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2009Vol. 18. No. 2

© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Adam MarszałekToruń 2009

ISSN 1732-6729

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CONTENTS

Stanisław JuszczykEditor’s Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

SOCIAL PEDAGOG YAnna Nowak

Application of Legal Knowledge in Social Pedagogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Ewa Wysocka

Experiencing Life at a Young Age – Identity Problems and the Strategies for Coping with Th em, as Perceived by Academic Youth . . . . . . 21

Štefan Chudý, Svatava Kašpárková, Štefánia Kročková, Anna MasarikováTh e Success of UTB Social Pedagogy Study Discipline Graduates in Working Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Karolina Walancik-RybaConsiderations on the Topic of Deciding about the Fault in Case of the Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage in Divorce Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . 48

SPECIAL PEDAGOG YJulius Sekera

Th e Community System in Re-Socialization Institutions for Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

Mariusz SztukaPolish Corrections – Halfway to Late Modernity (the Text for the Conference on International Corrections and Prisons Association “A Decade of Lessons Learned”, Prague, October 2008) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

Jacek J. BłeszyńskiSpeech of People with Autism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Beata DyrdaTh e Process of Diagnosing the Underachievement Syndrome in Gift ed and Creative Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129

4 Contents

PEDEUTOLOG YBill Templer

Exploring Teachers’ Real Lives and Voices – A Vital Research Focus in Pedeutological Inquiry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

Engin Karadağ, Nuri BaloğluPath Analysis of How Prospective Teachers’ Sense of Effi cacy Aff ects Th eir Styles of Coping with Stress, Student Control Orientations and Attitudes toward Teaching Profession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Erhan Ertekin, Bülent Dilmaç, Ali Delice, Emin AydinTeacher Trainees’ Epistemological Beliefs : Eff ects of Gender, Institution, and Discipline (Mathematics/Social Sciences) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Branislav Pupala, Zuzana PetrováTh e Problem of Th eory and Practice in University Course Th eory and Methods of Literacy Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

TECHNOLOGY OF EDUCATIO NSaeid Moradi

Modelling of ICT Literacy and Its Evaluation Among Principals and Staff in Educational Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

EDUCATIONAL POLIC YJonathan W.P. Goh, Charlene H.P. Tan

Policy and Evidence of Marketisation of Education in Singapore Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235

HEALTH EDUCATIO NMirosław Kowalski

Television as a Health Value Carrier . World of Illusion – World without Health? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253

CONTRIBUTORS

Goh Jonathan W.P. PhD.

Assistant Professor, Policy and Leadership Studies National Institute of Education, Nanyang Techno-logical University, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616. Telephone: (65) 6790 3249 Facsimile: (65) 6896 9151,

e-mail:[email protected]

Aydin Emin Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Kadıköy-İSTANBUL, Turkey


Baloğlu Nuri Ahi Evran University College of Education e-mail:[email protected]

Błeszyński Jacek J. Nicolay Copernicus University, Torun, Poland

Chudý Štefan, Mgr., Ph.D.

Department of Education, Faculty of Humanities, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Mostní 5139, Zlín 760 01, Czech Republic,

e-mail:chudy@fh s.utb.cz

Delice Ali Marmara University Atatürk Education Faculty, Kadıköy-İSTANBUL, Turkey


Dilmaç Bülent Selçuk University Education Faculty- Meram-KONYA,


Dyrda Beata PhD.

Department of Pedeutology, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia, Grażyńskiego 53, 40-126 Katowice, Poland


Ertekin Erhan Selçuk University Education Faculty- Meram-KONYA,


Karadağ Engin Yeditepe University College of Education, e-mail:[email protected]

Karolina Walancik-Ryba, mgr

University of Silesia, Poland

Kašpárková Svatava, Mgr., Ing, Ph.D.

Department of Education, Faculty of Humanities, Tomas Bata University in Zlin, Mostní 5139, Zlín 760 01, Czech Republic

Kowalski Mirosław, dr hab

University of Zielona Gora, Faculty of Education, Sociology and Health Sciences, Al. Wojska Polskiego 69, 65–625 Zielona Góra, Poland

6 Contributors

Kročková Štefánia, PhDr., CSc.


Masariková Anna, doc., PhDr., CSc.


Moradi Saeid Department of Primary Education (M.A.), Iran, Islamic Azad University of Savadkooh, Mazandaran ,P.O.BOX:155, Corresponding address: 4 fl oor, 222 buld, 17 Shahrivar jadid ST. Tabriz, Iran,


Nowak Anna, Prof. PhD.

Chair of Social Pedagogy, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, University of Silesia, Grażyńskiego 53, 40126 Katowice Poland

Petrová Zuzana Trnava University, Faculty of Pedagogy Priemyselná 4 P.O. BOX 9 918 43 Trnava, Slovak Republic

Pupala Branislav Trnava University, Faculty of Pedagogy Priemyselná 4 P.O. BOX 9 918 43 Trnava, Slovak Republic

Sekera Julius Prof.

