Title Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting Systemof a Foothill Community in Papua New Guinea

Author(s) 口蔵, 幸雄

Citation [岐阜大学教養部研究報告] no.[31] p.[45]-[76]

Issue Date 1995-02

Rights

Version Department of Anthropology, Faculty of General Education, GifuUniversity

URL http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12099/3996

※この資料の著作権は、各資料の著者・学協会・出版社等に帰属します。

ProductiVity and Adaptability of Diversified

Food-getting Syste垣 of a FoothiII ComlnUnity

¥ in Papua NQw Guinea 十

YUkiO KUCH IKURA

Bulletin of the Faculty of General Education, Gifu Univ. , V ol. 31 ( 1995) 45

K ey words: subsistence activity; nutrition; productivity; foothill commilnity; Papua N ew

Guinea. 犬

I NTRODUCTI ON

lt is widely recognized amgng ecoIogically-oriented anthropologists that the

diversity in a subsistence system is highly significant for adaptation of sma11-scaled

societies in the tropics. T he diversity insures security or stability in food supply with

minimizing people’simpact on their ecosystem ( Rappaport, 1971: 130; Dornstreich, 1977:

26り-261; Hayden, 1981: ・417; Jochim, 1981: 91) . Diversificationorbroadeningalternatives

of subsistence channels is also regarded jas an adaptive strategy that is commonly

Department of A nthropology

Faculty of General Education‥

Gifu University

1-1しY anagido,・Gifu, でlapan 501=11

(Ruceived October 11, 1994)

ABSTRACT

T his article presents quantitative data on subsistence activities and nutritional intake

of a foothill community of Samo/Kubor in the χVestern Province, Papua New Guinea. T he

peoplepracticea widerangeof food-getting activitiesin thediverseenvironment: horticulture

with banana as their primary crop, cultivation of tree crops, eχploitation of wild and and

transplanted sago palms, pig husbandry, hunting and trapping, fishing, and gathering of wild

plants and smaH animals. The subsistence activities are described quantitatively in terms

of uffort, return, and efficiency. N ext, the adaptability of the people’s diversifiud subsistence

system isむχaminedby using amathematical model derived from linearprogramming theory.

According tothemode1, thediversifiedsubsistencesystemcanprovidenutritionallythemost

“balaりced” diet at a lower labor cost 鰍 comparison with other typical subsistence sy斗ems

in Papua Ney Guinea, such as 卵go-dependent foraging economy in the swaynpy lowlands

and intensified horticulture in the central highlands. H owever, the subsistence system is

associated with a low population density and mobile settlement pattem .

YUkiO K UCHIK URA46

BACKGROUND

The Samo and Kubor are two distinct dialed groups inhabiting to the east of the

Strickland River in the Nomad Region of lVestern Province. Lexicostatistics indicates

that a dialect chain including the two groups eχtending aIong the river belongs to one

language(Shaw, 1974: 224) . Thetwogroupshavemaintainedcloserelationshipsthrough

adopted by the peoplewho facewith changing and problematic environments (M cCay,

1978: 403-410) . Simplification of subsistence system, on the other hand, tends to lead

to maladaptation of people’s overa11 11fe supporting system due to re(Juction of its

efficiency and stability ( N ietschmann, 1973: 231-234; /W eiss, 1980: 174-175) 。

ln Papua New Guinea, the diversified subsistence system is found among most

of the foothill and so-called “highland fringe” populations who practice a wide range

of food-getting activities in the diverse environments ( Dornstreich, 1977; M orren 1977,

1986; H yndman, 1982, 1986; ’M orren and Hyndman, 1987; Dwyer and M innegal, 1992) .

This subsistence system is in a Striking contrast to that of the Central H ighlanders

who rely entirely on intensified horticulture for theirJ ivelihood ( Brown, 1978) 。

N utritional surveys have revealed a marked tendency of inadequateness of protein

intake in the simplified subsistence system ‘of the CentraI H ighlands ・( H ipsley and

K irk, 1965; Sinnett, 1977; Buchbinder, 1977; Harris, 1982) . T he nutritional problem in

the region is derived mainly from two factors: lower protein content of staple foods

and the eχtreme scarcity of animal food resources in their environment. 0 n the other

hand, most of the foothill and highland fringe groups maintain an adequate level of

protein intake by eχploiting a wide range of wild plant and animal resources

(Dornstreich, 1977; Hyndman, 1982) . Thus, there is a marked correlation between

subsistence diversity and protein intake ( Kuchikura, 1994a) 。

This paper first provides quantitative data on a diversified food-getting system

of a community of Samo-and Kubor-speaking people living in the interior foothill of

the XVestern Provin(;e, Papua New Guinea. ln common with other foothill communitigs,

the Samo and Kubor eχploit diverse food resources through various food-getting

activities: horticulture with banana as their primary crop, cultivation of tree crops,

exploitation of bothwild and transplanted sagopalms, and procurement of awiderange

of wild plant and animal foods. A 11 primary foodLgetting activities were monitored

quantitatively in terms of land use, and efforts and returns. The quantitative data on

food consumption and sharing of foods in the community were also collected。

Next, the people’s food-getting or production decisions are eχamined by using a

mathematical model derived from linear programming theory, and adaptability of the

diVersified subsistence system is discussed. The field survey was carried out from July

to Septem ber in 1988, sponsored by a Grand-in-A id for Overseas Scientific Surveys from

the Japanese M inistry of Education, Science and Culture.

47Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

Figure 1. M ap of study area.

intermarriage. T he Samo numbers about 650, and the K ubor has a population of about

500 excepting a small number of persons who are sparsely distributed in the northern

territory. T he groups are dispersed in the vast area with a population density of 1.4

persons/km2 (Ohtsuka, 1987: 209). They have lived a sedentary life at thevinages

established at the quest of the colonial government from the later half of the 1960’s

on. 0 f such eleven villages, five are occupied by theSamo and twoby theKubor. Four

villages located on the border of their territories consist of a mixed population of the

two dialect groups ( F igJ ) . 卜

The government started to administer the people in 1963 when the goVemment

station was established at N omad River. Prior to government contact, they lived in

isolated longhousecommunities, each of whichwasinprinciplecomposed of adultmales

belonging tothesamepatri-clan, theirw ivesandtheir unmarriedchildren. Thelonghouse

community functioned as an politically and economically autonomous unit, moving

within its own land to which the members claimed the exclusive right for gardむning

and exploitation various resources. A woman married in a different longhouse

community preserved the right to her natal patri-d an’s land. Several longhouse

communities or patri-danshadbeen allied with each other through exchangeof women,

and jointly held the initiation ceremonies. The allied longhousecommunities constitute

the core members of a present village.

The gently roning land, between 100 and 200 meters in altitude, is densely covered

with thelowlandtropical rain forest, anddrainedby numerical streamsandsmall rivers.

Annual rainfall exceeds 5000 mm. IVhile there is no marked seasonality, the rainfall

is alleviated to some eχtent during June to August.

48 YUkiO K UCH IK URA

DATA COLLECTI ON

Quantitativedata on food-getting activities and foodconsumptionWerecolleded

through four∇types of survey: ( 1) measuring the gardens established, ( 2) dired

observations on food-getting activities, ( 3) keeping records onl ime spent in daily

hdivities, and (4) weighing foodsconsumed. ……

The garden survey consisted of measurement of the size of plot, estimation of the

time when each plot had been cleared and planted, and planting density of each crop

and/or variety of crop. l participated in a number of eχcursions of gardening,

sago-making, fishing and hunting in order to dired ly observe and record what took

place at the spots while keeping time of activities that composed the day’s activity・

l also counted sago-palms in the sw4mps to evaluate the abundance of the ITesource。

The time-recording and food consumption surveys were simultaneously conducted

in two different periods of time: seven successive days ( 24-30 July in 1988) and eight

successive days ( 10-17 August in 1988) . T head ivitiesmonitored for the time-recording

survey weredired ly or indired ly related tothepeople’s subsistence, and weregrouped

into two categories: “food-getting” and “non-food-getting” categories. T he former

included horticulture, sago-making, hunting, fishing, and gathering of wild plants and

small animals. For womeny time allocation, timespent in fishing was iUdistinguishable

from that of gathering because in most cases they engaged in both ajctivities in the

course of the day’s trip. The non-food-getting category consisted of ¥the following

activities: houseconstruction, making tools, collecting materials for hou台econstruction,

collecting firewood, communal work for roadrepairs√and fetching water. 0 ther domestic

コT he Giwobi village ‘at which l stayed for field investigation was formed by l he

aggregation of four longhouse communities of the Samo and Kubor. T heJ onghouse

cOmmunities arenow disorganized into nuclear families that form individual households

or basic unitsof production and consumption anddwell their ownhotlses. At thetime

of survey, the village had a population of 65, which wヽere divided into 18 bouseholds

(Table 1) , of whichtwowereektendedfamilies (HouseholdNo. ・5 and 12) , andtwo

containedmembersother thannuclear families( H ouseholdN 0. 13 and 18) . T hreewidows

and one bachelor were keeping an independent one-person household, respectively

(Household N0. 07, 09, 10, and 11) . 犬 l ・, . ’: .

Cash economy口is already prevailed among the people, and they can earn a sma11

amount of m oney by w ageJ abor provided by the governm ent, or hy the sale of

hortidultural crops or meat of wild pigs at the market held once every week at the

Nomad station. T he peoples purchasing ability is still very low. A lthough christian

missions have been already established in several Villages, the Giwobi villagers do not

accept it y(叱 Some children of the village were living at N omad separately from their

parents to attend the prim ary school at the tim e of survey.

