The Mana of Soil: A Māori

Cultural Perspective of Soil

Health in Aotearoa-NZ

Garth Harmsworth

(Te Arawa, Ngāti Tūwharetoa, Ngāti Raukawa)

Landcare Research, Private Bag 11-052, Palmerston North harmsworthg@landcareresearch.co.nz

• MBIE funded: Oct 2016-2021

• Soil health: oneone ora, tangata ora

• Full name: Soil ecosystem health and resilience – a pathway to prosperity and wellbeing

About the Soil Health Project

Three Main Objectives: I. Science excellence – Soil Resilience (testing pedogenic thresholds) –

Science approach/large scale field sampling and lab analysis

II. Kaupapa Māori Research – Develop Māori Soil Health concepts, frameworks, indicators, and soil management

III. Integration, Management and Policy – Develop an Integrated Soil Health Framework

Impact Plan

Soil quality/health generally defined by dynamic soil characteristics

(such as pH and soil nutrients) – largely inadequate to assess long-

term changes to soil health and resilience.

Currently soil resilience is poorly defined

Need to understand and explore the meaning of soil health from a kaupapa Māori perspective e.g. Māori values, principles, use inter-generational concepts of guardianship of land/whenua (e.g. kaitiakitanga, mana, mauri)

Developing a longer term view of soil health

I. General (science based) soil health concepts and

definitions

The terms “soil quality” and “soil health” are often used interchangeably by

the popular press and in scientific literature (Allan et al. 1995). Doran and

Zeiss (2000) summarise the concept of soil health/ quality as the

“…capacity of a soil to function as a living system to sustain

biological productivity, promote environmental quality and

maintain plant and animal health”.

This broad definition encompasses such themes as soil fertility, potential

productivity, resource sustainability and environmental quality (Singer and

Ewing 2000).

Defining whether a soil is of high or low quality, healthy or unhealthy,

good or bad quality also rests on the perceived suitability of the soil for

its intended end use, function or purpose (Sparling and Schipper 1998).

A further consideration is the degree of modification a soil requires in order

for it to be suited to its intended use (Cornforth 1998:209), and thus

encompasses the notion of fitness for future use.

(Monica Peters 2006 Māori farmers perspectives and experience of pasture soil health: indicators, understandings

and monitoring methodology. Master of Science thesis, Otago University, Dunedin, New Zealand).

The multifaceted nature of soils, and the task of defining and measuring soil quality have generated considerable debate (see Sojka and Upchurch 1999, Letey et al. 2003; Sojka et al.

2003).

Monica Peters 2006

Other definitions

Soil health is “the continued capacity of the soil to function as a vital living ecosystem that sustains plants, animals and humans” (Natural Resources Conservation Service – USDA-NRCS, 20122; Soil Renaissance, 2014).

Doran and Parkin, in 1994, defined soil quality as “the capacity of a soil to function, within ecosystem and land use boundaries, to sustain productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health.” (Cornell Assessment of Soil Health (2012)

(source: Bryan Stevenson)

Soil Health or Soil Quality?

• The term ‘soil health’ has been generally preferred by farmers, while scientists have generally preferred ‘soil quality’.

• Dynamic soil quality, is equivalent to soil health, and refers to soil properties that change as “a result of soil use and management over the human time scale”.

• Soil health invokes the idea that soil is an ecosystem full of life that needs to be carefully managed to regain and maintain our soil’s ability to function optimally

• In general, soil health and soil quality are considered synonymously and can be used interchangeably, with one key distinction conceptualized by scientists and practitioners over the last few decades:

• Soil quality includes both inherent and dynamic quality. Inherent soil quality refers to the aspects of soil quality relating to a soil’s natural composition and properties (soil type, as delineated by the USDA NRCS Soil Survey) influenced by the natural long-term factors and processes of soil formation.

Soil Health Indicators

Soil health indicators were classified into four types (Mackay et al.

2013):

• acidity (measured by soil pH)

• organic reserves (measured by total carbon, total nitrogen, and

mineralisable nitrogen)

• fertility (measured by Olsen phosphorus)

• physical status (measured by bulk density and macroporosity).

NZ SOIL HEALTH MEASURES TO DETERMINE SOIL HEALTH INDICATORS

Soil health

indicators

Soil measures Why is this measure important?