Pedagogical Faculty, University of Ostrava, 701 03 Ostrava 1, Mlynska 5, Czech Republic


Sztuka Mariusz Jagiellonian University, Section Of Correctional Treatment, ul. Batorego 12, 31-135 Cracow, Poland

Tan Charlene H.P. PhD

Associate Professor, Policy and Leadership Studies , National Institute of Education, Nanyang Techno-logical University1, Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616, Telephone: (65) 6790 3250, Facsimile: (65) 6896 9151,


Templer Bill Faculty of Education, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia Phone: 6016-9033278

e-mail: [email protected]

Wysocka Ewa dr

University of Silesia, Faculty of Pedagogy and Psychology, ul. Grażyńskiego 53, Katowice, Poland

Editor’s Preface

Th e second number of Th e New Educational Review in 2009 is the eighteenth issue of our journal since the start of its foundation in 2003. In this issue there are mainly papers from: Poland, the Czech Republic, Turkey, Iran and Singapore, because our journal is open for presentation of scientifi c papers from all over the world.

In the present issue the editorial board have proposed the following subject ses-sions: Social Pedagogy, Special Pedagogy, Pedeutology, Technology of Education, Educational Policy, and Health Education.

Th e subject session “Social Pedagogy” starts with an article by Anna Nowak, which presents the problems of application of legal knowledge in social pedagogy. Ewa Wysocka shows the way in which young people experience an identity crisis. It is analyzed in terms of the self-creation problems that academic youth are con-fronted with. It is also an attempt to outline strategies for coping with the crisis, including adolescent rebellion, considered to be a peculiar form of dealing with the problems related to self-creation. Štefan Chudý and his co-workers focus of the outcomes of the fi eld research they conducted into gauging the success-rates of social pedagogy students in working practice. Th e authors set out the results of a questionnaire-based investigation, which serves as the basis for further investiga-tions into the development and monitoring of the skills, abilities and competences of social pedagogues in practice and in the preparation process for working in jobs in this fi eld. Th e article by Karolina Walancik-Ryba presents the issues connected with the divorce regulations stipulated in the Family and Guardianship Code currently in force.

In the subject session “Special Pedagogy” Julius Sekera presents the overall design of the research carried out in institutions for re-education. Th is article focuses on its

Stanisław JuszczykEditor in Chief

8 Stanisław Juszczyk

fi rst part, i.e. the management and inter-personal relationships of the staff . Further papers, which will be published in the next issues of this journal, will focus on the other areas of the research. Th e paper by Marian Sztuka is aimed at understand-ing the position of a rehabilitative ideal in the Polish prison system in relation to the dominant Western penal trends. Jacek Błeszyński discusses the results of studies on the intensity of the element of speech (in both normally developing children and children with diff erential illnesses and autism, divided according to the level of intensity), and analyzes the diff erences between simple echolalia and echolalic speech (which can be considered as a symptom characteristic of children with autism). In her article Beata Dyrda describes the process of identifying the underachievement syndrome in the group of gift ed and creative pupils.

In the subject session “Pedeutology” Bill Templer discusses aspects of a narrative-based multifaceted initiative of empirical inquiry into teachers’ work and lives. He centres on the teaching of English as a foreign language, but this problem can be extrapolated to a spectrum of pedeutological perspectives on teachers in any subject matter area. Engin Karadağ and Nuri Baloğlu determine multiple relationships between the sense of self-effi cacy and student control orientation and also between styles of copying with stress and attitudes toward the teaching profession among prospective teachers. Erhan Ertekín and his co-workers inves-tigated whether mathematics and social sciences teacher trainees diff ered in terms of their epistemological beliefs and tested these diff erences with regard to certain variables. Th e article by Bronislav Pupala and Zuzana Petrová looks at the position of so-called practical and theoretical components in university teacher training study programmes. Attention is paid mainly to the area which makes it possible to distinguish university and non-university teachers’ education and to the status and composition of teaching practice.

Th e subject session “Technology of Education” contains a contribution by Saeid Moradi who describes the process of modelling of ICT literacy and its evaluation among principals and staff in educational organizations. Th e results of empirical research show that ICT literacy of staff in all factors is higher and greater than that of principals.

In the subject session “Educational Policy” Jonathan W.P. Goh and Charlene H.P. Tan provide a review of educational policies launched in 1997 in Singapore and highlight how these reforms manifest salient features of marketing orientation in the Singapore educational system. Th e second part of their article illustrates the marketisation of education through one recent nation-wide initiative – the niche area scheme.

9Editor’s Preface

Th e subject session “Health education” contains a paper by Mirosław Kowalski, who describes television as a health value carrier.

