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Police Field oPerations

Third Edition

Theory MeeTs PracTice

Michael L. BirzerWichita State University

Cliff RobersonCalifornia State University, Fresno (Retired)

and Professor Emeritus, Washburn University

A01_BIRZ6299_03_SE_FM.indd 1 19/09/18 1:25 PM

ISBN 13: 978-0-13-518629-9ISBN 10: 0-13-518629-3

1 18

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Birzer, Michael L., | Roberson, Cliff, author.Title: Police field operations: theory meets practice / Michael L. Birzer, Wichita State University, Cliff Roberson, California State University, Fresno (Retired), Professor Emeritus, Washburn University.Description: Third Edition. | New York: Pearson, [2018] | Revised edition of the authors’ Police field operations, [2015] | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2018031150 | ISBN 9780135186299Subjects: LCSH: Police patrol—United States. | Community policing—United States.Classification: LCC HV8080.P2 B57 2018 | DDC 363.2/30973—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018031150


To the two greatest joys in my life, my loving wife, Gwynne, and my son, Michael, Jr.

—Michael L. Birzer

To Elena Azaola—Cliff Roberson


Brief Contents v ▼

Br ie f Contents

PREFACE xx i

Chapter 1 The Police Career 1

Chapter 2 Police Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 24

Chapter 3 Police Field Procedures 59

Chapter 4 Police Operations in a Community Policing Environment 102

Chapter 5 The Crime Scene and Preliminary Investigation 136

Chapter 6 Interviewing and Interrogation 175

Chapter 7 Handling Calls for Service 210

Chapter 8 Police Traffic Functions 243

Chapter 9 Ethics and Police Misconduct 263

Chapter 10 Police Reports and Communication 286

Chapter 11 Gangs and Drugs 314

Chapter 12 Police Operations in Culturally Diverse Communities 348

Chapter 13 Crime Mapping and Analysis 381

Chapter 14 Handling Terrorism and Natural Disasters 402

Chapter 15 Legal Constraints on Police Operations 433

GLOSSARY 467

INDEX 474


vii ▼

Contents

PREFACE xx i

Chapter 1 The Police Career 1

Introduction 2From Warriors to Guardians 3

President’s Task Force Report 4

Police Recruitment 5Targeted Recruitment 7Recruiting Females 7

Police Selection 8Qualities Desired in Police Officers 8Written Exam 11Physical Ability Testing 11Polygraph Testing 12Oral Interview 12Psychological Assessment 12Background Investigation 12Brady/Giglio Issues 13Medical and Drug Screening 13

Academy Training 14Field Training 15

In-Service Training 15Rising in Rank 15

Police Detective 16Police Corporal 16Police Sergeant 16Police Lieutenant 17Police Captain 17Beyond Captain 18Deputy Police Chief 18Police Chief 18

Occupational Stress 18Shift Work and Stress 19Causes of Officer Stress and Fatigue 20Stress Prevention and Reduction 21

Summary 21Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 22Chapter References 22


Contents viii ▼

Chapter 2 Police Patrol: The Backbone of Policing 24

Introduction 25

A Sketch of the Police 25Development of Police Patrol 28

The English Influence 28The Political Era 31The Reform Era 31Community Policing Era 33

The Purpose of Police Patrol 36Crime Control 36Crime Prevention 37Landlord Training 38Neighborhood Watch 38National Night Out 39Neighborhood Nuisance Program 39Problem Solving 39Traffic Responsibilities 40Radar Speed Detection 40Laser Speed Detection 40Photo Radar 40Average Speed Calculator and Recorder 41Aircraft Speed Surveillance 41Roadside Electronic Signs 41Police Patrol: Summing It All Up 41

Differential Response 42Effectiveness of Police Patrol 42Reactive, Proactive, and Coactive Policing 44

Reactive Policing 44Proactive Policing 44Coactive Policing 44

Organizational Features 46Police Department as Bureaucracy 46Paramilitary and Chain of Command 47The Policing Enterprise 48Multiple Jurisdictional Operations 49Decentralized Operations 50Police Organizational Environment 50Organizational Clarification 50

