time magazine: person of the year the individual who has had the biggest effect on the year's...

Time magazine: Person of the year

The individual who has had the biggest effect on the year's news

Person of the Year

Guess who the Time “Person of the Year” is this year?

This reflects the tendency for people to be increasingly self-focused: YouTube slogan: "Broadcast

yourself" Social networking sites: e.g.

MySpace iPods your own little world of

music Cell phones no need to share

anymore Blogs strangers reading other

people’s diaries

Egos inflating: Rising narcissism and its implications for

self-construal, cognitive style, and behavior

Sara Konrath

PhD Candidate, Social Psychology

University of Michigan

Acknowledgments

Thanks to: Dr. Defeldre and members of the Affect, Decision

Making & Social Regulation Lab dissertation committee members Brad Bushman,

Norbert Schwarz, David Winter, and Katherine Burson collaborators Keith Campbell, Jean Twenge, and

Joshua Foster

Also thanks to research assistants who helped me run these studies

Summary of dissertation research

Narcissism is rising in college students over timeNarcissists are particularly likely to aggress

when a ‘different’ other criticizes themUnfortunately, their natural tendency is to focus

on differences between themselves and othersCreating similarities reduces narcissistic

aggression

Outline

Introduction1. Rising narcissism2. Self-construal and cognitive style3. Reducing narcissistic aggressionConclusions and future directions

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Narcissistic Personality Disorder (DSM-IV) Begins in early adulthood 5 of the following 9 criteria present in a variety of contexts :

a lack of empathy a grandiose sense of self-importance fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, or beauty belief that one is special and unique the need for excessive admiration interpersonal exploitation envy of others and a belief that others envy them arrogant, haughty behaviors or attitudes a sense of entitlement

Prevalence: lifetime prevalence, 0.5-1% (higher in clinical settings) more common in men than women (75% diagnosed are male)

Sub-clinical NarcissismNarcissistic Personality Inventory (NPI)

40 items forced choice; most widely used scale 7 subscales: authority, self-sufficiency, superiority,

exhibitionism, exploitation, vanity, entitlementPortrait of a narcissist (personality trait)

Self: self-enhancing, low in depression & anxiety, creative, extraverted, high self-esteem, love competition, sensation-seeking, materialistic

Others: take more in resource dilemma games, lack of empathy, romantic game-players, others dislike them in prolonged interactions, aggressive when criticized

Sum: few intrapersonal negatives associated with narcissism many interpersonal negatives

Outline


Is narcissism rising over time?

(Twenge, Konrath, Foster, Campbell, & Bushman, under revision)

We used the method of cross-temporal meta-analysis to examine narcissism scores in American college students over time

facebookexamples

350 ‘friends’300 photos of self

2000 ‘friends’130 photos of self

Previous cross-temporal meta-analyses have found a rise in individualistic traits on Bem Sex Roles Inventory

independent, individualistic, leadership ability

Increasing scores on Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale from 1960s 1990s

self-esteem correlated with narcissism

MMPI: “I am an important person”1950s: 12% agreement; late 1980s: 80% agreement

Recent cross-sectional study found younger people more narcissistic than older people

developmental changes or generational differences?

(Twenge, 1997; Twenge & Campbell, 2001; Newsom et al, 2003; Foster et al, 2003)

Past Research:

Methods

Literature search Web of knowledge, unpublished data (SPSP listserve)

Inclusion rules Undergrads at conventional 4-year colleges Attending college in United States Mixed sex (not more than 80% of one or the other) Unselected students

e.g. not chosen for scoring high/low on another measure, not clinical patients, etc.

40-item forced-choice version of NPImost reliable and most widely usedneed comparable meanshigh scores indicate higher narcissism

Final sample & Data analysis

85 samples of American college students N=16,475 (6,616 Male, 9,859 Female)

Correlation between NPI and year of data collection weighted by sample size also weighted by the inverse of the variance (w),

which takes into account sample standard deviationthis was not always available, so we more often relied on

the sample size only

Results: Narcissism increasing

Weighted by sample size: = .53, p < .001, k=85

Weighted by inverse variance: = .50, p < .001, k=76

average celebrity score, 2006

NPI scores increased .33 standard deviationsfrom 1982-2006

Results: Narcissism increasing

Discussion

American college students score increasingly higher in narcissism since the 1980s