We hope that this edition, like the previous ones, will encourage new readers not only from the Middle European countries to participate in an open international discussion. On behalf of the Editors Board I would like to invite representatives of diff erent pedagogical sub-disciplines and related sciences to publish their texts in Th e New Educational Review.

Social Pedagogy

Application of Legal Knowledge in Social Pedagogy

Abstract

In the paper a need for the use of the elements of legal sciences in social pedagogy is justifi ed. Th e notion of legal knowledge and its meaning in the social pedagogue’s activities is analyzed. Th ere are presented the basic, specifi cally national (Polish) and international, legal acts, indicating the boundaries of the social pedagogue’s professional activities. Th e basic functions of the law are analyzed : the guarantee, controlling and educational ones. Th e author claims that the mode of realizing the social pedagogue’s professional role is regulated by legal norms, and the profes-sional activity of social pedagogues is directed toward legal articles.

Key words: Keywords: legal knowledge, legal articles, social pedagogy.

Social educators J. Modrzewski , A. Nowak justify the need for applying ele-ments of legal science in the fi eld of the civil, family, administrative or educational law in social pedagogy, which determine the formal restrictions and possibilities of making and executing diff erent pedagogical initiatives, being updated in the institutional and environmental dimension (J. Modrzewski, 1999, pp. 41–42, A. Nowak, 2005).

Legal knowledge is indispensable for creating the entitative circumstances of achieving objective goals in order to competently contribute to the solution of various social problems which are contained in the fi eld of traditional and current interest of social pedagogy. Legal knowledge is a skill to use regulations in the correct way, and to either directly or indirectly interpret the binding proceeding models. As J. Utrat – Milecki remarks, it is necessary to master the techniques interpreting the law, but it is also necessary to be able to look at it from a wider

Anna NowakPoland

14 Anna Nowak

angle, know the key asumptions of the law concept, as well as, the theory of its respective branches , eg. administrative law, civil law (J. Utrat-Milecki, 1999 No. 2–3, p. 34)

Leon Petrażycki wrote about law politics, which in his opinion denotes the science about rational execution of social changes via the law as an instrument of these changes. /Quoted aft er A. Podgórecki, 1971, p. 444/. According to this formulation the policy of the law constitutes a concept, which indicates the need to combine legal knowledge with the knowledge about essential social mechanisms (A. Podgórecki 1998, p.179).

In social pedagogy it seems indispensable to combine the knowledge from the fi eld of sociology, social policy, social pathology, psychology, medicine, praxeology, elements of knowledge from the fi eld of psychotechnics and social engineering, law science (constitutional law, civil law, educational law, administrative law, family and guardianship law, penal law).

Legal knowledge may turn out to be indispensable for settling cases and prob-lems and become the basis for granting help to other people. Th e fi rst argument is important for each citizen. Th e second argument is important for people who, performing the job of an educator, support others and act in favour of others. Educators are faced with the necessity to refer to eff ective regulations – as they determine the potential and limits of their activity.

Th e professional activity of social educators is formalized and by performing various tasks within its confi nes, educators are obliged to act within the limits of the eff ective law and on the basis of the binding regulations. Th e problems of fami-lies, persons who, for various reasons eg. poverty, unemployment, homelessness, minority, addiction, disability, chronic illness, domestic violence, commitment of a prohibited act and others are not able to function independently, are complex and their solution requires knowledge of the law. Th ese people and their families remain in various legal relationships eg. civil, administrative, penal ones, are involved in diff erent relations, in legal relationships. Due to problems and situations, such people require support and aid and the employees supporting them must act on the basis of the law in force, referring to means of appeal suitable, useful in a given situation and admissable by the law in force.

Th e law in this situation may be the main premise of maintaining dignity by per-sons who are incapable of providing for themselves, as L. Fuller claims the law then becomes the basic condition for their dignifi ed life (L. Fuller, 1993, pp.9–10).

Th e law performs the guarantee function, it determines what is allowed and what is prohibited, what power the recipients of norms have or what sort of conduct they can demand from the other party. Th e law indicates a certainty of how we should

15Application of Legal Knowledge in Social Pedagogy

behave in situations typifi ed in legal acts and what we can expect from others and this is defi ned as legal positivism. It has a particular meaning in relation to the approach of the government and self-government public authorities (J. Utrat-Milecki, 1999, No. 2–3, pp. 35–36).

Pursuant to article 7 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland the public authorities act on the basis of and within the confi nes of the law.

As J. Utrat-Milecki remarks, it is the real decision of the authorized authority in an individual, specifi c case that makes up the Law. On the basis of a decision, diff erent disputes between the persons of law, natural persons and/or legal persons, offi ces are settled. Th is decision awards someone a specifi c law and is a formal basis for the functioning of the authorized executive bodies and determines thereby binding behaviour patterns (ibid., pp. 37–38).

Th e law must fulfi ll the principle of justice – thus, equally treat, due to the adopted justice formula, recipients listed on the basis of legal regulations. Th e law regulates social relations in order to achieve goals (ibid.).

