andinturnleaveithighlyvulnerabletotheeffectsoflong-standingfloodwatersifpump-ingweretofail.

Supply

Electricitymaybedisruptedbydamagetotransmissionanddistributioninfrastructure(powerlines,pylonsetc.),whichcanbedamagedbystormsorlandslipsfollowingheavyrain.Inaddition,hightemperaturesdegradetransmissioncapacity.��7

MostpublicpowerintheGreaterPRDissuppliedbycoal-firedpowerplants,whilegeneratorsarefuelledbydieselfuelandfueloil.Productionofenergydependsontheconsistentdeliveryofthesefuels.China’scoalandoilresourcesaremainlylocatedintheinteriorandNorthofthecountry,��8soreliabletransportationandstorageinfrastructureintheGreaterPRDisvitaltocaterforthemovementofthesecommodities.

��5 Barron,Billetal:p.�4.

��6 Fung:p.50p.2.

��7 AllenConsultingGroup:p.��9.

��8 Loh,Christine,“EnergySupplyandFuelsSupply inGuangdong. ImpactonAirQuality inHongKongandGuangdong”(HongKong:CivicExchange,2006)47pp.

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Guangdong’scoalsuppliesarelargelyimportedthroughitsports.AnydisruptiontotheoperationorefficiencyofportsinthePRD,asdiscussedabove,couldaffectthesupplyofcoaltoregionalpowerplantsandthusinterruptpowersupply.Anyfueloilordieselfuelthattravelsthroughtheportscouldbesimilarlyaffected.Thiswillbecomeanincreasinglyimportantfactorinthefutureasemissionsregulationsenforcetheuseofcleanerfuels,whicharelikelytobeimportedfromoutsideChina.Inaddition,anystormorfloodingeventsthatcauseroadstobeimpassableortransportationtobedelayedcouldcausedisruptiontofuelsupplyandthustopowersupply.

Whilecoalanddiesel/fueloilareusedtogeneratethebulkofGuangdong’selectricitysupply (69%ofgeneratingcapacity in200�),around20%ofsupply isderivedthroughhydropower.��9Hydro-electricdamsarealsoconsideredtobevulnerabletoclimatechangeevents.Ontheonehand,reductionofwaterflowinriversduringdryyearscouldreducetheamountofpowerthatcanbegenerated.Conversely,damscouldbesusceptibletoextremerainfalleventsiftheseexceedhistoricaldesignstandards.Adambreakageorsituationwherewaterovertopsthedamcouldhavecatastrophicfloodingeffectsfurtherdownstream.�20

(4) Economic Impacts

Thescienceofclimatechangeisstillunderdevelopment,andtheanalysisofthecostsandeconomicimpactofprojectedclimateeventsisalsoatanearlystage.TheSternReviewprovidesthebestestimatetodateoftheeconomiccostsofclimatechangeworldwide,basedonawiderangeofevidenceandusinganumberoftechniquestoassesscostsandrisks.TheReview’ssober-ingconclusionisthat“ifwedon’tact,theoverallcostsandrisksofclimatechangewillbeequivalenttolosingatleast5%ofglobalGDPeachyear,nowandforever”,�2�andthat“ifawiderrangeofrisksandimpactsistakenintoaccount,theestimatesofdamagecouldriseto20%ofGDPormore.”�22

WhileitisimpossibleheretomakedetailedeconomicforecastsfortheGreaterPRD,thispaperidentifiessomeofthewaysinwhichcontinuedeconomicgrowthintheregion,vitaltotheeconomyofChinaasawhole,couldbethreatenedbyclimatechange.Inthiscontext,itisvitaltoheedtheSternReview’swarningthatthesimpleconclusionoftheevidenceisthat“thebenefitsofstrong,earlyactionconsiderablyoutweighthecosts.”�2�ThisstatementisparticularlyapplicabletotheGreaterPRD,giventheregion’shighvulnerability.

(a) Approach to Economic Analysis of Climate Change

Ineconomicterms,climatechangeactsasanexternal“shock”totheeconomicsystems,whichcanbeexaminedintermsof:

Hypotheticalcostsifindividuals,companiesandgovernmentstakenoactiontoavoidorreducethecostsassociatedwiththatshock;orCostsinthemorelikelysituationwhereactionistakentoavoidatleastsomepartofthesecostsbymitigatingthesizeoftheshockitselforbyadaptingtotheshockasefficientlyaspossible.�24

��9 Thiswasthepercentagein200�:ChinaElectricPowerYearbook2004.Barron:p.�5.

�20 AllenConsultingGroup:p.��8.

�2� Stern.

�22 Stern.

�2� Stern.

�24 MarsdenJacobAssociates,EconomicIssuesRelevanttoCostingClimateChangeImpacts(Sydney:AustralianGreenhouseOffice,Depart-mentoftheEnvironment&Heritage,2004)6�pp.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/publications/pubs/costing.pdf

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Theeconomiccostsofclimatechangemitigationarerelativelywellunderstood,asarethesectorsandindustriesmostlikelytobeaffectedbymitigationpoliciesandmeasures.Bycontrast,theeconomiccostsofclimatechangeimpactsarenotwellunderstood.�25

Asclimatechangestudybecomesmoreadvanced,thescienceofenvironmentaleconomicsisattemptingtoaddressthisissue.Anumberofframeworksforexaminingtheimpactsofclimatechangehavebeenproposedandagreatdealofworkisunderwaytoestablishmodellingtechniquesthatcanmeasuretheimpactsatdifferentgeographicallevelsandineconomic,environmentalandhumanterms.Oneofthegreatestchallengesinvolvedinthisanalysisistoattempttoquantifytheimpactsofclimatechangeon“non-economic”assets,suchecosystemsorcommunitywell-being.

Eventoattemptananalysisofeconomicfactorsaloneisanenormousundertaking,giventhedegreeofuncertaintyaboutthespecificimpacts,thetimingandlikelihoodoftheseimpactsandtheirknock-oneffectsontheeconomicsystem.Anyadaptationstrategiesthatmaybeexecutedaddanotherrangeofvariablesintotheanalysis.

Twolevelsofanalysiscanbeusedtoassessthenetcostofclimatechangeimpacts:partialequilibriumanalysis,toexaminetheimpactsofclimatechangeonasinglemarketorsector;andgeneralequilibriumanalysis,whichisrequiredtolookattheflow-oneffectsofsuchachangethroughtheeconomy.�26Thefollowingdiagramillustratesanoutlineframeworkforcostingtheimpactsofclimatechange:

Figure 24 - Adapted from Marsden Jacob Associates�27

ComputableGeneralEquilibrium(“CGE”)modelsarecommonlyusedforgeneralequilibriumanalysis,coveringallsectorsoftheeconomyandtheinteractionsbetweenthosesectors,andsimulatingmarketbehaviouracrossthewholeeconomy.CGEmodelsaredesignedtoexaminechanges(usuallymeasuredintermsofGDP)arisingfromanexternaleconomic“shock”likeaclimate

�25 MarsdenJacobAssociates:p.�.

�26 MarsdenJacobAssociates:p.7.

�27 MarsdenJacobAssociates:p.42.

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changeeffect.�28Theymayformpartofanintegratedassessmentmethodology,whichseekstocombinephysicalandbiologicalassessmentwithsocio-economicassessments,usingarangeoftechniquesincludingscenarioanalysis,qualitativeassessmentandcomputermodelling.�29

Asfarasweknow,nodetailedanalysisandquantificationoftheeconomiceffectsofclimatechangeintheGreaterPRDhasbeenpublished,althoughsomeestimateshavebeenreleasedinindividualstudies(someofwhicharequotedbelow).Agreatdealoffurtherresearchinthisareaisrequired.

(b) Potential Threats

ThePRDEconomicZone(“PRDEZ”),whichisformedbythecitiesofGuangzhou,Shenzhen,Foshan,Zhuhai,Jiangmen,Zhong-shan,Dongguan,fourdistrictsandcountiesofHuizhouandfourdistrictsandcountiesofZhaoqing,��0hasbeenthemostdynamicregionaleconomyinChinasincethelaunchofChina’sreformprogrammein�979.Inthelast�5years,thePRDEZhasbecomeoneoftheworld’sleadingmanufacturingcentresforelectricalandelectronicgoods,watchesandclocks,toys,garmentsandtextiles,plasticproductsandothergoods.HongKonghasformanyyearsbeenaregionalcentreforfinancialandprofessionalservices,andisoneofthemaintransportationandlogisticshubsinNorthAsia.Macaoisapopulartouristdestination,currentlygrowinginprominencewiththegrantingofnewcasinolicencesthere.

Figure 25 - PRD Economic ZoneSource: Hong Kong Trade Development Council

AccordingtotheWorldBank,recentestimatesindicatethatsealevelriseof�-5mwouldreduceChina’sGDPby2.4-�0.8%.���ItisnotclearwhatthiswouldimplyfortheGreaterPRDregion,whichisanenormouscontributortothecountry’sGDP.AveragegrowthinthePRDEZoverthelast25yearswasover�6%,comparedtoanationalfigureof9.5%,andGDPinthezonealonein

�28 MarsdenJacobAssociates:p.25.

�29 MarsdenJacobAssociates:p2.9

��0 GuangdongStatisticalYearbook,2004.Enrightetal:p.20.

��� Buys,P.etal,“Sealevelrisefromglobalwarming:potentialimpactondevelopingcountries”,WorldBank,forthcoming.QuotedinBrahmb-hatt,Milanetal,“SpecialFocus.ClimateChangeandEastAsia:ChallengesandOpportunities”,WorldBank,March2006,9pp.[Online].http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEAPHALFYEARLYUPDATE/Resources/550�92-��4�2�7��2�57/special-focus-March06.pdf

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2004wasapproximatelyRMB�,�57.2billion(US$�6�.9billion)��2,or9.9%ofChina’stotalGDP.(GDPoftheGreaterPRDregion,includingHongKongandMacao,wasUS$��6.98billionin2004).���

SeveralstudiessuggestthatclimatechangecouldhaveasignificantlyharmfulimpactonthePRDeconomy.Forexample,onesimulationannouncedbytheChinaMeteorologicalAdministrationin2002suggestedthatahistoricalhightide,combinedwithsealevelriseof65cm,wouldleadtofloodingofabout�,400km2,causinganeconomiclossofRMB�80.8billion(aboutUS$2�.9billion).��4Forcomparison,China’sMinistryofCivilAffairsreportedthatbetween�Januaryand26July2006,flood-relateddis-asters,includingTyphoonBilis,causedGuangdongProvinceadirecteconomiclossofRMB�9.9billion(approximatelyUS$2.5billion).��5

Thereisnoconsensusonprojectedfiguresinthepublishedstudies,andnogenerallyacceptedmethodologyforanalysingcondi-tionsintheGreaterPRD,butitisclearthatclimatechangecouldthreateneconomicperformanceintheGreaterPRDinmanyways,someofwhichareoutlinedbelow:

Allocation of public funds to disaster management

Managementofseverefloodingevents,causedbyacombinationofsealevelriseandstormsurge,andoccurringmorefrequentlyinfuturedecades,wouldrequiresignificantfinancialresources.Itislikelythatgovernmentwillbearthegreatestpartofthere-sponsibilityformanyaspectsofpreparationandresponse,suchasthefollowing:

monitoringandpublicwarningsystemsemergencyresponseandevacuationofthepubliccleaning-upoperationsrepairandreplacementofpublicinfrastructureeconomicassistancetocommunitiesandbusinesses

Whilesomefundingfortheseactivitiesmaybedrawnfromthecentralgovernment’sbudget,muchofitislikelytocomefromlocalgovernmentfunds.Thenecessaryallocationtodisastermanagementofcapitalthatwouldotherwisehavebeeninvestedinactivitiesmoredirectlyrelatedtoeconomicactivity,suchasimprovedtransportationinfrastructure,technologyorworkforcetraining,mayhaveanadverseeffectonthelevelofeconomicgrowthintheregion.

Allocation of public funds to adaptation

Greatly increasedcoastalandriverdefenceswillberequired toprotect theexistingsettlementsof theGreaterPRDfrom in-creasedfloodingduetosealevelrise.Oneestimatesuggestedthatengineeringworkneededtoraisethedesignstandardof95keydefencesinthedeltatomeeta�0cmsealevelrisewouldrequire�7.5millionm�ofsoilandstone.Basedonthepricein�998,thecostofthiswork–afractionofthetotalinfrastructurerequirement-wouldbeRMB2,�0�million(US$262.9million).��6Enormousflooddefenceshavebeenconstructedinlow-lyingareasandtidalestuariesinotherpartsoftheworldatenormouscost. For example, the cost of theThamesbarrier andassociatedworksprotectingLondonwasapproximately£�.�billion

��2 FigureisslightlyoverstatedasitincludesthewholeofHuizhouandZhaoqing,includingpartsthatfalloutsidethedefinedareaofthePRDeconomiczone.Enrightetal:p.2�.

��� Enrightetal:p.24.

��4 “GlobalWarmingAcceleratesChina’sSeaLevelRise”,People’sDaily,��thApril2002.[Online].http://english.people.com.cn/200204/��/eng200204��_9�966.shtml

��5 InternationalFederationofRedCross:Appealno.MDRCN00�.[Online].http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/06/MDRCN00�a.pdf

��6 Huang:p.26�.

•••••

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(aroundUS$�.9billion)in200�prices,��7andpreliminaryestimatesofthecostofprovidinga0.�%standard(�000-to-�chanceofflooding)totheyear2�00areapproximately£4billion(US$7.5billion)withinthenext40years.��8

Again,thisdefensiveinfrastructuremaybefundedfromavarietyofsources,butallocationofpublicfundstoconstructionofsea-wallsanddykeswillreducethecapitalavailabletoinvestmoredirectlyintheGreaterPRDeconomy.Similarly,thisconstruc-tionmaycreatealargenumberofjobsintheregionintheshortterm,butthesejobsarelikelytobelow-skilledandtomakeanegligiblecontributiontoeconomicgrowth.

Inthelongerterm,itispossiblethattheresultsofcost-benefitanalysesofadaptationalternativeswillshowthatincreasingcoastaldefencesisnolongerasustainablestrategyandthatitisnecessarytowithdrawfromsomeareasandrelocateassetsorcom-munities.Suchanoperationwould incurconsiderablecosts, includingcompensationforforegoneassets. Itwouldalsoentailsignificantnon-economic,socialcosts.

Lower business revenues

ItislikelythattherewillbeheightenedriskoffrequentbusinessinterruptionintheGreaterPRDduetoclimatechange.

Asdescribedabove,transportationinfrastructureisvulnerabletostormandfloodingevents,whichcouldleadtomajordelaysandbottlenecks,disruptingdeliveryofrawmaterials,componentsorfinishedgoods.MuchoftheindustryinthePRDissupplychaindrivenandpromptdeliveryisvitaltobusinesscompetitiveness.

ElectricitysupplyproblemsalreadyhamperbusinessoperationsinthePRD.Forexample,inthefirstquarterof2005,Guangzhoureportedacutepowershortageswhenpowerhadtoberestrictedinspecificareason7�6occasions.ThoseperiodscostthecityRMB�0billion(nearlyUS$�.�billion)inindustrialoutput.��9Morefrequentinterruptionstopowersupplycausedbydamagetotransmissionlinesordelaystofueldeliverycouldslowproductionandloweroutputevenmoreseriously.

LoweroutputandlossofordersbyfactoriesinthePRDcouldseriouslythreatentheregion’soverallexportearnings.In2004,thePRDEZexportedgoodsworthUS$�82.4�billion,whichwasequalto�0.74%ofallChina’sexports.�40Ifbuyersstarttobelievethatcompanies inthePRDcannotreliablydeliver,albeitduetoexternalfactors,theyare likelytowithdrawtheircustomandrelocatetheirsupplychainbusinessoutsidetheregion.Inadditiontothemanufacturingcentreinthedelta,thiswouldalsohaveadevastatingimpactontheportsandairportsintheregionandonthelogisticsandservicesindustriesinHongKong,whosecompanieshaveinvestedheavilyinthePRD.

Increased taxation and business costs

Itislikelythatthecostsofdoingbusinesswillriseasaresultofclimatechange.Forexample,shippingandtransportationcostsmayincreaseasdisruptionanddelaysforcecompaniestomakeshort-termoradhocarrangements.Itmaybenecessarytoaddnewstoragefacilitiesforinventoryorfueltoprepareforpossibledisruptions.Thecostofutilitiesmayalsoincrease,especiallywater, asmarketpricing isemployed tocontrol inefficient usage. Inaddition, increased temperaturesandheavy rainfall putgreaterstrainonbuildingmaterialsandmaycauseincreasedbuildingmaintenancecosts.

��7 EnvironmentAgency,“ThamesRegion.WhoPaidfortheThamesBarrier?”,2006.[Online].http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/regions/thames/�2��50/��5688/�4�764/�4�78�/?version=�&lang=

��8 EntekUKLimitedetal:p.�2.

��9 Loh:p.22.

�40 FigureisslightlyoverstatedasitincludesthewholeofHuizhouandZhaoqing,includingpartsthatfalloutsidethedefinedareaofthePRDeconomiczone.Enrightetal:p.2�.

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ItisalsolikelythatthecostofinsuranceforcertainphysicalassetsintheGreaterPRDwillbecomeamuchgreaterburden,and,insomecases,maynotbeavailableatall.Businessinterruptioninsurancemayalsobecomeextremelyexpensiveordifficulttosecure.

Greaterpressuresonthefinancialresourcesofthegovernmentatprovincialormunicipallevelwill,evenifcentralgovernmentiswillingtoassistfinancially,almostcertainlyleadtoincreasedtaxation.Thisburdenislikelytobeheaviestonbusinessesandcouldincludedirectleviesforfloodcontrolprojects,ascontemplatedinthenationalLawofFloodControl(�997).�4�AhighertaxburdenonGreaterPRDbusinesseswillincreasetheiroveralloperatingcosts,withconsequentnegativeeffectsonprofitsandonthelevelofretainedearningsavailableforreinvestmentorexpansionofthebusinesses.Paradoxically,thismaymeanthattotaltaxrevenuescollectedbygovernmentsfall,evenasthetaxburdenonindividualcompaniesoremployeesincreases.

Decreased foreign direct investment

Lossofsupplychainorders,lowerturnoverandhigherbusinesscostswouldgeneratelessattractivereturnstoshareholders,whichmaydecreaseinvestorappetitefortheregion.Currently,foreigncapitalplaysamajorroleintheGreaterPRD’sindustrialdevelopment,withutilisedFDIintothePRDEZin200�ofUS$��.05billion–over24%oftotalFDIintoChina.�42TheFederationofHongKongIndustriesestimatedin2002thattherewere5�,000HongKonginvestedfactoriesinthePRDEZ,�4�andover80,000HongKonginvestedfactoriesinGuangdongasawhole.�44MuchofthisinvestmentwillhaveflowedthroughfromFDIintoHongKongitself,whichin200�wasafurtherUS$��.6�billion.�45Bythefollowingyear,morethan�,600overseascompanieshadregionalofficesinHongKong.�46

ItislikelythatasizeablereductioninFDIwouldsignificantlyinhibittheregion’sabilitytomaintainthepaceofindustrialdevelop-mentandconsequenteconomicgrowth.Thedeltaarea,particularly,mightsuffernotonlyfromareductionincapitalinvestment,butalsofromareductionintechnologytransferbyforeigninvestors,whichhasbeeninstrumentalinthedevelopmentoflocalindustry.

Figure 26 - GuangzhouSource: Pearl River Water Research Institute

�4� LawofFloodControlofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,Article5�.SeealsoZhangandWen:p.58.

�42 Enrightetal:p.44.

�4� WongR.Y.C.etal,MadeinPRD:TheChangingFaceofHongKongManufacturers(HongKong:FederationofHongKongIndustries,200�)92pp.[Online].http://www.industryhk.org/english/fp/fp_res/files/prde.pdf

�44 Paragraph�4,PaperRef:2006ES/2,September2006,preparedfortheChiefExecutive’sEconomicSummit,Commerce,IndustryandTechnologyBureau,GovernmentofHongKong.

�45 Enrightetal:p.25.

�46 Enrightetal:p.68.

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AsthemostdynamicregioninChina,theGreaterPRDisalsothesourceofinvestmentforotherregionsinChina,aswellasprovidingemploymentforlargenumbersofworkerswhoareabletosendmoneytotheirfamilieselsewhereinthecountry.Inaddition,theregionhasbecomeanimportantindustrialmarketforcapitalgoodsandmaterialsfromotherpartsofChina.Rapidurbanisationandburgeoningcitypopulationshavecreatedhugedemand,forexample,forbuildingmaterialsandtransportationequipment.�47TheGreaterPRDisalsoalargeconsumermarket,wheresubstantialpercapitaincomesandgrowingconsumerspendingcreatethepotentialforsaleofgoodsfromotherpartsofthecountry.RetailsalesintheGreaterPRD,includingHongKongandMacao,wereUS$8�.04billionin2004.�48

TheGreaterPRDisanimportantgatewaytoChina.HongKonghasformanyyearsactedasanentrepot,andtheannualtradefairsintheregion,especiallyinGuangzhou,generateenormousbusinessforthecountry.Thecityhosted6�6tradefairsin2004,�49includingtheChineseExportCommoditiesFair,orCantonFair,whichisChina’slargesttradefair,generatingapproximatelyone-thirdofChina’stotalexports.�50It isreasonabletoassume,therefore,thataseriouseconomicslow-downintheGreaterPRDwouldhavefar-reachingimplicationsforthecountryasawhole.