Possible causes (speculation) Parenting?

permissive parenting linked with narcissism scores

Schools?self-esteem movementgrade inflation

Media?reality tvsocial networking sites: MySpace, Facebookadvertising? e.g. “have it your way”

(Stout, 2000; Sykes, 1995; Horton et al, 2006; Watson et al, 1992)

Potential Implications

generation of people who may have difficulty sustaining relationships & thinking of others

materialism, poor resource sharinge.g. “being well off financially” important goal in life: 45% American

college freshman 1967 74% 2004

poor impulse control, risky behaviore.g. gambling increased by 50% 1970s-late 1990se.g. trying drugs: 41% high school seniors 1992 51% 2004e.g. regular drug use: 14% 1992 23% 2004

aggression? violent crime rate down in US; what about everyday aggression?no information on entitlement only

(Glenn & Marquardt, 2001; Astin et al, 2004; Shaffer et al, 1999; Bachman et al, 2005)

Limitations & Conclusions

limited to American college studentsis narcissism also increasing in other countries? in older adults? children? in less educated and/or less affluent groups?

could not present subscale analysise.g. entitlement predicts aggression

conclusionnarcissism is rising in American college studentshowever, it is possible that this trend could change (e.g.

another Great Depression)

Outline


1. Self-construal

Two ways of thinking about the self:

personal self•beliefs of separateness & uniqueness from others•personal abilities & traits•accomplishments

IndependentSelf-Construal

prevalent in individualistic cultures

(Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Singelis, 1994)

InterdependentSelf-Construal

relational self•feelings of connection & unity •social harmony•consideration for others•follow group norms

prevalent incollectivistic cultures

Narcissism & Self-Construal No studies directly examine the relationship between

narcissism & self-construal, but there is indirect evidence: people from individualistic cultures are more narcissistic than those from

collectivistic cultures (Foster et al., 2003)

narcissists and individualists both self-enhance (Paulhus & John, 1998; Campbell, et al., 2002; Ladd et al., 1997; Stucke, 2003; Sedikides et al., 2003)

especially on agentic traits both make self-serving attributions (Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Rhodewald & Morf, 1995; McAllister et al., 2002;

Anderson, 1999)

failure = situation success = me

both use more 1st person pronouns (Raskin & Shaw, 1988; Kashima & Kashima, 1998)

both score higher in extraversion (Raskin & Hall, 1981; Emmons, 1984; McCrae et al., 1997; Shiota et al., 1996)

men score higher in narcissism and individualism (Caroll, 1987; Farwell & Wohlwend-Lloyd, 1998; Cross & Madson, 1997)

We have found that narcissism is positively associated with independent self-construal and negatively associated with interdependent self-construal

(Konrath, Bushman, & Grove, in preparation)

2. Cognitive Style: Field dependence / independence

Two types of cognitive styles:

1) Field independent (analytic): objects in one’s environment are experienced as separate & distinct from their surroundings; thus they can easily be disembedded from their context

2) Field dependent (holistic): one’s environment is experienced as a unity of objects; an emphasis on the holistic intermingling of parts

Can be measured with the Embedded Figures Test (EFT)

(Witkin et al., 1971)

Self-Construal, Narcissism & Cognitive Style

Self-construal & cognitive style: People with independent self-construals (manipulated or chronic)

perform better on tests of field independence requires a cognitive style that can disembed information from its context

Narcissism & cognitive style: We expect narcissists to have an analytic cognitive style because:

there are similarities between the self & identity processes of narcissists & individualists AND individualism is associated with a more analytic cognitive style (Nisbett et al., 2001)

As predicted, we find that narcissists have an analytic cognitive style, that is, they score higher than non-narcissists on the Embedded Figures Test and score lower on a personality test of holism

(Ji, Peng, & Nisbett, 2000; Kuhnen, Hannover, & Schubert, 2001; Kuhnen, Hannover, Roder, Schubert, Shah, & Zakaria, 2001; Oyserman, Sorensen, Cha, & Schwarz, 2006)

Limitations & Conclusions

Limitations:As with any correlational study, the direction of causation is problematic: e.g. Narcissism Independent Self-Construal?