A modern state refers to the law in order to implement the social policy. Th e functioning of the state and other entities of social policy requires formation of the law, which would be suitable for carrying out the goals of this policy.

Nowadays a phenomenon of the outburst of the law can be noticed, which fi rst of all, indicates the growth of the signifi cance of the law as the basis of social order, and, on the other hand, the increasing range of the law interference in social life. Th is phenomenon is explained by the scale of state interventionism and also by the fact that in order to function effi ciently a state must resort to the law as a tool of its functioning , a tool executed in diff erent policy fi elds/penal policy, penitentiary policy (G. Skąpska, 1999, pp. 129–130).

In the course of the centuries, the law resided deeply in the life of societies and in the life of people, however, it seems that nowadays the power of the relationships between the law and society, the law and people is even bigger. It can also be noticed that the law in our times enters into the sphere of relationships regulated earlier by custom norms and/or religious ones, eg. matters concerning legal relationships between spouses and between parents and children.

Th e justifi cation for regulations by the law is the human rights and freedoms. Pursuant to article 30 of the constitution of the Republic of Poland : “innate and inalienable human dignity constitutes the source of freedom and human and citizen rights.”

Th e principle of equality to the law and the principle of the same protection of rights of each person are the basic principles on which the concept of civil rights and freedoms is based. Th ese principles are closely related to the discrimination

16 Anna Nowak

ban introduced by art. 32 passage 2 of the Constitution of the Republic of Poland: “no one can be discriminated in the political , social or economic life out of any reason.”

International legal acts play a special role in the protection of human rights: the Common Declaration of Human Rights (1948), the International Pact of Civil, Political Rights (1966), the International Pact of Economic, Social, Cultural Rights (1966), the Convention on the Protection of Basic Human Rights and the Basic Freedoms (1953), European Social Charter (1961), Convention on Children’s Rights (1989), Convention on the Execution of Children’s Rights and the Treaty on the European Union (1996), the European Union Treaty, the Charter of the Basic Rights of the European Union and other documents, whose audience are diff erent social groups, eg. the handicapped, elderly persons, the unemployed, the homeless, excluded persons, refugees, minors, juvenile delinquents.

In the Polish legislation the Constitution of the Republic of Poland increases in importance, pursuant to article 2 the Republic of Poland is a democratic legal state implementing the principles of social justice. In this norm and other regulations of the 1st and 2nd chapter, the Constitution defi nes the rules: justice criteria, eg. the principle of each according to his need.

Th is principle is the basic principle of the law on social help of 2004, which defi nes the organizational-legal confi nes of the social policy in the range of social assistance. Th e law defi nes entities obliged to execute tasks of social assistance and determines the criteria and principles of granting and paying out monetary and non-monetary benefi ts to people who are in a diffi cult life situation. Diverse forms of aid for families, forms of guardianship of children such as: family counseling, family therapy, social work, provision of guardianship and education to children outside the family (in establishments and foster families). Th is aid is executed in the local environment by an educator, psychologist, social worker and also in guardianship-educational institutions, in foundations and associations.

Family benefi ts (family allowance and extra allowance and guardianship ben-efi ts) are stipulated in the act about family benefi ts of 2003, which regulates the acquisition conditions, right to benefi ts, principles of determining, granting and paying them.

Th e act about social employment of 2003 regulates the issues of aid to people who are socially ostracized in their social and professional reintegration.

Th e law regulations secure the human rights, they determine people’s status, rights and duties, guarantee (eg. social) benefi ts to people, stipulate means of appeal, which may be necessary in a given situation.


One of the most important and useful issues in the work of the educator are the issues of the capacity to legal transactions, as this capacity conditions the possibility to acquire rights and contract liabilities by legal entities and bringing about legal consequences by carried out legal actions. In case of a lack of or a limited capacity to legal transactions, a statutory representative is appointed, who represents the person before authorities and institutions.

Th e legal regulation of marital and family relations covers their external aspect. It deals with the origin of marriage, legal eff ects resulting thereof (rights and duties, including property issues, causes and consequences of marriage dissolution, cessa-tion of marriage) it regulates the issues from the range of relations between parents and children, payment of alimony, custody and guardianship. Th e legislator in the act – family and guardianship code carefully enters into the sphere of personal relations and parental authority.

Every educator in a situation of threat or encroachment upon personal property of the child (his/her life, health, basic needs) should be a spokesman for his/her rights and should take up a suitable intervention for the protection of the child’s welfare, that is why it is indispensable to possess legal knowledge. It should be added that according to article 572 of the code of civil proceedings everyone who is conscious of an event which justifi es instituting proceedings by the guardianship court should ex offi cio notify this court.