Organic

reserves

Total carbon Organic matter helps soil retain moisture and nutrients, and

supports good soil structure

Total nitrogen Reserves of nitrogen are stored within organic matter in the soil

Mineralisable

nitrogen

Mineralisable nitrogen is a form of nitrogen that plants can use

for growth and is an indication of soil organism activity and health

Fertility Olsen phosphorus Plants get phosphorus from phosphates in the soil, but many New

Zealand soils have naturally low available levels

Acidity pH Soil pH controls the activity of nutrients and metals in soil. Most

plants have an optimal pH range for growth

Physical

status

Bulk density Soils with high bulk density drain poorly and restrict plant root

growth, while soils with low bulk density are vulnerable to erosion

Macroporosity Large pores allow air and water to penetrate into soil for root

growth and soil biological activity, but these are easily compacted

Soil order Area of NZ (ha) % of NZ

Allophanic 1,367,388 5 Anthropic 6236 <1 Brown 10,894,877 43 Gley 711,832 3 Granular 292,787 1 Melanic 322,209 1 Organic 255,681 1 Oxidic 44,090 <1 Pallic 3,090,990 12 Podzol 3,287, 043 13 Pumice 1,721,087 7 Raw 709,224 3 Recent 1,401,703 6 Semi-Arid 222,278 1 Ultic 761,716 3 New Zealand ~26 million ha 100

NZ soil classification names NZ Soil Classification Names

II. Kaupapa Māori Research Objectives Define Soil Health concepts and knowledge from a Māori

perspective

Local, Regional and National level Māori coordination

and research

Development of a Māori soil health framework and

indicators

Integration of key concepts and knowledge into a

national assessment framework

Kaupapa Māori

Present measures and indicators of soil

health in Aotearoa-New Zealand do not

recognise cultural perspectives or

incorporate other knowledge systems,

such as mātauranga Māori

III. Māori beliefs, mātauranga

Māori (traditional knowledge)

go back to early teachings

Concepts of Health and

Kaitiakitanga

Understanding Māori beliefs, knowledge, perspectives, and concepts

Tāne Mahuta Atua of ngahere

(forests) & nga manu (birds)

Tūmatauenga Atua of war &

tangata (people)

Tāwhirimatea Atua of the wind & air

Ranginui The sky father, immeasurable universe

Tangaroa Atua of nga

moana (seas), awa (rivers) &

roto (lakes)

Papatuanuku Earth mother, planet earth

Haumiatiketike Atua of wild

foods including fern roots

Ngā Atua Kaitiaki

The spiritual guardians

Rongomatāne Atua of peace & cultivated foods

Figure 1: Atua (departmental gods) domain framework Source: Tiakina te Taiao.

Ngā Atua domains framework

E kī ana ā tātau nei kōrero, ko Tiki te tangata tuatahi, ko Hine-ahu-one te wahine tuatahi i pokepoketia ki te one i Kurawaka (TTT 1/8/1925:275).

Narratives state that Tiki was the first man and that Hine-

ahu-one, the first woman, shaped with earth at Kurawaka. (Te Māhuri Study Guide (Ed. 1): 48-51;)

Ko tō rātou haerenga ki te ahu i te puehu o te one i Kurawaka. Koia a Hine-ahu-one, arā a Hine-hau-one, te wahine tuatahi (TTT 1/6/1924:63).

They went to fashion her from the dust of the earth at

Kurawaka. Thus was Hine-ahu-one, Hine-hau-one, the first

woman. (Moorfield 2003, 2004).

Traditional, local, and contemporary knowledge

Tribal stories (pūrākau) TE TAENGA MAI O TAKITIMU KI AOTEA-ROA NEI.

“Pewhea ake te tua-whenua?” Ka mea atu a Nga-Toro', “He

pai; he one tai etahi wahi, he one matua etahi wahi, he one

tuatara, he paraumu, he one-rere, he one-punga, he one-

haruru, he one-puia, he one-kirikiri, he one-powhatu, he

one-takataka, etahi wahi.”

“What kind of land is this?” Ngātoroirangi replied:

“It is good. Some parts are limestone, some are sandy soil,

others rich soil, others friable soil, black soil, sand,

pumiceous soil, and light sandy soil, red volcanic soil,

some parts are gravelly, stony, and some are very loose

soils” (JPS 1915).

On arrival at Patea Turi decided to make it his

permanent home, having satisfied himself by the

sense of smell of the fertility of the soil; hence the

proverb common to this day:

“Te oneone i hongia e Turi.”

The soil which Turi smelled.