9りI3

6

3

り乙

り乙

I

I

I

I

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

り乙

り乙

1

14 1

1

1

*

*11

Age Categoryl)No. of

members-

6

6

Household

No.

Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System 49

T able l . H ouseholods of the. study village

AdUlt Adolescent

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

F

M

F

M

F

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

M

F

SexlnfantChild

1

I

I

0

9

1

」n

c

I

Q

y

M

H

y

H

~

2

3

3

5

1

1

14 5

1*

I

I

り乙I

2

* χVidow or widower.

1 ) χVhenthereistloremark, theadult maleandfemaleof ahouseholdconsist amarried

couple, and the perso叩 of other age categories are their offsptings.

2 ) The family moved into the village from other village just before l entered there.

3 ) The adult male (houSehold head) and one of the male chirdren werと staying at

N omad for wage labor and schooling. ,

4 ) The widower and the 4dolescent female are offsprings of the widow.

5 ) One of themale children was out for attending school at Nomad.

6 ) The bachelor was keeping an independent household. 犬

7 ) One of theadult females is a widow, and she is themother of the adult male and

children. Another adult female is a wife of the adult male.

8 ) The adlesしent male is a son of the elder brother of the deceaded husband of the

widow who is a mother of the adolescent= female and children. し し

9 ) A11 members of the household were stayind at Nomad during the study period.

10) One of the adult males is a widow, and he and another adult male belong to the

same patri-clan. This househole Was staying at a garden house far fi・om the yillage.

T herefore,J could not record their ad ivities and food consumt)tion. 犬

1

1*

1

096)

10

11

127)

138)

1I

I

l

ra

1

’」a 3

1*

1

1*

5

1

1・―

I

I

*

1

1

Q乙

1

1

1

1

I

I

Y UkiO K UCH IK URA50

tasks, such as cooking and child-care, were not recordedレ

For the activities occurred outside the village, L timed every departure from and

retum to the village for all adult and adolesqent G iw obi-dw elling villagers. T herefore,

the time recorded for these activities included the time spent in traveling to and from

the working place, resting and other activities that might occur in the course of the

day’s trip. 卜

The food consumption survey consisted of several procedures of weighing of foods

consumed. First, l weighed all foods brought into the village, including the crops

harvested in the gardens, wild foods procured in the forest, and foods carried in by

the visitors. The foods took out from the Village were checked and weighed. Second,

all foods were weighed just before cooking or eating in each household. Foods stored

in each household were weighed twice: in the early morning of the first day and in

theearly following morning of thelastday of thesurveyperiod. T oestimatethgquantity

of foods consumed on thespotwhere they wereharvested or obtained, l showed several

different-sized samples of the same kind of food to people. Foods shared among the

households were checked and weighed before and after cooked.

The nutrients values of the foods consumed were based on different sources. For

most of food items, the values obtained from the food samples collected by the project

members in two regions of /the VVestern Provinc(j were used (Ohtsuka d J . , 1984;

Hongo and Ohtsuka, 1993) . For the remaining sman number of food items, used were

thevaluesderived from thefollowing food composition tables: H ipsley and K irk ( 1965) ,

FAO/USDHEW (1972) , Powell ( 1976) , and Norgan d d . ( 1979) .

Banana( jVIMSαSpp,) isthemost importantcropinthepeople’sdietyWhileasingle

plantbloom andbear fruit for onceinitslife, itproducesfrom four toeightsideshoots

(suckers)from therootstock. Thesuckerscommenじetoemergethreeor four months

after transplanting and may bear fruits when they ilttain to maturity. ln commercial

banana plantationsthegroupof plantsfrom thesa㎡erootstock mightbring consecutive

harvests for several yearsif thesoil fertility ismaintainedthroughsomei rtificial means

and the number of suckers is controlled. H owever, the Giwobi pQople could harvest

fruits three times at the most from the same rootstock because of rather poor care

of them. Y ield declines to a great 6xtent with the order of crops. The fruits of thg

second harvest were significantly smaller than those of the first crop, and the fruits

became dwarfed and the number of fruits p6r bunch decreased in the third crop. T he

per-hectare yield of the second and third crops was estimated to drop at 41.0 % and

10.5% of that of thefirst crop, respectively. ∇ ..

Of over 60 named varietiesof bananas, 43 wereplanted during the pelTiod of study.

SUBSI STENCE ACTI VI TY

Horticulture

They show great variation in size, shape, weight and number of fruits per bunch, and

duriltion required for maturity ( T able 2) . T he difference of time required for maturity

amongthev面ietieshasagreaOnfluenceontheharvestingpatterilofbananas.AlthoUgh

the suckers are transplanted all at once in a new garden, they mature and become

harvestableatdifferenttimes. Thisdifferenceofmaturingtimeresultsinpr010ngation

of the duration of harvest. According to thevinagers, harvest commences inl he siχth

month after planting and spans about 20 months ( Fig. 2) 。

Siχ kinds of tubers were cultivated: taro ( Colocαsiα esc㎡m tα) , yam ( Dioscoyeα

spp.) , elephantfootyam(Am叫)ho地oh scam加面 ld ts) , sweetpotato(I卸琲oeαbatαt瓜 ),

chinesetaro( taro陥n油OUg : Xα戒hosomαsag組伽 1飢祖 ) , andcassava( jvrα111hotescMletltα) .

T aro was liext to banana in importance among the crops in cultivation. There were

25 names of varieties, 0f which 21 were planted at the time of survey. The varieties

differ, 0ne from other, in the c010ring of pet101e, leaf and corm flesh. The 1qaf with

attached upper part of the corm is used for planting as well as the side suckers. The

corms becomeharvestable after four or five months of planting and may be left a

further three or four months to reach a larger size. へ 上

Y am wasasimportantasa crop astar0. Thirteennamedvarietiesof yamsbelonged

to three or four species oI D ioscoyeα. T op pieces of tuber w ith a sprout or small w hole

tubers are used for planting. The time required for maturity varies considerably with

the species and the soiI condition, ranging from four to tweIve months. ln contrast

with the H ighlands, sweet potato played a minor r01e in the people’s diet. The vines

51Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

Edi bl e

kg

Figure 2, Estimated yield profile of banana in one hectare of the “slash-and-mulch”

garden.

SIS 11亀 哨 OダIV12 13/14 ¥1¥ 16 1η18: 19/20 21y12

ゼonths af t er μ ant i ng

10

8- 10

8- 10

8二10

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01

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

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11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

=21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

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T able. .2. V,arieties of banana

卜 ∧ , 犬 上 Percent

、Variety ; distribution・ ゛ ’ p l a n t e d 1 )

Time (months)

require(! formaturity’

52 Y UkiO K UCH IK URA

No.‥of

bunches

harvざstedg)

8

7

1

1

4

1

1

j

lr

j

17

37

28

05

34

一

37

13

1

1

23

09

25

M

21

‥‥一

ぐ

ぐ

TAverage weight j

per. bunch3) .

(kg卜

戸り

戸ny

戸0

- 2018

ra

7

4

一

一

・

1

1

3

-

( 1.7)

2.3

-

5

8

2

5

3

1

●

一

幽

一

●

1

0

0

0

1

0

0

18- 20

18- 20

1 ) Percunt◇tO’the μ)tal hUnlbet of ≒4200 p!antSレidentiflud/ ‥万’ l‥‥‥‥j‥‥‥‥● ’ ・r ’ い・ . 』 I ° . ‘ ’ ・ 4 1 ’ r ・ ・ . ¶ 丿 I 丿 ● . ・ ● ` p

2 ) Fo卜the bunch6 halこvested during 38-day period of survey.■ 「 ゝ ・● I . T ` - - ・ 、 . .

3 」 Edible weight for the first・ダdr6pンThe f汝ures in 血1・enthese are for the second or

、thiITd (;rgps・ . 犬 . い. 、 ∧ 、 ご .

0

0

0

CNI

CN

I

CQ

一

一

一

8

8

8

1

1

1CQ

Q

3

L

一

5

6

3

一

1

6

一

5

4

12

12

二12

12

12

14- 15

14- 15

14- 15

14- 15

14- 15

14- 15

1ルー 15

14一 15

14- 15

14- 15

14- 15

18- 210

Q

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l

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一

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4

9

10

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1

1

1

1

9

8

6

6

5

1

2

1

6

6

1

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I

一

I

I

0

0’0

0

0

CSl

CSI

N

N

CSI

一

一

一

一

一

8

8

n入)8

8

1

1

1

1

1

0.3

0.3

1.4

0.3

0.1

j

j

一

23

31

20

16

19

20

79

14

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2

3

4

5

6

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9

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1

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3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

4

4

53Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

Table 3, Garden areas ( ares) held by households1).

areplanted intothetopsoil of moundsor intotheflatgroundごHarvest of sweet potato

commences in fourth or fifth。month after planting. The other three kinds of tubers,

elephant foot yam, chinese taro, and cassava, were minor supplements. 犬

う S e v e n k i n d s こo f g r e e n v e g e t a b l e w e r e c u l t i v a t e d , p r o v i d i n g v e g e t a b l e p r o t e i n a n d

vitamins jn no smaH quantities; : Small shrubs oI RMuポa ldossii and H減 sctts m朋 仇ot

O話法どzy arepropagatedfrom cuttingsyTheleavesareharvestedafter twotofour

months, lasting for more than one year. T he former is often cooked with sago, while

the latter’is wrapped, in leaves and cooked in the firei Two speciesこoI Brαssicα and

onespeciesof 4別どz几7がyz心 aregrown from seeds. IVinged, beans (Pso油oca呻鵬 sp.)

and peanuts recently introduced were found in a few gardens. 0 f¥13 named varieties

olj )it-1)lt (Sd雨α沁h 涵h ) , fiveor six werefound hereand there in thegardens.