Situations pose a lot of diffi culties to educators, in which it is necessary to refer to legal instruments in order to interfere in the relations between spouses, parents and children. One should at that time remember that by referring to the instruments which are provided for in the act, as M. Andrzejewski remarks, not to cause evil, insofar there is a possibility to solve the problem without any law interference, not refer to legal instruments, but to extralegal measures (M. Andrzejewski, 1999).

An educator should get acquainted with the educational legislation – act about the educational system and the executory regulations to it, which determine the principles according to which the educational system functions, defi ne its formal limitations and possibilities of taking up and carrying out educational initiatives and the Teacher’s Charter the competence and qualifi cations of teachers.

Th e law is nowadays also a basic mechanism for controlling and applying legal sanctions. Th e execution of penalties, punitive measures, educational and corrective measures, entails the interference in the sphere of the rights and the freedoms of the entity, must be regulated according to the law. Th e formalized control functions on the basis of the law in force (penal code, the executory penal code, the act about proceedings in juvenile cases and other legal acts) and according to it is exercised

18 Anna Nowak

by prosecution agencies, judiciary agencies, inland revenues and customhouses and also institutions: schools, penal institutions, banks and others. Th e aim here is to enforce behaviour in accordance with the legal rules. Not complying with the legal norms gives rise to a threat of applying a legal sanction – hardship or repression in the form of a state constraint. Th e law also determined the admissible measures and conditions of taking up rehabilitative impingement in an open society and in penal institutions and rehabilitative institutions.

Th e mode of executing the penalty in the penitentiary system, the organization principles of rehabilitative impingement in reformatories, shelters for juveniles, youth educational centres and socio-therapy centres is determined by the rules of the law. Th e legal status of the convicted or the juvenile is determined by the rights and duties provided for by the law to which they are entitled. Teachers and educa-tors should get acquainted with the legal regulations concerning basic principles of responsibility of juveniles in connection with depravity and/or punishable acts and with the possibilities of legal reaction to juveniles (classical and alternative ones).

In order to increase the effi ciency of counteracting violence in the family and initating and supporting actions which consist in increasing the social conscious-ness in the scope of causes and consequences of violence in the family the Sejm (the Polish parliament) passed an act in 2005 which regulates the tasks in the range of counteracting violence in the family, the principles of proceedings towards victims and perpetrators of violence

In the period of social change, the foundations for the functioning of a civic society were laid, which proves – according to many authors – that the model of social strategy evolves towards solutions based on the multientitative structure of social institutions and the partnership of the state and civic organizations in supplying social services. Th e public benefi t activity and voluntary service act of 2003 regulates the principles of conducting public benefi t activity (in the range of social aid, employment policy, education, health protection, environment protection, family policy and others) via non-governmental organizations and using this activity by organs of public administration in order to carry out public tasks, obtaining the status of a public benefi t organization by non-governmental organizations and the principles of supervising the public benefi t activity. Th e act also contains regulations concerning the terms and conditions of executing benefi ts by employees of the voluntary service and use of these benefi ts.

For social educators the law also has an essential meaning – it defi nes their rights, duties, and qualifi cations, facilitates the performance of their professional role. It may, however, be an obstacle in taking educational actions and initiatives in a social environment and in institutions.


Th e legal system concerns educators in two ways, in an entitative aspect the legal norms regulate the mode of performing their professional role, on the other hand, in an objective aspect, their professional activity is directed to the rules of the law. Th e law secures the functioning of institutions and relief services, determines the confi nes of their activity and formal restrictions.

Th e legislator in the transformation period is obliged to create a law which in its content would respect the basic human freedoms and rights and would guarantee the entity to make use of them, and, at the same time, would also respect such values as: legal clarity, as well as legal reliability and safety. (S. Wronkowska, 1995, p. 83).

Legal knowledge should be popularized by an adequate selection of modes of passing on information about the law so that, on the one hand, they would cover the widest circles of society, on the other hand, would maintain an invari-able semantic content bestowed upon them by the norm-giver. Th e issue is to make the members of society well-informed about the rules of the law, which is indispensable due to the social roles they perform and it also gives them the pos-sibility to easily supplement knowledge in a situation when it becomes necessary (M. Gerula, 1978, p. 27).

Th e law also fulfi lls an educational role, its adequate application can shape and change the attitudes of the citizens – it can make them realize that the law is eff ective in society.

As research shows, respect for the law depends on its usefulness. Legal knowl-edge is useful for social educators, it is the condition of sine qua non for their functioning in accordance with the law.

It can be ascertained that ignorance of the law is detrimental, Ignorantia Iuris Nocet, thus one should take cognizance of it in the indispensable range.

Bibliography

Andrzejewski M. (1999). Legal protection of the family. Warszawa.Fuller L. (1993). Anatomy of law. Lublin: Publishing Institute Daimonion, Gerula M. (1978). Sources of information about law and institutions applying law

in Opinions of the Polish society on application of law. Ed. M. Borucka-Arctowa, Ossolineum

Modrzewski J. (1999). “Social pedagogy in the face of current transformations and threats of educational milieus in Poland”. In Social pedagogy in Poland between stagnation and engagement. Ed. E. Górnikowska-Zwolak, A. Radzewicz-Winnicki, A. Czerkawski. Katowice: Publishing Co. of the Silesian University, .