Types of Police Patrol 50Foot Patrol 50Motorized Patrol 51Single-Officer Units versus Two-Officer Units 51Bicycle Patrol 52Motorcycle Patrol 52Aircraft Patrol 52Water/Marine Patrol 53Mounted Horse Patrol 53


Contents ix ▼

Allocation of Patrol Personnel 53Special Tactical Teams 54Managing and Supervising Patrol Activities 55

Upper-Level Management 55Middle-Level Management 55Line-Level Supervision 55


Chapter 3 Police Field Procedures 59

Introduction 60

Preparing for the Tour of Duty 61Personal Preparation 61Other Preparation 63

Patrolling the Beat 64Knowledge of Persons 64Answering Crime Calls 67Community Policing Activities 70Administrative Tasks 70

Handling Offenders 71Handcuffing and Search 72Transporting Offenders 73Juvenile Offenders 74

Civil Unrest 75Planning 76Controlling the Crowd 76Riots 77Dispersion Techniques 78

High-Speed Pursuits 78Liability Issues 80Pursuit Procedure 81Helicopter Support 83Tire Deflation Devices 83

Weather and Natural Disasters 85Mass Shootings 87The Police Canine 92Emergency Vehicle Operation 94

Driving Code Three 95

The Use of Force 96Tasers 98



Contents x ▼

Chapter 4 Police Operations in a Community Policing Environment 102

Introduction 103

The Emergence of Community Policing 104The Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment 105Newark Foot Patrol Study 106Implementation 107Traditional Policing versus Community Policing 108

Core Components of Community Policing 109Community Partnerships 110Problem Solving 111Organizational Change 114

What Community Policing is Not 116Incorporating Community Policing on the Job 118

Community Policing and the Role of the Police Officer 118Domestic Violence 118Burglaries 120Drug Activity 122Graffiti 125Robbery 128

Community Policing, Violent Extremism, and Terrorism 130Procedural Justice and Community Policing 131

Does Community Policing Work? 132Summary 133Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 134Chapter References 134

Chapter 5 The Crime Scene and Preliminary Investigation 136

Introduction 137

The Role of Patrol in the Preliminary Investigation 139The Initial Patrol Response 139Self-Protection 141Care for the Injured 142Securing the Crime Scene 143News Media 145The Neighborhood 146Turn Over Control of the Scene 146

Initial Steps in the Investigation 146The Initial Assessment 146Search Warrant 147The Walk-Through 147

Photographing the Scene 149Overall Photographs 150Mid-Range Photographs 150Close-Up Photographs 151

Crime Scene Search 151Strip Method 151Grid Method 152


Contents xi ▼

Zone Method 153Spiral Method 153Wheel Method 154

The Nature of Evidence 154Types of Evidence 155

Class and Individual Characteristics 157Associative Evidence 157Tracing Evidence 157Testimonial Evidence 157Fingerprint Evidence 158Bloodstains 159Saliva, Seminal Stains, and Sexual Assault Evidence 160Hair Evidence 160Glass 161Paint 161Firearm Evidence 162Bullets and Ammunition 163Cartridge Cases 163Tool Marks 164Controlled Substances 164Narcotics Field Testing 165Packaging of Money 166Handling Contaminated Money 167Questioned Documents 168Other Evidence Tips 168

Cybercrime 169Cyberstalking 170Assessing Cybercrime Evidence 171


Chapter 6 Interviewing and Interrogation 175

Introduction 176

Principles of Interviewing 177Art of Interviewing 177Types of Interviews 177Approaches to Interviewing 178Sympathetic or Logical Approach 179Timing and Setting of the Interview 180Structure of the Interview 180Obtaining Written Statements 181Levels of Interactions 182

Field Interviews/Investigative Stops 182Principles of Interrogation 183

Art of Interrogating 183


Contents xii ▼

Use of the Polygraph and CVSA 184Human Lie Detector 185

Body Language 185Emotional States 186Interpersonal Interactions 186Verbal Content 186How Something is Said 187