(5) Impact by Industry Sector

“Climate change is not by any means just an issue about the environment. It is a business issue.”�5�

ClimatechangeisabusinessissuethatcompaniesintheGreaterPRDmustbegintoaddressintheverynearfuture,iftheyarenottoriskbusinessfailureorseverelyreducedprofits,ortomisspossiblebusinessopportunitiescreatedbynewconditions.Managementofclimatechangeriskshouldbeapproachedaspartoftheoverallstrategicplanningprocessandintegratedwithotherdecisionmakingprocesses.�52Thismaybechallengingforcompanymanagers,whowillhavetotackleanentirelynewareaofpolicy,butitwillbecomeincreasinglycriticalthatclimatechangeimpactsarefactoredintobusinessplansandinvestmentdecisions.

Inmanycases,physicalassetsorbusinessoperationsintheGreaterPRDareownedbyholdingcompaniesorconglomeratesthatoperateinmultipleindustrysectors.Thisincreasesthedifficultyofanalysingtherangeofrelevantrisksandappropriateactions,andalsomeansthatassessmentofthepossibleeffectsonfinancialreturnsatholdingcompanylevelisextremelychallenging.

Intheabsenceofproprietarycompanydataandinternalanalysisontheseissues,thispapercannotattempttoquantifythefinan-cialimpactsofclimatechangeonspecificcompaniesthatoperateorinvestintheGreaterPRD.However,itisevidentthattheextenttowhichindividualbusinessesintheGreaterPRDareaffectedbyclimatechangewillbeinfluencedbytheindustrysectorsinwhichtheyoperate,anditispossibleheretomakeaqualitativeassessmentofsomeoftherelevantfactors.

InadditiontothediscussionintheprevioussectionofthelikelyimpactsonbusinessgenerallyinthePRD,thesub-sectionsbelowsummarisesomeoftheparticularissuesthatmayaffectselectedindustrysectors:

�47 Enrightetal:p.7.

�48 Enrightetal:p.26.

�49 HongKongTradeDevelopmentCouncil.

�50 CantonFair.net,“�00thCantonfairIntroduction”.[Online].http://www.cantonfair.net/cantonfair.htm

�5� RtHonMargaretBeckettMP,“ClimateChangePolicy-WhatItMeansforInvestors”,speechatInstitutionalInvestorsGrouponClimateChange200�Conference,London,26thNovember200�.[Online].http://www.defra.gov.uk/corporate/ministers/speeches/mb0���26.htm

�52 Metcalf,GerryandJenkinson,Kay,“AChangingClimateforBusiness”(Oxford:UKClimateImpactProgramme(UKCIP),June2005)�5pp.[Online].http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/documents/99.pdf

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(a) Property

ThepropertysectorisamajorcontributortothemarketcapitalisationoftheHongKongStockExchange.Identifiedrealestatecompanies,definedassuchbytheHangSengPropertyIndex,makeupapproximately��%oftheweightingofthetotalHangSengIndex(asofSeptember2006).�5�

Figure 27 - Victoria Harbour, Hong KongSource: Hong Kong Planning and Infrastructure Exhibition Gallery

However,thisnumbersignificantlyunderstatestheimportanceofthesector,asalargepercentageofalllistedcompaniesinHongKonghaveasizeablepropertyarm.ThisisalsotrueforsomecompanieslistedontheShenzhenStockExchange.Thecontribu-tionofthepropertysectoris,therefore,criticallyimportanttotheregionaleconomy.Financialperformanceofcompaniesinthesectorcouldbeaffectedinanumberofways:

i)Climatechangeislikelytopresentnewchallengesforconstructionofbuildings,�54increasingcostsandcausingdelays,whichmightinturncausethecompanytoincurpenaltiesforlatecompletion:

Newbuildingandengineeringstandards(e.g.subsidencecontrol,drainage)mayincreasecosts.Moredurablebuildingmaterialsmayneedtobeused.Highwindsmayaffectsafeuseofscaffoldingandequipment.Siteworkmaybecomemoredifficult,leadingtoincreaseduseofprefabrication.Transportforsitedeliveriesmaybedisrupted.Theremaybelongerdeliverylinesformaterialsorcomponents,whichwillbevulnerabletoextremeweather.Insurancecostswillbehigher.

ii)Operatingcostsforbuildingmaintenanceandfacilitiesmanagementarelikelytoincrease:Newbuildingandengineeringstandardsmayincreasemaintenancecosts.Highwinds,rainfallandfloodingmayaffectdurabilityofbuildingmaterials.Highertemperaturesmayleadtogroundcontaminantsbecomingmoreactiveandattackingfoundations.Utilitiescostsmayriseaslowerwaterqualityrequiresnewprocessingtechniques,demandincreasesandmarketpric-ingisenforced.Utilitiessupplyisvulnerabletoextremeweather,givingrisetoaneedforback-up.

�5� HSIServicesLtd,September2006.[Online].http://www.hsi.com.hk/

�54 MetcalfandJenkinson:p.�8ff.

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iii)Otheroperatingcosts,includinginsurancecosts,propertyandcorporatetaxesandsalesandmarketingcosts,mayalsobeincreased.

iv)Propertyvaluescouldbenegativelyaffectedbyfloodingorstormdamagetoexistingassetsorbyconcernaboutweatherevents.(b) Supply Chain

Asdiscussedabove,thereisavastproductionbaseinthePRD,whichishometothousandsofmanufacturingfacilities.Thetwobanksofthedeltapresentdifferentindustryprofiles:theeastbankfocuseslargelyonelectronicsandtechnologyproducts,withHongKongservingasamajorelectronicspartssourcinganddistributionhubforAsia;thewestbankspecialisesinthemainonhouseholdapplianceproducts.IntheGreaterPRD,anextensivesupplychainhastakenshape,whereitisconvenienttosourceallparts,componentsandaccessoriesofaproduct,sothatupstreamanddownstreamindustriesarecloselyconnectedandorderscanbecompletedquickly.�55Thisinter-dependenceofupstreamanddownstreamactivitiesmaybeanimportantfactorinmakingmanufacturingcompaniesintheGreaterPRDvulnerabletoclimatechangeimpacts:

i)Constructionandmaintenanceofmanufacturingfacilitieswillbeaffectedbymanyofthesamefactorsasdescribedaboveunderpropertysector.Anadditionalissueforindustrialfacilitiescouldbeliabilityforanyleakageofhazardoussubstancesasaresultofdamagetofacilities.

ii)Additionaloperatingissuesformanufacturingfacilitiescouldinclude:HighertemperaturesrequiringincreasedtemperaturecontrolsHigherutilitiescosts,especiallyforprocessesthatrequireagreatdealofwaterorpowerforcoolingLowergroundwaterqualitydiminishingthequalityoffinalproductsinwaterintensiveindustries(e.g.paper,pharma-ceuticals)InterruptionstopowersupplythatdisruptproductionTransportationproblemsthatdisruptdeliveryofrawmaterialsorcomponents,disruptingproductionTransportationproblemsthatdisruptdeliveryoffinalproducts,includinghigh-valueorperishablegoodsHigherinsurancecosts,especiallygiventhatindustrialinfrastructureinChinatendstobegrosslyunder-insuredcur-rentlyHighertaxes

Supplychaincompaniestypicallyrunonverytightmargins,andtheycompeteonlowcostandspeedydelivery.Manycompaniescouldhaveverylittleflexibilitytorespondtodelaysorhighercosts.Moreover,latedeliveriesofcomponentsorfinishedgoodscouldverylikelyresultinlostorders.Whilethiscouldforceindividualcompaniesoutofbusiness,thewiderimplicationsfortheGreaterPRDaswholearealsoextremelygrave.Oncetheefficiencyofthesupplychain intheregion iscalled intoquestion,internationalbuyerscouldveryrapidlychoosetosourcegoodsandbuildanewsupplychaininfrastructureelsewhereinAsia,underminingthestrongeconomicperformanceoftheregion.

�55 HongKongTradeDevelopmentCouncil.

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(c) Transportation/Logistics

Figure 28 - Ports and airports in the Greater PRD regionSource: MVA Hong Kong Ltd

Thetransportation,storage,postandtelecommunicationssectoristhesinglelargestservicesectorinthePRDEZ,withoutputofUS$�4.�2billionin200�,equivalenttoapproximately24%ofthetotalservicesectoroutputinthePRDEZ.InHongKonginthesameyear,transportandstoragerecordedthefifthlargestoutputatUS$�2.�2billion.�56

HongKongisoneofthekeytransportationandlogisticshubsinAsia,andisthechannelthroughwhichamajorportionofthePRDEZ’sexportcargoflows.HKIAisthelargestinternationalaircargohandlerintheworldwithathroughputof�.4milliontonnesin2005,whichisexpectedtotripleby2020.HongKong’sseaporthandled22.42millionTwentyFootEquivalentUnits(“TEU”s)(standardunitforcontainers)in2005,andthisvolumeisexpectedtoincreasetoover40millionTEUsby2020.�57PortsinthePRDEZarealsobeingexpandedtohandleincreasedvolumesoffreight,alreadyreachingacombinedvolumeof�7millionTEUsin2004.Shenzhen,whichhasthefourthlargestcontainerportintheworld,isalsoalogisticscentre,withover2,000logisticscompanieslocatedthere,thetop�2ofwhichhaveassetsexceedingRMB�00million.�58

Asdescribedindetailabove,climatechangecouldnegativelyaffecttransportationinfrastructureofallkindsintheGreaterPRD.Thiswouldhaveasignificantimpactontheoperationsofbothtransportationandlogisticscompanies:

i)Adaptationoftransportationfacilitieswouldrequireadditionalcapitalexpenditure,including:AdditionaldredgingtomanagesiltingatportfacilitiesConstructionoffloodingdefences,especiallyonwharfsandcoastalairportrunwaysElevationofroadandrailnetworksandadaptationoftunnelsandotherinfrastructure

�56 Enrightetal:p.67.

�57 InvestHK,“TransportationandLogisticsHub.HongKong,AsiaPacific’sTransportationandLogisticsHub”,April2006.[Online].http://www.investhk.gov.hk/pages/�/�06.aspx

�58 HongKongTradeDevelopmentCouncil.

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ii)Damageanddisruptionoftransportationnetworksmayhaveflow-oneffects:Companiesmayfacepenaltiesfordelays.Logisticscompaniescompeteondeliverytimeandcouldbecomeuncompetitive.Lossofbusinesswillhurtthesecompanies’margins.Relocationofsupplychainbusinessoutsidetheregionwillgreatlydamagethesector.Passengertrafficmayalsobereduced.

iii)Higheroperatingcostsincludingfuel,maintenance,taxandinsurancethatpushuppriceswouldalsohurtcompetitiveness:Thelogisticsandtransportsectorisverypricesensitive.Severalairportsintheregion,particularlyMacao,areaimingatbecominghubsfornewbudgetairlineoperations.Thisstrategycouldbeunderminedbyincreasedcostsandhigherlandingfeesandtaxes.

iv)Lowerthroughputofcargoand/orlesspassengertrafficwoulddiminishcorerevenuesforcompaniesthroughoutthissector,suchas:

Airportoperators(parkingandlandingfees,airporthandlingcharges,leasepaymentsfromterminalconcessionandretailoutlets)Portoperators(mooringfees,handlingcharges,leasepaymentsfromassociatedproperties)Groundtransportationoperators(road,bridgeandtunneltolls,servicestationrevenues,ticketfares)Airlines(ticketfares,cargotransportationfees)Shipping/logisticscompanies(freightforwardingfees,handlingfees,warehousingcharges,charterfees)

Climatechangeimpactsonthissectorwouldaffectawiderangeofcompanies,fromairportandportoperators,toairlinesandshippingcompanies,totruckingandlogisticscompanies.Bothpublicandprivatesectoroperationscouldbesignificantlydisrupt-ed,withresultinglossofbusiness.ThesectorhasbecomeincreasinglydependentonthemanufacturingactivitiesinthePRDtopoweritsgrowth,andthereislikelytobeahighdegreeofcorrelationbetweentheeconomicperformancesofthetwosectors.

(d) Financial Services

HongKongisoneoftheleadingfinancialservicescentresinAsia,withAsia’ssecondlargeststockmarketintermsofmarketcapi-talisation,reachingthebenchmarkHK$�0trillion(US$�.28trillion)inMay2006.�59HongKongisthelargestinternationalcapitalraisingcentreforChineseenterprises,withoverUS$�25billionraisedthroughHongKongsince�99�.Thereare���licensedbanksandmorethan200fundmanagementfirmsbasedinthecity.HongKonghas�75authorisedinsurancecompanies,andtheindustryasawholehadgrosspremiumsofUS$�6billionin2004.�60

Shenzhenisamuchsmallermarket,butisconsideredthemostimportantfinancialcentreinChinaafterShanghai.Shenzhenwasthehomeof�9foreignbankbranchesand74representativeofficesin2004.�6�AsofDecember2005,544companieswerelistedontheShenzhenStockExchange,whichhadamarketcapitalisationofUS$�20billion.�62

Shareholdersandmanagers in the financialservicessectoroftenconsider that theirbusinessperformance isunaffectedbyclimatevariation,butthissectoremployslargenumbersofpeople,ownsconsiderablephysicalassetsandreliesoninternationalcommunicationnetworks,allofwhichcouldbeaffectedbyresponsetoclimatechange.Moreover,disruption in thefinancialservicessectorhasfar-reachingeffectsonalleconomysectors.

�59 “Roundup:HKStockMarketCapReachesRecordHighof�0TrillionHKDollars”,People’sDailyOnline,4thMay2006.[Online].http://eng-lish.people.com.cn/200605/04/eng20060504_2629�2.html

�60 InvestHK,“Asia’sRetailCapital”,April2006.[Online].http://www.investhk.gov.hk/pages/�/24�.aspx

�6� AlmanacofChina’sFinance&Banking,2004.Enright:p.5�.

�62 2006GlobalNewMarketsGuide,GrantThornton,2006.[Online].http://www.gti.org/documents/GNMG%202006%20�4th%20July.pdf

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i)Inadditiontobeingaffectedbymanyofthesamepotentialfactorsasotherindustrysectors,suchasincreasedbuildingcosts,higherutilitycosts,higherinsuranceandhighertaxes,theoperatingcostsoffinancialservicescompaniescouldbeinfluencedinspecificways.

Telecommunicationsnetworksandcomputersystems,whicharecriticaltooperations,couldbevulnerabletostorms,floodingorpowerfailure.Extensiveback-upsystemswillbenecessary.

ii)Riskprofileoffinancialservicesbusinesseswouldincrease:InvestorsandlenderstoGreaterPRDcompaniesneedtoconsiderthepotentiallygreaterriskofdefaultorlowreturnsduetoclimatechange.Climatechangeeventscouldleadtoalargeriseininsuranceclaims,whichcoulddamagethefinancialperformanceofinsurancecompanies.(Insurancecompaniesalsoholdlargeinvestmentportfolios,whoseperformancecouldalsobesubjecttoclimatechangerisk).

iii)BusinessturnovercoulddecreaseiftheGreaterPRDisviewedasincreasinglyrisky:PortfolioinvestmentinGreaterPRDcompaniescouldfall.CapitalraisingforGreaterPRDcompaniescoulddecrease.

ItisnotimpossiblethatnegativeimpactsonfinancialservicescompaniescouldaffectthewholemarketinHongKongorShen-zhen.Forexample,ahighvolumeofinsuranceclaims,defaultsorlossescouldforcecertainfinancialinstitutionstosellpartsoftheirsecuritiesportfolios.Ifthisweretohappenonalargescale,itcoulddepressthevalueofthefinancialmarkets,whichcouldhavesignificantknock-oneffectsontheeconomyoftheregion.

V. ADAPTATION

TheIPCCconcludedinitsThirdAssessmentReportthatclimatechangeisarealityandthatadaptationisanecessarystrategytocomplementemissionsmitigationefforts.Whilemitigationcanbeviewedasreducingthe likelihoodofadverseconditions,adaptationcanbeviewedasreducingtheseverityofmanyimpactsifadverseconditionsprevail.�6�Anadaptationstrategyaimstoincreasetheresilienceofnatural,humanandeconomicsystemstopossiblechangesandtoreducethelevelofdamagethatmightotherwiseoccur.Itisaframeworkformanagingfutureclimaterisk,whichwillinfluencebothpublicpolicyandprivatesec-tordecision-making.

Vulnerability “Theextenttowhichanaturalsystemofhumansocietyisunabletocopewiththenegativeimpactsofclimatechange,variabilityandextremes”

Adaptation “Adjustmentinnaturalorhumansystemsinresponsetoactualorexpectedclimaticchangesortheireffects,whichmoderatesharmorexploitsbeneficialopportunities”

AdaptedfromPittock(ed.)�64

(1) Adaptation Strategy Frameworks

Tobeeffective,anadaptationstrategymustconsiderclimateriskasanormalpartofdecision-making,allowinggovernments,

�6� Easterling,Williametal,Copingwithglobalclimatechange:TheroleofadaptationintheUnitedStates,(Arlington:PewCentreonGlobalClimateChange,2004)40pp.[Online].http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/Adaptation%2Epdf

�64 Pittock,Barrie(ed.),ClimateChange:AnAustralianGuidetotheScienceandPotentialImpacts(Sydney:AustralianGreenhouseOffice,200�)2�9pp.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/science/guide/pubs/science-guide.pdf

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businessesandindividualstoreflecttheirriskpreferencesjustastheywouldinotherriskassessmentsandstrategicplans.�65Whiletherewillbemanywaystodevelopadaptationstrategiesthatareappropriateforspecificusers,aframeworkforconsider-ingtheissuesislikelytoincludethefollowing:�66

identificationofvulnerabilityofregion,economy,environmentorpopulationtoclimatechangeidentificationofthelikelyimpactsandrankingoftheseimpactsinorderofimportance,probabilityandurgencymonitoringtoassesswhetheranticipatedclimatechangesaretakingplace,andifso,atwhatspeedcalculationofthecostsandbenefitsofarangeofadaptationstrategies:noresponse,relocation,physicalinfrastruc-ture,changeinbusinesspracticeetc.sensitivityanalysisofadaptationstrategiesandoutcomesawareness-raisingandcommunicationwithstakeholdersaboutclimateriskandadaptationongoingriskassessmentandstrategicreview

Toreachapointatwhichclimateriskandadaptationstrategiescanberealisticallyassessedwillrequireenormousactivityacrossmultiplefields.Betterinformationonregionalclimatechangeandpotentialoutcomesisakeyrequirement.

Climatechangemodellingtechniquesarestillunderdevelopmentandglobalclimatemodels,orgeneralcirculationmodels,showlargedifferencesinthetiming,directionandmagnitudeofclimatechangeataregionalscale.Suchdifferencesoftenmakeitdif-ficultforpolicymakerstoaccepttheresultsofvulnerabilityanalysesandtoaddressadaptation.�67Agreatdealofworkremainstobedonetodevelopgenerallyacceptedmodellingtechniquesandassumptions.

Similarly,costingtheimpactsofclimatechangeiscomplex.Itishighlylikelythatcoststosocietywillincreasewithglobalwarm-ingandthatthesecostswillbespreadacrossmanyregionsandsectors.Asignificantamountofworktoneedstobeundertakentodevelopcomprehensivecross-sectoralestimatesofthecostofclimatechangeforarangeofscenarios.�68

Figure 29 - Framework for Climate Change Decision-MakingAdapted from Willows et al.�69

�65 AllenConsultingGroup:p.8.

�66 AustralianGreenhouseOffice,DepartmentoftheEnvironment&Heritage,Australia,“Impacts&Adaptation–AdaptationPlanning”,2006.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/adaptation.html

�67 Erda,Linetal(eds.),ClimateChangeVulnerabilityandAdaptationinAsiaandthePacific,ProceedingsofWorkshop�5-�9thJanuary�996inManila(Dordrecht:KluwerAcademicPublishers,�996)[Online].http://www.gcrio.org/CSP/WORKSHOP_0�_�996.html

�68 AustralianGreenhouseOffice,Departmentof theEnvironment&Heritage,Australia, “Impacts&Adaptation–Methods&Tools”,2006.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/methods.html

�69 Willows,R.etal,ClimateAdaptationRiskandUncertainty:DraftDecisionFramework,(London:EnvironmentAgency/DepartmentforEnvi-ronment,TransportandtheRegions,2000).[Online].http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/kd0�/lightgreen/pascc-05.asp

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(2) Responsibility for Adaptation Strategies in the Greater PRD

Whileclimateriskanalysisandadaptationstrategywillneedtobeexecutedatalllevelsofbothpublicandprivatesectoractiv-ityintheGreaterPRD,itisclearthatstronggovernmentleadershipisimportant.Muchoftheimplementationofanyadaptationstrategywouldinevitablybetheresponsibilityofthenational,provincialandlocalgovernments,giventheirkeyrolesinpublicinfrastructure,safety,healthandlanduseplanningandcontrol.

MostofthepublicinfrastructureinChina,forexample,isownedbytheStateorprovincialgovernment,whichbearstherespon-sibilityforanydamagetoit.Governmentsalsoassumesomeriskforprivatelyownedormanagedinfrastructure,ascontractsgoverningmostofthesearrangementsallocatefinancialresponsibilityfornaturaldisasterstogovernmentparties.�70Inaddition,whereinsuranceisnotwidelyavailableorused,thegovernmentwilltendtotakeonreconstructionorrenewalactivitiesafteranaturaldisaster.

Keyadaptationissuesspanvirtuallyallportfoliosandlevelsofgovernment.DuetothecomplexbureaucracyinChina,coordina-tionofclimatechangeactivitiesamongthevariousbodieswithauthorityovertheGreaterPRDwillbechallenging.