20 Anna Nowak

Nowak A. (2005). Outline of law for social educationists. Ed. ŚWSzS named aft er J. Ziętek. Katowice.

Nowak A. (2008). Legal knowledge as a condition for eff ective actions of the social educationist in Social educationist in the meanders of modern times. Ed. B. Kro-molicka. Szczecin: Publishing Company of the University of Szczecin.

Podgórecki A. (1971). Outline of the sociology of law. Warszawa: PWNPodgórecki A. (1998). Sociological theory of law. Warszawa: PWN.Skąpska G. (1999). Law and society. Katowice: Publishing Co. “Śląsk”.Utrat-Milecki J. )1999). ”Law in social service, social aid“. Social Work, No. 2–3Wronkowska S. (1995). Is the Republic of Poland a State of Law in Polish discourse

about the State of Law. Ed. S. Wronkowska, Warszawa

Experiencing Life at a Young Age – Identity Problems and the Strategies for Coping

with Them, as Perceived by Academic Youth

We don’t see things as they are, we see things as we are”(Anais Nin)

Abstract

Th is paper deals with the way young people experience an identity crisis, which is analyzed in terms of the self-creation problems that academic youth are confronted with. It is also an attempt to outline strategies for coping with a crisis, including adolescent rebellion, considered to be a peculiar form of dealing with the problems related to self-creation.

An identity crisis has been analyzed in the aspect of fundamental “ego” states (identity forms), classifi ed in the article into two general categories: an integrated, pro-developmental identity, and a disintegrated, anti-developmental one. In the study the author also examines the potential consequences of identity disturbances, and the mechanisms governing the process of creating an individual identity.

Analysis of rebellion, the experience which young people go through, aims at investigating its two fundamental forms (inner vs. outer rebellion), and the main underlying sources (altruistic vs. egocentric rebellion).

Th e examination of strategies for coping with problems, presented in the article, includes: constructive activity, active and passive escape, and seeking social sup-port.

Key words: youth (young age), young people (youth), development, identity, identity crisis, rebellion, coping strategies.

Ewa WysockaPoland

22 Ewa Wysocka

Introduction

Th e tasks which an individual is faced with throughout the entire life are unbe-lievably tricky and complicated. Th ey require awareness, maturity and support for solving the natural existential problems. Th is should encourage deep refl ection on the socializing infl uences which a young generation is exposed to, and on the directions for its socialization. We also have to take into consideration the fact that nowadays shaping an individual’s identity is based on the principles which are diff erent from the ones characteristic of a traditional society. In the past, the process of creating a stable and consistent identity was clearly defi ned – it used to be commonly known what kind of person one should or what kind of person one must not be. Nowadays identity is created according to the principle of freedom of choice from a broad range of culturally available conceptions of self, none of which is dominant, and each of which can be chosen in the process of self-creation. It is undoubtedly a factor which hinders making the fi nal decision, and at the same time underlies developmental disturbances.

A sense of identity plays an exceptional role in an individual’s functioning in the social world, as well as aff ects the person’s development. It is the sphere which enables making self-assessment, judging other people, as well as providing explana-tions and interpretations of the social world surrounding the individual (Mielicka 2000). During the period of adolescence, the crystallizing ego (self) of an individual serves certain functions, which include verifying former identifi cations and life experiences, and then integrating them into a new whole – a mature identity. It allows individuals to self-determine themselves, as well as to select freely and adopt the values which they consider to be positive, and to “dissociate themselves from” the ones which they regard as negative. It conditions both preserving a sense of self-esteem, and gaining social acceptance (Oleszkowicz 1995).

A defi nite form which identity takes is aff ected by interactions and experiences related to them. Hence, two kinds of mechanisms responsible for the process can be distinguished: non-refl ective identifi cation with other people, and a refl ective perception of the diff erences between them. Gaining identity is, therefore, inher-ently interlinked with the process of socialization, in which an individual’s initial subjective convictions become gradually objectivized and fi nally generalized. Accordingly, the identity creation process is determined by a number of various factors, which start to operate only in the sphere of interactions within fundamental social groups.

23Experiencing Life at a Young Age…

Th e adolescent identity crisis needs to be resolved to allow further eff ective development of an individual. Originally, the process of self-creation involves copy-ing, and subsequently it transforms into adopting rationally selected identifi cation patterns. Psychosocial functioning of a human being, and active creation of one’s own self and everyday life are determined by a triad of factors which include: reconstruction of one’s own past, which allows providing a conscious defi nition, explanation and understanding of “the here-and-now” functioning; construction of a vision for one’s own future, which is conditioned by self-determination in the context of the past and present, and which motivates action and planning; and fi nally self-perception (self-awareness, self-determination, a sense of self-esteem, self-affi rmation), which supports the construction of a vision for the future.