JPS 1901 Vol 10:

Māori gardeners had at least 60 names for types of soil

Maori names for soils Maori names for soils

One-pū – sand

One nui – rich soil, consisting of

clay, sand and decayed organic

material

One-matua – typically loam

One mata – dark fertile soil

Tuatara wawata – brown friable

fertile soil suitable for kūmara

One-pārakiwai – silt

One paraumu – very dark fertile

soil, friable

One hanahana – Dark soil mixed

with gravel or small stones

One haruru – Light but good soil;

sand and loam

One hunga – sea sand, sandy beach,

sometimes mixed with mud

One kopuru – soil found in wet

situations

One kōkopu – gravel, or very gravelly

soil

One kura – reddish, poor soil

One pākirikiri – soil containing gravel

One parahuhu – alluvium (also

parahua)

One punga – light spongy soil

One tai – sandy soil, near tidal flats,

near beach

One tea – white soil, sandy volcanic

material

One takataka – friable soil

One tuatara – stiff brown soil, needing

sand or gravel worked in

Maori names for soils Maori names for soils

Kere was used as a prefix for some

types of clay, including:

keretū, kerematua and kerewhenua:

Keretū - clay

Kerematua – stiff clay

Kerewhenua – yellow clay

Kereone – sandy earth, e.g., near

Morrinsville

One wawata – lumpy soil

Kirikiri tuatara – fertile brown soil

Kōtae – alluvial soil

One tea – light sandy soil, near

Dargaville.

Kenepuru – sandy silt

Kōtore – white clay

Taioma – pipe clay

Uku - unctous clay, white or bluish

Uku whenua – plastic clay (old

traditional name – KUPE AND NGAKE START FOR

NEW ZEALAND JPS 1913.

Matapaia – a clay when baked hard was

used as a stone for cooking

Taonga (resources treasures)

Kaitiaki (the agents or

actors)

Ritenga (rules, practices,

tapu, rahui, noa)

Tikanga values (principles)

To sustain/enhance the

Mauri

Take: The problem

or issue? What? Natural

resources

Iwi/hapū/whānau

Kaupapa/ desired

outcomes

Te Ao Māori conceptual framework (source: Hirini Matunga)

Iwi/hapū/whānau

Ap

ril

1

8

MA

NA

AK

I W

HE

NU

A –

LA

ND

CA

RE

R

ES

EA

RC

H

PA

GE

2

8

“Māori consider the environment fundamental to their well-being as their cultural values and the environment are inextricably linked. Finding a balance between the physical, spiritual, mental, and family dimensions of individuals was stated as the key to ensure optimum well-being”.

• A Te Ao Māori Health Focus

• In the late 20th century many Māori believed the non-Māori health focus was too narrow and singular (i.e. concentrated too much on just physical illness) to meet their needs and did not reflect their traditional knowledge systems and values, and their holistic understanding of health and wellbeing.

• A number of kaupapa based holistic Māori conceptual health models have been developed.

IV. Māori wellbeing and health

Models used to conceptualise the components of Māori

well-being commonly emphasise the interactions and

balance through 4 dimensions of reality:

• taha tinana – a material state or dimension, the body

• taha hinengaro – a mental state or dimension

• taha wairua – a spiritual state or dimension

• taha whānaugatanga – family, a related or associative

state or dimension.

There are many variations of these models and concepts, but most stress a set of principles and practices to achieve a goal of mauri maintenance and human well-being (Durie 1994).

Kaupapa based Māori health models

Wairua

Whanaungatanga

Hinengaro

Tinana

Physical illness

Papatūānuku Ranginui Atua

Whare Tapa Wha Te Wheke Ngā Pou Mana

Components Taha Wairua

Taha Hinengaro

Taha Tinana

Taha Whānau

Wairuatanga

Hinengaro

Tinana

Whanaungatanga

Mana ake

Mauri

Hā a koro mā a kui mā

Whatumanawa

Whānaungatanga

Taonga tuku iho

Te Ao tūroa

Turangawaewae

Features Spirituality

Mental health

Physical

Family

Spirituality

Mental health

Physical

Family

Uniqueness

Vitality

Cultural heritage

Emotions

Family

Cultural heritage

Environment

Land base

Symbolism A strong house The octopus Supporting structures

Three common Māori well-being models (Durie 1994)

Ap

ril

1

8

MA

NA

AK

I W

HE

NU

A –

LA

ND

CA

RE

R

ES

EA

RC

H

PA

GE

3

2

Māori researchers, Universities, CRIs, experts

Jessica Hutchings, Te Waka Kai Ora (Māori organics collective, Hua Parakore)

Antoine Coffin, Te Onewa consultants

Tumu Paeroa (largest Māori land manager in NZ)

Māori land owners

Iwi/Hapū/Kaitiaki groups, elders (e.g., Te Taitokerau, Rangitāne, Te Arawa, BOP-Tauranga, Waikato-Maniapoto, Taranaki, Te Waipounamu)

Te Wharekura o Maniapoto (Rangatahi)

Māori businesses/industry groups

Interviews, groups, hui/wānanga, field-days, surveys, etc.

V. Collaborative research – with who?

National Maori Organic Authority Guardians of Hua Parakore

Hua Parakore – An Indigenous verification and

validation system for food and product.

• Whakapapa, mana, mauri and wairua is at the heart of Hua

Parakore.