Forexample,takingwatermanagementasoneareaofactivity,itisapparentthatinteractionbetweentherelevantnationalgov-ernmentdepartmentsandregionalauthoritiesisnotstraightforward.DespitethefactthattheMinistryofWaterResourceswasmandatedin�998togovernthemanagementofwaterresources,watersectoractivitiesarefragmented,withotherministrieshandlingwaterqualitymanagement,urbanwatersupplyandmanyotheractivities.Meanwhile,regionalandmunicipalauthoritiesrepresenttheirowninterests,andthereisoftenconflictbetweendifferentregionsandlevelsofgovernment.�7�

Similarly,theleadingagencyformanagementofcoastalregionsinChinaistheDepartmentofSeaAreaManagement,situatedintheStateOceanicAdministration(“SOA”).However,theSOAdoesnothavetheauthoritytocoordinateallthesectorsthatmaybeaffectedbysealevelrise:agriculture,industry,fisheries,tourism,urbanplanning,construction,portsetc.Inaddition,theSOAissubordinatedtotheMinistryofLandResources,whichmightindicateweakpoliticalstanding.Moreover,atprovincialandlocallevelthereareagainmanyagencies,withvaryinglevelsofautonomyandtheirownpriorities.�72

Coordinationcouldbe improvedifthePRDweretosetupadedicatedbodyresponsibleforclimatechangestrategy,ashasbeendoneinmanyotherregionsandcitiesintheworld.Forexample,theBritishgovernmentsetupataskforce,theUKClimateImpactsProgramme(“UKCIP”),�7�in�997;andLondonhasitsownbody,theLondonClimateChangePartnership.TheAustraliangovernmenthassetupaNationalClimateChangeAdaptationProgramme,whichaimstobeginpreparingvulnerableindustriesandcommunitiesbydevelopinginformationandtoolsonclimatechange.�74SeveralcountriesinAsiaalsohaveinter-agencytaskforces,includingtheInter-AgencyCommitteeonClimateChangeinthePhilippinesandtheNationalCommitteeonClimateChangeinIndonesia.�75

�70 FreemanandWarner:p.�6.

�7� ZhangandWen:p.54ff.

�72 Lau,Maren,“CoastalzonemanagementinthePeople’sRepublicofChina–auniqueapproach”,ChinaEnvironmentSeries,Issue6,200�:pp.�20-�2�.

�7� UKClimateImpactsProgramme,“AboutUKCIP”.[Online].http://www.ukcip.org.uk/about/

�74 AustralianGreenhouseOffice,DepartmentoftheEnvironment&Heritage,Australia,“Impacts&Adaptation–NationalClimateChangeAdap-tationProgramme”,October2006.[Online].http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/index.html

�75 Erdaetal.

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WhiledevelopmentofpublicpolicyonadaptationtoclimatechangeimpactsisvitalfortheGreaterPRD,businessesintheregionwillalsohavetoanalysehowtheywillbeindividuallyaffectedanddeveloptheirownstrategies.Inmanycases,theresponsibilityfortakingactionmaybeshareddirectlybybusinessesandgovernment.Inothercircumstances,itmaybesharedindirectlyasgovernmentleviesfundsfromtheprivatesectortopayfornecessaryadaptationmeasuresintheregion.

3. Selected Public Policy Areas for Adaptation

Thedevelopmentofpublicpolicyonadaptationwillbeenormouslychallenging.Itwilldemandbetterinformationonphysicalandenvironmentalchangesandimprovedmethodologyforforecastingeconomicandsocialimpacts.Itwillrequireadedicatedgroupofpolicymakerswhowillsynthesisetheviewsofawiderangeofstakeholderstoensurethatadaptationinoneareadoesnothaveanegativeimpactuponanother.

Inthefirstplace,inordertoimprovetheunderstandingofthepaceandextentofclimatechangeeffectsintheGreaterPRD,itisvitaltoputinplaceanaccuratemonitoringnetworkthatwillaccumulatesufficientdatatoprovideascientificfoundationforstrategicdecisions.Forexample,withregardtosealevelrise,itwillbenecessarytomonitortides,verticalcrustalmovements,surfacesubsidence,coastalerosion,riverbedandbaydeposits,groundsofteningandsubsidence.�76Inadditiontoobservationsfromdomestictidestationsandresearchstations,monitoringmayincludesatelliteorairborneremotesensing,whichwillrequirecooperationwithnationalorinternationalnetworks.

Asealevelriseof�0cmby20�0,andthepossibilityoffargreaterincreasesinthefollowingdecades,willrequireacompre-hensivepolicyresponse.Ifnoprogressismadetowardsdevelopingthatpolicyintheimmediatefuture,theGreaterPRDcouldbeleftextremelyvulnerable.Itwillbenecessaryintheshorttermtomakestrategicdecisions,forexample,onearlywarningsystems,tidaldefensesandrelocationofbuiltassetsinresponsetosealevelrise.Atthesametime,inplanningforincrementaldevelopment,priorityshouldbegiventoassessingtheriskstoinfrastructurewiththelongestassetlife,suchasbridges,tunnelsandearthworks,whichoftenhaveaneffectivelifeof50-�00years.�77

PolicyshouldbedevelopedalongseveraloftheselinessimultaneouslyinordertoprotecttheeconomyandcommunitiesoftheGreaterPRD,andalsotolimitfutureactionsthatmayincreaseexistingproblems.Keypolicyareaswillincludethefollowing:

Urban planning

Warmer,wetterandmoreextremeweatherwillputadditionalstressonbuildingsandinfrastructure.Itwillbenecessarytodevelopandenforcenewstandardsofdesign,engineeringandconstructionincoastalcities.Designofdrainageneedstoberevisedtomitigateurbanfloodingandmanymajorengineeringprojectsmayneedtobereinforcedorelevatedwherepossible.

Water resource management

Availabilityandqualityofwatersuppliesislikelytobeaffectedbyclimatechange,whiledemandforwaterisincreasingrapidly.Governmentsmustputstrictlimitsongroundwaterexploitation,whileimprovingwatertreatmentanddistributioninfrastructure.Watersupplysystemscouldbemademorerobust,forexample,byincreasingtheirstoragecapacityorlinkingbasinssowatercanbetransferredbetweenthem.Atthesametime,itisvitaltoreduceinefficientusageofwaterbyconsideringwatersupplyneedswhenplanningnewdevelopmentandbyintroducingmarketpricesforwater,especiallyintheindustrialsector.�78Publicawarenessoftheimportanceofwaterconservationmustalsoberaised.�79

�76 Yang:p.274.

�77 SouthEastClimateChangePartnership:p.�.

�78 Erdaetal.

�79 Wadeetal:p.8�.

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Flood management systems

Improvedfloodmanagementsystemswillbeneededtorespondtomoreintenseandmorefrequentstormandfloodingevents,includingreliableforecastingofweatherandtides,afloodwarningapparatusinvulnerableareasandcomprehensiveemergencyresponse.Contingencyplanningtodealwithpotentialdamagetoexistinginfrastructures,suchaswaterandgassupplypipesorelectricityandtelecommunicationcables,willalsobeimportant.

Coastal and river defence

Thereisanextensivenetworkofdykes,seawallsandembankmentsintheGreaterPRD,muchofwhichwasconstructedaccord-ingtocriteriasetbytheGuangdonggovernmentin�955.�80Designstandardsforthesestructuresneedtoberevisedaccordingtothelatestforecastsofsealevelriseandstormsurge,andcost-benefitanalysescarriedouttoprioritiseupgradingwork.AhugeinvestmentinengineeringworkwouldberequiredtoupgradeandconsolidatethedefensiveinfrastructurethroughouttheGreaterPRD.

Long-term land use planning

Asdiscussedabove,muchoftheurbandevelopmentintheGreaterPRDissituatedonverylow-lyinglandandisalreadysubjecttoregularflooding,whilesignificantareasofagriculturallandaswellasindustrialandmanufacturingfacilitiesarelocatedinthefloodplainsofthePRD.AsrecentlydemonstratedbyHurricaneKatrinainNewOrleans,thereisalimittotheextentofprotec-tionthatcanbeprovidedbyeventhemostextensivephysicalflooddefences.Decisionsmustbemadeaboutthecostofthosedefencescomparedwiththevalue(ineconomicandhumanterms)ofthelandthattheyareprotecting.Governmentswillatsomepointneedtorecognisetheneedtoregulateanynewdevelopmentinfloodplainsandvulnerableareas.Inadditiontolegislationprohibitingnewconstructionincertainareas,governmentsmayintroduceincentiveschemestoencourageinvestmentinlessexposedregionsoftheGreaterPRDorinotherpartsofGuangdong.

Theimplementationofanylarge-scalepolicydecisionswillrequiresignificantfinancialresources.Oneofthebiggestchallengesforpolicymakerswillbetoallocateresponsibilityforfundingtheirclimatechangeinitiatives.Thecentralgovernmentbudgetforinvestmentinthewatersector,includingfloodcontrol,isonly2-�%ofthetotalcapitalinvestmentbudget.�8�Attheprovincialandmunicipallevel,itseemsthatgovernmentshavebeenreluctanttoinvestinanyareasthatarenotperceivedtohaveadirectimpactonGDPgrowth.ItislikelythatgovernmentswillseektosharethefinancialburdenwiththeprivatesectorintheGreaterPRDviaincreasedtaxesorspecificfeesforfloodprotection.

�80 Huang:p.26�.

�8� ZhangandWen:p.57.

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50 The Impacts of Climate Change in Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta

Engl

ish

VI. CONCLUSION AND INITIAL RECOMMENDATIONS

ThescientificevidencethattheEarth’sclimateischanging,andthatthesechangesarenotpartoftheEarth’snaturalcyclebutofman’sdoing,isconvincing.�82Nevertheless,“climatechangeisdifficultforpeopletoevaluatedispassionatelybecauseitentailsdeeppoliticalandindustrialimplicationsandbecauseitarisesfromthecoreprocessesofourcivilisation’ssuccess.”�8�

Thisbroad-brushreporthasidentifiedsomeofthewaysinwhichclimatechangemayaffectthelandscapeandeconomyoftheGreaterPRD.Werecommendthatmoredetailedresearchandmodellingbeundertakensothatgovernmentauthorities,businessandcivilsocietycanbetterunderstandtheimpactsofclimatechangeontheregion,includingecologicalimpacts.Economicvalu-ationtechniquesmustalsobedevelopedtoallowmoreaccurateassessmentofthenetcostsoftheseimpacts.

Itisclearevenfromthisinitialassessmentthattheseimpactsarebroad,andthattheregion’sresponsemustlikewisebeso.PolicymakersinHongKong,MacaoandGuangdongneedtoconsiderbothmitigationandadaptationmeasures.Riskassess-menttechniquesandcost-benefitanalysiscanbeusedtocomparemitigationandadaptationstrategies,andfurtherscenarioandsensitivityanalysiscarriedouttoassessthepossibleoutcomes.

Itisalsoclearthat,asnotedbytheSternReview,thecostsoftakingactionnowtoreducegreenhousegasemissionsinordertoavoidtheworsteffectsofclimatechangewillbefarlessthanpayingforthedamagelater.ThelatestwarningfromtheGoddardInstitute–thatthemeltingoftheworld’smajoricecapscouldhappenmuchmorerapidlythanpreviouslythought–underscorestheurgencyoftheproblem.Policymakers,businessleadersandindividualsaroundtheworldmusttakeresoluteactiontoreduceemissionswithinthenext�0years,ifcatastrophicchangestotheplanetaretobeavoided.Moreregion-specificresearchmustalsobeconductedonhowbesttoachievesubstantialemissionreductionsinthePRD.Forexample,whileitisapparentthatoneofthecheapestandquickestwaystoreducegreenhouseandotherpollutingemissionsistoimproveenergyefficiency,thisdoesnotseemtobeappreciatedbybusinessesorgovernmentsintheregion.

AspointedoutbytheSternReview,“Itisnolongerpossibletopreventtheclimatechangethatwilltakeplaceoverthenexttwotothreedecades,butitisstillpossibletoprotectoursocietiesandeconomiesfromitsimpactstosomeextent.”�84Asafirststeptowardsanadaptationstrategy,thereisanurgentneedfortheauthoritiestoreviewthemanyinfrastructureplansintheGreaterPRD(includinglandreclamation,constructionofcontainerterminals,bridges,roads,tunnelsandtransport-relatedprojects)andtheextenttowhichtheymaybeimpactedbyclimatechange.Todate,thediscussionhascentredonhowtoexpediteplansandnothowtoreviewtheminlightofclimateimpacts.�85

Finally,itisclearthatpolicymakersandbusinessesintheGreaterPRDmuststarttoincorporateclimatechangeriskintoalllong-termpolicies,infrastructureprojects,businessplansandstrategicinvestments.Aroundtheworld,decisionmakersarebeginningtorealisethattheymustbeproactiveratherthanreactiveinordertomeetthechallengeofclimatechange.Planningtodayistheonlywayforlocalbusinessesandcommunitiestobepreparedforclimatechangeanditspotentialrisks.

�82 Connell,RichendaandWillows,R.(eds.),“ClimateAdaptation:Risk,UncertaintyandDecision-Making”(Oxford:UKCIP,200�)�62pp.[Online].http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/documents/4.pdf

�8� Flannery,Tim,TheWeatherMakers:TheHistoryandFutureImpactofClimateChange(London:AllenLane,2006)�68pp.

�84 SternReviewontheEconomicsofClimateChange,“WhatistheEconomicsofClimateChange?”,��January2006.

�85 AttheHongKongChiefExecutive’sEconomicSummiton�0thSeptember2006,therewasspecificfocusonportandtransportinfrastruc-turedevelopment,butclimateimpactwasnotmentionedinanyofthediscussionpapers.Seehttp://www.info.gov.hk/info/econ_summit/eng/papers.html.

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ALEXANDRA TRACYKATE TRUMBULL陸恭蕙

氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

2006年11月

中文

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目錄

序言

作者及小組成員簡介

I. 報告摘要

II. 引言

III. 氣候變化預測

(1) 全球變化

(a) 氣溫上升

(b) 天氣模式改變

(c) 海平面上升

(d) 氣候變化與人類活動的相互影響

(2) 大珠三角地區的變化

(a) 氣溫上升

(b) 降雨量

(c) 風暴

(d) 相對的海平面上升

IV. 氣候變化的影響

(1) 對人體健康的影響

(2) 對生態的影響

(3) 對基建的影響

(a) 海岸和河岸堤壩

(b) 地面運輸

(c) 海港和河港

(d) 機場

(e) 供水

(f) 供電

(4) 對經濟的影響

(a) 氣候變化的經濟分析方法

(b) 潛在威脅

(5) 對各行業的影響

(a) 房地產

(b) 供應鏈

(c) 運輸/物流

(d) 金融服務

V. 調適工作

(1) 調適策略的框架

(2) 大珠三角制訂調適策略的權責問題

(3) 調適策略觸及的幾個公共政策範疇

VI. 結論與初步建議

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5�氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

中文

序言

思匯政策研究所意識到,氣候變化是一個涉及多個領域的課題,對香港以至整個珠江三角洲都會帶來重大影響,因此較早

前把它納入我們的研究範圍。過去一年,我們有機會跟全球多位頂尖科學家討論氣候變化問題,從而加強了我們原有的信

念:這個挑戰不但急切,而且規模史無前例,對我們所有人都會造成影響。我們身處的地方,是中國最富裕的區域。隨著

物質日益富裕,我們對生態造成的衝擊 — 尤其是溫室氣體的排放 — 增加得愈來愈快。我們特別有責任致力找出有效的減

排措施,以延緩這個過程;也急切需要找出方法,調適氣候變化已帶來的影響。

這份報告是我們首次把相關資料彙集成文,旨在概述氣候變化如何影響香港、澳門及珠三角。我們的主要建議是,必進行

更多的區域性研究。與此同時,我們注意到新近發表的《斯特恩回顧:從經濟角度看氣候變化》。這項由英國政府委託斯

特恩進行的關於全球暖化的研究,評估了氣候變化對全球經濟的影響。我們認同報告中提出採取行動處理氣候變化問題的

迫切性。因此,這份報告同時是一份撥款建議書。思匯政策研究所正在籌募更多經費,以集中研究本文所提出的重點問

題。

我們感謝下列幾位人士:報告的主要研究員兼作者Alexandra Tracy;對報告貢獻良多的Kate Trumbull;擔當支援角色的

林冠熹。我們也必須向下列人士致謝:提供氣象和氣候意見的香港科技大學環境研究所的劉啟漢博士和馮志雄博士;提供

最新科學證據的美國太空總署戈達德研究所的韓森博士(Dr. James Hansen);給予專家意見的富蘭納瑞博士(Dr. Tim

Flannery)。我們並多謝馮光至和吳家穎負責審閱和翻譯報告,以及Mirror Productions負責版面和設計。

行政總監 陸恭蕙

2006年11月

思匯政策研究所是一所非牟利組織,旨在通過研究和分析,幫助政策的改善和決策的制訂。本報告表達的意見屬作者所

有,並不代表思匯政策研究所立場。

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54 氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

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作者及小組成員簡介

Alexandra Tracy是Hoi Ping Ventures主席,該組織是香港一家研究和顧問公司,業務範圍包括可持續發展和投資,以及私

人財務管理。她曾在新加坡一家新開辦的軟件公司擔任財務總監,然後在新加坡開設自己的公司理財顧問業務;也曾在亞

洲擔任投資銀行家多年,負責公司理財和項目融資的工作,為區內多個發展中國家的大型基礎建設工程提供建築、購置、

融資等方面的意見。她擁有哈佛商學院工商管理碩士學位,以及耶魯大學和劍橋大學的碩士學位。

陸恭蕙是思匯政策研究所行政總監,自80年代起研究環境問題。她擔任現時職位前,在1992至1997年和1998至2000年間

是立法會議員,離任後創立現時的智囊組織。陸恭蕙的本行是律師,並在1980至1992年間從事商品交易工作。她現時正協

助G8+5 Legislators Climate Change Dialogue,為各個委員會主席協調研究工作。

Kate Trumbull在澳洲攻讀法律,曾短期從事商業法律工作,然後在西南威爾士政府擔任政策工作。她在2006年8月加入思

匯當研究員,集中探討香港及大珠三角的環境政策;同時在香港大學攻讀環境管理碩士學位課程。

林冠熹在艾塞克斯大學(University of Essex)和劍橋大學攻讀社會學,回港前曾在一所私人未來學公司工作。他在2006年

6月加入思匯當實習生,並自9月起在思匯擔任兼職工作,主要研究大珠三角地區的環境政策;現時在一家公共事務與策略

傳播顧問公司擔任研究員。

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55氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

中文

I. 報告摘要

地球大氣的溫室氣體濃度增加,正導致氣候出現變化。氣候變化將會令全球氣溫上升、海平面上升,和天氣模式改變(包括

預計降雨量的減少和風暴的強度可能會增加) 。

(a) 海平面、氣溫、降雨量的變化

大珠三角地區(包括香港、澳門及珠江三角洲) 現時和預計會受到的影響,很大程度反映出上述的全球趨勢。區內的海平面

和氣溫一直緩慢地穩步上升。香港的年平均氣溫預計在本世紀末將會上升攝氏3.5度。至於年平均降雨量方面,很可能只會

輕微增加,但年度變化卻將會加劇,表示愈來愈多年份的降雨量會比慣常數值高或低很多。此外,雖然現時沒有足夠證據

顯示區內熱帶風暴和颱風的次數會增多,但一旦最終出現了這種情況,潛在的破壞力將會很大,因此值得我們盡力防範。

海平面上升對珠三角的影響特別深,原因是區內的自然地理環境(三角洲南部的平均海拔是 -0.3米至0.4米) 和城市發展都

令它極易受災。預計不出25年,廣東省沿岸海平面便會上升30釐米。這個數字並未能反映出危機的真正規模: 海平面上升

30釐米會大大增加風暴潮的威力(在海中推進的強風和風暴中心的低氣壓,會把海水捲起至高於正常海平面,形成風暴潮)

。結果,風暴潮蓋過堤壩的情況將會變得頻密。當風暴潮高度增加,而大型水災又經常出現的話,現有的海岸和河岸防禦

設施便不足以保護大珠三角的低窪地區。

(b) 對生態和人體健康的影響

氣溫上升會增加心肺疾病的發病和死亡率,增加如瘧疾和登革熱等由蚊子傳播的疾病,亦會加快大氣內化學污染物的光化

學作用,令本已嚴重的空氣污染情況惡化,最終危害區內居民的健康。

區內的生態環境早已因工業急速發展而遭到破壞,現在更會因氣候變化而遭受沉重打擊。脆弱的濕地生態系統(例如被列入

世界遺產的米埔沼澤) 將會受到海水侵襲而備受影響;假如使用混凝土修堤保護,又會令米埔失去天然的調適能力。

(c) 對運輸基建的影響

有關政府部門和基建投資者似乎沒有充分考慮,甚至從未考慮氣候變化對區內基礎設施所構成的風險。

維持大珠三角地區客貨流通的道路和鐵路網,很可能會因為氣溫或海平面上升而受到破壞。平均氣溫上升,會導致馬路表

面情況惡化,出現車轍或下陷;而鐵路系統則可能會出現地基收縮、路軌變形、焊接路軌扭曲等問題。風暴和泛濫會截斷

地面鐵路系統和淹沒地下鐵路系統。

另一方面,海平面上升,以及隨之而來的風暴潮和泛濫,將會危及區內的海港和河港。除了碼頭和防波堤會被淹沒之外,

海平面變化亦可能會改變港口一帶的沉積模式,令本已面對沉積問題的港口的運作成本進一步增加。此外,位於大珠三角

內的五個機場 — 包括建在填海區的香港赤鱲角機場 — 都會受風暴和泛濫影響,服務嚴重受阻。

(d) 對公共設施的影響

大珠三角的淡水供應本已不足,氣候變化導致降雨量減少和海平面上升,只會令情況惡化。在降雨量減少的年份,河流淡

水的容量和質量都會降低。海平面上升可能會把鹹水推往上游達三公里,甚至遠至廣州,因而影響食水供應。海平面上升

也會令海水倒流到雨水排放管道,加重排水系統的負擔。一旦同時遇上暴雨,三角洲平原的泛濫問題將變得更為嚴重。

燃料和電力的供應,亦可能會受到氣候變化的嚴重影響。能源需求與氣溫關係密切: 當氣溫上升時,住宅、工業和商業用

戶都會多用空氣調節,電力耗用量自然增加。與此同時,電力輸送容量卻因氣溫上升而大打折扣。若傳輸電力的電纜和電

纜塔受到風暴或山泥傾瀉破壞,電力供應將進一步受阻。另一方面,用作生產區內大部分電力的煤炭、柴油、燃料油的供

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56 氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