Identity problems and strategies for coping with a crisis – theoretical and methodological assumptions of the research conducted by the author

Academic students, among whom the research was carried out, have already gained their fundamental self-identity, and are able to determine their own identity status. Th erefore, the natural consequence of the crisis they experience might be diff erent states of this identity, classifi ed into two categories: integrated, pro-developmental identity, and disintegrated, anti-development identity. An integrated identity is related to resolving an identity crisis, that is to say, the ability to make a realistic appraisal of one’s self, of one’s own limitations, skills and capabilities; the ability to design one’s own axionormative system, which governs behaviour patterns; inner coherence and order; and integration with the surrounding world, not accompanied by the feeling of self-depreciation or opposition against the social surroundings. Whereas disintegrated identity may take several forms, which diff er both in terms of manifestation, and their underlying mechanisms (Erikson, 2000, 2004; Mamzer 2003; Marcia 1966, 1967; Wysocka 2005). Th ey include:

Negative identity – 1). characterized by the feeling of having many negative features (“I’m not OK.”), which in the critical situation may end up in projec-tion of the negative features onto others (“You’re not OK.”).Opposition identity 2). – related to adopting the values which have been rejected within a given culture (“You aren’t OK.”). Th e reason behind this may be a retaliatory motivation, considered to be the consequence of the person’s

24 Ewa Wysocka

strenuous attempts to take control of one’s own unfavourable situation aris-ing due to the reversible social stigmatization and rejection.Ineff ective, inhibited identity (“I’m not OK.”) – 3). indolent, infl exible, fi xed; triggering regressive behaviour; causing disappearance of self-control and autonomy, which hinders self-fulfi llment (impoverished and neurotic per-sonality) and turns the process of self-creation into imitation of an external authority.Identity diff usion – 4). characterized by confusion and lack of integrity of the fulfi lled roles, and the inability to unify them; lack of continuity and a sense of personal sameness; and the impossibility to answer the question “Who am I ?” and “Where am I heading for?”, which restricts the person’s ability to make independent choices and decisions (“diff used ego”).Mirror, refl ection identity 5). – characterized by non-refl ective acceptance of the conception of self imposed by the social environment, and created based on signifi cant people’s opinions, and not accompanied by individual refl ection. Th e answer to the questions “Who am I?” and “Where am I heading for?” is a mirror refl ection of the sense of identity determined by society and culture (“conformist ego”).Postponed, 6). ambivalent, unstable, insuffi ciently specifi ed identity, which stems from the ability to see a number of self-creation possibilities, yet not paired with the ability to select one of them. Characterized by a range of various, and very oft en contradictory, conceptions of self, which chop and change (“indolent ego”).

When facing crisis situations, young people have to fi nd some way to cope with them. It frequently takes the form of rebellion, which becomes an inherent characteristic of youth (adolescence).

Th e attempt at displaying the category of rebellion, presented in this paper, has been limited to the analysis of its pro-developmental vs. destructive (anti-developmental) nature, taking into account some characteristics of the phenom-enon. Adolescent rebellion is a form of expressing opposition against, and refusing further approval for the existing situations and the status quo which a particular young person subjectively considers to be limiting and threatening, and inconsist-ent with the individual’s idealistic expectations or conceptions. Th e rebellion takes place at two levels: the inner sphere of experiences and evaluation; and the outer one, related to behaviour. Th ough, it is worth stressing that the two aspects of rebellion may (though do not have to) coexist. Th ere may be various functions of rebellion (Oleszkowicz, 1996, 2006) from ego dominance, through ego defence, to


inventive self-creation. Th ere is also a variety of mechanisms underlying rebellion, from perceiving limitations and hazards to subjectivity, to observing the divergence between the postulated ideal world and reality. Anna Oleszkowicz distinguishes two forms of rebellion – outer (open, straightforward and explicitly manifested); and inner (hidden, muff ed); as well as two kinds of rebellion – altruistic (aimed at protecting other people’s interests), and egocentric (directed towards accomplish-ing one’s own objectives).

Generally adopted coping strategies may have an anti-developmental or creative character, and are generally classifi ed into two categories: resignation (withdrawal) strategies; and off ensive strategies, which have their subsystems – a positive and a negative one (Ostrowska, 1998).

Positive (refl ective) resignation is aimed at protecting the accomplishment of a certain objective, which is connected with the necessity of choosing some higher values over others, but does not cause a loss of belief in one’s own values and abilities. Negative (emotional) resignation is linked to the loss of self-trust and the belief in one’s own abilities, the potential consequence of which is a tendency towards self-destruction (addictions, suicides).