Independent Self-Construal Narcissism? 3rd variable leads to both? e.g. self-aggrandizing parenting

Future research would help us further understand the associations between narcissism, self-construal, and cognitive style

Conclusions:1) Narcissism is related to more independence and less interdependence of self-construal 2) Narcissists’ feelings of being unique and separate from others also extend to their cognitive style they view the objects in their environment as distinct and easily

separable from their context

Outline


Self-esteem and aggression

Lay theory that low self-esteem causes many societal problems, including aggression

People act aggressively toward others because they secretly hate themselves

But… think about the most aggressive person you know…

People with low self-esteem:

Easily swayed and influenced by othersUncertain of selfTend to give up easilyShy, modest, hesitant, passiveAvoid riskDon’t call attention to selfProtect self rather than enhance self

Does this sound like the most aggressive person you know?

Benito Mussolini & Adolf Hitler Saddam

Hussein

Aggressive people

Hitler’s desirefor adoration

Saddam Hussein proudly looking over examples of "Allowable Art" in Iraq.

Narcissists can be aggressive

It is now well established that narcissists become aggressive when criticized or rejected by others (e.g. Baumeister et al, 1996)

Reject appraisal Accept appraisal

Favorableview of self･ unstable･ inflated･ uncertain

Negative evaluationby other(s)

Discrepancy between internal andexternalappraisals

Threatenedegotism

Choice point

Lowerself-appraisal

Negative emotions toward self

Withdrawal

Maintainself-appraisal

Negative emotions toward source of threat

Aggression orviolence

Gendeal Aggression Model, Baumeister et al. (1996)

e.g. student – “I deserve an A+” e.g. teacher – “You deserve a B”

Narcissistic aggression after ego threat:

After being rejected by his girlfriend, Luke Woodham killed her, her friend, his mother, and wounded 7 others. Three psychologists diagnosed him as a narcissist.

Twenge & Campbell (2003)

Narcissistic Personality Inventory Item (Raskin & Terry, 1988)

Quotation from Columbine Killer

I insist upon getting the respect that is due me.

“Isn’t it fun to get the respect that we’re going to deserve?” — Eric Harris

I wish someone would someday write my biography.

“Directors will be fighting over this story.”

— Dylan Klebold

“Tarentino ... Spielberg.” — Eric Harris

I can make anyone believe anything I want them to.

“I could convince them that I’m going to climb Mount Everest, or I have a twin brother growing out of my back. I can make you believe anything.” — Eric Harris

Reducing Narcissistic Aggression

Minimize positivity of self? e.g. try to make narcissists believe that they are

less intelligent will be seen as ego threat aggression

Minimize ego threats? not realistic


Increase the perceived similarity between the narcissist and the ego-threatener? It mitigates the lack of interpersonal

connection that makes aggression possibleCreates a ‘unit-relation’; sense of belonging

together based on certain attributes (Heider, 1958)

It also capitalizes on narcissists' weakness (i.e. self-love)If a person is similar to themselves, narcissists

may be more willing to accept negative information and less likely to aggress

Overview of typical narcissism-aggression study: Complete personality measures on web Told that they will be working with a “partner” Complete essay about controversial topic in

lab “Partner” gives them negative feedback Given chance to aggress

Konrath, Bushman, & Campbell (2006)


Overview of the current studies: Complete personality measures on web Told that they will be working with a “partner” Similarity to self manipulation (vs. control

group) Complete essay about controversial topic in

lab “Partner” gives them negative feedback Given chance to aggress

Konrath, Bushman, & Campbell (2006) Psychological Science.


Part A: Personality Measures Online

1) Narcissism Personality Inventory (Raskin & Terry, 1988)

Most important predictor of aggression is entitlement subscale (forced-choice):

I insist upon getting the respect that is due me I usually get the respect I deserve I have a strong will to power

Power for its own sake doesn’t interest me If I ruled the world it would be a much better place

The thought of ruling the world frightens the hell out of me

2) Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)

Self-esteem does not independently predict aggression; we include as control

10-item scale: I feel that I have a number of good qualities I am able to do things as well as most people I take a positive attitude toward myself

Study 1: Methods

Told study was about first impressions Complete a number of tasks to form impression

of same-sex partner in other room

Given demographic information card about other subject: Same birthday as them or Different birthday from them

Study 1: Similarity to self manipulation

Share same birthday Sharing a birthday makes people less competitive

and more cooperative in prisoners’ dilemma games (Miller, Downs, & Prentice, 1998).