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應,可能會由於運輸系統遭到破壞而受影響。此外,供應區內逾20%電力的水力發電堤壩,也很容易受到氣候變化影響: 在

旱年,水流量會減少;但若雨水過多,則可能會出現堤壩崩壞或存水滿溢的情況。

(e) 對經濟的影響

氣候變化對經濟影響的分析方法,依然處於早期發展階段。然而,我們仍可探討氣候變化對區內持續經濟增長構成的威

脅,甚至透過乘數效應,評估氣候變化對整體中國經濟的影響。面對氣候變化問題,政府可能需要把公帑用於處理危機

上,或用於興建如防波堤及堤壩等基礎防禦設施上。這樣一來,地方或市政府可能因為出現財政壓力而需要加稅,包括徵

收防洪工程的直接稅項。此外,當原材料或製成品的運送,又或電力供應因水災和風暴而受阻,商業機構的收入有可能會

減少。假如水路和陸路運輸受阻或延誤,公司因而需要作出短期或臨時安排,則運輸費用亦可能會增加。

(f) 對個別行業的影響

個別行業將會面對氣候變化帶來的不同影響。房地產、供應鏈、運輸物流及金融服務等行業,都可能因高溫、泛濫、風暴

等因素而導致服務受阻。無可否認,氣候變化是一個與商業息息相關的課題;大珠三角的企業家假如要避免利潤減少,甚

至倒閉的危機,他們就必須立刻正視這個問題。對於企業家來說,妥善管理氣候變化的風險,並在訂立商業計劃及作出投

資決策時適當地考慮氣候變化的影響,將會變得日益重要。

(g) 調適工作

古語有云: 「預防勝於治療」。先賢的智慧同樣適用於氣候變化上。各方共同努力減少排放溫室氣體,是延緩未來災害的

最佳方法。然而,由於現時溫室氣體的濃度十分高,地球的天然系統將需要一段頗長時間才可以把它吸收。換言之,我們

將不能避免地需要面對氣候變化的部分壞影響。

因此,我們必須制訂一套調適策略,增強自然、人類和經濟系統的韌度和復原能力,以面對氣候變化將會帶來的影響,把

破壞減至最低。大珠三角極需制訂這樣的一套調適策略,保障區內經濟和社區,當中的主要政策範疇應該包括城市規劃、

水源監管、水災管理、海岸河岸防禦,以及長遠的土地規劃。

(h) 觀察結果與初步建議

世界各地的決策者正開始體會到,他們必須採取主動積極的態度,而非處於被動的位置,方能在氣候變化問題上取得突

破。

大珠三角的決策者需要面對的一大考驗是,如何在處理氣候變化問題上有效地分配權責及資源。目前,省、市級政府似乎

都不大願意投資在一些不能直接幫助經濟增長的項目。

最後,我們急需就氣候變化對大珠三角的影響,進行更多更深層的研究和建立相關的運算模型,從而加深政府、商界人

士,以至一般市民對氣候變化問題和處理方法的認識。

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II. 引言

「我們預計在二十一世紀,氣候變化的速度和規模,將會是人類經驗中史無前例的,為地球上所有生

物在調適和紓緩氣候變化影響的工作上,帶來極艱巨的挑戰。」1

眾所周知,中國的溫室氣體排放快速增加,對加劇全球暖化的責任亦越來越大。目前美國是溫室氣體排放最多的國家,但

工業發展蓬勃的中國經已進佔第二位,而且正急速追上美國。位于廣東省的珠江三角洲地區是全球最主要的製造業中心之

一,並且成為了中國溫室氣體排放的主要源頭。

圖1 大氣中二氧化碳濃度

資料來源: UNEP/GRID-Arendal Maps and Graphics Library2

中國多個地區已感受得到氣候變化所帶來的實質影響,例如旱災、水災,和海平面明顯上升等。珠江三角洲連同香港和澳

門地區(合稱大珠三角)分別在兩方面面臨嚴峻威脅: 首先,這個地區特別容易受氣候變化影響,尤其是海平面的上升;其

次,它是中國最富裕的地區之一,因此氣候變化可以造成重大的損失。

由於各界一般預計氣候變化的發生將會跨越數十年或數百年,因此決策者似乎容易受到一個稱為「正常情況日益惡化」

(creeping normalcy)的現象所蒙蔽 — 隨著代表「正常」的標準慢慢改變,他們因而未能充分地意識到逐步惡化的情況。3

反之,其他問題則會顯得更為急切,工業發展和快速經濟增長很多時候在決策過程中都會獲優先考慮。本報告的主旨,是

證明氣候變化並非遙不可及的事,而它對珠江三角洲的經濟影響將會是十分重大的。

1 Dupont, Alan與 Pearman, Graeme: “Heating up the Planet – Climate Change and Security”,Lowy Institute Paper 12,2006年

6月,頁79。

2 請瀏覽http://maps.grida.no/go/graphic/global_atmospheric_concentration

3 Diamond, Jared: “Why do some societies make disastrous decisions?”,Lewis Thomas Prize Lecture, 2003年3月27日於美國紐約。

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氣候變化所引致的任何問題或滋擾,都有可能損害商業運作。珠江三角洲在過去二十多年來一直是中國最具活力的經濟區

域,吸引不少外商直接投資,同時對國內生產總值貢獻良多。因此,氣候變化對珠江三角洲的影響,可能會對全國經濟帶

來嚴重的連鎖反應。

本報告的開首部分將會概覽全球氣候變化的潛在影響的科學討論,特別會集中討論有關氣候變化改變大珠三角的預測。

其後,本報告將根據環境轉變的預測,提出了氣候變化可能會對區內基礎設施和建築物造成的幾項實質影響,以至對大珠

三角地區潛在的經濟影響。我們需要建立大量的電腦模型,量化氣候變化的經濟影響,但至今學術界仍未確立公認的研究

方法。這項工作雖然不屬於本報告的研究範圍,但我們仍會概述氣候變化可會帶來的財政影響。此外,本報告將會同時探

討氣候變化對區內個別主要行業的影響。

在結論部分,本報告將會討論一些政府和商界需要考慮採取的措施,以適應未來的情況。調適氣候變化的策略可以跟延緩

策略(即透過減少排放溫室氣體,控制氣候變化的影響)互補不足,對商界和政府都極為重要。4

根據政府間氣候變化專業委員會(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change or IPCC)的定義,一個系統的「調適能

力」,包括適應氣候變化、調和潛在破壞、善用適當機會和有效處理後果等能力。5 考慮到大珠三角現時極容易受氣候變

化影響,若他們無法強化本身的調適能力,將會令當地受到很大威脅。在未來十年內,大珠三角將會需要更換或維修多項

大型設施,亦會就長遠資產項目作投資決定,這些資產將要面對的氣候變化威脅將會大大增加。為了保障區內的經濟和社

會狀況,決策者必須及早在決策過程中把氣候變化納入考慮因素之一。

圖2 在太空看到的珠江三角洲

資料來源: 美國太空總署戈達德太空飛行中心

4 我們雖然認同緩解氣候變化措施的重要性,但本報告的主旨卻並非探討區內的緩解策略。

5 White, KS等人: 《氣候變化2001: 影響、調適性和脆弱性》綜合報告,政府間氣候變化專業委員會第二工作組報告,2001年。

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III. 氣候變化預測

(1) 全球變化

現時已有確鑿證據顯示,人類活動正在迅速改變全球氣候。在過去數年,量度氣候變化的技術得到改善,而科學家亦就

南、北兩極冰川融解的速度進行觀察。以上兩者創造了條件,讓一些科學家作出預言,認為氣候變化的影響將較我們以前

估計的來得更快,但究竟有多快卻依然難以作準。

政府間氣候變化專業委員會在1986年由世界氣象組織和聯合國創立,是國際社會評估氣候變化影響的一個重要組織。這個

機構的主要功能,是在氣候變化、其潛在影響、可行的應對策略等方面,向各國政府和國際社會提供權威性的科學評估。

政府間氣候變化專業委員會在2001年發表《第三次評估報告》,就氣候變化對全球不同地區可能造成的影響,提供了全面

檢討。在《第四次評估報告》於2007年發表之前,6 因此在目前,《第三次評估報告》將會被視為權威性的資料來源。在

下文的討論中,我們將會陳述《第三次評估報告》的研究成果,但也會強調愈來愈多科學證據顯示,委員會的估計,尤其

在水平面上升速度方面,是過於保守了。

(a) 氣溫上升

地球大氣內的溫室氣體(主要包括水蒸氣、二氧化碳、甲烷和氧化亞氮)吸收了紅外輻射(熱力),令後者無法離開地球表面

和大氣,升上太空。熱力被困在大氣低層,導致地球逐漸變暖。本來這是一個自然現象,為地球提供了繼續孕育生命所需

的條件,否則,地球平均氣溫應該會是攝氏-18度左右。7 然而,人類活動改變了地球大氣的天然化學成分,令溫室效應加

劇,導致地球暖化的幅度高於一般水平。

在過去兩個世紀,大氣內的溫室氣體濃度增加了,當中最大原因是化石燃料的燃燒、農業生産,以及因清除地球植被而失

去了二氧化碳的天然吸收槽。預計到2030年,二氧化碳濃度將會比工業革命前的水平增加60%。8

圖3 氣溫異常的情況正在增加

資料來源: 美國太空總署戈達德太空研究所

6 有消息指,《第四次評估報告》將會提供最新資料,再次確認《第三次評估報告》的內容。

7 香港天文臺: 〈什麼是「溫室效應」?〉,http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/greenhs/c_grnhse.htm

8 Dupont與Pearman: 前引書,2006年,頁10。

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中文 在二十世紀,全球平均表面溫度上升了大約攝氏0.6度。9美國太空總署戈達德研究所的韓森博士認為,當中攝氏0.5度的

溫度上升發生於1950年之後;在同一時期,人為的溫室氣體增加了70%。10 政府間氣候變化專業委員會預測,在1990至

2100年間,全球平均表面溫度將會上升大約攝氏3度(視乎不同的排放情況,上升幅度將介乎攝氏1.4至5.8度之間)。11 這個

暖化趨勢,在兩極將會比在赤道更為明顯。即使溫室氣體濃度穩定下來,全球氣溫依然會在未來數十年繼續上升。12

如下文所述,這暖化情況預計會對生態系統、海平面、天氣模式帶來深遠影響。全球暖化其中一個令人非常憂慮之處,是

它對全球冰儲量的影響之: 這影響不單出現在南極、北極及格陵蘭,還包括遠離海洋的冰川。它們的融水對植物、動物、

人類社群都生死攸關。例如,中國科學家在2004年發表的一個為期24年的研究報告便指出,自1960年代起,中國冰川的

面積縮小了大約5.5%。13 若現時的暖化趨勢持續,估計到2050年,有多達64%的冰川物質將會消失。14 短期內,冰川大量

融解自然會令供水量增加,但最終都會乾涸。可是,居住在西部地區的中國人口長期倚賴冰川在夏天融解,提供穩定的水

源。長遠而言,冰川的消失將會為他們帶來毀滅性的影響。15

圖4 冰山崩解

資料來源: 美國太空總署戈達德太空研究所

(b) 天氣模式改變

全球暖化可能會導致天氣模式改變,對世界上部分地區造成嚴重的影響。在全球平均降雨量或會增加之同時,一些地區降

雨量的按年變化幅度也可能會變得很大,引致嚴重的旱災和水災。氣溫上升會增加部分地區發生旱災的風險: 水的蒸發率

增加了,卻缺乏降雨量增加作補充,令一些江河出現乾涸。然而,我們難以預測這種情況的出現,因為在其他地區,蒸發

率會因降塵污染和雲量增加而驟跌。

近年,中國北部和西部的部分地區發生嚴重旱災。未來旱災的災情將會因全球持續暖化而愈加嚴重。

9 Houghton, J.T. 等編: 《氣候變化2001: 科學基礎》,政府間氣候變化專業委員會,2001年。

10 韓森: 〈拆除全球暖化定時炸彈〉,《科學人》雜誌,2004年4月。

11 Houghton等: 前引書,2001年,第9章。

12 同上書。

13 施雅風: 《簡明中國冰川目錄》,上海,上海科學普及出版社,2005年。

14 引述中科院青藏高原研究所所長姚檀棟答問,摘自”Glacier study reveals chilling prediction”,中國日報,2004年9月23日。

15 斯特恩: 《斯特恩回顧: 從經濟角度看氣候變化》,2006年11月,頁63。http://www.hm-treasury.gov.uk/independent_reviews/stern_

review_economics_climate_change/stern_review_report.cfm

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《第三次評估報告》並指出,地球表面溫度上升,可能會導致異常氣象事件增加和增強,例如由厄爾尼諾這種極端現象引

發的風暴。16 有分析資料指,自1950年代起,與天氣有關的事故(例如水災和風暴)已開始增多和增強。保險業界近期發表

的一份報告估計,在下個世紀,因氣候變化造成的損失將會高於每年1,000億美元。17

(c) 海平面上升

大氣溫度上升,將會在兩種情況下引致海平面上升: 其一,是把熱量直接傳到海洋,令海水膨脹;其二,是導致高山冰川

的陸冰和主要冰床融解,令淡水流入海洋。18 政府間氣候變化專業委員會估計,海平面在二十世紀一共上升了10釐米至

25釐米。19 以中國為例,有研究顯示在1965至1995年間,中國沿岸海平面每年平均上升了2.3毫米,而大致在同一期間,

中國沿岸的海水溫度也有顯著上升。20

政府間氣候變化專業委員會的《第三次評估報告》預測,全球平均海平面至2100年將會上升9釐米至88釐米(視乎排放情況

和所採用的氣候模型而定),中心值是48釐米,即相當於二十世紀觀測值的3.3倍。但由於全球海洋系統需要十分長的時間

對氣候變化作出反應,因此即使溫室氣體排放大幅減少,預計海平面依然會在2100年或較後多個世紀繼續上升。

上述關於海平面上升的推算,是基於降雪量、蒸發量及融雪量變化所帶來的漸變影響。可是,部分科學家卻認為,政府間

氣候變化專業委員會的數字,大大低估了海平面上升的危機。

韓森博士認為,預測海平面的上升速度,關鍵在於冰床對海洋暖化作出反應的速度。他指出,海平面上升容易把海洋冰架

浮起,令它們脫離陸冰,因此加快了冰床解體的速度。冰架斷裂後,陸冰將會加速流向海洋。上述過程更會因污染物和融

冰水令冰床變黑,導致冰床吸收更多陽光而進一步加快。21 換言之,海平面上升速度在開始時只是一般,但在冰架斷裂和

上述強化效果出現之後,海平面將會發生極速變化。

圖5 格陵蘭冰原南端

資料來源: 美國太空總署MODIS Land Rapid Response Team

16 Houghton等: 前引書,2001年,第9章。

17 慕尼克再保險公司: “Topics 2000. Natural catastrophes: the current position”,1999年。

18 Dupont與Pearman: 前引書,2006年,頁7。

19 Houghton等: 前引書,2001年,第11章。

20 Han等人: “Potential impacts of sea level rise on China’s coastal environment and cities: A national assessment”,Journal of

Coastal Research,Special Issue 14,1995年,頁79至95。

21 韓森: 前引文,2004年,頁74。

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一些科學家根據北極冰帽的觀測結果指出,我們已經穿越了冰帽融解的引爆點,因此往後的冰藏流失只會不斷加速。到

2004年為止,冰帽的面積減少了20%,而厚度也同時正在減小。科學家因此提出警告,指北極冰帽可能在2100年夏季或以

前完全融化。在2005年夏季,北極冰帽的融解速度急劇增加,其面積縮小了30萬平方公里。以兩枚靜止衛星在2006年得到

的格陵蘭冰帽資料作估計,格陵蘭冰藏正以每年235立方公里的速度融解。依據幾個世紀之前有關高溫把格陵蘭冰帽大範

圍融解的歷史氣候資料,一些科學家推斷假如格陵蘭冰床現在完全崩裂,全球海平面有可能會上升6米。22

圖6 格陵蘭冰原融解面積的增加

資料來源: Konrad Steffen and Russell Huff, CIRES, University of Colorado at Boulder

本文的研究範圍,並不包括評估海平面上升的速度和幅度。雖然戈達德研究所及其他機構都進行了不少研究工作,但依然

有不少專家傾向認同政府間氣候變化專業委員會的保守預測。由於本報告的目的,是要顯示即使極小規模的氣候變化,都

會對大珠三角造成極大衝擊,我們因此採用了委員會的預測數字,作為基準方案的設定。可是我們必須指出,實際的氣候

變化速度可能會快得多。

22 美國太空總署: “Greenland ice sheet flows faster during summer melting”,NASA News Archive,2002年6月6日: http://earthob-

servatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NasaNews/2002/200206069411.html。

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所有沿海地區某程度上都會受到海平面上升的影響。23 即使是政府間氣候變化專業委員會所預測的輕微海平面上升,都會

對沿岸社區構成威脅,因為潮漲的歷史高位或春季潮的水位都會被超越,而沿岸社區亦可能會遭受更強的風暴潮所吹襲。

圖7 風暴潮

資料來源: 美國太空總署地球觀測站24

風暴潮跟低氣壓氣象系統(例如颱風)有關,是由於在海中推進的強風和風暴中心的低氣壓把海水捲高於正常海平面而形成

的。25 風暴潮可能會對沿岸地區確造成嚴重損毀,在漲潮時發生的風暴潮尤甚。若海平面上升50釐米(這幅度與政府間氣候

變化專業委員會《第三次評估報告》預測的中心值接近),電腦模型推算全球每年將會有大約9,200萬人受水災影響。26

(d) 氣候變化與人類活動的相互影響

人類活動和城市發展加劇了氣候變化的自然後果。舉例說,地下水位和天然水道的轉變,可能會加速鹽化和增加洪水量。

此外,森林濫伐和土壤退化亦會加劇由乾旱引發的沙塵暴和土壤侵蝕的現象。

海平面上升所造成的影響,可能會由於沿岸地層下陷而惡化。中國沿岸城市快速發展,引致地下水嚴重透支,加速了多個

地區地層下陷的情況。27 由地殼構造和人為因素所引致的地層下陷,已令中國的三角洲海岸面臨嚴重的海平面上升問題。28

在包括人口壓力日益增加、生存環境遭受破壞、污染問題日趨嚴重等多個因素的累積影響下,國內不少地區的當地環境正

面對不少壓力。對於本已開採過度的天然資源,氣候變化將會帶來一連串額外的、損害性的影響,或導致嚴重的生態和社

會經濟惡果。

23 De la Vega-Leinert, AC等編著,2000a: Proceedings of the SURVAS Expert Workshop on European Vulnerability and Adaptation to

Accelerated Sea-Level Rise,德國漢堡,2000年6月19至21日,Flood Hazard Research Centre,Middlesex University,英國Enfield。

24 http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Library/Hurricanes/Images/storm_surge.gif

25 University of Illinois Department of Atmospheric Sciences: “Storm surge: a concern to coastal residents” (n.d.)。請瀏覽: http://

ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hurr/damg/surg.rxml。

26 Baarse, G: Development of an Operational Tool for Global Vulnerability Assessment (GVA) – Update of the Number of People at

Risk Due to Sea Level Rise and Increased Flooding Probability,CZM Centre Publication No. 3,Ministry of Transport, Public Works and

Water Management,荷蘭海牙,1995年。

27 國家海洋局: 《中國海平面公報》,2004年2月。

28 Watson, Robert、Zinyowera, Marufu、Moss, Richard: 《氣候變化區域影響: 脆弱性評估》,決策者摘要,政府間氣候變化專業委員

會,1997年。請瀏覽: http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc/spmpdf/region-c.pdf

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(2) 大珠三角地區的變化

要準確預測氣候變化所帶來的影響,在子系統層面將會更加困難,原因是有更多因素需要考慮。29 氣候變化對大珠三角的

影響,各項估值都存在著很多不明的因素,容易成為爭論的焦點。然而,已發表的有關大珠三角的氣候預測,大致與政府

間氣候變化專業委員會的分析相若。

大珠三角包括香港、澳門,以及廣東省中南部的珠江三角洲部分,是一個由珠江水系中,西江、北江和東江的下游部分所

形成的沖積平原。這裏的特點是縱橫交錯的河流網和頗低的地勢。30 珠江三角洲的地平面與平均海平面相近,北部和中部

地區處於平均海平面0.4米至2.4米之上,而三角洲南部地勢則略低,介乎海拔0.4米至-0.3米之間。31

珠江三角洲是中國第三大三角洲,根據2000年人口普查統計,人口超過4,000萬。32 大珠三角是一個大都市區域,香港和

廣州是最主要的兩個城市,區內逾半人口都是城市居民。自1979年起,香港和廣州兩地之間的地區,以及澳門一帶急速發

展,不少耕地都轉作工業用途。

圖8及圖9 1979年及2004年香港和深圳的衛星圖片

29 Dupont與Pearman: 前引書,2006年,頁16。

30 Yang, H: “Potential effects of sea-level rise in the Pearl River Delta area: Preliminary study results and a comprehensive adaptation

strategy”,載Smith, J.N. 等編: Adapting to Climate Change: An International Perspective,紐約,1996年。