Harvest beginsレafter four months of planting and may continue for up to two years.

Corn(Zeamaysj andsugarcane(Sαcck y14m o炳c緬a四琲 ) wereeatenmainlybychildren

as a snack一rather than as§a meal. However, the latter is an important supplement

of energy and requires about one year for maturity. フ づ 十

万 G a r d e n s a r e p r e p a r e d b y t w o d i f f e r e n t t e c h n i q u e s て T a b l e 3 ) プ T h e f i r s t t y p e o f

garden is m回 e by a kind of “slash-and’mtllch” technique that follows¥no burning in

any stage of ’preparation. The we11-grown secondaryj orest, after fallowed for 125-30

years or more, is chosen for thegarden. After clearing and removing underbITush,上the

suckers of banana are planted into the holes between the larger trees which are left

1

2

4

5

6

7

8

9

0

2

3

4

5

″U

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

1

1

1

1

1

88.9

103.0■ ■4

82.0

90.2

56.1

18.7

28.5

36.2

34.2

80.7

53.9

122.8

95.6

32.9

4.3

33.7

32.4

14.0

4.3

15.4

14.1

11.0

4.7

6.6

-

18.3

18.3-

-

84.6

69.3

49.6

76.2

,5L4

12.1

25.5

361L2

34.2

44.0

31.7

117.5

14.8

17.2

13.7

30.1

14.0

18.7

5.7

36.2

34.2

16.1

10.8

24.6

47.8

11.0

Area/person3)

HOUShOld

NO.

Slash-and-mulch garden2) Slash-and-bum garden2)

I I I -m Sub-totalII-

61.2

33.0-

51.0

28.8

12.1

25.5

36.2

34.2

T-

23.4

36.3

49.6

25.2

22.6-

-

-

T otalIII Sub-total

31.7 n/

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0

1

1

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.

・

n乙

ra

8

3

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11.7

一

一

44.0-

51.5

54.9

-

4。8 -

3.0 -

1 ) Household N0.3 and 11 0wned nogardens. Thehouseholds/numbered 17 and 18 were

except6d from the subjectS of the presentl studyレ ・ ・・ ・・ .・

2 ) I : under harvesting. II : preparation was finished, but harvest did not commence

yet. Ⅲ : in preparation.

3 ) Per-perst)n area of garden for each househ01d.

a 皿

66.0

32.3

-

- 8 7 . 2

29.9 ’ 29.9

3。0-

-

-

-

3。0 -- -

- -

7

戸0

0

●

●

●

9

Q

Q

-

14.8

12.0-

-

36.7

-

-

10.2

10.2

5.3

3.6

-

YUkiO K UCHIK URA54

untouched at this stage. For transplanting, the suckers are conected in the gardens

where the third harvest is going on or just finished and stored in the garden house・

A part of the sucker’s stem cut in a length of 15-20 cm is planted with a spacing of

L 5-2.5 m . T he suckers begin to spread the leaves one month or so after planting. Just

after that, thelarger treesarefelled andleftin thegarden. Themeandensity of matured

plants was 8.8 plants per are. A fter felling the trees, almost all kinds of crops listed

above uxcept taro are interplanted between the bananas. 犬

After 3-12 months of clearing, the garden is ordinarily enlarged by about twice

thesize, Theforest adjoining theoriginal clearing isnewly cleared. T hesameprocedure

of clearing and planting is repeated in the enlarged site. T hus, a “slash-and-mulch”

garden is prepared in two sessions so as to pr010ng the period of harvest. The mean

size of 27 plots including abandoned gardens was 40.7 ares, ranging from 112.5 t0 66.0.

0 ne or three smaII sections, ranging from 1.5 t0 3.0 aresしin size, within the clearing

are alIotted to taro cultivationレThe underbrush is carefully removed and the soil is

prepared in the sections. T he sections for taro are usually found around theJgarden

house located in thecenter of thegarden tominimizethepredation by wild pigsbecause

the “slash-and-muIch” gardenS are not ordinarily fenced. ‥ 卜

Each househ01d ordinarily prepares a new “slash-and-mulch” garden every two

years. Clearing the forest m ay occur at any time of the yeat. A series of tasks from

clearing to felling the trees requires 45-60 days tg bQcompleted. Planting suckers is

usually completedinadayWith thehelpof aII villagers, whileother tasksareinprinciple

done by the members of househ01d who own the garden。

The second type of garden is prepared by the “slash・and-burn” technique. This

type of garden is much smaller in size than the first type, and is dominated by taro・

The site composed of shrubs and smaller trees, after fa110wed for ten years or s0, is

considered to be suitable for the “slash-and-burn” garden. After slashing undergrowth

and cutting the trees, the felled litter is bumt a few month later and the remaining

debris is removed. Drying the litter and burning is completed in the relatively drier

months between June and August. T he gardens measured during the survey period

averaged 8.8 ares in size, ranging from 3.5 t0 18.3 ares. The garden is planted with

taro and banana a11 0ver the ground. M Qan planting density of taro w as 88.8 plants

per are. Bananasuckersweremoredensely planted than the“slash-and-mulch” garden.

The mean density was 11.2 plants per are. The garden is always fenced with IogsレAs

with the “slash-and-mulch” garden, various crops are interplanted between taro and

banana plants. After thecompletion of harvest of tar0, thegarden isn0 10nger reworked

for taro and left with the 10ng-term crops such as banana, sugar cane and HibiSCttS

spinach. Both types of garden are abandoned without being reworked after the

completion of harvest of banana. A garden is Iunder cultivation for about 25 months.

55Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

Sago・makin9 ∧ y

Sago(MdyOχylOR spp.) compareswithbananaasasourceof energy. Thevillagers

use both naturally-occurring and transplanted sago palms. Whenever finding places

suitablefor growth of thepalm innewly clearedsites, they transplantcuttingsor young

shoots of the palm. 0 n the basis of my obsetvation in the vicinity of the village, the

density of thepalm wasestimated at fiveor siχstands per hectare. The figure ismuch

lower than those of the Sepik River region where vast swampy areas overspread

(Townsend, 1982: 8) . Thetransplanted palmsareownedby thepersonswhoplanted

them, and are inherited to their sons or daughters. 0 n the other hand, any member

of the patri-clan that owns the land where natμΓally-occurring stands are found can

in principle claim thg right to eχpIoit them. ‥ つつ

Sago-making is usually carried out by a party consisting of two to siχ women.

The parties are organized temporarily and fleχibly, usually including the owner of the

palm or゛his wife if the owner is male ( げ Suda, 1990) . At the first day of work, the

party is ordinarily accompaniud by a man, in most cases the owner of the palm , who

takes charge of cutting down it. M eU rarely engage in other tasks (t)f sago-making,

Cultivation of Tree Crops

Aside from the horticulturaI crops, there are three important kinds of cultivated

fruit tree: breadfruit ( A斌 )c(川 )鵬 commR戒s) , pandanus ( 琲ayitα; Pαll面 筒鵬 co筧oi面鵬 )

andcoconut ( Cocos nRc伽 ya ) . I Vhiletheformer twoareseasonal foods, thelastproduces

fruits.throughout the year, The fruit trees are owned by the individuals who p叫nted

them and are inherited to their descendants. Breadfruit produces the large seedsi which

areroastedandeaten. Becauseitwasoutof seasonduring mystay, l couldnot assess

its importance in the people’s diet. The tree begi卵 to bear fruit after three or four

years。

A4αyi砥 pandanus has three varieties which are distinguished on the basis of the

size and coloring of fruit. T he ripe fruit is cooked in the ground oven, and then the

squeezed juice is mixed with water to make a source which is highly prized by the

people. Thepandanusis an important sourceof vegetable fat next to coconut. A lthough

the fruit was,early to appear during my stay, it would increase its importance in the

people’s diet in the height of season. T he tree takes three or four years before bearing

fruit. 犬

, Coconut is themost impQrtant source of vegetable fat. lt is always planted in the

village site, taking six to eight years to bear fruit. The people sometimes went to the

abandoned village sites to c011ect coconuts. The flesh is grated and eaten with卜sago.

Another、popular fruit tree is papaya, which is planted around the houses. lt produces

fruits after half a year of planting and lasts two or three years.

which are assigned to women. Pith is scraped from the sago trunk, and pounded into

pulp by using of a shafted stone tool. The pounded pith is placed in a trough made

of a petiole of i lgo2palm, which is set on the gr(jund w叫1 a gradient. A fter then, it

is watered, kneaded, and beaten repeatedly with a thin bamboo pole for washing out

the starch. A bag woven from cocohut leaves is・fiχed at thelower end of the trough

asa filter. Thefilteredwater containing thest21rch insolution iscollected in a container

m瓦de of a petiole of black palm√Which is placed under the 6nd of trough. A series

(j)f tasks is rdpeated three or four times a day. 。

レ The amount of ’flour obtained from a 1sin固e p友lm was almost identical between

three palms for which l could weigh the whole amount of flours processed, weighing

204.5, 209.3 arld 212.2 kg, respectively. According t6 the data on nine palms, one palm

required 15.3 person-days of work in average, ranging from g to 23 person-days. ・

56 YUkiO K UCHIK URA

Hunting is the most iniportant means of obtaining animal food. Three kiilds of

hunting strategy are distinguished: shotgun-hunting, bird-htinting from a blind set on

the tree, and “generalized”¥ hunting with bows and arrows. T he targets of

shotgun-htlnting are feral pigs and casSowary ( Cαs皿 yms cαs皿 ym絹 ) . The shotgun is

mUch moreeffed ive in shooting large-sized animals than bows and arrowsバVhile there

were twoshotguns in thevillage, it wasrather difficult to obtain bulletsbecausethe

circulation of bullets was under the stringent government regulation. N evertheless, one

or two bullets were sometimes brought into the villagと by the perSons who were in

a position to obtain itレA man patrolls possible sites where feral p垣s ilre in hiding

or appear for foraging. The sago grove where sago-making has been just finished

provides a promising hunting spot. Although threeレferal pigs were shot down with a

卜lunting

Animal Hus!〕andry

Domestic pigs( SS SCy雨 ) are kept in a rather extensive fashion. A Il m111e piglets

are castrated when very young, so impregnation of domestic sows dependssolely on

wild boars roaming in the forest. A fter the sows give birth in the forest, the owners

must search and bring them ahd the litter of piglets to the village. T he piglets, taken

from the sows, are cared for by women who k(jep them iリ the houses, carry them in

their string b21gs when they go outj and feed them with banana, sago and other crops.