Law of Interviewing and Interrogation 187Sixth Amendment’s Right to Counsel During Interrogation 187Fifth Amendment Restrictions on Questioning 189Interrogation or Its Functional Equivalent 191In Custody 192After the Individual Invokes Miranda 193Language Problems 194Fruit of the Poisonous Tree 195Exceptions to Miranda 196May Congress Overturn the Miranda Requirements? 198

Voluntariness of a Confession 200Judicial Decisions on Voluntariness of Statements 201Burden of Proof 202Length of Interrogation 202Psychological Coercion 202Promises 205Trickery and Deceit 205

Nontestimonial Evidence 207Immunity 207The Art of Listening 208Summary 208Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 209Chapter References 209

Chapter 7 Handling Calls for Service 210

Introduction 211

The Police Service Role 211Disputes 213

Officer Safety 213Effective Communication 214Tactical Communication 214Listen and Ask Questions 215Look for the Hidden Problem 216Resolving the Dispute 216Domestic Violence 216

Suspicious Character Calls 219Prowlers 220Missing and Runaway Children 223

Responding to Missing Persons 223AMBER Alert 224


Contents xiii ▼

Missing Adults 226Recovery of Missing Persons 227

Human Trafficking 228Welfare Checks 229

Checking the Welfare of Children 230

The Mentally Ill 231The Homeless Population 232Abandoned Vehicles 234

Abandoned Vehicles on Public Roadways 235Abandoned Vehicles on Private Property 235

Stalled Vehicles 235Lost Property 236Stolen Property 236Repeat Calls 237Citizen Contacts 238Summary 239Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 241Chapter References 241

Chapter 8 Police Traffic Functions 243

Introduction 244History of Police Traffic Control 244Typical Mission of a Traffic Division 244Jurisdiction 244Tracking Law Enforcement Officers’ Deaths Involving Trafficking Functions 245

Traffic Unit Functions 245Directing Traffic 246

Traffic Control Techniques 249

Traffic Stops 249Preparing for the Traffic Stop 249Location of Stop 250The Stop and Making Contact 250Passengers 252Officer Safety in Traffic Stops 252

Roadblocks and Checkpoints 253Types of Checkpoints 253

Court Decisions 253United States v. Martinez-Fuerte, 428 U.S. 543 (1976) 253Almeida-Sanchez v. United States, 412 U.S. 266 (1973) 253United States v. Ortiz, 387 U.S. 523 (1967). 254Michigan v. Sitz, 496 U.S. 444 (1990) 254Ingersoll v. Palmer, 743 P.2d. 1299 (1987). 254Illinois v. Lidster, 540 U.S. 419 (2004) 254Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47 (1979) 255United States v. Brignoni-Ponce, 422 U.S. 873 (1975) 255United States v. Huguenin and Martin, 154 F.3d 547 (2000) 255Galberth v. United States, 590 A.2d 990 (1991) 255


Contents xiv ▼

Bobby Joe Mullinax v. State of Arkansas, 571 S.W.2d (1997) 256Collision 256

Traffic Violations 258Traffic Accidents 259

DWI/DUI 260Aggravated DWI/DUI Offenses 261


Chapter 9 Ethics and Police Misconduct 263

Introduction 264

What Is Ethics? 264What Constitutes Ethical Behavior? 266Ethics as a Restriction on Behavior 266Kantian Ethics 267Moral Development 268Values 269Law Enforcement Values 270

Departmental Values 270Management Tools 270Organizational Culture 271Personal Gratuities 271Individual Guidance 272Leadership Roles 273

Lying and Deception 273Are Some Lies Justified? 274Lying and the Courts 275

Off-Duty Employment 276Internal Affairs Unit 276Summary 283Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 284Chapter References 285

Chapter 10 Police Reports and Communication 286

Introduction 287

Report Writing 288Communication by Email 288

Police Language 294Radio Communications 295

Radio waves 295Radio spectrum 295Spectrum Allocations/Regulations 295Channels 296Outlook 296Interdepartmental Operations Channel 296Voice over Internet Protocol 296