31 Huang, Zhenguo等人: “Coastal inundation due to sea level rise in the Pearl River Delta, China”,2004年,Natural Hazards,卷

33,頁247至264。

32 Enright, Michael等人: The Greater Pearl River Delta,2005年10月第三版。

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圖10 大珠三角地區的土地用途: 紅色代表城市地區

資料來源: 香港科技大學環境研究所

三角洲平原的北部邊緣,早於唐朝(約1,400年前)已進行開墾,自此以後,開墾速度逐漸加快;在過去五十年,所有開墾地

被合併為逾100個圈佔地,由防汛設施保護。33 近年發展成為城市地區和工業區的土地,大部分都位於珠江及其支流的泛濫

平原內。

受本身地勢、土地開墾歷史,以及區內不少土地是天然泛濫平原的事實影響,大珠三角一直都受到河水或潮水泛濫、颱

風、鹹水入侵等天然災害威脅;這些災害更會因氣候變化而加劇。我們將會在以下章節,就大珠三角地區氣溫、降雨量、

風暴及海平面變化的預測進行探討。

(a) 氣溫上升

香港天文臺根據中國氣象局國家氣候中心於1951至2000年間,在華南地區28個氣象站蒐集到的資料,證實區內的平均氣溫

經以上升。34 自1885年起,香港天文臺總部録得的年平均氣溫也上升了,幅度大約是每10年增加攝氏0.12度(總升幅大約是

攝氏1.44度)。35

香港天文臺同時依據1961至1990年的「氣候正常平均值」,發表了本世紀最後10年的氣溫預測36,估計在本世紀末,香港

的年平均氣溫將上升攝氏3.5度。每年夏季酷熱白天(即最高氣溫達攝氏33度或以上)的日數將會大致倍增,從11日增加到

24日;而酷熱晚上(即最低氣溫達攝氏28度或以上)亦會增加至每年30日,即現時正常水平的4倍。至於冬季的寒冷日子(即

最低氣溫在攝氏12度或以下),日數將會由現時每年21日減少到不足1日。37

33 Huang等人: 前引文,2004年,頁249。

34 為中國不同地區的氣溫建立一套清晰的歷史紀錄並非易事。政府間氣候變化專業委員會一些數據顯示,在過去逾100年,除了沿岸一帶

之外,華南地區東部的氣溫下跌了攝氏1至2度,見Watson,Zinyowera,Moss: 前引書,1997年;此外,較近期的研究則證實了全中國有

暖化的趨勢,參見Wang, Z等人 “An updating analysis of the climate change in China”,2004年,Acta Met. Sinica,第62期;又,有

報告指華南地區在過去50年也出現暖化情況,見Wang, Z等人: “Impact of climate change on agriculture”,載Qin, D等人編著: Popular

Topics on Global Climate Change Series,2003年)。外間普遍認為,暖化情況會持續到本世紀末,見Hui, J與Erda, L: “Building adap-

tive capacity for sustainable food production in China”,2006年。請瀏覽: http://developmentfirst.org/Dakar/adaptivesustainablefood-

productionchina_hui&erda.pdf).

35 梁延剛等人: “Climate forecasting – what the temperature and rainfall in Hong Kong are going to be like in 100 years”,香港天文

臺,2006年。請瀏覽: http://www.science.gov.hk/paper/HKO_YKLeung.pdf

36 同上引,頁3。

37 同上。

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圖11 香港年平均氣溫: 歷史和推算數字

資料來源: 香港天文臺

類似的情況很可能會在整個大珠三角地區出現,尤以對城市的影響最為嚴重。大珠三角的城市,不少正受到「城市熱島效

應」的影響: 由於建築物排放熱力和空氣流動的特殊因素,導致發展密度高的城市地區録得高溫。

(b) 降雨量

電腦模擬顯示,若東亞和中國的二氧化碳濃度倍增,降雨量亦會同時增加。38 香港天文臺預測,21世紀的年平均降雨量,

將每10年增加約1%。這個數字與中國氣象局國家氣候中心關於廣東省的數據相若。39

可是,增加的雨量並非平均分佈的。香港天文臺也曾作出警告,指出降雨量的年度變化將會增加,即是說會有更多年份會

出現高於或低於平均數的降雨量。40 到本世紀末,預計全年暴雨41日數將會按年增加約1日。42

類似的天氣模式很可能會在大珠三角其他地區出現,當然個別地區依然有可能出現異常的情況。既然預計未來區內的降雨

量會出現較大差異,我們更應就不同天氣模式所引起的一連串影響進行研究。

大珠三角現時已因人口增加、城市發展,以及耗水量極高的大型製造業生產活動,導致嚴重的供水困難。在降雨量不足的

年份,區內對水資源的需求將會變得緊張。中國農業和工業的用水效率偏低,而珠三角的水務基建不足,難以滿足需求。

38 Zhao, Z等人: “Advances on detection and projection of impacts of human activity upon climate change over East Asia and China”,

載於1999-2002 China National Report on Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences,the 23rd General Assembly of International Union of

Geodesy and Geophysics,2003年6月30日至7月11日。

http://led.scsio.ac.cn/IAMAS/03%20ADVANCES%20ON%20DETECTION.htm

39 梁延剛等人: 前引文,2006年,頁4。

40 香港天文臺預測,將會有6年的全年降雨量超過3,343毫米(這是過去120年天文臺總部錄得的最高降雨量),有3年的全年降雨量則少

於901毫米(過去120年的最低數字)。

41 即每小時降雨量超過30毫米。這是發出黃色暴雨警告信號的其中一個準則。

42 香港天文臺預測,暴雨日數將會由1961至1990年的5.6日,增加到6.5日,參見梁延剛等人: 前引文,2006年,頁5。

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相反,長期大雨會產生過量逕流(即既不蒸發掉又不滲入地表成為地下水的雨水43),增加發生水災(已經是整個大珠三角的

嚴重問題)和山泥傾瀉的風險。這些災害將會對建築物和基礎設施造成影響,以及導致運輸和商業活動經常受阻。即使是

發展成熟的城市都可能由於一次暴雨災害而蒙受重大損失。例如在2001年9月,颱風納莉侵襲臺北,相關暴雨導致嚴重水

災,造成損失約5億美元。44

圖12 香港山泥傾瀉造成的破壞

資料來源: 挪威岩土工程研究院

(c) 風暴

全球暖化對熱帶氣旋活動的次數和強度有何影響,氣候專家意見不一。

現時並未有理論基礎,推斷熱帶氣旋出現次數的轉變45,而香港天文臺最近亦證實,目前仍未能就熱帶氣旋活動是否已經

或將會因全球暖化而增加,找出確實答案。46 事實上,根據過去40年觀察所得,每年在香港300公里範圍內登陸的熱帶氣旋

數目正以每十年減少0.17個的速率輕微下降,由60年代約3個減少至90年代的2.5個左右。47 香港科技大學的科學家相信,

西太平洋暖池暖化可能令颱風的移動路徑趨向東面。換言之,颱風避過香港,改爲吹襲日本的機會大增,而香港的降雨量

亦可能因此而增加,提高了發生泛濫的風險。

43 University of Illinois Department of Atmospheric Sciences: “Runoff: transfer of landwater to the oceans”, http://ww2010.atmos.

uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/hyd/run.rxml

44 慕尼克再保險公司: Megacities-Megarisks. Trends and Challenges for Insurance and Risk Management,2004年。

45 Landsea, Chris: “Frequently Asked Questions – ‘What may happen to tropical cyclone activity due to global warming?’”, 美國

大西洋海洋氣象學實驗室颶風研究中心,2005年10月。http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/G3.html

46 Yeung, KH: “Keynote Address III. Issues related to global warming – myths, realities and warnings”,香港天文臺,2006年6月。

http://www.weather.gov.hk/publica/reprint/r647.pdf

47 香港天文臺: 〈全球變暖 — 香港的情況又如何?〉,香港特區政府新聞公報,2003年8月1日, http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/

news/2003/pre0801c.htm

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然而,不少新證據正逐步顯示,海面溫度上升可能會導致熱帶氣旋強度的增加。48 其中,有幾位科學家聲稱可以辨別出在

過去30年,熱帶氣旋增多和變得越來越強的趨勢,49 並指出這趨勢與海面溫度暖化有關。50 可是,這番言論在科學界引起

了一些爭論,部分科學家持不同觀點,認爲近年強烈風暴數目的增加,只是反映出熱帶氣旋活動的週期性變化,而非一個

新趨勢的形成。51

中國一些科學家堅稱,2006年異常強烈的颱風季節比往年提前約一個月出現,導致華南地區數以千計的市民死亡,那是與

全球暖化有關的。中國氣象局局長秦大河最近表示,「在全球變暖的大前提下,異常強勁和不尋常的氣候和大氣事故次數

增多。颱風強度一直在增加,而颱風登陸後的破壞力增強,移動路徑亦有異於平常。」52

至目前爲止,颱風定期侵襲華南地區,登陸後可能會引致極大破壞和人命損失。例如在2006年8月,颱風派比安單是在廣

東省便奪去50多條人命,造成的損失估計高達6.75億美元。53 在同一月份,中國近50年最強的颱風桑美摧毀了5萬戶家園和

導致超過1,000艘船隻沉沒。54 強烈風暴令建築物負荷增加,結構性以至非結構性的部分都受到影響55,並危害電纜及其他

基建設施。強勁的風速影響到起重機和棚架的安全性,亦會導致建造工程和港口及機場等大型設施的運作經常受阻。

即使現時的熱帶氣旋活動情況不變,預計風暴對沿岸地區將會因海平面上升和風暴潮增高而帶來更大破壞。沿岸堤壩被淹

沒和出現決口的風險和次數都會大大增加。假若氣候變化真的會在未來為大珠三角地區帶來更多和更強的熱帶風暴,那麽

上述各種嚴重氣象事故所造成的破壞將會變本加厲。

48 Landsea, Chris: 前引文,2005年。

49 Webster, PJ等人: “Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration and intensity in a warming environment”,2005年,《科學》期

刊,2005年9月16日,第309卷,第5742號,頁1844-1846。

50 Webster, P.J. 等人: “Response to Comment on ‘Changes in Tropical Cyclone Number, Duration and Intensity in a Warming

Environment’”,2006年,《科學》期刊,2006年3月24日,第311卷,第5768號,頁1713c。 http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/

311/5768/1713c 又見Hoyos, C.D. 等人: “Deconvolution of the Factors Contributing to the Increase in Global Hurricane Intensity”,

2006年,《科學》期刊,2006年4月7日,第312卷,第5770號,頁94。

51 例如Chan, Johnny CL: “Comment on ‘Changes in Tropical Cyclone Number, Duration, and Intensity in a Warming Environ-

ment’”,2006年3月24日,《科學》期刊,第311卷,第5768號,頁1713b。http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/311/5768/

1713b

52 法新社: “Warming reportedly behind China’s killer typhoons”, 2006年8月15日。http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/ar-

chives/2006/08/15/2003323278

53 Dartmouth Flood Observatory: “2006 Global register of major flood events”,http://www.dartmouth.edu/~floods/Archives/2006sum.

htm。

54 美聯社: “China death toll from typhoon climbs to 319”,2006年8月15日,MSNBC Weather,http://www.msnbc.msn.com/

id/14284650/

55 聯合國拉丁美洲和加勒比經濟委員會: Manual for estimating the socio-economic effects of natural disasters,1999年。

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圖13 超級颱風18W(碧利斯),2000年8月

攝影: Geoff Mackley

(d) 相對的海平面上升

過去10至15年,中國進行過多項詳盡的研究,嘗試預測大珠三角地區相對海平面上升的速度,以及繼而在區內部分地方造

成水災和泛濫的風險。有關海平面上升的幅度、對河口和河系的水位影響,以至前兩者對三角洲地區的衝擊,我們依然有

大量研究工作需要進行,才可以就上述問題取得共識。

然而有一點是大家意見一致的,就是大珠三角的海平面正在上升,而且情況將會持續。此外,由於自然地理環境和城市發

展的關係,區內極易受到海平面上升影響,不少低窪地帶將會被淹浸沒。56 中國國家海洋局杜碧蘭在2002年領導的研究顯

示,大珠三角是最容易受海平面上升威脅的地區之一。57

此外,中國科學院在1994年進行的調查發現,海岸的天然進積(即由於沉積物逐漸增加而導致海岸線向海推進)和土地開

墾,令河口區支流的海平面每年上升0.5至1毫米,預計情況尚會持續一段時間。中科院預測,珠三角海平面到2010年會上

升15至30釐米,到2030年會上升30至40釐米,而到2050年會上升40至60釐米。58 基於地殼垂直活動的變化、地層下陷、河

口水位上升等因素,在三角洲不同地區的海平面上升速度將有所分別。59

廣東省科學院在2003年發表了一個為期8年的研究,宣稱廣東省沿岸的海平面正以每年1釐米的速度上升,到2030年可能會

上升共30釐米。根據國家海洋資訊中心的計算,若海平面上升30釐米,在到達最高漲潮點時,潮水可能淹沒沿岸地區和島

嶼面積達1,154平方公里。廣州、斗門縣和佛山最易受泛濫威脅。60

黃鎮國等人最近根據香港和澳門的潮汐紀錄,以及河口回水影響及地層長期下陷等因素所進行的一項研究,同意珠江河口

相對海平面到2030年會上升大約30釐米。61 這項研究並指出,河口內不同地點的海平面上升速度將有所不同,反映河口回

水情況和其他地理因素的影響。

56 Yang, H: 前引文,1996年,頁265。

57 Zhang Zhiping,2004年3月: “Rising seas threaten coastal cities”,Beijing Review,第47卷,第9號,頁24至25 。http://www.bjre-

view.com.cn/200409/Nation-200409(A).htm

58 中國科學院地學部: 《海平面上升對中國三角洲地區的影響及對策》,1994年,北京,科學出版社。

59 Yang, H: 前引文,1996年,頁267。

60 劉克: 〈海面年上升速度1釐米 2030年廣州有被淹之險〉,《人民日報》,2003年7月25日,http://www.people.com.cn/GB/huan-

bao/1074/1984085.html。

61 Huang等人: 前引文,2004年,頁254。

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70 氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

中文 泛濫問題已經在珠三角很多地區反複出現,包括不少市區地方。例如,廣州在暴雨或漲潮過後便經常出現水浸。泛濫也是

香港關注的問題。在暴雨期間,香港北部的天然泛濫平原和位於鄉郊的低窪地區,以至城市舊區的個別地點,都會出現嚴

重水災。62

圖14及圖15 廣州(左)和佛山(右): 洪水泛濫

資料來源: http://www.ycwb.com (左) http://news.bbc.co.uk (右)

大珠三角的海岸和河水泛濫受幾個因素影響: 降雨量、潮漲、強風、颱風及風暴潮。由於河口呈漏斗形狀,再加上回水影

響,上游的水位較高。在珠江河口部分地區,天氣和潮汐因素令水位超越3米,這已是眾所周知的事。根據黃鎮國等人的研

究,潮差(即漲潮與退潮間的高差)從河口沿著上游增加,由香港的2.34米,赤灣的3.31米,增至南沙的3.35米。63 海平面上

升30釐米將會大大影響大珠三角的漲潮位。同樣地,海平面上升會加劇風暴潮對三角洲的影響。當上述的天氣和潮汐因素

同時出現,區內的風暴潮可能變得極強,一旦把海平面上升的因素也計算在內,發生大規模水災的機會非常之大。

香港科技大學環境研究所曾進行大量的電腦模型工作,以評估汛期海平面上升對大珠三角的影響,以及將來洪水泛濫的覆

蓋範圍。研究人員在考慮到潮漲、風暴潮,以至洪水淹沒所有堤圍等不同現象的影響之後,按海平面的上升幅度設定了一

系列的情景。下列插圖顯示出大珠三角在平均海平面上升1至6米後,模擬被水淹沒的土地範圍。

62 Fung Wing Yee: Characterizing the climate change impact in Hong Kong,香港環境保護署,2004年9月23日。http://www.epd.gov.

hk/epd/english/environmentinhk/air/studyrpts/files/Executive_Summary_final.pdf。

63 Huang等人: 前引文,2004年,頁253。

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圖16 大珠三角現時的平均海平面

(淺藍色是海洋,深藍色是最低窪地區)

圖17 大珠三角在海平面上升3米後(即現時嚴重泛濫時水位的平均升幅)的情況:

淹沒地區包括廣州市市區、珠海、江門,以及泛濫平原

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圖18 大珠三角在海平面上升4米後的情況:

淹沒地區包括珠海、江門及廣州三地之間幾乎所有地區,洪水湧往東莞

圖19 大珠三角在海平面上升6米後的情況: 淹沒地區擴大至珠三角西部和東莞一帶,香港亦受到嚴重影響

資料來源: 香港科技大學環境研究所

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泛濫重現期

過去40年,大珠三角在39個驗潮站總共錄得190次泛濫事故。黃鎮國等人的研究利用了這些資料,計算出基礎的「泛濫重

現期」(即兩個強度相若的泛濫事故的相隔時間),並把海平面上升幅度設定為30釐米,推斷出未來的泛濫重現期。預期大

珠三角不少地區的重現期都會大大縮短,令過去百年一遇的大水在將來可能每50年或20年便出現一次。64

香港天文臺也特別針對香港的情況,進行了類似研究,預計本港的海平面若上升48釐米(即政府間氣候變化專業委員會《第

三次評估報告》所指出的2100年全球海平面上升的平均值),本來是50年一遇的大水事故,未來的重現期有可能縮短至大約

3年。65

IV. 氣候變化的影響

(1) 對人體健康的影響

天氣酷熱不單令人感到不適,它甚至可以致命。熱浪增多或增強,很可能會增加心肺疾病的發病率和死亡率。政府間氣候

變化專業委員會根據一個關於六十五歲以上上海居民的研究發現,酷熱致死的臨界溫度是攝氏34度;此外,在上海因酷熱

致死的個案到2050年將會較現時增加3.6至7.1倍。66

很多疾病都會受氣候環境改變影響。氣溫上升會令蚊子更容易滋生,增加如瘧疾和登革熱等由蚊子傳播的疾病的風險。由

於氣候環境更適合細菌和微生物繁殖,預計由食物和食水傳播的疾病將會變得更嚴重和發生得更頻密。67

氣候變化亦有可能增加酷熱天氣和空氣污染甚高的日子。政府間氣候變化專業委員會預測,全球暖化會加速大氣中化學污

染物的光化學反應率,因而令市區的氧化劑增加。高濃度的光化學氧化劑會引致眼睛過敏、嚴重呼吸道過敏、哮喘發病率

增加和削弱肺功能等。68

氣溫上升會為居民和旅客帶來不便: 工作環境欠舒適、空調費用增加,又或是更嚴重的問題如空氣污染惡化,以及隨之而

來的健康危機。香港和珠三角城市的公眾都會出現各種不良反應,在未來日子更會影響民生。香港的空氣污染問題現已非

常嚴重。69 雖然珠三角地區可能會盡力使用潔淨能源以遏止空氣污染,但預計氣溫上升只會令污染情況繼續惡化。

(2) 對生態的影響

氣候變化對大珠三角的生態影響,預期會十分嚴重,同時會加深區內因城市發展和高速工業化發展對生態環境所造成的深

遠影響。海岸生態系統對氣候變化的影響非常敏感,而生物棲息地的消失或環境改變,可能會減少動植物品種的數量。海

平面上升將會破壞沿海地區的生態和環境平衡。70

例如根據政府間氣候變化專業委員會的研究,氣溫、降雨模式及蒸發蒸騰(即水分從植物莖葉蒸發到大氣中)過程的變化,

64 同上,頁254。

65 Yeung: 前引文,2006年,頁8。

66 Watson,Zinyowera,Moss: 前引書,1997年。

67 澳洲溫室氣體管理局: “Impacts & Adaptation – Health”,2006年。http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/health.html

68 Watson,Zinyowera,Moss: 前引書,1997年。

69 與空氣污染有關的報導和研究,數目一直在增加,例如陸恭蕙: Boomtown to Gloomtown: The Implications of Inaction,香港,里昂

證券亞太市場,2006年9月;柏蔚元、吳家穎及林楚彬,《對珠三角惡劣的空氣污染﹕香港製造業責無旁貸》,香港科技大學環境研究所

及思匯政策研究所,2006年3月。

70 引述中國氣象局氣候專家丁一匯的講話。見”Global Warming Accelerates China’s Sea Level Rise”,《人民日報》,2002年4月

13日。http://english.people.com.cn/200204/13/eng20020413_93966.shtml

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或會導致湖泊和溪流的水平面下降或大幅波動。生物棲息地的特徵和植物群落的轉變,可能會導致物種繁殖力下降,尤其