IVhen they get・larger, they are let oUt to-forage in’the forestJThepigs ate in principle

killed and eaten only on cerenionial occasions. During my stay, thqrewas no pig kept

in the village eχcept a few piglets because all pigs were consumむd in the initiation

ceremony held in thepreceding year of my visit. The people recently started to keep

a small number of chickens by the p6rsuasion of the government stuff at NOmad in

order to sell them at the market/ 尚 ダ

57Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

shotgun for the two months of my stay, any large-sized animals was notlkilledlwith

bows and arrows. こ = 犬

十 F or b ir d -h un ting , a b lin d a w ith a p la tf orm is b u ilt o n th e b ou g h s of th e l a r g e tr ee

bearing the fruits at which birds gathered. IVhile sitting in the blind in the morning

or in the evening, a man waits a shooting chance. During my stay, two blinds were

set on the trees in the neighbor of the village. T he third category of hunting strategy

refers t(j a hunt in which a man stalks and shoots whatever he comes across while

patrolling in the forest. An arrow with a slender-pointed alTrowbQad made of the trunkf . . - ・

of a kind of wild palm or iron blade is.used for large-sized animals. A multi-pronged

arrowhead made of iron wires is used for birds. Small-sized terrestrial animals such

as rats, marsupials, snakes, and lizards are pぱsued and caught by hands or with a

machete when encounteredレA log-falling trap may be set in a s血go grove.

Gathering

XVild plant foods compose an important supplemental source of vegetable protein.

Canarium trees( CαmyiMm kαllieRsis) bear nuts which have three edible kemels inside

a hard nutshe11. A kurnel weighed 2.5g in average. A tree produces several hundrud

or more nuts in the dl・iur months from August to October. Several edible spedes (jf

ferns, fungi and f返 leaves are also important colhponents of the pとople’s diet. Ferns

(D巧oj)teγis, Also紬伽 , and/others) arefrequently foundonthebanksof larger rivers

and in the abandoned gardens. Ferns and fig leaves are often cooked with meat ih

Fi幼irlg 上

Four fishing methods=are employud: ( 1) rod-and-line fishing, ( 2) spearing byしdiVing,

(3) fish-poisohing, and(4) shootingyWithbowsandarrowsfr(jmこthebank. Rod-and-line

fishing is mainly done by women and childrun byJusing the nylon line and steel hooks

bought at the stores in the town. This fishing method is used in a wide ITange of water

system , from small creeks to large rivers. ダ 尚 卜

A spear composed of a spear head made of iron wire and∇a bambo6 shaft is shot

by thereaction of thustretch.ed ribbon of -an inner air-tubeattached at theend of shaft.

A nian wearihg a hydtoscope bought at the store searches for fish and prawns while

diving卜The method recentlyj ntroduced is the most popular atld efficient 瓦mong the

fishing methods employed by 血en. The poison is obtained from the roots oI Deyyis

shrub. The roots are pounded and dumpedj n a small creek in the drier seaSon when

the level of water becomes low卜Shooting with an arrow with an multi-pronged

arrowhead occurs on an ad-ho(j basuwhen fish are found at the surface of water. The

main aquatic resources consisted of fish species including cat fish weighing up■(j 1.5

kg and carp-like fish averaging 90-100 9 , two kinds of ptaWn weighing 150 g in ave砲 ge,

tortoises, and water monitor.

ground ovens。

Sago grubsand larvaeof other insectsprovidethevillagerswith subsidiary animal

food. T o collect sago grubs, sago logs are intently left with the pith being eχposed

wherethesagobeetleslay eggs. Thelarvaesmaking nestsonabanana leaf arecollected

while harvesting banana. Collecting was dQn6 mainly by females and sometimes by

males. ト ー

58 Y UkiO KUCH IK URA

Yield and Efficiency

Horticulture 卜

The amount of harvest during the 15-day survey period is presented in T able 5.

0 n the basis of mean planting densities of crops and mean yields per plant for each

crop, it is possible toestimatethetotal amount of harvest in a unit of garden throughout

thQwholeperiod from first harvest to abandonment. T heyield of banana in onehectare

oP ‘slash-and-muIch” gardenisestimated at 4250 kg of edibleweight or 50.58×105kcal

of energy for the whole period of harvest that commences in the seventh month and

Table 4 presents the efforts exerted to tbe food-getting and non-fQod-getting

activities categorized above in terms of frequency and perjperson per-day time spent

in them. Per-person per-day time spent in the food-getting activities totaled 271 min

for males, of which 50.6 % y asallocated tlo procuring wild foods, 48.0 % tohorticulture,

and only 1.5 % tosago-making. 0 f 127minusedjointly for thenon-food-getting activities

by males, 81.1 % was spent in house construction and collecting materiaIs. 0 f 336 min

dedicated by a femaleto thesubsistey1ceactivities, 58.3 % wasallocated tohorticulture,

31.8 % tosago-making, and theremaining 9.8% in fishing andgathering. 卜

Seχual differenceintimeusewasremarkable. Thetimespentjointly inhorticulture

and sago-making, i.e. obtainment of carbohydrate foods, was much longer in females

than in males. T -test indicates that the seχual difference was significant at the !evel

of 0,1% ( j= 5.968, ・ly= 279)卜Ontheotherhand, malesspentsignific4ntlymoretime

in procurement of wiJd foods, mainly (;omposed of animal foods, than females( X二4.577,

pく 0.005) . Although femalesworkedsignificantly longer in thefood-getting category

thgn males( /= 2.246, p< 0.05) , there was no significant difference in the total amount

of time dedicated to both food-getting and non-food-getting activities. T his time-use

pattem is related to thefact thatm alesspentmore time in thenon-food-getting category,

especially house construction, than females. H owever, it must be noted that females

spent significant time in such dom estic work as cooking and child-care, which w as

not monitored in this study.

EFFORT, RETURN , AND EFFI CI ENCY

Time AIlocation

Frequency

( % )

Frequency3)

( % )

ACtiVity

59.0

19.1

196

107-

33

336

FOOD-GETTING :

Horticulture

Sago-making

Hunting

Fishing/gathering

Sub-total- - - 一 二 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ・ ■ - ■ -

NON -FOOD-GETTING :

House construction

Road repairing5)

Conecting materials

CoIlecting firewoodQ)

M aking tools

Fetching water7)

Sub-total- - - ・ 二 一 二 - - - - 一 二 - - - 一 二 - - - - ■ - - ・ 〃 - - - - - - -

T otal

T ime spent

per day

(min)

Table 4. T ime a110cation to food-getting and non-food-getting activities

59Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

T ime spent

per day4)

(min)

Female2)M alel)

373

127- - 二 ●

398

5

8

0

4

5

3

一

・

・

・

・

・

・

3

5

4

6

7

Q―

is completed by the 25th or 26th month after planting. ln this estimation, the variation

of yield per plant by the. varieties of banana and the declines of yield with the order

of crops mehtioned above are tolok into consideration.上The potential yields of taro,

yam, and other subsidiary cropsこare calculated 瓦t 4.23, 3.22, and 2.06×105 kcal/ha,

respectively. Thetotal energy yield of “sklsh-and-mulch” garden isestimated at 60.08×

105 kcal/ha. 上 犬 ‥ 寸

The “slash-and-burn” gardens were much densely planted with crops than the

“slash・and-mulch” gardens. Compared with the latter, therefore, the former iseχpected

to be more productive in a unit of land. T aro planted in the whole area of garden

is the most important crop in energy yield with an estimated yield of 70.87×105 kcal/

ha. ln proportion to the planting density the potential yield of banana is higher than

1 ) Ten personsconsisting of 7 adults and 3 adolescents weremonitored. Sampled were

108 person-days in total.

2 ) Subjected were 16 persons consisting of 14 4dults and 2 adoleScents with the total

number of 173 person-days sampled.

3 ) Percentage of num!)er of occasions to the total number of person-days sampled.

4 ) Per-person per-day ti㎞e spent in each category of activity by dividingl total hours

spent in it by the total number of person-daysysampled。

5 ) Theroadsconnecting thevillageswererepared,atregular intervals. 0n. thedesignated

work day all adults persent at the village must in principle participate in the work.

6 ) Firewood was mainly collected in the gardens. Most of the 此tivities, were carried

out incidentally to garden work. L isted in the table were th9 0ccasions on which

二 t h e a c t i v i t y w a s i n d e p e n d e n t l y c a r r i e d o u t .