People are also more likely to comply with a request if they share a birthday (Burger et al., 2004)

People even like Rasputin (the notorious Russian monk) more if they are told they share his birthday (Finch & Cialdini, 1989).

Study 1: Methods

Write an essay about abortionEvaluate “partner’s” essay and “partner”

evaluates participant’s essayReceive critical feedback from partner

Item Ego Threat

Organization -10

Originality -9

Writing style -9

Clarity of expression -8

Persuasive arguments -9

Overall rating -9

Comment: One of the worst essays

I’ve read!

Dependent measure: Aggression

Computerized reaction time game in which participants can blast their partner with white noise in increments from 0-105 decibels participants test out sound meter first

DV = Average of 25 trialsRegression analysis

Will present split into high and low narcissism

Manipulation check People in same birthday condition perceive more

similarity between themselves and their partner

Aggression toward partner

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Ag

gre

ssio

n

Same Different

Birthday

High narcissism

Low narcissism

Konrath, Bushman & Campbell (2006) Study 1

(sta

nd

ard

ized

)


-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Ag

gre

ssio

n

Same Different

Birthday

High narcissism

Low narcissism


*(s

tan

dar

diz

ed)

Study 2: Methods

Methods very similar to Study 1, except new similarity manipulation. Before writing essay, subjects fingerprinted & randomly assigned to: Rare fingerprint type

“You both have Type E fingerprints. That’s very rare! Only about 2% of the population has Type E fingerprints.”

Common fingerprint type“You both have Type E fingerprints. Of course, that’s not

too surprising. About 80% of the population has Type E fingerprints.”

Control no feedback on fingerprints

Study 2: Similarity to self manipulation

Share same fingerprints Knowledge of a shared fingerprint type

makes individuals more compliant to the requests of others (Burger, Messian, Patel, del

Prado, & Anderson, 2004).

Study 2: Manipulation checkUnit-relation

average of perceived partner similarity to self, liking of partner, feeling connected (=.78)

3.20

3.30

3.40

3.50

3.60

3.70

3.80

3.90

4.00

4.10

Rare Commom Control

a

a

b

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Ag

gre

ssio

n

Rare Common Control

Fingerprint Type

High narcissism

Low narcissism



(sta

nd

ard

ized

)

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Ag

gre

ssio

n

Rare Common Control

Fingerprint Type

High narcissism

Low narcissism



(sta

nd

ard

ized

)

*

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Ag

gre

ssio

n

Rare Common Control

Fingerprint Type

High narcissism

Low narcissism



*(s

tan

dar

diz

ed)

Conclusion

Aggression can be reduced in narcissists by making them think they share a key characteristic with potential targets of aggression creates a ‘unit-relation’ that bridges

disconnected social style of narcissists

Outline


Conclusions

Narcissism is rising in college students over timeNarcissists are particularly likely to aggress

when a ‘different’ other criticizes themUnfortunately, their natural tendency is to focus

on differences between themselves and others Independent self-construal unique, separate from

others Cognitive style disconnected

Creating similarities reduces narcissistic aggression

Future directions: Decision making?

Program 3.1: context manipulations of self-other similarity to reduce or magnify empathy gap

Program 3.2: impact of situational and personality differences on empathetic accuracy

Situational/context manipulations birthday, fingerprint, same name, same town… I versus we think of similarities versus differences between self and other

Personality traits, individual differences narcissism autism spectrum / aspergers theory of mind relationship of self and other, e.g. probably more accurate if more actual

psychological overlap

Questions or Comments?

changing college populations?1985 2003-2004

Enrollment 58% of highschool students 64% of highschool students

Gender 53% female 57% female

Race African-American: 6%

Asian-American: 3%

Hispanic: 3%

African-American: 9%

Asian-American: 7%

Hispanic: 7%

SES virtually unchanged when adjusting for inflation

Social cognition & the self e.g. narcissism

Main Research Themes

Political psychology at individual level e.g. political priming e.g. red & blue election maps

Political psychology at societal level e.g. ‘face-ism’ in politicians e.g. anti-authoritarianism in music after threat

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