• “Knowing about where the seed comes from so that it has some

integrity in ensuring that they are safe seeds and that they’re easily

dependable and you know that the seeds are going to grow

again….its about integrity and dependability in terms of sustainability

(Te Waka Kai Ora 2011b, p13; Hutchings et al. 2012)”

• Ma te Hua Parakore e kaitiaki te ora te pae o Papa-tū-ā-nuku, te

ora ngā hua me ngā rākau katoa o Tāne, otirā , me te ora o te

tinana o ngā tāngata katoa

• Hua Parakore maintains healthy soils, healthy plants and healthy

people (Te Waka Kai Ora 2011b, p22; Hutchings et al. 2012)

• It is particularly important to enhance the mauri of the soil by

enhancing its fertility, structure and biological activity (Te Waka Kai

Ora 2011b, p22)

Hua Parakore

Hua Parakore guiding values and principles

NGĀ TIKANGA O WAIRUA (spiritual, peace, safety) Ko te Hua Parakore te Kaitiakitanga o te humariretanga me te ora

NGĀ TIKANGA O MANA (authority, justice) Ko te Hua Parakore te waka mo te pono me te tika

NGĀ TIKANGA O MĀRAMATANGA (enlightenment) Ko te Hua Parakore te huarahi o te maramatanga mai tawhiti

NGĀ TIKANGA O TE AO TŪROA (natural order, sustainability, kaitiakitanga) Ma te Hua Parakore e Kaitiaki i nga Tikanga tuku iho o te Maara

NGĀ TIKANGA O MAURI (healthy soils, healthy plants, healthy people) Ma te Hua Parakore e kaitiaki te ora o te pae o Papatuanuku, te ora o nga hua me nga rakau katoa o Tane, otira, me te ora o te tinana o nga tangata katoa

• It is particularly important to enhance the mauri of the soil by enhancing its fertility, structure and biological activity (Te Waka Kai Ora 2011b, p22)

• This places a focus and responsibility on maintaining the

mauri or life energy/vitality of the soil, to ensure human

wellbeing. It is particularly important to enhance the

mauri of the soil by enhancing its fertility, structure and

biological activity (Te Waka Kai Ora 2011b, p22)

• Hutchings, J., Tipene, P., Carney, C., Greensill, A., Skelton, P., & Baker, M. (2012). Hua Parakore, an Indigenous food

sovereignty initiative and hallmark of excellence for food and product production. MAI Journal, 1(2): 131–145.

• Te Waka Kai Ora 2011b. Nga kaupapa o Hua Parakore. Wellington: Te Waka Kai Ora.

Hua Parakore

Ap

ril

18

O

ne

on

e O

ra

, T

an

ga

ta O

ra

Te Wharekura o Maniapoto

In order to gain a Māori perspective on soil health, it was important to seek a perspective from rangatahi Māori (Māori youth). Soils wānanga were conducted with the mātaamua tauira (senior students) of Te Wharekura o Maniapoto.

Mātaamua Tauira

• A Rangatahi (Māori youth) perspective

• Curriculum learning – soil

Māra kai

Pātaka

Fertilizers

Pesticides

• Onsite nursery – riperian planting

• Lots of practical experience

• Knowledge of Soil Health

Ap

ril

1

8

On

eo

ne

O

ra

, T

an

ga

ta

O

ra

P

AG

E 3

8

First Session • Work in 3 groups

• 3 patai

1. How important are soils

to you?

2. How can you measure soil

health?

3. What tohu do you

measure the health of

soil?

Ap

ril

1

8

On

eo

ne

O

ra

, T

an

ga

ta

O

ra

P

AG

E 3

9

How important are soils to you? to you? • Tangata Whenua

• 0% (kore) – 100% (hundy)

• For the people to stand on

• Healthy soil = FOOD,

Unhealthy soil = NO FOOD!!!

• Soils clean the water, soils

feed the plants

• We live off it, on it, We

fought for it, live for it, with

it – we would be dead

without it!!!

Ap

ril

1

8

On

eo

ne

O

ra

, T

an

ga

ta

O

ra

P

AG

E 4

0

How do you measure soil health?

• Trees growing in the ground

• Smells like soil

• Healthy plants

• Insects and worms

• nutrients

• Worms are good

• Snails are bad

• Dark colour means healthy

• Compost

• Moisture

• Good health

Ap

ril

1

8

On

eo

ne

O

ra

, T

an

ga

ta

O

ra

P

AG

E 4

1

Māra kai and Nursery

• Involved in the

development of the nursery

• Very confident in the māra

and nursery surroundings

• Whakaaro started to

appear

• Entrepreneurship

• Responsibilities

• Ownership

RUIA NGA PURAPURA Sowing the seeds

Antoine Coffin

A community research project

Funded by:

Conducted

by:

In association with:

This research project investigates the link between traditional Māori

gardening and soil heath using anthropological and Mātauranga Māori

perspectives for the purpose of identifying potential soil ecosystem health

and resilience characteristics.