7 ) The water place for ldrinking water was a 10-minute walk from the village. Elder

children often二took charge of the work. 犬

113.3

9

1

3

1

.3

7

[

1

1

3

8.1

86j

0

4

(χ)QJ1

Cyl

Q

Q

S

1

n/

37.0

0.9

17.6

10.2

66.7

37.0

5.6

22.2

0.9

0.9

12.0

78.7・ ・ ・ 一 一 ・ -

145.4

4

6

9

1

3

4

7

1

n乙

” ・ ■ ・ - -

60 ’ ‥ ‥‥ ‥‥ ‥ Y ukio K U CH IK U RA ダ‘

Table 5. H orticultural yield during the 15-day sUrver period

- I 卜 . X V e i g h t l ) E n e i ・ g y

CI’op tkg) ( ×103kcal)Protein

(g)

5470

1658

31

1785

605

233

9

325

966

479.80

123.76

2.48

127.52

40.32

26.15

0.92

5.87

30.57

7.47

2.33

0.05

49.30

896.54

Banana

T aro

T ania

Yams (Dioscoyeα)

Lipid

(g)-

480

136

4

570.96

167.08

3.30

121.14

35.88

32.69

1.56

14.26

14.06

1.79

0.54

0.17

28.59

992.02

8

0

5

3

6

3

0

5

1

2

4

5

’

6

5

1

1

1

1

1 ) Edible weight.

that of “slash-and-mulch” garden, and is estimated at ,64.37X 105 kcal/ha. T he overa11

yield of 6nehしdareof入臨sh-and-burn” garden iscalculatedlj t 149.23χ105 kcミal/ha.

This f・igurej s 2.5 times higher than that of “slash-and-mulch” gardenj T aking the

proportion oflareas of both types of garden into c6nsideration・( the “slash一面 dLmulch”

gardens accoUnted for 84.0 % of the total area of gardens under culμvation, 即 d the

“s・ sh-and-bum ” gardenso(jcupied 16.0 % )μhecombinedland二productivity of both types1 1 , ■ - . ・ ,

of如td&liscalしuljteda( 74.46×105kcal/ha. Supp6singthata)si面1セgard叩卜under

cリltivationj or, 25mgnthsにtomprqparationtgcompletionof !laryest) , theannualコXx3

0f harvとst is estimated at 35.74×105 kcal/ha. j ヶ に △ ∇▽

Labor.efficiency, aretμm rateperunitof 14bortime, ikqノalcUlatedbyltwodifferent-J ・ .・ . ・ ゝ . ・ ; f . r ・ . ・ l

procedures. First type of ・calculation is based. 0n, the data onミinput。and output, i.e. ,

theamountof timeinvestedtohorticultぱ al work andthetotal amountof energyderived

from the h rvest during the 1 5-day survey pdriod. The timよ sperit in all typeS of

horticultural work by all th:eX ubjeqts totaled 879.6 hrs, 0f ’which 332Ll hrs or 37.8 %

werea110catedtoclearingft)restsjandpreparing:new gardens:( incIudingplantitlgbj nana

and tart) ) , and an0.ther 547.5 hr’s or 62ぶ % to planting subsidiary白cropE ( other than

banana and taro)7, weeding and h瓦rvesting. The total yield amouhted t6 896j沁 kg or

992.02χ103 kcal during thesameperiod. 0nehour of horticultural work produced±02

kg of crops, which was equivalent t0 1128 -kcaL , 犬 ‥‥‥ ‥‥ 丿

二The secgnd type of calculation is co㎡posed of two estitnati(jns: the total am6unt

of energy: produced in onQhectare of, garden within the whole period under cultivation

(from i㎡tial clearancetoabandonment) andthetotal amount of labor timerequired

during thesameperiodof・time. Theformerヽ Waspresentedabove. Thelatter isestimated

←

1181

耳lephant foot yamSweet potato

Cassava

Corn

H ibiscus spinaCh

Acanth spinach

Pit-pit

Bean

Sugar cane

T otal

8

nン

0

7

戸0

8

1

n78

1

1

411

Table 6. Estimation of the total hours required for horticultural work from clearance( o f f o r e s tノ t o 七 〇 m p l e t i o n o f j h a r v e s t 1 ) ” ・ y ・” ・ . y ”

Hours required for one

し hectare of garden2?

on thebasisondired observationsandmeasurementsduring thesurvey period(Table

6) . The time requirQd for establishment of onehectareof “slash-and-mulch” garden

is estimat.ed at 1邱 1.2 hrs, induding the time/requiITed for slashing underbrush, planting

suckersof banana aUd o曲er 即bsidiary crops, and felling larger trees. A fter establishing

the garden, 2819.6 hrs in total will be invested ,to maintaining、( weeding and cleaning)

and harvesting the gi rden until its abandonment. The total amount of hours ( 4500.8

hrs) for horticulturalwork isestimatedtoproduce60.08×103kcal. Thelaborefficiency

oL “slash-and-mulcht is calculated at 1335 kcal/hr. ‥ ノ

¥ Although asmentioned abovethe “slash-and-burn”,garden ismuchmoreproductive

than the “sla5h-and-mulch” garden, it requires a higher level of labor input including

elaborateprepgrationwithburning and painstaking caresof thegarden, suchasweeding

and cleaning. The preparation of one hed are of tslash-and-bum ” garden is estimated

to require 3619.1 hrs jn t.0tal, 0f :which 2L 5・猫 . is allocated to (; learing underbrush and

feXling trees, 7.3% toburninF andcleaning debris,j 5.8‰ toharvestingユandplanting

banana suckers and taro sticks, and the remaining 15.4 % to mak泊g fence. The total

amount of time=used for the various types of work after, preparation of the garden,

which continues to the completion of harvest, j s estimated at,6394.0 hrs. 0 ne hour of

horticultural ¥Work for “slash-and-burn” garden wiH produce 1461 kcal o卜 energy.

Comparing two typgs of garden, the energy return per unit of time invested is almost

Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System 61

,T ype. of work

-[ ]レ) slash-and-mtllch garden ト ト

qlea171ng ’underbush 。 , ∧

harvesting and planting suckers of banana

felling trees ’after planting suckers

preparation and planting of taro plots

plar! ting minor crops, weeding, and harvesting

total・ 一 一 一 一 一 一 ・ 一 ・ 一 一 一 一 - - - 一 一 一 一 一 - = 一- - ・ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 瞬 - -

683.6

634.3

297.2

66.1

2819.6

4500.8一 一 ・ 一 一 一 一 一

(2) slash-and-burn gardenclearing underbush and felling trees ダ

burning and cleaning debris -

making fence

harvesting and planting taro leaves

harvestinil and pla14ting suckers of ban面a・

planting minor crops, weeding, and harvesting

total

820.3

・ 2 7 9 . 8

589.2

1322.5

807.3

6394.0

10213.1

1 ) The estimation is bas(?d on the records on activities performed in several different

gardens.

2 ) Thehoursspentintraveling toandイrom theworking’placesよesting andotheactivities乙 i n t h e ( y o u r s e o f t h e d a y ’ s l a c t i v i t y 、 a r e i n d u d e d . 十 で ” ド ・ 、 %- - - -- ■ - . I

62 Y ukio K UCH IK U RA

identical between them despite the great difference of lalid productivity. The

“slash-and-burn” gardenisapparently of labor-intensivenature, requiring a largeamount

of l abor investment in a unit of land and yielding a large quantity of energy. T he

combined labor efficiency of the two types of gardens is calculated at 1375 kcal/hr,

taking’the proportion of areas of both types of garden into consideration. ‥ :

S∂go-mlakin9

During the 15-day survey period, 33 person-days or 308.8 hrs were invested in total

to sago w ork and 302.6 kg of sago flour w as produced. A w om an in average Worked

11.6 jhrs, including the time spent in going to and from the working sites and resting,

and processed 9.5 kg of sago flour, equivalent to 20995 kcal, in one working day. T he

return rate of sago work is calculated at 0.98 kg/hr or 2166 kcal/ hr。

According tojthe direct observation on a sago・making party consisting of∧three

women in one day, the party together spent 25.7 hrs in the day’s work, 0f which 2.3

hrs xvere spent in traveling and 5.3 hrs in resting, cookfhgj eating, and other ad ivities.

The remaining 18.1 hrs or 70.4 % of the total activity time of the day were spent in

processing work. The party processed 25.5 kg of sago flour in the day. 0 ne hour of

processing work produced 1.41 kg of sago flour, equivalent to 3114 kcal of energy.

Adding the time spent in traveling and various activities other than processing, the

return rate of the day’s sago work is calculated at 0.99 kg/hr or 2193 kcal/hr。

According to Townsend’s review work( 1982: 15) , the amount of sago flour in one

hour of processing work falls within the range from 1.9 to 3.7 kg among Papua New

Gunean populations. The return rate of processing in the study group is considerably

lower than this range. According to Suda( 1989: 9-11) who studied a Kubor community

located a!)out 6 km distant from my study village, their lower processing ( 1.30 kg/

hr) ismilinly duetotheir uniqueprocessing techniqueswhichcotltainbeating of the

poljnded pithwithbamboosticks. Among theKubor, thetimespent inbeating accounted

for about one-fourth of the total time spent in processing. The extra work, which is

not found among other groups, reasonably low ers the return rate of processing, although

it may increase the amount of sago flour produced per palm.

Prgcuring wild foods

During the 15-day survey period, 122.9 hrs of hunting yielded 53.47 kg of edible

meat, of which 51.25 kg was derived from tw o wild pigs shot w ith shotguns. Shotgun-

hunting, which accounted for 76.1% of thetotal hunting time, showed thehighest return

rate among the hunting strategies, averaging 551 g of edible meat or 504 kcal per hour.