是魚類和無脊椎動物。生物多樣性一旦降低,將會令水質在漫長的夏季枯水期嚴重惡化(例如溶解氧濃度低、有害物質濃度

高或溫度高等),又或導致原本長年流動的溪水乾涸。在人類活動頻密和水源需求上升的水系統,這些情況將會變得更壞。71

在大珠三角,預計因海平面上升而出現的生態問題包括海岸侵蝕、土壤和地下水鹽漬化,以及淺灘和沼澤環境轉壞等。這

樣可能會導致沿海濕地的損失、生態系統出現重大變化,以及珍稀瀕危物種的棲息地受到進一步侵吞。72

泛濫可能會增加河口和沿岸生態系統的沉積物和養分,對很多魚類賴以生存的棲息地帶來極大影響。73 大珠三角的濕地,

例如香港的米埔(中國第六大沿岸濕地)74,是重要的鳥類棲息地,也是很多魚類和無脊椎動物的重要產卵地,但這些濕地正

受到海平面上升和咸水入侵的嚴重威脅。濕地本來擁有退回内陸的自然調適能力,卻受到人為建築物(例如道路、堤壩、沿

岸防禦設施等)的阻礙。

圖20 琵鷺在米埔濕地覓食

攝影: Eric Fletcher

71 Watson,Zinyowera,Moss: 前引書,1997年。

72 中國國家海洋資訊中心環境部主任陳滿春的講話,載於Zhang: 前引文,2004年,頁24。http://www.epochtimes.com/b5/4/1/31/

n457991.htm

73 澳洲溫室氣體管理局: “Impacts & Adaptation – Biodiversity”,2006年。

http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/biodiversity.html

74 Fung: 前引書,2004年,頁112。

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(3) 對基建的影響

「因天然災難而引致的全球性損失,在20世紀下半葉迅速增加,情況令人憂慮。自1980年代中期以

後,這趨勢似乎變得更根深柢固。」75

極端天氣事故會破壞基建設施。一般來說,城市的發展和基礎建設的建造必須考慮可接受的風險極限,而風險的評估則要

參考強風、暴雨、風暴潮等事故的預計發生頻率。一旦超越了風險的閾限,損毀程度將會不成比例地快速提升。76

如前所述,我們現時仍未能確定氣候變化會否帶來更多和更強的熱帶氣旋。但在一個如大珠三角般容易受災的地區,再加

上資產和人口密集的因素,嚴重天氣事故肯定會造成更大的財物損失,這點是顯而易見的。77

根據估計,極端天氣事故在本世紀造成的直接損失,可能高達每年1,000億美元。78 世界銀行的資料顯示,24%的資本投資

是與公共基礎建設有關的。79 即使我們假設基建投資的風險並不高於其他資本投資類別,基建所占的全球性直接損失依然

會高達每年超過250億美元。80

我們已經在前面部分指出,面對因暴雨、颱風和風暴潮造成的大規模水災,大珠三角地區將要承受極大風險。世界銀行在

發表關於天然災難影響的研究報告時強調,洪水氾濫會對基建設施造成大規模破壞、削弱生產力,以及導致農作物嚴重失

收。81

以下圖表綜述了天氣事故對基建造成的部分影響。

天氣事故 對地面的影響 對基建的影響

颶風、颱風、氣旋 強風

雨水造成的水災

風暴造成的水災

破壞建築物、配電線、和高壓線

破壞橋樑和建築物;山泥傾瀉

破壞橋樑、道路和建築物

旱災 泥土乾涸

強烈陣風

沙漠化

土壤收縮破壞建築物地基和地下

基建

建築物頂部給強風吹毀

水災 土壤侵蝕

水分飽和及山泥傾瀉

泥土沉積

大廈地基變弱

大廈被掩埋;其他設施遭受破壞

水力發電堤壩和排水系統的功能

受損

取材自Freeman與Warner82

75 慕尼克再保險公司: 前引書,1999年。

76 Allen Consulting Group: Climate Change: Risk and Vulnerability,悉尼,澳洲溫室氣體管理局,2005年。http://www.greenhouse.

gov.au/impacts/publications/pubs/risk-vulnerability.pdf

77 Paul Freeman 與 Koko Warner: Vulnerability of infrastructure to climate variability: how does this affect infrastructure lending poli-

cies? 2001年10月,頁10。

78 慕尼克再保險公司: 前引書,1999年。

79 世界銀行: 《世界發展指數》,1999年。

80 Freeman與Warner: 前引書,2004年,頁11。

81 Benson, C. 與 Clay, E.J.: “Developing Countries and the Economic Impacts of Natural Disasters”,載於Kreimer, A. 等編: Managing

Disaster Risk in Emerging Economies ,世界銀行,2000年。

82 Freeman與Warner: 前引書,2004年,頁15。

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76 氣候變化對香港及珠江三角洲的影響

中文 水災會損毀建築物結構,導致土壤侵蝕,因而令大廈地基變弱。水災造成的泥土沉積,會破壞排水系統,損毀埋在地下的

管道和半埋地下的水缸,並危害堤壩結構和抽水設施。83 相反,在旱災發生時,由於土壤濕度降低,地層便會下陷,影響

地下管道和電纜。84 暴風令建築物負荷加重,影響結構性和非結構性的部分,但只會輕微影響地基和地下設施。暴風也會

損毀配電線和高壓線。85

香港現時擁有的基建設施,比中國任何一個地方都要先進。大珠三角的其他地區已經規劃了多個投資項目,大規模地擴公

路、鐵路和地下鐵路系統。其中,廣州、深圳、東莞、佛山等地將會進行龐大的城市發展工程,而澳門則打算大量投資在

基建和娛樂設施上。86 因此,氣候變化事故對大珠三角的基建設施和建築物,可能會造成嚴重破壞。

我們將會在以下篇幅,闡述氣候變化對大珠三角部分公共基建設施可能會造成的影響:

(a) 海岸和河岸堤壩

大型河流的洪水管制,以及沿岸防汛設施的興建和保養,對中國經濟持續發展是至為重要的。大珠三角地區早已興建了大

規模的防汛設施,例如堤壩、防波堤,以及建於市區的蓄洪池和抽水站等,以保護區內低窪地帶。

珠江的防洪工作,主要依賴防洪堤和蓄水池。87 在2001年,區內有34個大型蓄水池,總容量達3,120億立方米。此外,區

內還有總長達11,000公里的堤壩和防波堤。在主流兩岸和三角洲地區修建的堤壩,預料可抵受為期10至20年的洪水;88只

有最重要的堤壩,才會設計成可以抵禦50至100年的洪水或潮漲。現有的大部分基建設施都是1950年代的構思,並以當時

的氣候預測而設計的。

上文曾經提及,當海平面上升30釐米,預計對未來風暴潮的高度和大型水災的重現期都會帶來重大影響,隨時把現有的防

洪設施摧毀。颶風卡特里娜在2005年侵襲美國,災後影響嚴重,並清楚顯示當保護低窪地區的防波堤失效,造成的後果將

會是災難性的。氣候變化只會進一步加重大珠三角地區防洪設施的壓力。

廣東省科學院在2003年所做的研究提出了警告,指現時的堤壩系統和防洪措施是無法應付上述情況的。他們的報告已提交

省級機關和廣州、深圳、珠海及中山的市級單位,以便規劃新的措施,包括興建高於漲潮點的新堤壩。廣東省科學院的黃

鎮國認為,一旦若發生災難性水災,損失將會非常慘重;與之相比,興建堤壩和防洪工程的龐大投資便顯得微不足道。89

83 同上,頁14。

84 Entek UK Limited 等: London’s Warming: Impacts of Climate Change on London,2002年。http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/

publications/documents/London_summary.pdf

85 Freeman與Warner: 前引書,2004年,頁14。

86 Enright等人: 前引書,2005年,頁16。

87 Zhang, Hai-Lun 與 Wen, Kang: “Flood control and management for large rivers in China”,載Proceedings of Workshop on Strength-

ening Capacity in Participatory Planning and Management for Flood Mitigation and Preparedness in Large River Basins: Regional Coop-

eration in Flood Control and Management in Asia and the Pacific, Phase II,曼谷,2001年11月,頁41至67。

88 同上引,頁51。

89 Pun, Pamela: “42pc of Delta Faces Sea Threat: Study”,《英文虎報》,2003年7月28日。http://www.thestandard.com.hk/news_

detail.asp?pp_cat=&art_id=3419&sid=&con_type=1&d_str=20030728&sear_year=2003

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(b) 地面運輸

氣溫上升,將會對運輸基建的不同部分帶來負面影響,可能導致服務受阻及增加維修保養方面的開支。

大珠三角地區正計劃投放大量資金發展公路,部分項目當中涉及建造大型橋樑。例如,將於2007年落成啟用的深圳西部通

道,便包括了一條長四公里的公路大橋,跨越后海灣。90 現時正在討論當中的,是連接香港、珠海和澳門,橫跨珠江30公

里的港珠澳大橋。預計大橋需時5年建成,投資金額達40億美元。91

任何同類基建項目都會因氣候變化而要面對更多來自氣候方面的壓力。由暴雨引致的水災、風暴、山泥傾瀉等,都會嚴重

損害橋樑和道路等大型建造工程。在低窪地區,公路通常低於周圍的土地,一旦發生水災,這些地區將會首當其衝。92

在英格蘭進行的一項研究顯示,道路也會因氣溫上升而出現不同變化,包括路面出現車轍、路堤下陷、混凝土路面變壞、

伸縮縫出現問題、塵埃水平上升及防滑功能減退等。93 嚴重乾旱更會令公路地基收縮,破壞公路結構。94 我們需要進行更

多研究,斷定大珠三角會否因平均氣溫上升,對區內用以修建道路的泥土和建築材料,帶來類似的影響。

圖21 廣東: 遭洪水破壞的道路

資料來源: 美國有線電視新聞網(CNN)

城市內的道路運輸經常因地下供水系統、喉管或電纜的維修工程而大受影響。在倫敦,氣溫上升會影響當地黏土的收縮和

膨脹,預料會對地下供水系統造成損壞,令維修工程變得更頻密,結果對道路交通造成更大滋擾。95 同樣地,大珠三角會

否出現類似情況,仍待作進一步研究。

90 香港特區政府環境運輸及工務局: 〈最新消息: 跨境交通運輸〉。

http://www.etwb.gov.hk/whats_new/Cross_Boundary_Traffic/Cross_boundary_Traffic_1/index.aspx?langno=2&nodeid=1586

91 “Building of Mega-Bridge Set to Start at Year End”,《人民日報》,2006年1月12日。 http://english.peopledaily.com.

cn/200601/12/eng20060112_234873.html

92 Titus, Jim:“Does sea level rise matter to transportation along the Atlantic coast?”,載於The Potential Impacts of Climate Change

on Transportation: Workshop Summary and Proceedings,United States Department of Transportation,2002年10月,頁1至16。http://

climate.dot.gov/workshop1002/titus.pdf

93 London Climate Change Partnership: Climate Change and London’s Transport Systems,London,Greater London Authority,

2005年。http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/documents/109.pdf

94 Freeman與Warner: 前引書,2004年,頁14。

95 London Climate Change Partnership: 前引書,2005年,頁18。

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鐵路線,例如廣州和香港之間的高速列車服務,使大珠三角地區交通運輸網絡的重要部分。風暴和水災會阻礙鐵路運輸服

務,導致車站暫時關閉,和破壞基礎設施。例如颱風碧利斯在2006年7月侵襲中國時,水災便中斷了廣州和北京之間的鐵

路服務,影響數以千計的乘客。96 在美國,颶風卡特里娜造成了更大規模的影響,新奧爾良市內和周圍的鐵路場都受到嚴

重破壞,甚至被摧毀。97 高溫和極度乾旱的天氣會導致地基收縮、路軌變形、焊接路軌扭曲等情況出現,破壞鐵路系統。98

圖22 風暴對中國鐵路造成破壞

資料來源: 中國網(http://www.china.org.cn)

香港、廣州及深圳的地下鐵路系統現時正迅速擴建,它們除了會由於地下水出現變化而出現隧道結構問題(例如隧道牆壁要

承受更大的水壓),也很可能會受到泛濫的影響。99 當然,暴雨也會導致鐵路系統出現電力問題,例如在2006年9月,暴雨

過後曾發生線路故障,令香港的鐵路服務受阻。100

嚴重天氣事故除了直接破壞運輸基建之外,也可能會延誤了車用燃料的供應,另令部分鐵路及道路交通工具不能正常運

作。

(c) 海港和河港

大珠三角的經濟成就建基於國際貿易,而航運業和物流業則繼續對當地的經濟發展作出重要的貢獻。海港是區內運輸基建

極重要的一環,負責把製成品運送到海外。三角洲上游和西部地區的淤泥沉積情況嚴重,限制了當地港口的運作。多年

來,香港是區內唯一擁有現代化設備的深水港。不過,深圳近年已發展了幾個貨櫃港。101

海平面上升,以及其對風暴潮和水災的影響,對港口和碼頭都會帶來嚴峻的威脅。正如英國多佛港董事會的Robert Mac-

kenzie所描述: 「從營運的角度來看,海平面上升大概是我們未來將要面對的最大威脅。風暴潮的次數增加,尤其當強風和

96 美國有線電視新聞網,Asia Pacific:“Chinese Storm Kills More Than 180”,2006年7月18日。http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/

asia-pacific/5185314.stm

97 D’Amico, Esther 與 Bryner, Michelle:“Transportation Moving On in the Gulf”,Chemical Week,2005年10月19日,卷167,期

34,頁19至22。

98 Freeman與Warner:前引書,2004年,頁14。

99 Titus:前引文,2002年,頁5。

100 Parwani, Audrey:“Torrential rain causes widespread flooding Observatory record is broken, 600mm of rain is dumped on Sha Tin,

and Jockey Club cancels night meeting”,《南華早報》,2006年9月14日。

101 Rohlen, Thomas P.:Hong Kong and the Pearl River Delta: “One Country, Two Systems” in the Emerging Metropolitan Context,

2000年。http://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/11897/Rohlen2000.pdfhttp://iis-db.stanford.edu/pubs/11897/Rohlen2000.pdf。

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巨浪同時出現時,會帶來嚴重的問題。」102

海平面上升和風暴潮增加,會提高碼頭和防波堤被淹浸的機會,從而影響碼頭運作。巨浪亦會加速潮水對水利設施的沖刷

作用,縮短它們的壽命。在港口及主要航道附近,海平面變化將會改變海岸、海灘的侵蝕和沉積之間的平衡關係。103 由於

區內港口本已面對沉積問題,上述情況將會為港口營運帶來更大的考驗,預計挖泥的成本亦會上升。此外,其他因素如水

溫上升和鹽分增加,也可能會對港口設施造成影響。

通常都會有大量運輸設施把港口地區連接到內陸地區,包括道路和鐵路系統。這些運輸網絡若因氣候影響而服務受阻,將

會延誤船用燃料的供應或令貨品無法付運,因而損害港口營運。

長遠而言,港口營運者面對的最主要變數,是大珠三角將會採取的基建防衛策略。假若政府決定興建一個大規模的堤壩系

統作為保護,那麽問題便在於我們是否沿現時的海岸線作興建,還是採用荷蘭縮短海岸線的做法(即興建大型堤壩橫跨海

灣的入口或河口)。若選擇後者,一些港口便會位於堤壩之內。船隻進出便要駛經船閘,又或考慮在堤壩外興建新的深水港

口。無論如何,現有營運商的生意將受到打擊。104

圖23 荷蘭「三角洲工程」堤壩系統

資料來源: Stichting Deltawerken Online

102 Wade, S. 等人:Rising to the challenge. Impacts of Climate Change in the South East. Technical Report,South East Climate Change

Partnership,1999年,頁29。http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publications/documents/south_east_tech.pdf

103 Yang, Guishan 與 Shi, Yafeng:“Impacts of sea level rise on major projects and urban development in China’s coastal plains”,

1996年,Journal of Chinese Geography,第6卷,第4號,頁66至74。

104 Titus:前引文,2002年,頁9。

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(d) 機場

大珠三角地區(包括香港和澳門)共有5個機場,其中最大的是香港赤鱲角機場,在2005年接待旅客超過3,600萬人次。《香

港國際機場發展藍圖2020》訂立了提升機場處理能力的時間表,目標是在2020年左右,每年接待旅客8,700萬人次和處理

900萬公噸貨物。105 廣州新白雲機場是中國三大航空樞紐之一,也是中國最具規模和最先進的機場,106 在2004年接待旅客

超過2,000萬人次和處理接近65萬公噸貨物。107

諸如香港般的沿岸城市,往往隨潮汐水流方向和在填海區興建機場,跑道因此容易受到洪水威脅。108 雖然赤鱲角機場現時

位於海拔6米,但區內海平面上升的估值,加上風暴潮的影響,可能會增加機場受洪水威脅的風險。當颱風風力增強時,對

機場的破壞亦會逐步加劇,包括損壞停泊中的飛機、飛機庫或機場大樓等。氣溫上升將會影響跑道和機場道路,例如導致

混凝土變質、輪轍出現、地層下陷等,跟道路所受的影響類同。

大珠三角內其他運輸網受損,將會影響飛機燃料的供應或貨物的運送,因而延長了飛機的停留時間,影響機場運作。

風暴和水災或會嚴重干擾運空運輸,令區内機場關閉一段長時間。客運服務受阻導致大量旅客滯留機場,將會令機場設施

承受巨大壓力,同時會為機場營運者帶來重大的管理難題。

(e) 供水

隨著人口增長和工業發展,大珠三角現時已感受到水源需求增加的壓力。在個別地區,即使已經發展了食水管理和污水處

理系統,也未必可以滿足需求。另一方面,不少人在沒有監管的情況下抽取地下水,令水質和地層下陷問題惡化。

淡水供應

珠三角的河流現時已面對著鹹度增加、配給過度、水質下降等壓力,預期氣候變化只會令壓力進一步增加。降雨量減少自

然會減少可供人類使用的食水。此外,供水減少也會影響河道的水質,而乾旱情況則會加速土壤侵蝕,導致降雨後有更多

淤泥進入河道。109 我們預計,珠三角各地的食水處理設施將要作大規模擴充和提高質素,以應付原水(即未經處理的水)質

量下降的問題。

海平面上升將會導致三角洲內出現潮水上溯的現象。根據《中國氣候變化國別研究》在1994年的初步結果,以及中國科學

院所做的調查顯示,潮水界限移動,把鹹水帶到上游。若大珠三角的海平面上升40至60釐米,倒流的海水可能會深入上游

多達3公里。即使在乾枯期,鹹潮也可以到達廣州,影響居民的食水供應。110

污水與污物處理

海平面上升和暴雨會加重排水系統的負荷。當海平面上升至高於地面線時,雨水排放管道便會注滿海水。海水可能會倒流

到管道内,或令雨水難以經管道排到大海,兩种情況最終都會引致泛濫。111 大珠三角現存的很多排水系統都不足以應付需

105 InvestHK:“Industry Today. Hong Kong’s Transportation and Logistics Industry Today”,2006年6月。http://www.investhk.

gov.hk/pages/1/313.aspx

106 香港貿易發展局:“Market Profiles on Chinese Cities and Provinces. PRD Economic Profile”。http://www.tdctrade.com/mktprof/

china/prd.htm

107 廣東省機場管理集團公司:〈集團介紹〉http://www.baiyunairport.com/about.jsp

108 Titus:前引文,2002年,頁4。

109 澳洲溫室氣體管理局:“Impacts & Adaptation – Water Resources”,2006年。http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/water.

html。

110 Yang, H:前引文,1996年,頁269。

111 香港渠務署:〈防洪 > 如何減少水浸損失〉,2006年6月,http://www.dsd.gov.hk/flood_prevention/how_to_reduce_damage/she-

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要。以廣州為例,海水倒流至排水系統導致潮水泛濫的情況定期出現。若海平面上升引發潮水高漲,以上情況定會惡化。112