Kaupapa - purpose

Explore the term soil health and resilience from a ‘Kaupapa

Māori’ – mātauranga Māori/Māori values based – perspective

using Māori knowledge frameworks, concepts, and terms, that

can be used to define soil ecosystem health characteristics,

pressure-state and impact indicators, and describe soil

resilience characteristics from a Māori lens. We will use this

information to develop soil assessment methodologies for

Māori, especially to support kaitiakitanga and Māori

agribusiness to achieve desired outcomes

What does this mean?...

Te Takiwa o Te Wairoa

He aha te mahi?

A local community research project (Tauranga)to identify:

◦Characteristics of soil from an hapu perspective

◦ Traditional soil systems and cultivation techniques

◦ Potential themes and specific tikanga

◦A potential set of relevant iwi/hapū Māori soil health

indicators

Te Pura (gardens)

1886

◦ Kūmara

◦ Potatoes

◦ Maize

◦ Wheat

◦ Pumpkin

1935

◦ Kumara

◦ Rīwai

◦ Kamokamo

◦ Kanga

◦ Pumpkin

◦ Onions

◦ Watermelon

2017

◦ Kumara

◦ Rīwai

1980

◦ Kumara

◦ Rīwai

◦Watermelon

Ngā Mōhiotanga o ngā mahi māra

The knowledge of growing and harvesting vegetables

Land availability

Whanau support

Commercial return

Whanau and hapu gardens

Moon phases

Tikanga & kawa

Pest resistance

Leadership

Hua parakore indicators and measures

Hua parakore mauri

maintenance/enhanceme

nt

Hua parakore verification indicators Measures? (examples)

Recording and monitoring

Cultural

Mauri/assess/monitor mauri

Kaupapa Maori /Hua parakore mauri assessment

and indicators

Use of kaitiaki

Mahinga kai Assessment e.g. Wai Ora Wai Maori, CHI

Use of kaitiaki

Monitor water passing through mahinga kai

Effluent management

Nutrient budgets

Cultivation practices

Mitigate Stock access to streams (assess/manage)

Maintain and enhance diversity of mahinga

kai (increase biodiversity)

Companion planting

Biological control of pests

Diverse seed stock

Cultivation practices

Healthy soils Soil fertility testing

Monitor composting practices

Use of livestock/monitor

Detailing cultural practices

Recording and monitoring: e.g. number recorded

/protected

Wāhi tapu sites

Wāhi taonga

Wāhi tupuna (pā, papakāinga)

Mahinga kai

Environmental Environmental indicators Soil and water testing

Key soil quality indicators (SI Māori farmers) (Peters 2006)

Performance based measures Peters, M. 2006. Māori farmers perspectives and experience of pasture soil health: indicators, understandings and monitoring methodology. Master of Science thesis, Otago University, Dunedin, New Zealand.

INDICATOR CATEGORIES

INDICATORS of “Good quality soil”

Physical characteristics

- Soil colour

- Drainage and infiltration

- Soil smell, feel, texture and weight

- Constituents of topsoil and subsoil

- Level of / resistance to compaction and pugging

- Level of / resistance to erosion

- Slope and aspect Biological characteristics

- Presence of desirable invertebrates

- Rate of organic decomposition Chemical characteristics

- Soil fertility

- pH and levels of other primary nutrients Cover crop - Pasture recovery times; pasture growth rates

- Pasture composition

- Pasture colour; sward thickness

- Rooting depth

- Species and quantity of weeds present Stock - Stock movement

- Stock condition and overall production levels

Tumu Paeroa Key indicators and measures of soil health

Indicator

categories

Indicators of soil health Measures

Physical

characteristics

Bulk density/compaction

(dry bulk density)

Porosity

Rooting depth

Available water

Grams per cubic centimetre

Milligrams per cubic metre

g/cm3 or Mg/m3

Most topsoils between 0.9-1.2g cm3, compact

subsoil~1.6g cm3, sands ~0.6-0.7, loams ~0.6-0.7.

Biological

characteristics

Earthworms

Soil organisms

Type/Abundance/Density

Chemical

characteristics

Organic matter

Total carbon (C) content

- Soil fertility

- pH and levels of other

primary nutrients

Soils typically ~1-10% organic matter C

150 tonnes/top 1m/ha

% total C. 1.7=% soil organic matter

Cultural Cultural sites Wāhi tapu sites

Wāhi taonga

Wāhi tupuna (pā, papakāinga)

Mahinga kai e.g. number recorded /protected

Performance based measures (ARGOS - NZ Sustainability Dashboard) Reid, J. Barr, T., Lambert, S. 2013.