0 ne hour of bird-hunting produced 57 g of edible meat or 67 kcal in average. The

“generalized” hunting with bows and arrows, accounting for 19.6 % of the total hunting

time, averaged an hourly return of 108 g of ediblemeat or 111 kcal. The three hunting

63Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

FOOD CON SU M PTI ON 犬

Table 7 showsthepercent contributionsof foodsconsumed during the 15-day survey

periods. Banana was the most important source of energy, accounting for 35.4 % of

the total unergy intake, followed by sago that occupied 29.8 % . About three-fourth of

energyconsumedwasderivedfrom bananaandsago. Tarowasthethird in importance

as sourceof energy, comprising 10.7% of the en6rgy intake, and other five kinds of

tuberstogether accountedfor another 10,2 % . Plantfoodscomprised 96.6 % of theenergy

intake, and animal foods formed only a minor constituent with a share of 3.4 % .

0n the other hand, animal foods provided 43.0 % of the total protein intake, of

which 26.8 % was derived from wild pigs. Banana was neχt in importanc9, forming

21.6% of proteihintake. Greenvegetables, including cultivat(?dcropsandwildplants,

together comprised 8.7 % of protein intake. lt is n.oteworthy that 63.5 % of dietary

fat wasobtained from coconut. Canarium nutsweretheneχt most important as source

of fat, providing 7.4 % . N early 90 % of energy was derived from cart)ohydrate, 6 %

from protein, and another 4 % from fat.

T able 8 presents the percent contributions of each food-getting gctivity to the

nutrient intakes. H orticulture was the most important as both energy and protein

sources, providing 61.7 % and 45.6 % , respectively. Cultivation of tree crops, excluding

sago, was the most important supplier of fat. I Vhile sago・m aking was next important

in energy supply, it played a very minor rolej n protein and fat supply. Hunting and

fishing together provided 40,9 % of protein. Gath6ring plant foods provided 4.5 % of

protein and 8.2 % of fat.

T o estimate per-person per-day nutrient intakes, each subjed is labeled with

a ratio to the standard consumption unit二on the basis of the FAO/W HO energy

strategies jointly produced 443 g or 410 kcal in one hour Iof hunting。

M ales together spent 125.0 hrs in spear, fishing, and caught 4.74 kg of fish, 5.54

kg of prawns, and 0.77 kg of tortoise, totaling 11.05 kg in edible weight. The mean

hourly yield was 88 g of edible meat or 79 kcal。

Cα11ayiMm nuts were coIled ed by a party composed of three women during the

15-day period of survey. T hey spe叫 27.2 hrs in total and brought back about 870 nuts

from which 6.5 kg of edible kernels or 14780 kcal were obtained. 0 ne hour c011ecting

produced 240 g of ediblekemeIsor 534 kcal. 0 ther ll person-daysor 66.1 hrsof gathering

done by women always occurred incidentally with fishing with rods and lines. ln the

gathering/fishing occasionsbrought back were7.45 kg of ferns, 3.6 kg of fig leaves,

0.36 ㎏ of fungi, 1.15 kg of fish, 0.55 kg of prawns, 0.59 kg of/eggsof wildfowlsバL15

kg of snakes, and 0.11 kg of sago grubs in edible weight, tota! ing EL41 kg of plant

foods and 3.55 kg of ilnimal foods or 11.44×103 kcal. 0 ne hour of gathering/fishing

produced 226 g of edible foods, of which 54 g were of animal origin, or 187 kcal.

63.5

2.2

< 0.1

0.6

0.3

0.5

< 0.1

q

Q

g

N

H

Cy30

N

O

Oく

Q

N

」r3cNIH

Q

0

3

0

0

2

く

」Q

Q

」n

N

rj

7

0

1

0

0

1

く

0.3

3

rO

n/

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

0

1

0

96.4 56.9

j

j

j

1

7

0

0

0く

3

4

7

1

0

L

2

0

95.2

i

H

」

Q

t

1

1

1

J

O

1

3

0

0

0

0

く

く

1

1

8

1

1

1

1

0

L

0

0

0

0

2

・・く‘く

weight and nutrients 20f foods! )し

Energy Protuin Fat

( % ) ( % ) ( % )

T able 7. Composition of卜the dietヶby percentage

/Foo(i itelll ……: …… こ回Tt

YUkiO卜KUCHIKURA64

Horticultural produce:

Banana

T ato ゛ ダ

Chinese taro i 卜

jYam、(Dioscoyeαsppよ

Elephant foot yam

Sweet potato ‥

Cassava ¥ ‥ ∇万

Corn 上 j ▽ 犬

Hibiscus leaves

Rungia 合nd amaranths leaves

. P i t , p i レ 1 . ・ 、 7 : ・ ’

Beans

Sugar cane ”

Sago palm: 九大

Sago

Palm cabbage 卜∧ j=

Silvicultural produce:

づCoconut .ヽ 、‥ .

randanusコ .; ・ ■ . ・Papaya

XVild plant: に

Callayit4m nuts. こ∧

Fig leaves

Fern

/ F u ng i し こ

35.4

10.1

0.1

7.4

2.7

1.5

9

8

2

1

9

6

1

6

4

6

2

1

8

一

l

a

ゆ

●

一

一

一

一

●

一

一

i

・

8

9

0

0

3

1

0

0

2

0

0

0

’「4‘

3

1

く

21.6

6.4

十〇;2

6.9

2.9

0.7

9

6

1

5

6

5

1

5

8

1

1

1

・

・

・

・

7

・

・

・

」

・

・

・

一

5

1

0

1

0

0

0

2

1

0

0

0

く

く

1

1

3

一

φ

φ

O

n/‥一I

0.6

5.6

5.0

2.0

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

H

lf19

S

S

1

0

0

0

0.1

0.6

0.6

11.1

1

2

Sub-total for animal food

Based of the data ot)tained. by the

Less than 0.1% .

4.8 3.6 43.1

15-day food consumption survey.

26.8

1.8

1.1

0.8

0.2

0.4

for plant foodSub-total 88.9

Domestic animal: ¥

・ Chicken二 ’

XVild terrestrial animal:

Pig meat 卜

Bandicoot

二 Bird

Snake’ ・

Grub

Egg of wild foWI

Aquatic animalド エ

Tortoise ヶ

Fish

Prawn

1

8

2

1

1

1

1

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0.1 0.8 5

0

3

5

6

7

0

1

3

0

0

0

0

1

ACtiVityFat

(% )-

14.7

( % ) ( % )

65Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

XVeight Energy Protein

Table 8. Percent contributions of each food-getting activity to nutrient intakes

(% )-

61.7

3.7

0.1

29.8

2.2

1.0

CgF

CQ

s

e

CXD

N

4

3

1

0

H uman subsiStence system functions to provide sufficient energy and nutrients to

people and at the same time t9 1nsure regularity of these intakes ( Jochim, 1981: 90-

92) . Thesystem isregulatedbypeople’sfood-getting orproductiondecisionsincluding

requirement per kg of body weight by age and sex ( FAO/W H0 1973; also seeOhtsuka

d d . 1985; Kuchikura, 1994b) . An adult male with the average body weight of the

population(50.8kg) isdefined as1.00 consumptionunit. For apregnant or lactating,

anadditional allowancewasadded. A11theconsumers, includingvisitorswhotookmeals

with the villagers on each day of the survey, are represented as a total consumption

unit figure. T he sum of consumption unit figures amounted to 536.3 during the 15-day

survey period, of which 93.15 0r 17.4 % weremadeupof thevisitors. Themeannutrient

intake per person per day ( represented by an adult male with 50.8 kg (jf body weight)

is calculated by dividing the total amount of nutrient intake by the accumulated

consumption units. I

Per-person per-day intake of energy ( adjusted to for an average adult male) is

calculated at 2502 kcal during the 15-day survey period. ln comparison with the FAO/

W HO recommendations for a moderate active individual ( 2340 kcal for an adult male

with 50.8 kg of body weight) , the daily amount of energy intake fulfills the

recommendation.

T he daily protein intake averaged 40.4 g/person. For the assessment of protein

intake, the value must be adjusted for the quality of protein by using net ,protein

utilization(NPU; proteinqualityrelativetomilk or eggs). Consideringtheproportion

of animal protein in the diet, 80 % NPU may be more appropriate (Ohtsuka, d ぶ.

1985) . When 80% NPU isapplied, theprotein intake(40.4g) isconverted to 32.3 9.

This value is almost identical to the FAO/W H O’s safe level of 29.6 9 . W ith resped

to both quality and quantity, however, the protein intake of the study population is

at higher level by Papua N ew Guinean standards ( K uchikura, 1994a, b ) .