Contents xv ▼

Radio Procedures 297Silent Scanners 298Radio Call Signs and Codes 299Movement to Plain Language 300Crime Broadcasts 302Interception of Telephonic Communications 302

Telephone Communications 3039-1-1 Communications 304

Special Communications Issues 307Non-English-Speaking Individuals 307Survival Spanish 308Communicating with Deaf or Hard-of-Hearing Citi-zens 309

Computer Systems 310Official Emails 311In-Car Systems 311

Data Communications 311Summary 312Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 313Chapter References 313

Chapter 11 Gangs and Drugs 314

Introduction 315

Gangs 315Anti-Gang Tactics 317Anti-Gang Legislation 317Gang Prosecution 318

Hispanic Gangs 319Prominent Hispanic Gangs 319Identifying and Distinguishing Hispanic Gangs 320Gang Coordination and Alliances 321

Female Gangs 321Indian Country Gangs 322Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs 323National Gangs 323

Crips 323Bloods 324Skinheads 324Asian Gangs 325Somali Gangs 325Dominican Gangs 325Jamaican Gangs 326Hybrid Gangs 326

Gang-Related Issues 326Gangs and the Military 326Gangs, Technology, and Communication 327Gangs and Weapons 327

Drug Enforcement 327Narcotics 328


Contents xvi ▼

Focus on Drugs and Alcohol: Some Definitions 328Central Nervous System Stimulants 328Central Nervous System Depressants 330Hallucinogens 330Narcotic Analgesics 330Phencyclidine 331Cannabis 332

Drug Legislation 332Uniform Controlled Substances Act 332Schedules 334

Alcohol-Related Offenses 336The Alcohol Problem 336Public Drunkenness 337Driving Under the Influence 337

Solutions to Drug and Alcohol Abuse 339Legalization 339Attacking the Drug Problem 339Prevention of Alcohol Abuse 341

Drug Testing of Police Officers 342Gangs and Drugs 344

What is the Relation Between Drugs and Gangs? 344Summary 344Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 345Chapter References 346

Chapter 12 Police Operations in Culturally Diverse Communities 348

Introduction 349

Changing Demographics 349Skeletons in the Closet 350

Watts Riot 351Zoot Suit Riots 352The Detroit Riots 352Tulia, Texas 353Other Incidents 353A Necessary Examination 354

Contemporary Problems 355Racial Profiling 356Responding to Racial Profiling 357Pretextual Stops 360Police Crackdowns 360

Police–Minority Relations Today 361Dangerous Traits and Behaviors 363

Stereotyping 363Self-Fulfilling Prophecy 364Prejudice 364Racism 365Authoritarian Personality 365Scapegoating 365Labeling Theory 365


Contents xvii ▼

Implicit Bias 366

Improving Police–Minority Relations 366Community Policing 366Citizen Police Academies 368Relationship Building 368Develop Community Contacts 369Cultural Diversity Training 369Recruitment of Minority Police Officers 370Courtesy and Professionalism 371

The Culturally Competent Police Officer 371Cross-Cultural Communication 372Eye Contact 372Social Space 373Touching 373

Hate and Bias Crimes 373Responding to Hate Crime 374Type of Hate/Bias Offenders 376

Summary 377Chapter Discussion Questions and Activities 379Chapter References 379

Chapter 13 Crime Mapping and Analysis 381

Introduction 382

Crime Analysts 382Crime Mapping 384

Using Crime Maps 385Using GIS 386Why Map Crime? 387Hot Spots 388Recovery Locations 389Proximity 389Tracking Serial Offenders 389Mapping Prisoner Reentry 389Crime Mapping Software 390School COP 391CASE (Crime Analysis Spatial Extension) 391CompStat 391Analysis and Planning Level 392

Should Crime Information Be Made Public? 396Does Hot Spot Patrolling Simply Cause Crime to Move Around the Corner? 398Hot Spot Theories on Crime 398

Place Theories 398Street Theories 399Neighborhood Theories 399Other Large Area Theories 399Repeat Victimization Theories 399Types of Hot Spots 399