對於針對海平面上升進行相應的設計和安排,香港渠務署的看法是: 「靜觀其變……至少現在是這樣」。113 基於香港一些低

窪地區目前已經受潮漲和暴雨所引發的海水倒流影響,飽受泛濫威脅,加上海平面上升只會令情況進一步惡化,政府有必

要在未來數年制訂一套更積極進取的政策。

海平面上升和鹹水上溯,同樣會令珠三角的天然灌溉和排水系統失效。這樣一來,市鎮的生活污水將會更難排走,令河流

網和堤岸地區的污染加劇。現時每20年重現一次的水災有可能會縮短至大約每5年重現一次,令灌溉和排水成本上升15至

20%。114

相反,隨著天氣模式趨於兩極化,在降雨量較低的年份,珠三角河流網絡的水量將會減少,污水處理後的污物更難稀釋。

我們似乎需要使用改良的污水處理科技,處理環境的挑戰和應付因珠三角城市發展而導致的污水增加問題。假若工業和城

市繼續增加水源負荷,珠三角地區可能需要開發污水循環系統,讓部分污水得以循環再用。

(f) 供電

氣候變化可能會增加能源需求和中斷能源供應,對負責燃料分配和電力輸送的基建設施帶來重要的影響。

需求

過去20年,大珠三角的電力需求高速增長。在廣東省,電網系統已經超出負荷,系統容量亦不足以在所有時間全面供電。

近年來,製造業經常面對公共電力定期短缺的情況,大部分工廠因而自行購買發電機發電。115

能源需求與氣溫關係密切。隨著大珠三角的人均收入增加,家用空調的使用一直上升,加上區內製造業採用複雜的生產程

式,需要進行降溫和恆溫等步驟,令能源需求日增。香港環境保護署在2004年一項關於全球暖化對能源業影響的研究指

出,假如香港氣溫上升攝氏1度,家用、商業和工業耗電量便會分別增加9.02%、3.13%及2.64%。116 由於香港工業規模極

小,我們可以由此估計,大珠三角其他地區的耗電量數字將會高得多。

在大珠三角很多地區,包括香港、珠海和深圳,每逢風暴和漲潮過後,我們都要把洪水自排水系統抽出。抽水過程需要使

用市電。發生泛濫的次數增加只會加重電網的負荷;假如抽水出現問題,長期積水亦會令電網容易發生故障。

供應

風暴或暴雨後的山泥傾瀉可能會破壞輸電和配電系統(電纜、電纜塔等),電力供應將會因此而受阻。此外,高溫亦會減低

輸電容量。117

大珠三角大部分的公用電力都是由燃煤發電廠供應,而發電機則以柴油和燃料油發動。要生産電力,就需要確保這些燃料

的穩定供應。中國的煤炭和石油資源主要位於內陸和華北地區。118 因此對大珠三角來説,可靠的運輸和儲存設施對於有效

ungwan_low_area/index_c.htm。

112 同注73。

113 香港渠務署:〈市民應採取措施預防天文大潮引致水浸〉,2006年2月28日。

114 Yang, H:前引文,1996年,頁270。

115 柏蔚元、吳家穎及林楚彬:前引書,2006年,頁14。

116 Fung:前引書,2004年,頁50。

117 Allen Consulting Group:前引書,2005年,頁139。

118 陸恭蕙:《廣東省能源及燃料的供應》,思匯政策研究所,2006年3月。

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的運送燃料是非常重要的。

廣東的煤炭大部分經由港口進口。假若如上文提及般,港口的運作或效率出現任何阻礙,區域發電廠的煤炭供應便會受到

影響,再而影響電力供應。同一道理,任何經由港口運送的柴油或燃料油都可能會遇到類似影響。當監管廢氣排放的法規

在將來要強制使用潔淨燃料時,由於環保燃料大多會從外國入口,上述因素將會日益重要。此外,風暴或泛濫會阻塞道路

和延誤交通,阻礙燃料供應和最終影響電力供應。

雖然廣東省主要是使用煤炭、柴油或燃料油生産電力(在2003年佔發電量的69%),但水力發電也約佔五分之一。119 一般認

為,水力發電堤壩同樣容易受到氣候變化的影響。一方面,旱年的河流水流量減少,可能會減少發電量;另一方面,若暴

雨超出了整個系統的設計標準,堤壩可以會受損。一旦發生決堤或洪水滿溢,將會對下游地區帶來災難性的泛濫。120

(4) 對經濟的影響

氣候變化的科學研究正在發展當中,而按推斷有可能發生的氣候事故所導致的成本和經濟影響,有關的分析亦仍然處於起

步階段。《斯特恩回顧》根據不同方面的實證和應用了多種評估成本和風險的技術,提出了迄今關於氣候變化的全球性經

濟代價的最佳估算。《斯特恩回顧》發人深省的結論指: 「如果我們不採取行動的話,氣候變化的總代價和風險將相當於

每年至少失去全球國內生産總值的5%,年年如此」。121 此外,「如果考慮到更廣泛的風險和影響的話,估計損失將上升

到國內生産總值的20%或者更多。」122

我們雖然無法對大珠三角作出詳盡的經濟預測,但本報告卻提出了氣候變化威脅區內持續經濟發展,以至影響中國整體經

濟的幾個途徑。在這方面,我們務必接受《斯特恩回顧》的忠告: 「儘早採取有力行動的益處遠遠超過了不採取行動的經

濟代價」。123 由於大珠三角地區的受災風險特別高,這番説話對我們的意義特別重大。

(a) 氣候變化的經濟分析方法

套用經濟學的說法,氣候變化是經濟系統的一個外來「衝擊」,可以被視作以下兩种成本之一,並行進探討:

假設成本: 若個人、企業、政府沒有採取任何行動去避免或減低與這個衝擊有關的成本;或

採取行動減低部分影響的成本: 例如減少衝擊的規模,或以最有效方法調適衝擊的影響。124

我們已相當明白緩解氣候變化的經濟成本,正如我們十分清楚最有可能受到緩解政策及措施影響的行業。相比之下,我們

依然不大瞭解氣候變化影響的經濟成本。125

當氣候變化研究愈趨成熟,「環境經濟學」這門科學便嘗試解答上述問題。學者曾提出多個理論框架,研究氣候變化所造

成的影響;與此同時,不少人正努力建立模型技術,以求在不同的地理層面以及從經濟、環境與人文三個方面,量度氣候

變化的影響。這類分析工作所要面對的一大挑戰,是嘗試量化氣候變化對「非經濟」資產(例如生態系統或社區狀況)所帶

來的衝擊。

即使只是嘗試進行有關經濟因素的分析,都已經是一項艱巨的任務,因爲氣候變化的各種具體影響、這些影響的出現時間

119 這是2003年的百分比,見《2004中國電力年鑒》。又見柏蔚元、吳家穎及林楚彬:前引書,2006年,頁15。

120 Allen Consulting Group:前引書,2005年,頁138。

121 同注15。

122 同上。

123 同上。

124 Marsden Jacob Associates:Economic Issues Relevant to Costing Climate Change Impacts,澳洲溫室氣體管理局,2004年。 http://

www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/publications/pubs/costing.pdf

125 同上書,頁3。

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及可能性,以至它們對經濟系統的間接影響,都存在着不少變數。任何可行的調適策略,都會再為這項分析工作帶來一系

列新的變數。

要評估氣候影響的淨成本,我們可以使用兩個層次的分析: 第一個是局部均衡分析,以探討氣候變化對單一市場或單一行

業的影響;第二個是一般均衡分析,以研究氣候變化對整個經濟體系的影響。126 以下圖表勾畫出一個評估氣候變化影響成

本的框架:

圖24 評估氣候變化影響成本的框架

取材自Marsden Jacob Associates127

一般均衡分析通常會採用「可計算一般均衡」模型。它不但涵蓋經濟體系內所有領域,以及各個領域之間的相互影響,並

且模擬出整個經濟體系的市場行為。可計算一般均衡模型的設計,是用作研究外來經濟「衝擊」(例如氣候變化引致的一種

影響)所帶來的影響,通常以國內生產總值作量度單位。128 可計算一般均衡模型可以是綜合評估方法的其中一個部分,後

者尋求結合生物物理評估和社會經濟評估,一般會應用的技術包括情景分析、定性評估和電腦模型等。129

據了解,至今仍沒有報告發表關於大珠三角地區氣候變化的所造成經濟影響的詳盡分析和定量評估,雖然個別研究曾經發

表過有關的估計數字(下文將有引述)。這是一個仍需努力探討的研究範疇。

(b) 潛在威脅

珠三角經濟區由廣州、深圳、佛山、珠海、江門、中山、東莞,再加上惠州四個區縣和肇慶四個區縣組成,130 是中國在

1979年改革開放以來,全國最具活力的區域經濟體系。過去15年,珠三角經濟區成為了世界上其中一個具領導地位的電器

126 同上書,頁7。

127 同上書,頁42。

128 同上書,頁25。

129 同上書,頁29。

130 《廣東統計年鑒》,2004年。又見Enright等人:前引書,2005年,頁21。

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與電子產品、鐘錶、玩具、成衣與紡織品、塑膠製品及其他產品的製造業生産中心。香港多年來一直是區內的金融和專業

服務中心,也是區内東亞地區的主要運輸及物流樞紐。澳門是一個受遊客歡迎的旅遊勝地,現時更因發出了多個新的賭場

牌照而發展迅速。

圖25 珠江三角洲經濟區

資料來源: 香港貿易發展局

世界銀行最近發表的估計數字顯示,若海平面上升1至5米,中國的國內生產總值將會減少2.4%至10.8%。131 對於大珠三角

這個佔全國國內生產總值很大比重的地區,世界銀行的數字並沒有帶來任何清晰的啓示。過去25年,珠三角經濟區的平均

經濟增長是每年超過16%,高於全國的9.5%;在2004年,經濟區的國內生產總值大約是13,572億元人民幣(折合1,639億美

元),132 佔中國全國國內生產總值9.9%。同年,大珠三角地區﹝包括香港和澳門﹞的國內生產總值是3,369.8億美元。133

有多個研究分別指出,氣候變化可能會對珠三角經濟帶來沉重打擊。例如,中國氣象局在2002年發表的一個模擬結果便指

出,若潮水出現新高,再加上海平面上升65釐米,便會有大約3,400平方公里的土地受泛濫影響,經濟損失高達1,808億元

人民幣(約219億美元)。134 另外,中國民政部發表報告指出,在2006年1月1日至7月26日期間,與洪水有關的災難(包括颱

風碧利斯)在廣東省造成的直接經濟損失達199億元人民幣(約25億美元)。135 這兩組數字可以用作參考比較。

雖然已發表了的預測數字未能取得共識,在分析大珠三角情況方面亦沒有公認的方法,但有一點是非常清晰的: 氣候變化

將會多方面地威脅大珠三角的經濟表現,部分重點如下:

131 Buys, P等人:“Sea level rise from global warming: potential impact on developing countries”,載Brahmbhatt, Milan 等人:“Spe-

cial focus. Climate change and East Asia: challenges and opportunities”,世界銀行,2006年3月。http://siteresources.worldbank.org/

INTEAPHALFYEARLYUPDATE/Resources/550192-1143237132157/special-focus-March06.pdf

132 此數字比實際數字略高,原因是計算時包括了整個惠州和肇慶,當中部分地區並不屬於珠三角經濟區。見Enright等人:前引書,

2005年,頁21。

133 同上注,頁24。

134 “Global Warming Accelerates China’s Sea Level Rise”,《人民日報》,2002年4月13日。 http://english.people.com.

cn/200204/13/eng20020413_93966.shtml

135 International Federation of Red Cross:Appeal no. MDRCN001。 http://www.ifrc.org/docs/appeals/06/MDRCN001a.pdf

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撥出公帑用於處理危機

由海平面上升和風暴潮引致的嚴重水災,在未來數十年將會出現頻繁。要處理嚴重水災,必需投入大量財政資源。政府將

要承擔最大責任,造好準備和應變工作,例如包括:

監測和公眾警報系統

緊急回應和疏散群眾

清理災區

維修和重建公共設施

向社區和商界提供經濟援助

以上工作所需的經費,部分可以來自中央政府的撥款,但大部分費用將會由地方政府承擔。一些本來用作直接推動經濟活

動的資金(例如改善運輸基建、科技發展或職業培訓),由於現在有需要留作處理危機之用,因此可能會對區內的經濟發展

帶來不良影響。

撥出公帑用於調適措施

海平面上升會增加發生水災的風險。要保護大珠三角的城鎮,便需要大量增建海岸和河岸防禦設施。一項估計指出,若

要提升珠三角地區95個主要堤壩的設計標準,以應付30釐米的海平面上升幅度,整個工程需要1,750萬立方米的泥土和石

塊。以1998年的價格計算,單是這個工程部分的費用就已經高達21.03億人民幣(2.629億美元)。136 世界各地的低窪地區和

潮汐河口都興建了不少大型防洪堤壩,費用都極之高昂。例如用作保護倫敦的泰晤士河水閘及相關工程,2001年的造價大

約是13億英鎊(約19億美元);137 若要在2100年達到0.1%的標準(即泛濫機會率是1000比1),初步估計在未來40年大約需要

用40億英鎊(75億美元)。138

同一道理,我們可以從多個途徑籌集資金,建造防洪設施,但公帑既要用於興建防波堤和堤壩,可以直接投入發展大珠三

角經濟的資金便會減少。此外,工程實際上或會在區內創造大量短期工作,但這些大多是低技術的工作,對經濟增長不會

帶來明顯益處。

長遠來說,各個調適策略的成本效益分析的結論可能會指出,繼續增建堤圍病不是一個可持續策略,政府可能需要把資產

和社區從部分地區撤離,把它們重新安置。這種行動將會加重成本,包括對棄用資產作出的賠償,而且也要付上龐大的社

會代價。

商業收入減少

氣候出現變化,預計會令大珠三角内商業活動受到干擾的風險大增。

正如上文所述,運輸基建很容易受到風暴和水災的影響,這將會導致嚴重的延誤和擠塞,阻延原材料、零件或製成品的運

送。珠三角不少工業都是依靠供應鏈帶動的,快捷運輸對維持他們的商業競爭力極為重要。

136 Huang等人:前引文,2004年,頁261。

137 Environment Agency:“Thames Region. Who Paid for the Thames Barrier?”,2006年。 http://www.environment-agency.gov.

uk/regions/thames/323150/335688/341764/341783/?version=1&lang=

138 Entek UK Limited 等:前引書,2002年,頁12。

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電力供應問題目前已妨礙着珠三角不少商業運作。例如在2005年第一季,廣州出現嚴重電力短缺,導致有716宗個別地區

限制用電的個案。這些缺電的時間令廣州損失了100億元人民幣(約13億美元)的工業生產值。139 若電纜損毀或燃料運輸延誤

造成更頻密的供電故障,只令進一步減慢生產銷率和減少生產量。

珠三角生產量降低和訂單減少,會嚴重影響區內整體出口收入。在2004年,珠三角經濟區的出口貨品總值達1,824.3億美

元,佔全國出口縂額30.74%。140 若買家開始覺得珠三角的公司無法準時交貨-即使是外在因素影響-他們很可能會撤銷訂

單,並把供應鏈業務搬離此區。這不僅嚴重打擊珠三角的製造業中心,對區內的港口和機場,以至香港的物流和服務業也

會造成極大損害。

稅項和商業成本增加

氣候出現變化,預計會令商業成本增加。例如,公司服務受阻和延誤影響而要作出短期和臨時安排,將會增加航運及運輸

成本。此外,企業可能要增建貨倉儲存貨品,或增購燃料以防運輸受阻。另外,公共設施的收費可能需要提高,尤其是食

水,以市場價格控制浪費的情況。此外,氣溫上升和暴雨都會加重建築材料的負荷,可能會令建築物的維修成本增加。

另一方面,預計大珠三角部分實物資產的保險費用會成為很重的負擔,甚至無法受保。與業務受阻礙有關的保險也可能會

變得極為昂貴,甚至難以受保。

因此即使中央政府願意提供經濟援助,省市政府的財政壓力將會增加,因而導致增加稅收,例如徵收與防洪工程有關的費

用(1997年頒布的全國《防洪法》曾作考慮),141 預計商界的負擔將會最為沉重。大珠三角的商戶要承受更沉重的稅項,將

會增加他們的整體經營成本,對公司利潤、保留盈餘再作投資,以至擴充業務,都會有負面影響。矛盾的是,雖然每家公

司和每名員工的稅務負擔都增加了,但政府的整體稅收可能不升反降。

外商直接投資減少

供應鏈訂單減少、營業額下降、經營成本上升,都會令股東的回報減少,因而減低投資者到區內投資的意欲。現時,外國

資金在大珠三角的工業發展上扮演重要角色,珠三角經濟區2003年的實際利用外商直接投資金額有130.5億美元,佔全國

外商直接投資逾24%。142 香港工業總會在2002年估計,珠三角經濟區内有53,000家工廠由香港商人投資,143 整個廣東則

有80,000家港資工廠。144 它們不少將會從外商直接投資轉移到香港,在2003年達到136.3億美元。145 在2004年,有超過

3,600家外地公司在香港設立地區辦事處。146

若外商直接投資大幅減少,預期會嚴重阻礙整個地區維持工業發展步伐及經濟增長的能力。尤其是珠三角地區,不但資本

投資可能會減少,就連在本地工業發展舉足輕重的外資科技轉移都可能會減少。

139 陸恭蕙:前引書,2006年,頁22。

140 同注130。

141 見《中華人民共和國防洪法》,第51章。又見Zhang與Wen:前引文,2001年,頁58。

142 Enright等人:前引書,2005年,頁44。

143 香港工業總會:《珠三角製造──香港製造業的蛻變》,2002年11月。http://www.industryhk.org/tc_chi/fp/fp_res/files/prdc.pdf

144 香港特區政府工商及科技局:檔編號2006ES/2,2006年9月,為行政長官準備的經濟高峰會(2006年9月11日)文件,第14段。

145 Enright等人:前引書,2005年,頁25。

146 同上書,頁68。

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圖26 廣州

資料來源: 珠江水利科學研究院(http://www.prwri.com.cn)

作爲全國最具經濟活力的地區,大珠三角一方面是中國其他地區資金的重要來源地,另一方面為國內龐大的勞動人口提供

就業機會和照顧家庭的經濟開支。此外,大珠三角是國內資本貨品和原材料的重要市場。都市化過程加劇和城市人口增長

增加了對建築材料和運輸設備等物品的需求。147 由於人均收入高企和消費力持續強勁增長,大珠三角同樣為國內生産的其

他物品提供了一個龐大的銷售市場。在2004年,包括香港和澳門的大珠三角地區的零售總額高達810.4美元。148

大珠三角是通往中國的重要門戶。多年來,香港擔當著轉口港的角色,而每年在區內(尤其是廣州市)舉辦的商品交易會,

一直為中國帶來創造商機。在2004年,廣州市舉辦了616個商品交易會,149 當中包括全國規模最大的中國出口商品交易會

(又稱廣交會),累積成交額約佔全國全年出口的三分之一。150 我們因此有理由相信,大珠三角的經濟發展一旦明顯放緩,

將會對全中國造成深遠的影響。

(5) 對各行業的影響

「氣候變化不單是一個關於環境的課題。它是一個商業課題。」151

氣候變化是一個商業課題。大珠三角的商界若要避免倒閉或利潤驟跌,又或避免錯失新的商業機會,就必須盡快面對和處

理這個課題。我們應該把氣候變化風險管理看成整體策略規劃過程的一個部分,跟其他決策結合處理。152 對於企業管理層

而言是新的挑戰,他們將要處理嶄新的政策範疇;長遠而言,把氣候變化影響當作商業計劃和投資決策的考慮因素,是至

為關鍵的。

很多時候,大珠三角的有型資產和商業營運都是由控股公司或企業集團擁有,他們的業務遍及多個行業。因此,要分析相

關風險和適當行動,將會是十分困難的;再者,要評估氣候變化對控股公司回報的影響,也是極具挑戰的。

147 同上書,頁7。

148 同上書,頁26。

149 同注107。

150 請瀏覽廣交會網址:http://www.cantonfair.net/cantonfair.htm

151 Rt Hon Margaret Beckett MP:“Climate Change Policy – What It Means for Investors”,speech at Institutional Investors Group on

Climate Change 2003 Conference,倫敦,2003年11月26日。http://www.defra.gov.uk/corporate/ministers/speeches/mb031126.htm

152 Metcalf, Gerry與 Jenkinson, Kay:“A Changing Climate for Business” 2005年6月。http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resources/publica-

tions/documents/99.pdf

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再缺乏控股公司資料和內部分析的前提下,本報告無法就氣候變化對個別在大珠三角經營或投資的公司的財政影響作出定

量分析。然而,個別企業在大珠三角受氣候變化影響的程度,將取決於他們經營的行業,這是十分明顯的。我們可以在以

下篇幅就相關因素作出定性評估。

本文將會在以下章節概括地探討個別行業可能要面對的問題:

(a) 房地產

房地產業佔香港交易所市場資本值的重要部分。按照恆生地產分類指數的定義,房地產公司約佔恆生指數總值11%(2006年

9月數字)。153

圖27 香港維多利亞港

資料來源: 香港規劃及基建展覽館(http://www.info.gov.hk/infrastructuregallery/etp.htm)

然而,由於香港很多上市公司都擁有不少房地產業務,因此上述數字大大低估了這個行業的重要性。這一點同時適用於深

圳證券交易所的部分上市公司。因此,房地產業對區內經濟極為重要。房地產公司的財政表現或會受到以下的影響:

(i) 預計氣候變化會為樓宇建造帶來新考驗、154 成本增加和工程延誤等問題,繼而可能導致公司因延遲完工而被罰款:

新的建築和工程標準(例如防止地陷、排水系統)可能會令成本增加

可能要使用更耐用的建築材料;

強風會影響棚架和其他器材的安全性;

地盤工作更困難,因而會使用更多預製組裝配件;

地盤物料的運送出現延誤;

容易受到極端天氣影響的材料/零件會出現供應緊張的情況;

保險費用增加。

(ii) 預計建築物維修和設施管理的營運成本會增加:

新制訂的建築和工程標準,可能會令維修成本增加;

強風、暴雨、水災會影響建築材料的耐用性;

氣溫上升可能會導致土地污染物變得活躍,從而侵襲地基;

水質降低,需要新的處理技術支援,加上需求增加,和實行市場價格,全都令公共設施成本上升;

公共設施的供應易受極端天氣影響,因而需要後備資源。

153 請瀏覽恒指服務有限公司網址:http://www.hsi.com.hk/

154 Metcalf與Jenkinson:前引書,2005年,頁18。

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(iii) 其他營運成本也可能會上升,例如:

保險費用增加;

稅款增加;

銷售及宣傳市場推廣成本增加。

(iv) 房地產價格可能會下降:

水災和風暴會損毀現有建築物;

天氣事故會令用家卻步。

(b) 供應鏈

珠三角的工業生產基礎十分強大,擁有成千上萬的製造業設施。珠三角地區東西兩岸各有不同的工業生産特色: 東岸集中

生產電子和科技產品,香港更是亞洲重要的電子零件採購和分銷中心;西岸主要生產家用電器產品。一個大規模的供應

鏈已在大珠三角形成: 貨品所有部分、零件、配件的採購都很方便,上游工業和下游工業環環相扣,因此訂單可以很快完

成。155 上游和下游活動如此互相依存,是大珠三角製造業商戶容易受到氣候變化打擊的一大原因:

(i) 製造業設施的興建和維修工作所受到的影響,與房地產的情況相若。工業設施要面對的一個額外問題要: 若設施受到損

毀而導致有害物質洩漏,公司可能要作出賠償。

(ii) 製造業設施可能要面對的營運問題包括:

氣溫上升,要增設溫度控制系統;

公用設施成本增加,尤其是需要大量水電用作降溫用途;

低下水質差,降低了高用水量工業(如造紙和製葯)製成品的質素;

供電出現故障,會阻礙生産;

若運輸出現問題,便會阻礙原料和零件的運送工作,因而擾亂生產工序;

運輸出現問題也會擾亂製成品的運送工作,尤其是高價值和易腐壞的貨品;