DI SCUSSI ON

4

7

1

1

1

3

2

3

3

1

0

8

3

1

2

0

7

1

Horticulture

Silviculture

Animal husbandry

Sago-making

Hunting

Fishing ¥

Gathering :plant food

animal food

7

{にa

3

8

’にD

@

・

一

一

●

ra

1

0

QJ3

rn}

6

5

8

3

7

2

5

4

5

2

0

4

9

1

、

4

1

4

n乙

I

adjustmentsoftimeuseamongcompetingfood-getti贈 activitieSahdcontrolof intensity

of exploitation within the ecosystem’s capacity for re-establishment, in other words,

which food resources to utilize and how much of each.

ln anthrop010gical literature, various factors influencing people’s subsistence

decisions have been examined by using hypothetical optimization mode馬 Which are

designed to explain and predict subsistence behavior in terms of the maximization or

minimization of a objed ive function ( for eχample, energy and/or other nutrients

maximization, labor or risk minimization, etc. ) under certain conditions ( Bettinger,

1980; Jochim, 1983; Smith 1983, Smith and W interhalder, 1992) . ln order to elucidate

food-getting decisionsof theGiwobi people, l will hereuseamathematical model derived

from linear programming theory and discuss the degree of fit between the model and

the observedしfood-getting pattern. こ I

Linear programming aims to fihd the least costly solution to an economic problem

in whlch resources( labor, energy, raw materiaIs, moneyレetc. ) must be allocated ainong

competing activities(Reidhead, 1979: 543; Bettinger, 1980: 216) .にUsed here is a particular

form of linear programming known as the “diet problem”, the aim of Which is to

determine an optimal mix of food types that w111 satisfy the population’s nutritional

requirements at minimum cost; the niost labor-efficient s01ution to the prob!em of

procuring a nutritjonally balanced diet ( K eene, 1979: 372; Johnson and Beherens, 1982:

172) . To formulate theproblem of minimizing thejcost of procuring food in a case

study, we should first determine: ( 1) the unit costs associate(1 with exploiting food

types, (2) thenutritional valuesof thesefood typesand, (3) thetotal amount of each

nutrient required. Next, the minimizing problem may be represented alge!)raically as

follows卜 ¥ レ ニ 犬

YUkiO KUCHIK URA66

ニ : a n d 幻 ≧ 0 ( j = 1 , 2 , … , 硝 ) 尚

丿 w h e r e Z i s t h e o v e r a 1 1 c ( j s t o f s u b s i s t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s , 幻 i s t h e a m o u n t o f f o o d

typej procured, 乙 is thecost per unit of food typey, 77 1sthetotal number

of food types procured, bi ’is the total amount of constraint ( nutrient) f required

in the problem, 必j is the amount of constraint f cotltained in a unit of food

type j , and 琲 is the number of constraints for procurement decisions. I

T he s01utions are pursued by “simplex method” ( K oyama, 1969; K uchikura, 1987) .

T reated here are the people’s three major food-getting activities: horticulture,

sago-making, and procuring wild foods. Hunting, fishing and gathering are together

compiled into the last category. T ree crops and domestic animaIs are neがected in this

analysis because they are thought t0 11ttle affect subsistenceldecisions of the people.・

j

j

l

n乙

ぐ

ぐ

minimize Z = Σ Q ・鳶7 °1

subject to & と ミ11必j ’幻 ロヨ 1, 2, …, m; bi≧O)ノ =

Table 9. Costs and nutritiQnal values of the f(jod types

Protein

(g/kg)

Foods obtained from these three i ctivities represent the food types: horticultural

produce, sago, and wild foods. The nutritional values of the food types and their unit

costs are shown in T able 9. T he nutrjtiohal v友lueS are represented by the average values

of foods obtained from the activities. T he costs are eχpressed by labor time required

for procuring a unit of food type.

The nutritional constraints specified here are energy and protein. T he nutritional

requirements are defined as the amounts of nutrients required for all villagemembers,

including thevisitors, per dgy. A Il themembersisequivalent to35.75 consumptionunits.

To maintain the observed level of nutrient intakes, they must daily obtain 85872 kcal

of energy and 1355 g of protein in total from the three food types.

T he linear programming is formulated in the following algebraic terms:

Variables: χ1 ( kg) = horticultural produce,

X2 (kg) = sago,

X3 (kg) = wild food, ¥

Costs: minimize Z ( hours) 二0.98 ×1+ 1.02×2+ 3.86χ3ご ¥

where 0.98 hours= the cost for l kg of χ1, ‥

犬 1 . 0 2 h o u r s = t h e c o s t f o r l k g o f χ 2 。 し

3.86 hours= the cost for l kg of χ3,

Constraints (nutritional requirements) :

1106 ×1+ 2210 ×2+ 985 ×3≧87230 ( energy requil;ement) 。 犬

13 ×1+ 4 ×2ナ 157 ×3≧1434 ( protein requirement) =

づ w h e r e 1 1 0 6 = t h e n u m b e r o f k c a l a v a i l a b l e i n l k g o f χ 1 ,

2210= the number of kcal available in l kg of χ2, し

985= the number of kcal lavailable iり 1 kg of χ3,

with similar reasoning applying to protein.

T able 10 presents the optimaI solutions under the various conditions. Thete was

agreatdiscrepancybetweentheoptimal solutionandtheobservedfood-gettinStpattem

(Step 1) . TheoptimaI Solution is to obtain thenutrientsfrom sagoandwild foodl§

with completely neglecting horticultural produce. VVith respect to the two nutritional

constraints (energy and protein) , it iseasy tounderstand thel(jgicヽbecausethediet

consisting of sagothat isthemosteffectivesourceof energy andwild foodsthatcontain

the largest amount of protein per unit weight can meet the re(4uirements of nutrients

Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System 67

Energy

(kcal/kg)

りヽり4

7

H

」Q1

1106

2210

985

0.98

1.02

3.86

Cost

(hrs/kg)Food type

H orticultural produce (χ1)

Sago (X2)W ild food ( X3)

49.14.67

8.22

6.45

12.6

36.5

24.6

Observed

l

n乙

3

4

S

S

S

S

adding X l ( half of

observation) to S1

12.34

35.81

24.07

18.0

31.7

24.9 レ

Optimal time

allocation (hrs)1)

SM PW

Solution

No.

68 Y ukio K U CH I K U RA

T able 10. 0 ptimal so!utigns produqed by linear programming

Optimal combination

of food types ( kg)

χ1 χ2 χ3 HC

50.05-

25.03

Change in

condition T otal

(Z)-

79.73)

68.2

74.0

102.1 102.1

」NQ

S

S

寸‰ご臨ぷ 104.23 - Tthan observation) 2) ∧

寸 ‰ぎ昌ご - 35.28 9.17than observation) 3)

1 ) HC : horticulture; SM : sago,-making ; PW : procurement of wild foods.

2 ) On the assumption that all pig-hunting are in vein. The nutritional values of χ3

are changed to 1158 kcal/kg and 103 g of t)rotein/kg, respectively.

3 ) On theassumption that thecost of pig-hunting risesby twice. Thenutritional values

of X 3 converted to 1010 kcal/kg and 141 g of protein/kg, respectively.

with the minimum cost. T he s01ution ( Step l ) indicates that the labor time devoted

to procurem ent of foods w ill be reduced at 86 % of the present leve1. T hem odel predicts

that adding horticultural produce to the. diet increase the玉 )tal labor l ime ( Step 2)

and that the complete negled of sago ( Step 3) will rise the labor time by 261% as

compared with the solution of Step 1. 0 n the other hand, the rise of contribution of

sagoto.thediet(Step4; thepercentageofsagototheenergyintakeissetat50% )

lowers the total labor time, but procurement of wild foods must be intensified。

Althou油 the solution of Step l minimizes the labor time required for

food-procurement, lt is unfeasible in some respects. First, it requires the people to

produce nearly three-fold as much sago f!our as the observed level. lt is reasonably

predicted that the rate of expIoitation will quickly deplete the sago resource within

the people’s territory; lt seems to be impossible for the peopJe to intensify eχploitation

of 卵go palms without Qxceeding the “optimum yieldt or the maχimum sustainable

yield that can be eχpIoited without depleting the resource( Hassan, 1981: 17) . Second,

the sex difference in subsistence efforts will be eχaggerated and the female’s labor

will be intensified still more because all types of sago work except fe111ng the palm

are done by females. Sago-making in a swampy environment is so painstaking that

the Gidra women attempted to reduce the labor time spent in the activity with the

introduction of high-yielding varietiQs of sweet potato (Ohtsuka and Suzuki, 1990: 19) 。

The next step is to eχperimentally change the cost of wi!d foods in a hypothetical

36.0 49.5 85.5-

74.0 -

32.5 20.7

9.2

22.7

24.5

75.53 ご

33.16 20.26

2.38

5.87

ぱ鸚Fo回喘器of energy intake)

uliminating X 2 83.2

75.9

Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System 69

situation so as to investigatehow the change affectsthesolution. T emporal fluctuation

of labor efficiency isgenerally greater in procurement of wild foods, especially hunting,

thanj n horticulture and sago-making ( Dwyer, 1985) . T herefore, data collected in a

short-term survey, sUch as the present study, are less reliable in the former than in

the latter。

The overall cost of wild foods is influenced mostly by hunting of y ild pigs. The

pig-hunting is leSs reliable because the chance of success is rather a matter of luck.

XVhile two wild pigs were killed during the first half of survey period, all hunts for

wild pigs were in vein during thesecond half; The overall cost of procuring wild foods

for the second half of surv(jy period was ten times as expensive as that of the first

half. N evertheless, - the hunting< with shotguns is by far more efficient than the

bow-and-arrow hunting. For eχample, the shotgun hunting among the Gidra has 2.8

times higher hourly retum rate than their bow-and-arrow hunting ( OhtsUka, 1989: 34) .

T he removal of shotgun will much heighten the overall (;ost of wild foods.