Mauri-water Mauri-Land Mauri-community

Mauri-Air

Measures

Stream health Aquifer Irrigation Contamination Etc.,

Soil health Biodiversity

Living wage

Employment

conditions

Community

involvement Etc.,

GHG Etc.,

Reid, J. Barr, T., Lambert, S. 2013. Indigenous Sustainability Indicators for Māori farming and Fishing Enterprises.

A Theoretical Framework Ngai Tahu Research Centre, University of Canterbury.

The NZ Sustainability Dashboard Research Report 13/06 (edited by Dr Golda Varona).

Published by ARGOS. 42p. Retrieved from www.nzdashboard.org.nz.

KPIs based on customary knowledge KPIs based on Empirical Science

Personal assessment of the overall health/state of a site based upon experience.

Levels of modification/change observed at a site.

Suitability of the site for harvesting mahinga kai.

Access issues in relation to the site. Amount of pressure from external

factors. Presence, absence, abundance and

diversity counts for taonga (valued) bird, plant, and fish species as well as pest and weed species.

Willingness to return to the site for harvesting mahinga kai.

Application of Stream Health Monitoring

and Assessment (SHMAK)

Water quality test for the levels of nitrates

and the presence of Ecoli, including levels

of anti-biotic resistance.

GIS mapping of the results for ease of

understanding.

Indigenous sustainability indicators (ARGOS - NZ Sustainability

Dashboard) – Key performance indicators

VI. Māori Soil Health Concepts, definitions,

frameworks

(conclusions, findings to date)

Finding balance in the system – the principle of mauri

“Traditionally Māori acknowledged a natural order to the universe, a dynamic system built around the living and the non-living. Any shift in a system, for example through human interactions and/or impacts, cause shifts in the mauri of immediately related components. As a result, the whole system eventually becomes affected and degraded. All activities and relationships are bound up and governed by principles and ethics and regulated by an elaborate system of tikanga, ritenga or rules.

The process is still used by Māori to guide resource use and management. Therefore, a key outcome for kaitiakitanga is to restore balance back the whole system, to maintain or restore the mauri, and to ensure this balance is maintained between people and the natural and spiritual worlds”.

Whakapapa (explained earlier in this paper) is central to notions of soil health as it provides the linkages and inter-connections between people and the natural environment, including organisms and ecosystems. Ancestral stories refer to the mauri of the soil and sacred earth which was brought from traditional homelands to NZ by Polynesian ancestors and placed on gardens and at other sacred sites to reaffirm connection and whakapapa (JPS 1913, 1915; Keane 2011a,b).

Māori define soil health in a very holistic way (systems thinking) stressing interconnections and strong links to sustaining life, food production, and human wellbeing. Māori concept models and definitions tend to locate Māori at the centre of ecosystems and regard a healthy soil as one “capable of supporting, maintaining, and enhancing life and wellbeing”.

Harmsworth GR, Awatere S 2013. Indigenous Māori knowledge

and perspectives of ecosystems.

The following values and principles have emerged as

integral to the understanding of soil health from a

Māori perspective:

Mana, mana whakahaere/rangatiratanga/ mana motuhake, Mauri, Mahinga kai/Maara kai, Oranga ora, whenua ora, oneone ora, Whakapapa, Wairua, Taonga Tuku Iho.

This provides the foundation for the development of evidence/datasets; finding the data required to establish if these principles are being met) and Māori soil indicators.

Ma Mauri

Mahinga kai

Wairua

Taonga tuku iho

Whakapapa

Oranga

Mana, mana motuhake, rangatiratanga

Core values/principles Values/Principles – Description

Mana, mana whakahaere,

rangatiratanga

Rights to manage land, soil, and resources, and exercise mana and

kaitiakitanga over resources. Recognises the Treaty of Waitangi,

Māori land versus tribal interests, iwi/hapū/whānau to express local

through to national rights and interests (e.g. over resources,

authority for decision-making, management).

Mauri Life force, energy, vitality of the soil to sustain/support life and

wellbeing. e.g. well-functioning soil ecosystems, full of soil biota,

interconnections between physical, chemical, biological components

and people.

Mahinga kai Ability of soil to produce and sustain food for harvest and collection

Oranga ora, whenua ora,

oneone ora

Ability of soil to provide and ensure health and wellbeing of people

(ko au te whenua, ko au te oneone, ko te whenua/oneone ko au,

ngā tangata), in accordance with tikanga and kawa, (e.g. no human

waste) and supply healthy food. e.g., with no harmful contaminants,

pathogens, pesticides, and free of toxicity. A well-functioning soil

free of contaminants and waste in accordance with cultural values.