保險成本增加,尤其由於現時中國工業基建的保險金額大都嚴重偏低;

稅款增加。

供應鏈公司一般都是薄利經營的,需要依靠低廉價格和快速運輸來爭取生意。面對運輸延誤和成本上升,不少公司感到無

能為力。再者,若零件和製成品出現運送延誤的情況,公司很可能會失去訂單。這不但會令部分公司倒閉,對整個大珠三

角來説情況極度悲觀。當國際買家質疑區內供應鏈的效率時,便會盡快在亞洲其他地區採購貨物和成立新的供應鏈,嚴重

影響珠三角地區的經濟表現。

155 同注107。

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(c) 運輸/物流

圖28 大珠三角地區的碼頭和機場

資料來源: MVA Hong Kong Limited

運輸、倉儲、郵務及電信行業,是珠三角經濟區的最大行業, 2003年的營業額達143.2億美元,佔區內服務業總營業額近

24%。在同一年,香港的運輸和倉儲業的營業額排行第五,達123.2億美元。156

香港是亞洲最主要的運輸和物流樞紐之一,亦是珠三角經濟區貨品出口的主要通道。香港國際機場是世界上最大的航空貨

運中心,在2005年的貨運量高達340萬公噸,預計2020年的貨運量將會是現時的三倍。香港的海港在2005年處理2,242萬個

二十呎標準箱(這是貨櫃的標準單位),預期在2020年,貨運量會增至超過4,000萬個標準箱。157 珠三角經濟區的多個港口也

在擴充,以處理日益增多的貨物。2004年的總貨運量經已達到1,700萬個標準箱。深圳是全球第四大貨櫃港口,也是一個

物流中心,有超過2,000家物流公司,當中首32位的資產都高於1億元人民幣。158

如前所述,氣候變化會破壞大珠三角各項運輸基建,對運輸和物流公司的營運都會帶來重大衝擊:

(i) 運輸設施要實行各種調適工作,需要額外的資本支出:

港口淤泥堵塞,需要加強挖掘工作;

需要加建防洪設施,尤其在碼頭和沿岸機場跑道;

需要升高道路和鐵路網,隧道及其他基建也要適當改建。

(ii) 運輸網遭受破壞毀和擾亂:

公司可能會由於貨物延誤而要作出賠償;

物流公司本來在送遞時間方面維持競爭力,現在可能會首影響;

156 Enright等人:前引書,2005年,頁67。

157 InvestHK:“Transportation and Logistics Hub. Hong Kong, Asia Pacific’s Transportation and Logistics Hub”,2006年4月。

http://www.investhk.gov.hk/pages/1/306.aspx

158 同注107。

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生意減少會損害公司盈利;

若供應鏈搬離大珠三角,會嚴重損害業界前景;

客運量也可能會減少。

(iii) 燃料、維修、稅項、保險等營運成本上升,會令價格上升,因而損害競爭力:

物流和運輸業很易受到價格改變影響;

區內多個機場(尤其澳門)正努力成為新廉價航空公司的服務樞紐;若成本、著陸費和稅款增加,將影響這個計

劃。

(iv) 若貨運量、乘客量減少,便會令整個行業的核心收入下降,例如:

機場營運商: 停泊和著陸費、機場管理費、機場使用費、零售商店的租金;

港口營運商: 停泊費、管理費、相關資產的租金;

地面運輸營運商: 道路費、橋樑費、隧道費、加油站收入、車資收入;

航空公司: 機票費用、貨運費用;

航運/物流公司: 貨物代理費、管理費、貨倉收費、交通工具包租費。

氣候變化對這個行業帶來的衝擊,將會影響一系列的商戶,包括機場營運商、港口營運商、航空公司、船務公司、貨車運

輸公司、物流公司等等。公營和私營商戶都會大受影響,導致生意額下降。這個行業的增長,愈來愈依賴珠三角的製造業

活動,預計這兩個行業的經濟表現將會息息相關。

(d) 金融服務

香港是亞洲一個主要金融服務中心,按市值計算是亞洲第二大股票市場,在2006年5月首次突破了10萬億港元(12,800億美

元)。159 香港是中國企業在全球的最大集資中心,自1993年為中國企業在香港一共集資了超過1,250億美元。現時有133所

持牌銀行,和超過200家基金管理公司以香港為基地。此外,香港有175間認可保險公司,整個行業在2004年的保費總額達

160億美元。160

相比之下,深圳的市場小得多,但已被視為國內繼上海之後最重要的金融中心。在2004年,有19所外資銀行在深圳設有分

行,辦事處有74間。161 至2005年12月,深圳證券交易所有544家上市公司,市值達1,200億美元。162

金融服務界的股東和管理層,經常都認為他們的商業表現不會受到氣候變化影響。然而,這個行業聘用大量員工,擁有大

批有形資產,並依賴國際通信網絡,這些全都會受氣候變化影響。此外,若金融服務業遭受幹擾而中斷,對經濟體系內所

有行業都會有深遠影響。

(i) 很多可能會影響其他行業的因素,同樣會影響金融業的營運成本,例如建築費用增加、公用設施費用上升、保險費和稅

款增加;此外,金融業的營運成本還會受到一些獨特因素影響:

對營運極為重要的電信網絡和電腦系統,可能會受到風暴、水災或電力故障影響,因而需要準備大規模的後備設

施。

(ii) 金融業務的風險將會增加:

大珠三角商戶的投資者和貸款者需要考慮到,氣候變化可能會增加債務拖欠或回報減少的風險。

159 “Roundup: HK Stock Market Cap Reaches Record High of 10 Trillion HK Dollars”,《人民日報》,2006年5月4日。 http://eng-

lish.people.com.cn/200605/04/eng20060504_262912.html

160 InvestHK, “Asia’s Retail Capital”, 2006年4月。http://www.investhk.gov.hk/pages/1/241.aspx

161 《中國金融年鑒》,2004年。

162 Grant Thornton:2006 Global New Markets Guide,2006年。http://www.gti.org/documents/GNMG%202006%2014th%20July.pdf

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氣候變化引發的事故,可能會導致保險賠償額大幅增加,因而危害保險公司的財政表現。(保險公司同樣持有大

量投資,表現同樣會受到氣候變化所引致的風險影響。)

(iii) 若大珠三角普遍被視為風險日益增加的地方,金融服務行業的營業額便可能會減少:

大珠三角商戶的證券組合投資或會下跌;

大珠三角商戶的集資金額或會減少。

不無可能的是,金融公司所承受的打擊,可能會影響香港或深圳的整體市場。舉例說,若保險賠償、拖欠債務或生意虧蝕

的情況嚴重,一些金融機構可能要被迫出售部分證券投資。假若這種情況大規模出現,金融市場便會貶值,對區內經濟可

能會間接帶來重大影響。

V. 調適工作

政府間氣候變化專業委員員《第三次評估報告》的結論指出,氣候變化是一個事實。除了努力實行緩減廢氣排放的措施

外,還需要調適策略的配合。緩減措施可被視為盡量減少不利環境出現的方法;而當不利環境經已出現時,調適措施便會

把不利環境的衝擊減輕。163 調適策略的目的,是加強天然、人類及經濟體系在變化出現時的靭力和復原能力,並減低損害

程度。這是一個用作處理未來氣候風險的框架,影響公共政策和私人企業的商業決策。

脆弱性 「當氣候出現變化、波動或極端情況時,人類社會中個別自然系統無法處理負面影響的程

度」

調適 「天然或人類系統對實質或預期發生的氣候變化作出調節,包括緩減傷害或善用契機」

取材自Pittock164

(1) 調適策略的框架

一套有效的調適策略,必須把氣候引致的風險視作慣常決策的一個部分,讓政府、商界、個人都考慮到這些風險,正如他

們作出其他風險評估和策劃其他事情一樣。165 為不同人士或機構發展適合他們需要的調適策略,可以使用的方法很多。一

個思考調適策略的框架,大概會包括下列各點166:

確定區域、經濟、環境、人口各方面在面對氣候變化時的脆弱程度;

確定可能引致的衝擊,並就重要程度、出現機率、危急程度等,把這些衝擊訂定緩急先後;

進行監測工作,以評估預料中的氣候變化有否出現,以及出現的速度;

計算不同調適策略的成本和效益,例如包括不作回應、搬遷疏散、增加基建設施、改變商業模式等等;

對不同的調適策略和它們的後果作出敏感度分析;

提高股東對氣候風險和調適策略的意識,與他們加強溝通;

持續進行風險評估和策略檢討工作。

163 Easterling, William等人:Coping with global climate change: the role of adaptation in the United States,Pew全球氣候變化中心,

2004年6月。http://www.pewclimate.org/docUploads/Adaptation%2Epdf

164 Pittock, Barrie編:Climate Change: An Australian Guide to the Science and Potential Impacts,澳洲溫室氣體管理局,2003年。

http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/science/guide/pubs/science-guide.pdf

165 Allen Consulting Group:前引書,2005年,頁8。

166 澳洲溫室氣體管理局:“Impacts & Adaptation – Adaption Planning”,2006年。http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/impacts/adapta-

tion.html

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要做到實事求是地評估氣候風險和調適策略,就需要在多個領域進行大量研究。掌握更多區內氣候變化和潛在後果的資料

是一項必需的基本條件。

建立氣候變化模型的技術,現時依然在研發當中。全球氣候模型或大氣環流模型在推斷區域氣候變化的發生時間、方向及

規模等幾個方面,都出現了巨大分歧。基於這些分歧,決策者往往難以接受脆弱程度分析的結果,以及開展調適工作。167

要確立普遍公認的模型技術和基本假設,科學家仍需進行大量研究工作。

同樣地,要計算氣候變化衝擊的成本,是一樁複雜的工作。我們預期全球暖化極可能會令社會成本增加,新增成本將會由

不同區域和行業共同分擔。要全面估量氣候變化在不同情景下對各個行業的成本影響,則仍需作更多研究。168

圖29 氣候變化決策的模式

取材自: Willows等人169

(2) 大珠三角制訂調適策略的權責問題

氣候風險分析和調適策略,需要在大珠三角的政府和私人企業層面實行,政府的領導能力明顯是非常重要的。國家、省

級,以至地方政府在實施公共基建、安全、衛生、土地規劃與監管等各方面的調適策略時,都肩負着重要的責任。

以中國的公共基建為例,它們大部分都是由中央或省級政府擁有的,他們因此要承擔設施損毀的責任。由私人擁有或管理

的基建,政府也要承擔部分風險,原因是規管這些安排的合約通常都會要求政府機構負責與自然災害有關的財政責任。170

此外,在一些保險不普及或不被使用的領域,政府往往需要在天災過後負責重建工作。

重大的調適問題,實際上會涉及政府各項職責和各個層面。由於中國的官僚架構複雜,要協調不同機構就大珠三角的氣候

變化問題進行有關工作,將會困難重重。

以監管水源這項工作為例,中央各個政府部門與地方部門之間的溝通,顯然並非簡單直接。雖然水利部在1988年獲授權監

管水源,但水務工作卻支離破碎,水質監管、市區供水及其他相關工作是由多個部門共同負責。同時,縣、市機關都維護

各自利益,不同地區和不同級別的政府機關時有出現利益衝突的情況。171

167 Erda, Lin等編:Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation in Asia and the Pacific,Proceedings of Workshop 15-19th January

1996 in Manila。 http://www.gcrio.org/CSP/WORKSHOP_01_1996.htmlhttp://www.gcrio.org/CSP/WORKSHOP_01_1996.html

168 澳洲溫室氣體管理局:“Impacts & Adaptation – Methods and Tools”,2006年。http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/ impacts/meth-

ods.html

169 Willows, R等人:Climate adaptation risk and uncertainty: draft decision framework,2000年。http://www.scotland.gov.uk/cru/

kd01/lightgreen/pascc-05.asp

170 Freeman與Warner:前引書,2004年,頁16。

171 Zhang與Wen:前引文,2001年,頁54。

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同樣,監管中國沿岸地區的主要部門,是國家海洋局轄下的海域管理司。然而,國家海洋局並沒有權力協調所有受海平面

上升影響的領域,包括農業、工業、漁業、旅遊、城市規劃、建築和港口等等。此外,國家海洋局由國土資源部管轄,這

點或可顯示它的政治地位薄弱。再者,省級和地方層面有其他機關,各有不同的自主程度和關心的問題。172

假若珠三角仿效世界上多個地區和城市,成立一個專責機構,制訂應付氣候變化的策略,協調工作便可得到改善。例如英

國便在1997年成立了一個名為英國氣候影響計劃署(UK Climate Impacts Programme, UKCIP)的工作小組,173 而倫敦亦設

立了自己的機構 — 倫敦氣候變化合作夥伴組織(London Climate Change Partnership)。澳洲政府成立了國家氣候變化調適

計劃署(National Climate Change Adaptation Programme),目的是為容易受影響的工業和社區,製作與氣候變化有關的資

料和工具。174 在亞洲,多個國家已經成立了跨部門工作小組,包括菲律賓的氣候變化跨部門委員會(Inter-Agency Commit-

tee on Climate Change),和印尼的國家氣候變化委員會(National Committee on Climate Change)。175

要調適氣候變化帶來的衝擊,制訂公共政策對大珠三角十分重要;但區內的企業也要分析他們各自的風險,以制訂自己的

策略。有時候,採取行動的責任可以直接由商界和政府共同承擔;另一方面,責任亦可能是以間接的方式承擔,例如政府

向私人機構徵收費用,以推動區內必需的調適措施。

(3) 調適策略觸及的幾個公共政策範疇

要制定公共政策調適氣候變化帶來的影響,工作將會極其艱巨。我們必需要獲得各種有形和環境變化的資料,以及改良預

測各種經濟和社會衝擊的方法。我們必須有一群熱誠投入的決策者,樂於聽取和綜合分析不同持分者的意見,以確保用於

一個領域的調適措施,不會在另一個領域產生不良影響。

首先,要加深瞭解氣候變化在大珠三角造成的影響速度和範圍,就必須設立一個精確的監測網絡,蒐集足夠數據,從而提

供一個科學基礎,以制定合適政策。以海平面上升為例,潮汐漲退、地殼垂直活動、表土下陷、海水入侵、河床和河灣淤

泥沉積、地面弱化和下陷等,我們都必須仔細監測。176 除了利用國內驗潮站和研究站進行觀測外,可能還要使用人造衛星

或空中遙感系統。我們需要與全國或國際網絡在這些領域合作。

我們必須制定一套周全政策,應付海平面到2030年上升30釐米的幅度,以及面對海平面在之後數十年進一步大幅上升的可

能性。若不盡快開始制定這套政策,大珠三角將會極易受到損害。要應付海平面上升,我們必須在短期內訂立多項措施,

例如成立早期警報系統、興建防洪堤壩、搬遷建築物等。同時,耐用年期最長的基建,例如橋樑、隧道、堤壩等,壽命通

常是50至100年;在制定發展計劃時,必須首先評估它們要面對的風險。177

當局必須同步制定上述多方面的政策,保障大珠三角經濟和社區的利益,以及遏止令現時令問題繼續惡化的各種活動。主

要的政策範疇包括下列各項:

172 Lau, Maren:“Coastal zone management in the People’s Republic of China – a unique approach”,China Environment Series,

2003年,期6,頁120至123。

173 UK Climate Impacts Programme:“About UKCIP”。http://www.ukcip.org.uk/

174 澳洲溫室氣體管理局:“Impacts & Adaptation – National Climate Change Adaptation Programme”,2006年。http://www.green-

house.gov.au/impacts/index.html

175 Erda, Lin等編:前引文,1996年。

176 Yang, H:前引文,1996年,頁274。

177 Wade, S. 等人:前引文,1999年,頁3。

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城市規劃

天氣變得更溫暖、更潮濕、更極端,會加重建築物和基建的負荷,因此必須在沿岸城市的設計、工程及建造上,制定和執

行新的標準。排水系統的設計也需要做出修訂,以減低市區出現泛濫的風險。此外,我們可能需要強化和升高不少大型工

程項目。

水源管理

如前所述,氣候變化很有可能影響水源的使用和質素,而且水的需求亦正急劇增加。政府必須嚴格規限地下水的開發,並

改善水的處理和供應,例如可以增加水庫的儲存量,又或把水庫連接,讓水得以來回運送,這些措施都可令供水系統變得

更健全。同時,防止濫用水源也是重要的,可以採取的措施包括在制定發展計劃時考慮供水需要,以及以市場價格供水,

尤其是工業用水。178 此外。政府必須提高公眾意識,讓他們明白到珍惜用水的重要性。179

防洪系統

爲了應付更頻密的風暴和水災,政府必須優化洪水泛濫管理系統,包括提供可靠的天氣和潮汐預報、在容易受災地區設置

警報儀器,和制定周全的緊急應變措施。現有的基建,例如水管和燃料氣體管道,或電力和電信電纜,都可能會受到損

毀,因此制定應變計劃也是重要的。

海岸與河岸堤壩

大珠三角的堤壩、防波堤、堤岸等,組成了一個龐大網絡,但它們很多都是依照廣東省政府在1955年訂立的標準而興建

的。180 現時必須根據海平面上升和風暴潮的最新預測,更新這些建築物的設計標準,並需要作成本效益分析,以決定改建

工程的優先次序。要在整個大珠三角改善和強化防洪基建,必須在建築工程上投放大量資金。

長遠土地規劃

如前所述,大珠三角的都市發展都集中在低窪地區,現時已經常出現泛濫情況。另一方面,很多農業用地以至工業和製造

業設施都位於珠江三角洲的泛濫平原上。較早前,颶風卡特里娜侵襲新奧爾良的事件顯示,即使是最大規模的防洪設施,

保護能力依然有限。

要實行任何大規模的政策,都需要強大的財政資源。決策者面對的一大考驗是,在籌集資金應付氣候變化時,決定權責的

分配。中央政府投資在水務上的開支(包括防洪工作),只佔資金投資總額2至3%。181 若省級和地方政府認為個別領域對國

內生產總值不會造成直接打擊時,他們便似乎不願意多作投資。預期政府會透過加稅或收取防洪費,讓大珠三角的私營公

司承擔部分財政開支。

178 Erda, Lin等編:前引文,1996年。

179 Wade, S. 等人:前引文,1999年,頁81。

180 Huang等人:前引文,2004年,頁261。

181 Zhang與Wen:前引文,2001年,頁57。

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VI. 結論與初步建議

現在已有確鑿科學證據證實,地球的氣候正在變化,而這些變化並非由地球本身的天然週期所造成。182 然而,「由於氣候

變化對政治和工業都會帶來深遠影響,而且它是由人類文明賴以成功的核心活動所引致,我們因此難以客觀公正地作出評

估」。183

本報告概括地指出氣候變化可能會在多個方面對大珠三角的地貌和經濟造成影響。我們建議進行更多更深的研究和建立電

腦模型,讓政府機關、商界和一般市民都可以更加瞭解氣候變化對本地區帶來的衝擊,包括對生態造成的影響。此外,我

們亦應進一步發展經濟估值方法,從而可以更準確地評估氣候影響的實際成本。

這份報告雖然只提供了一個初步評估,但我們已可明顯看到氣候變化的影響是非常廣泛的,因此大珠三角所作出的回應也

必須反映這個特點。香港、澳門及廣東的決策者必須同時考慮緩減和調適措施。危機評估方法和成本效益分析可以用作比

較不同的緩減和調適策略,而進一步的情景分析和敏感度分析,則可評估可能出現的效果。

另一個清楚的訊息是,我們立刻採取行動減少溫室氣體排放以避免氣候變化的最壞影響所需要花的費用,將遠低於破壞造

成後我們所付出的代價。這一點在《斯特恩回顧》中亦有提及。戈達德研究所新近發出警告指出,地球上主要冰帽的融解

速度可能比以前預測的快得多,這正好說明了問題的迫切性。世界各國的決策者、商界領袖和市民都必須在未來十年內採

取果斷行動,減少全球溫室氣體的排放量,避免地球出現災難性的變化。針對珠三角地區,我們需要進行更多區域性的研

究,尋求最佳的方法大幅減少廢氣排放。例如,要減少排放溫室氣體及其他污染物,最便宜和最快捷的方法是提高能源效

益,但區內的商家和政府似乎並未充分體會這項措施的好處。

正如《斯特恩回顧》指出,「雖然我們已經不可能防止在未來二、三十年將發生的氣候變化,但是仍然可以在一定程度上

減少它對社會和經濟的影響」。184 作爲調適措施的第一步,當局急需檢討大珠三角多項基建計劃,包括土地開發、貨櫃碼

頭的興建、橋樑、道路、隧道,以及與運輸有關的工程等,並研究當風暴、洪水、海平面上升出現更頻和變得更嚴重時,

這些基建會將受承受的衝擊。迄今為止,有關討論都集中在如何加快工程進度,而並非就氣候影響作出檢討。185

最後,大珠三角的政府和商界在計劃所有長遠政策、基建工程、投資策略時,都必須開始考慮氣候變化所帶來的風險。世

界各地的政府都明白到,在面對氣候變化的威脅時,他們必須積極主動,不能消極被動。同樣,要有效保障大珠三角及當

地居民,唯一方法是從今天起制定應變計劃。

182 Connell與 Richenda等編:Climate adaptation: risk, uncertainty and decision-making,2003年。http://www.ukcip.org.uk/resourc-

es/publications/documents/4.pdf

183 Flannery, Tim:The Weather Makers: the history and future impact of climate change,2006年。

184 斯特恩對氣候變化的討論。”What is the economics of climate change?” 討論文章,2006年1月31日。

185 行政長官在2006年9月10日主辦的經濟高峰會雖然集中討論港口和運輸基建的發展,但所有討論文章都沒有提及氣候變化的影響。見

http://www.info.gov.hk/info/econ_summit/chi/papers.html

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