, T h e f i r s t a l t e r a t i o n o f c o s t i s b a s e d o n t h e c a s e ・ o f l a t e r h a l f o f s t u d y p e r i o d i n

which all hunts for wild pigs were in vein ( Step 5) . T he cost of wild food becomes

2.4-fold ashigh as theobserved value. The amounts of nutrients per unit weight change

according to theelimination of pig meat. Theoptimal solution is to obtain all nutrients

from horticultural produce. The overall cost ( Z ) ¥required for meeting the observed

level of consumption is 55 % as high as the first solution. ln this solution, the people

must consume about 1.3-fold asmuch energy as the observed level to meet the minimum

protein requirement. At the same time they must work about 1.3-fold longer. △

lf the cost of hunting of wild pigs rises by twice higher than the observed one,

themodel producesthesamesolutionasthefirstsolution( Step 6) , inwhichhorticultural

produce shopuld be eliminated from the diet. H owever, the former is about 25 % more

expensive than the latter because of the increase of the cost of procurement of wild

foods. T hese results reveal that which food type, horticultural produce or sago, should

be utilized so as to minimize the overall cost of food production is determined by the

cost of w ild foods. A s几long as the cost of w ild food is kept low , sago should be utilized

with neglect of horticultural produce. W hen the cost rises over a certain point (more

than 2.2 times as high as the observed cost if the nutritional values of wild foods are

constant) , horticultural produce will supersede sago, and wild了oods will be also

abandoned。

T he above findings are useful for understanding the variety of subsistence pattern

in Papua N ew Guinea. T hree typical patterns are discriminated in accordance with

altitudinaI change of environments: ( 1) sago-dependent pattern supplemented by

procurement of wild foodsj n the Swampy low land areas, ( 2 ) diversified pattern composed

of horticulture, sago-exploitation, and procurement of wild foods among the footh111

and “highland fringe” populations, and ( 3) simplified pattern concentrating on

YUkiO K UCHIK URA70

horticu!ture .in.thecentral High!ands(Kuchikura, 1994a) . Between thetypical patterns,

there eχist intermediate patterns, in which the resource types are combinedj n varying

degrees. W hile pig-raising is a common component, thedegree of intensification of pig

production varies considerably among them. ヶ

Among the populations, such as the Sanio-H iwoe and the Begua, living in the

swampy lowlands where sago palms are abundant, sago usually accounts for 80-90 %

of their energy intake, whilethecontribution of horticultural produceisminimal ( T able

14) . ,This subsistencepattern isjconsistent with the¥optimal solution (Step 1) that

predicts complete dependence on sago and neglect of horticultural=produce for energy

aslong asthecostof procurement of wild foods, especially animal foods, iskept low.

Thepeopleliving along thecoastandmajor riverscanprocureanimal foodsatrelatively

low cost because they utilize abundant aquatic reSources. ln the interior areas lacking

aquaticresources, thepeoplemust rely onterrestrial animalswhich arethinly distributed

in the forest as source of protein. Therefore, the dispersed, mobile settlement pattem

withasmall populationisinevitablefor keeping thecostof eχploitationof wildanimals

at a low Jevel ( T oxvnsend, 1974: 234; Dornstreich, 1977: 263-264) .

犬Another problem is that thedietヶconsisting of sago and animal foods is vulnerable

to deficiency of some vitam ins and minerals. T hese nutrients must be supplemented

by wild or domestic vegetables. The people, such as the Gidra, living at the margins

of swampy area usually hold small gardens in spite of the fact that sago resource is

enough abundant to support their energy intake.‥As predid ed by the model ( Steps

2 and 3) , the hortlcultural practice may rise the overa11 cost of their food production,

but it provides their subsistence with a diversity which serves as a spreading-the-risk

niechanism as well as supplementation of vitamins and mineraIs.

The populations, such astheSamo/Kubor andtheGadioEnga, living in thefoothills

andat lower altitudesof highlandfringeequitablyutilizesagoandhorticultural produce.

T he sago resource is rather limited in their territory lacking vast swamps, and the

natural environments where they are living are not so favorable to horticulture

(Kuqhikura, 1990; 1994a). ln thecondition that horticultural productivitL is low (in

other words, high cost of horticultural produd ion) , sago apparently contributes to

lowering the overall cost of production of energy in their subsistence system, so that

the people eχploit their sago resource at its maχimum sustainable yield.

The central highlanders depend entirely on domestic plants and animals for their

livelihood. Their settlements aITe located beyond the altitudinal limit of sago growth,

and wild food resources are almostlcompletely depleted in thedensely populated areas

where the cost of wild foods is extremely high ( K uchikura, 1994a) . A s predicte(H )y

themodel ( Step 5) , it isan optimal choicefor thepeopletoconcentratetheir subsistence

efforts on horticulture. A lthough the sweet potato cultivation with high lヒ)roductivity

allows the intensive pig-raising, consumption of pig meat is usually confined to ritual

OL53 E: 27.7 9.5 55.0 -

P: 20.3 6.4 6.8 -

E: 53.1 5.8 37.3 -

P: 51.7 6.8 5.8 -

E : 42.4 1.0 47.4 1.5

P: 52.6 2.2 2.8 3.4

-

0.42. Begua -

-

く 50

4. K ubor

-Enga5. Gadio

1.4

Gidra

(Wonie)-

100- 200

Population

density

(/km2),

Gruoup/Localityl)

Altitude

(m)

Percent contributions of activities2)

(E: energy; P: protein)

HC SC3) SM AH PW 4) PS4)

Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System 71

T able 11. Percent contributions of each food-getting activity among Papua New Guinea

populations

LOWLAND/FOOTHILL

1. Sanio-Hiowe -

E: 0.1 1.2 88.7

P: n 0.7 6.8

30- 90

2.3 E: 2.4 2.3 85.1 4.2

P: 5.9 9.1 10.5 22.9

6.0

(5.5)51.6

(46.4)

11.0

( 10.9)92.5

(92.3)7.8

(4.3)66.5

(64.3)

3.8

( 1.3)35.7

(22.3)

7.7

(5.4)39.0

(24;8)

90- 300

0.7

- -

9. Chimbu

(Wandi & Gumine)

10. 1Vola-M endi

24.7 9

8

16

3

7

●

S

l

一

●

一

〇

2

1

3

2

11

E: 94.9 4.0

P: 91.9 4.3

900- 1500

E : 98.6 -

P: 96.0 -

E : 95.1 1.5

P: 80ご7 2 .7j

n

2

1j

O呻I(0.9)

! ) Sourceof data: 1. Townsend ( 1969; 1974) ; 2. Akimichi (unpablisheddata) ; 3. 0htsuka

(1983) ; 4. Suda ( 1989; 1990) ; 5. Domstreich (1973) ; 6. Hyndman (1986) ; 7. MolTren

(1986) ; 8. Rappaport (1968) ; 9. Bailey& Whiteman (1963) ; 10. Sillitoe ( 1983) .

2 ) HC: horticulture; SC: cultivation of tree crops; SM: sago-making; AH: animal

husbandary; PW : procurement of wild foods; PS: purchase of store food.

3 ) lncluding any kind of cultivated fruit tree eχc6pting sago plam.

4 ) ・Animal foods in parelitheses. :

n : Negligible.

-

-

-

0。50.4

0.8

(0.3)3.1

(2.2)

107.3181.9

26.0

1500- 2400

1600- 2400

1.7 5.7 15.8E: 71.2 -

P: 51.9 -

E : 89.0 1.1

P: 68.9 1.1

500- 1750

150- 800-

HIGHLAND FRINGE

6. XVopkaimin 7.3

(6.5)29.5

(26.3)9.9

(9.9)30.0

(30.0)

0.4

(0.4)1.0

(1.0)0.1

--

CENTRAL HIGHLANDS

8. T sembagaM aring

900- 1200

18.6

-7. M iyanmin 1.2

72 YUkiO KUCHIK URA

occaSions. lf the pig-raising is included in the linear-programming model, it will be

neglected from the optimal solution because of its high cost. For eχample, the energy

return rate of pig-raising is more than ten times as high as that of horticulture in the

Tsembaga M aring (M orren, 1977: 298-300) . ln order to meet the minimum protein

requirements, thehighlandersmust ordinarily gorgethemselveswith horticultural crops

far above theminimum requirements of energy. lf they are satisfied only with meeting

the energy requirements, they will inevitably get into deficiencies of protein and other

nutrients. Actually, these nutrient deficiencies are prevailed among the highlands

societies.

ACK NO’W LEDGM ENTS

l am very grateful to the villagers of Giwobi and the officers of Nomad Patrol Post

CONCLUDI NG SUM MARY

On the basis of the data collected in the Samo/Kubor community and the

linear-programming model, the three typical subsistencepattems in Papua N ew Guinea

were examined: whether they are in accordance with the assumption that human

subsistence goal is to provide the people with sufficient nutrients ( or a nutritionally

“balanced” diet) at minimum labor cost. According to the model; the diversified

subsistenc6 system found in the foothill and highlands fringe populations insures

adequate intake of energy and protein with the minimum labor input. The data on

fo6d and nutritional intake that are obtained from various populations of P4pua New

Guinea indicate that the tnost nutritionally “balanced” diet is found among the

populations with a diversified subsistence system ( Kuchikura, 1994a) . W hile the

procurement cost of thediet cgnsisting of sago and wild animal foods, w hich is prevailing

in the swampy lowlands, is much cheaper than that of the foothill and highland fringe

populations, thediet tendsto lack somevitaminsandmineralsessential for maintaining

human health. The subsistence pattern depending entirely on horticulture is seriously

deficit in protein supply。

0n the other hand, the diversified .subsistence system is usually associated with

a small population with dispersed, mobilesettlement pattern/ This settlement pattern

insures thehigh retum rate of wild foods that sustains thesubsistencesystem, although

it inevitably prohibits sedentary life with a high population density, economic

intensification, andmaterial accumulation which aretogether essential for achievement

of higher socio-political compleχity ( T oxvnsend, 1974; Dornstreich, 1977) バ f further

nutritional constraints other than energy and protein are added to the model, different

results may be obtained. H owever, the model, despite using only two nutritional

constraints, may beserved for understanding thevariety of sut)sistencepattern in Papua

New Guinea to some eχtent.

73Productivity and Adaptability of Diversified Food-getting System

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