Whakapapa Respect for ancestral links or lineage of the soil, connections back to

ancestors, origins of Papatūānuku and Ranginui, Whenua, Ātua

domains, also denotes family connections to place and between

whānau/hapū/iwi.

Wairua The spiritual domain or dimension. Conveys elements of

whenua/soils to spiritual connections which bind the living to the

non-living, the heavens to the earth, to give mauri and spiritual

health which transcends through to people, food and resources.

Taonga Tuku Iho

Ability to sustain the soil resource for future generations, using

concepts like kaitiakitanga and Te Ao Turoa. Intergenerational equity

of the soil resource and its ability to provide for future generations.

The soil resource is sustained, in as good or if not better condition

for future generations.

Māori soil health values and principles

Core values/principles Types of data /evidence/indicators

Mana, mana whakahaere,

rangatiratanga

Data/evidence that Māori are making decisions over their whenua,

over their ngā oneone; This could be over tribal rohe (e.g. iwi /hapū

management plans) or could be on specific land blocks/whenua

where they have whakapapa and mana (e.g. kaitiaki, owners,

beneficiaries).

Decisions for enhanced soil health, using soil management

guidelines, plans, and implementation of best practice on Māori

land.

Mauri Data/indicators which demonstrate the soil and people are in a

healthy state and are connected, the system is in balance, indicators

which show the vitality and energy of the soil resource, or the

diminished state of the soil.

Mahinga kai Data/attributes/indicators of mahinga kai, and that the mahinga kai

is healthy and comes from healthy soils.

Oranga ora, whenua ora,

oneone ora

Data/indicators of a healthy soil is providing healthy food, and

healthy people. That practices for growing food from soil is following

tikanga and guidelines for food sovereignty, food safety and food

security. e.g., no harmful contaminants, pathogens, pesticides, free

of toxicity. A well-functioning soil free of contaminants and waste in

accordance with cultural values.

Whakapapa Data/indicators which show the ancestral links between people and

place, people and soils, and confers responsibility to those to

manage soils for enhanced soil health and human survival and

wellbeing

Wairua Data/evidence that the wairua is intact, the spiritual health of the

people is intact, and provides a connection between the spiritual and

the physical, in order to sustain the soil in a healthy state. Binds the

soil (like glue) to provide balance between mauri and mana.

Taonga Tuku Iho

Data/indicating a resilient healthy soil, that is able to provide

opportunities for future generations. The soil is ‘fit for purpose’ in

line with cultural values and Māori aspirations.

Maori soil health datasets/evidence/indicators

Core values/principles Soil health indicators

Mana, mana whakahaere,

rangatiratanga

No. Iwi management /kaitiaki plans that refer to soils, soil health

Land/soil management practices, to improve soils, implemented on

Māori land

Areal extent of healthy soils on Māori land

% areal extent of land-uses/contaminated areas that reduce soil

health on Māori land

Mauri Mauri whenua ora/mauri being enhanced

Soil ecosystems/soil biota that indicate well functioning soils (e.g.

earthworms, porosity, OM) per (land area)

High life supporting capacity, soil capacity/integrity high (land area)

% area/tribal area: Strong connection between soils and people (e.g. area

of soils used for gardening, cropping, mahinga kai, etc)

Mahinga kai Mahinga kai areas are assessed as healthy with mauri intact, good-

high

People/whānau are healthy (proportion)

Oranga ora, whenua ora,

oneone ora

Soil health is being maintained, within range, across all key indicators

% proportion of food that is healthy and free of

contaminants/pathogens/pesticides

Human health/wellbeing is good to excellent (proportion of people v

total)

Whakapapa Whakapapa is recorded/transfered and known between people and

whenua/soils, No. of wānanga/field studies on whenua/soils

The ancestral links between people and place, is known

Kaitiakitanga is practiced over natural resources, including soils

Wairua The spiritual dimension/domain is important to local people

Wairua is seen as part of maintaining/strengthening mana and mauri

Wairua provides balance in the system, a well-balanced functioning

soil ecosystem is achieved (e.g. kaitiakitanga and karakia practiced)

Taonga Tuku Iho

Soil health is maintained in areas for future generations

Wise land use options are undertaken to maintain/enhance soil.

Maori soil health indicators (examples)

Maori soil health concepts and definition–provisional (Soil health: oneone ora, tangata ora) “…the capacity of a soil as a living ecosystem to sustain and support all forms of life (to sustain microbes, plants, animals, humans and complex interconnections), through the maintenance of te mauri, to strengthen and enhance whakapapa, taonga tuku iho, mana, oranga, wairua, and whai rawa”

“capable of supporting, maintaining, and enhancing life and

wellbeing”.