Contents xviii ▼


Chapter 14 Handling Terrorism and Natural Disasters 402

Introduction 403

Terrorism and the Police Officer 405War on Terrorism 405Terrorism Alerts 406Assessing Terrorist Threats 407

Calculating Criticality 408Calculating Vulnerability 409Risk Assessment Calculation 411New York City’s Fight Against Terrorism 414

Anti-Terrorist and Disaster Recovery Agencies 415Department of Homeland Security 415Fema 419Fbi 424State Homeland Security Agencies 426Civil Defense Battalions 427

Bomb Threats 429Hostages 430Summary 431Classroom Discussion Questions and Activities 431Chapter References 432

Chapter 15 Legal Constraints on Police Operations 433

Introduction 434

Searches 434What Constitutes a Search? 435Houses 437Standing 438

Warrant Clause of the Fourth Amendment 443Probable Cause 443Duties of the Magistrate in Issuing a Warrant 444Execution of a Search Warrant 444Eavesdropping 446

Exceptions to the Fourth Amendment 447Searches Without a Warrant 447Plain View Doctrine 448Open Fields 448Searches of Parolees and Persons on Probation 449Searches Incident to Lawful Arrest 449Consent 450Student Drug Testing 450Stop and Frisk 452


Contents xix ▼

Arrests 453Exclusionary Rule 456

“Fruit of the Poisonous Tree” Doctrine 458

Civil Liability 459Qualified Immunity for Officers Executing Search Warrants 461

Use of Force 463Use of Deadly Force 463Negligent Hiring of an Officer 465


GLOSSARY 467

INDEX 474


xxi ▼

Pre face

The third edition of Police Field Operations: Theory Meets Practice is designed as a compre-hensive, yet readable text on police field operations. The material in the text describes police field operations and is designed to be used in a one semester course on police operations or patrol procedures. The text may also be appropriate for use in introduction to law enforcement courses. While the chapters are designed to be independent units, they also build upon each other to provide a complete picture of police operations, including patrol.

The authors have worked on this text for many months and in the process of developing this text are reminded of the comments of Sir Winston Churchill: “If you have an important point to make, don’t try to be subtle or clever. Use a pile driver. Hit the point once. Then come back and hit it again. Then hit it a third time—a tremendous whack.” In developing a manuscript, the preface is the last item developed. In that regard, Churchill stated: “Writing a book is an adventure. To begin with, it is a toy and an amusement; then it becomes a mistress, and then it becomes a master, and then a tyrant. The last phase is that just as you are about to be reconciled to your servitude, you kill the monster, and fling him out to the public.” Accordingly, we hereby present this third edition of the text to you.

To bridge the gap between theory and practice, present and former police officers were interviewed regarding their experiences on the police force. Excerpts of their interviews are included in the text under “Voices of Experience.”

In the past, readers have been of invaluable assistance to help us improve on future editions of the text. Accordingly, your input regarding any problems or suggestions for improvement is welcomed. Please send comments to the authors via Michael Birzer’s email at [email protected], or Cliff Roberson’s email at [email protected].

▶▶ AcknowledgmentsWhile the text lists the two of us as authors, this text would not have been possible except for the contributions of many others, including our editor Gary Bauer and his assistant Lynda Cramer. We are grateful to the reviewers: Timothy Davis, Madisonville Community College; Christopher Frayre, Mid-Michigan Community College; Jason Waller, Tyler Junior College; and Suzanne Youngbloood, Harrisburg Area Community College. We would also like to thank the previous edition’s reviewers: Richard Dewey, Indiana River Community College; Margaret G. Austin, Central Piedmont Community College; Scott Rudeen, Brown College and Kaplan University; Michael Pittaro, Lehigh Valley College; Jack D. Howell, Excelsior College; Denny C. Powers, Columbia Campus South University; and Thomas J. Mason, Remington College, who pointed out our errors and provided us with directions on how to improve the text. A special thanks to our production supervisor Jessy Sykes.