Soil health understood holistically (beliefs, whole ecosystem and

interconnections –microbes to people)

Long term view of soil resilience (generational, “resilient soils, resilient

people”)

“…Te Mana o te Whenua, te mana o te oneone, te mauri o te oneone”

“The mana of the land, the mana of the soil, the mauri of the soil”.

Maori soil health concepts and definition–provisional (Soil health: oneone ora, tangata ora) • Mauri (internal essence, life force, assessment, local knowledge) e.g.

a healthy functioning soil fit for purpose and sustaining life, health,

and prosperity, capacity of a soil to function as a living system to

sustain mauri

• Mana (authority to manage and make decisions) also can imply the

mana of a soil (as a living entity) – food sovereignty e.g. ability to

make decisions over ones land, soil management guidelines and best

practice

• Mahinga kai and Maara kai (the ability of the soil to provide

sustenance, food sovereignty, and prosperity) e.g. area of soils that

sustain gardening/organics

• Oranga, ora (measure of food safety and food health from soil) e.g. a

soil free from pesticides and contaminants, meets food safety

standards

Kaupapa Māori soil

assessments/indicators

Farm, community–technical & non-

technical assessments

Science based –

including professional scientific, technical

assessments, and science based

(statistical) sampling strategies

Kaupapa Māori based

Mātauranga Māori knowledge based

Based on Māori concepts and values

Examples:

Hua parakore (Maori organics)

Kaitiaki assessments (pastoral, cropping,

gardening, etc)

Farm KPIs

Customary environmental indicators e.g.

mahinga kai

Cultural impact assessments

Iwi/hapū/marae monitoring of

contaminated sites

Require in-depth Māori knowledge and

understanding of particular environments

and issues. Understanding of Māori values,

goals, and aspirations.

Kaupapa Māori approaches can include

science and technical assessments.

Examples:

Māori concepts, principles, and values

Kaupapa or mātauranga Māori based

assessments and indicators

Traditional stories, narratives,

gardening, maara kai, mahinga kai

Soil management guidelines, best

practice

Land management, whenua,

kaitiakitanga

Can include culturally based assessments for

soil health and soil quality

Examples:

Can be subjective

Visual soil assessment (VSA)

Farm assessment

Farm indicators

Community based indicators (e.g.

collectives)

Can be subjective and practically based. Cost

effective, relatively simple and short duration

assessments linked to land management, soil

management, farm operations, cropping,

orchards, market gardens, hill country, etc.

Farmer, grower, orchardist, industry

Community values

Technical and non-technical assessments

School assessment programmes (soils

and gardens)

VSA pastoral, soil management, hill country,

Indicators:

Soil structure and consistence

Soil porosity

Soil colour

Earthworm counts

Compaction–tillage pan, clod

development

Soil erosion

Organic matter

Plant indicators

Scientific soil quality and soil health indicators:

e.g., objective, measure ‘soil quality’ or ‘soil

health target range’

Example indicators measured

Organic reserves

Total carbon

Total nitrogen

Mineralisable nitrogen

Fertility

Olsen phosphorus

Acidity

pH

Physical status

Bulk density

Macroporosity

Trace elements

Contaminated soils

Use science based sampling strategy

Laboratory analysis

Require higher levels of technical input and

skill, robust sampling strategies, analysis and

interpretation, can be expensive and time-

consuming.

Table 1: Complementary soil assessment/monitoring approaches

Soil management guidelines

chemical

SOE reporting

Erosion Soil

quality Soil

biology Maori values

e.g., Limit contaminants, enhance soil health, soil management, increase productivity.

Planning Interventions and best

practice

Aspirational

goals and outcomes

e.g. long term

sustainable soil health and resilience

Goals and objectives

Monitoring and Indicators

Response e.g.

mitigation, planning

Impacts e.g. health

impacts , economics State e.g. physico-chemical

Pressure e.g. landuse, intensive agriculture, urban

Values and principles e.g., we care for our land and soils, guardianship, stewardship, Maori values and principles

An integrated soil health framework

Traditional and historic knowledge and concepts very

important for defining soil health – strong values/principles component

Whakapapa, mana, wairua, mauri and other values

integral

An understanding of Māori/human wellbeing and health

concepts and models has been fundamental

Traditional knowledge around soils, uses, practices and

food production

Strong links to food production and kai, sustains

ecosystems, life, health and wellbeing (mauri whenua ora)

Healthy food based on healthy soils is essential

Main findings to date

High level of interest in assessment approaches

and indicators – using mātauranga Māori, kaupapa Māori, technical, and science

Māori want to develop soil management

guidelines and practices to fulfil kaitiakitanga

responsibilities and aspirations

Māori see soil management in the long term, a

resilient and healthy soil builds resilient people

and communities

Main findings to date (cont)