Finally, a word of thanks to our “Voices of Experience” contributors who have provided us with valuable information regarding the “real life” in the police force: John Boal, Robert Boyer, Michael R. Bresett, Gregg Etter, Sr., John Hill, Richard Hough, Tom-Mahoney, Jack Maxwell, Mark McCoy, John Padgett, Scott W. Phillips, and Jeff Tymony.


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Cross-Out

Preface xxii ▼

▶▶ New to the Third Edition• Updated material on each chapter

• Discussion on the general principles of organization for law enforcement agencies.

• New chapter on becoming a police officer and police careers

• New chapter on traffic functions of policing

• New discussion on the President’s Task Force Report on 21st century policing

• New discussion on evolving issues in police operations

• Expanded coverage of police officer stress

• New coverage on police response to mass shootings

▶▶ Police Officer Code of ConductThe IACP adopted the Law Enforcement Code of Ethics at the 64th Annual IACP Confer-ence and Exposition in October 1957. The Code of Ethics stands as a preface to the mission and commitment law enforcement agencies make to the public they serve.

▶▶ Law Enforcement Code of EthicsAs a law enforcement officer, my fundamental duty is to serve the community; to safeguard lives and property; to protect the innocent against deception, the weak against oppression or intimidation and the peaceful against violence or disorder; and to respect the constitu-tional rights of all to liberty, equality, and justice.

I will keep my private life unsullied as an example to all and will behave in a manner that does not bring discredit to me or to my agency. I will maintain courageous calm in the face of danger, scorn, or ridicule; develop self-restraint; and be constantly mindful of the welfare of others. Honest in thought and deed both in my personal and official life, I will be exemplary in obeying the law and the regulations of my department. Whatever I see or hear of a confidential nature or that is confided to me in my official capacity will be kept ever secret unless revelation is necessary in the performance of my duty.

I will never act officiously or permit personal feelings, prejudices, political beliefs, aspirations, animosities or friendships to influence my decisions. With no compromise for crime and with relentless prosecution of criminals, I will enforce the law courteously and appropriately without fear or favor, malice or ill will, never employing unnecessary force or violence and never accepting gratuities.

I recognize the badge of my office as a symbol of public faith, and I accept it as a public trust to be held so long as I am true to the ethics of police service. I will never engage in acts of corruption or bribery, nor will I condone such acts by other police officers. I will cooper-ate with all legally authorized agencies and their representatives in the pursuit of justice.

I know that I alone am responsible for my own standard of professional performance and will take every reasonable opportunity to enhance and improve my level of knowledge and competence.

I will constantly strive to achieve these objectives and ideals, dedicating myself before God to my chosen profession—law enforcement.


Preface xxiii ▼

▶▶ Instructor SupplementsInstructor’s Manual with Test Bank. Includes content outlines for classroom discussion, teaching suggestions, and answers to selected end-of-chapter questions from the text. Thisalso contains a Word document version of the test bank.

TestGen. This computerized test generation system gives you maximum flexibility in cre-ating and administering tests on paper, electronically, or online. It provides state-of-the-art features for viewing and editing test bank questions, dragging a selected question into a test you are creating, and printing sleek, formatted tests in a variety of layouts. Select test items from test banks included with TestGen for quick test creation, or write your own questions from scratch. TestGen’s random generator provides the option to display different text or calculated number values each time questions are used.

PowerPoint Presentations. Our presentations are clear and straightforward. Photos, illus-trations, charts, and tables from the book are included in the presentations when applicable.

To access supplementary materials online, instructors need to request an instructor access code. Go to www.pearsonhighered.com/irc, where you can register for an instructor ac-cess code. Within 48 hours after registering, you will receive a confirming e-mail, includ-ing an instructor access code. Once you have received your code, go to the site and log on for full instructions on downloading the materials you wish to use.

▶▶ Alternate VersionseBooks. This text is also available in multiple eBook formats. These are an exciting new choice for students looking to save money. As an alternative to purchasing the printed textbook students can purchase an electronic version of the same content. With an eText-book, students can search the text, make notes online, print out reading assignments that incorporate lecture notes, and bookmark important passages for later review. For more information, visit your favorite online eBook reseller or visit www.mypearsonstore.com.