A positive off ensive strategy is characterized by activity aimed at self-protection and protecting others. Whereas its negative form is a peculiar kind of interac-tion, which is either exploitative (manipulation) or directly destructive (violence, displaced aggression) in character.

In order to determine the strategies for coping with problems which are most popular with academic youth, the author has devised a Scale of Abilities to Cope with Crisis Situations. It allowed to identify four fundamental coping strategies:

constructive activitya). (objective: problem solving) – self-refl ection, self-improvement, developing interests and passions, physical activity (8 items, a 9 – to 32-point scale); direct escape, passivity, minimizing problems b). (defensive mechanisms, withdrawal, emotional distancing) – passivity, seeking refuge in fun and company of other people, losing oneself in dreams, relieving stress by means of intoxicants, suicide thoughts (12 items, a 12 – to 48-point scale); indirect, active escapec). , seeking substitute solutions ( defensive mechanisms, substituting, intellectual distancing), conducting activities in favour of other people, seeking refuge in religion and ideology, non-refl ective conformism (6 items, a 6 – to 24-point scale); social support d). (turning directly to others for help – friends, parents, teachers, other adult authority fi gures) (5 items, a 5 – to 20-point scale).

26 Ewa Wysocka

Identity problems and strategies for coping with a crisis – a few empirical exemplifi cations

Th e survey research was conducted at the beginning of 2007, among academic youth (Silesian Polytechnic, Silesian University, the Higher School of Pedagogy of the Society of Public Knowledge in Warsaw, Faculty of Social Science and Pedagogy in Katowice) aged 20–25 (N=173), with the use of an auditorium questionnaire.

Th e youth were suffi ciently diverse in terms of sex, the place of living, par-ents’ education. In respect of age, the survey participants were selected through random sampling, whereas the choice of an institution of higher education was intentional.

Th e survey analysis includes identity problems, the nature of rebellion, and the strategies for coping with an identity crisis, adopted by academic youth.

1. Problems with identity – forms, underlying mechanisms and developmental consequencesAn analysis of the identity problems which the young encounter was conducted

at two levels. Th e aim of the initial stage of the examination was to determine the identity forms prevailing among the respondents (negative, opposition, ineff ec-tive, internally incoherent, mirror, postponed, internally and externally coherent) (Tab. 1, Fig. 1); and the next stage was an attempt to determine the general identity categories (pro-developmental, integrated vs. anti-developmental, disintegrated; internally disintegrated vs. disintegrated with the world; self-refl ective vs. non-refl ective) (Tab. 2, Fig. 2).

A triad of the main identity types has been reported in the survey. Th e prevailing one was an integrated identity, internally coherent and integrated with the exter-nal world, rationalized (32.38%); a less common one was an opposition identity, rebellious, in disagreement with the external world (19.65%); and fi nally a mirror identity, refl ected, excessively and non-refl ectively conformist (Fig. 1). Th is points to the fact that young people choose various adaptation strategies, predominantly rational ones (refl ective conformism), and less frequently emotional (rebellion) or indiff erent ones (non-refl ective conformism, servility).

Two criteria have been taken into account while investigating the general categories of identity problems (Tab. 2, Fig. 2): developmental consequences of the particular “I states” (integrated, pro-developmental vs. disintegrated, anti-developmental); and the mechanisms which underlie the self-creation problems


(internal vs. external disintegration, non-refl ectivity) or support the process of self-creation (self-refl ection, making conscious choices).

Th e analysis of potential developmental consequences (Fig. 2) indicates that various versions of anti-developmental identity (67.63%) dominate over a pro-developmental one, grounded on self-refl ective self-creation (32.37%). However, the survey results reveal a range of various underlying mechanisms, the most prevailing of which is internal identity incoherence (self-negation – 31.21%). Negation of the surrounding reality (externalizing blame onto the environment), and non-refl ective indiff erentism (nothing can be done), constitute a consider-

Fig. 1: Identity forms experienced nad reported by the surveyed academic youth (N=173)

Table 1: Identity forms experienced and reported by the surveyed academic youth (N=173)

Forms of identity n % RankNegative identity (“I’m not OK.”) 21 12.14 4Opposition identity, rebellious (“You’re not OK.”) 34 19.65 2Ineff ective, insecure identity (“impoverishing, neurotic”) 11 6.36 6“Diff used” identity (internally incoherent, diff usion) 13 7.51 5Mirror identity (non-refl ective, conformist “I”) 29 16.76 3Postponed identity (indolent, passive, helpless “I”) 9 5.20 7Integrated identity (internally and externally coherent) 56 32.38 1

Total 173 100.00 –

32.38

5.2

6.36

19.65

12.14

16.76

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

integrated identity

postponed identity

mirror identity

ineffective, insecure identity"diffused" identity

opposition identity

negative identity

28 Ewa Wysocka

ably lower proportion of the data collected in the survey (31.21% and 19.66% respectively). Th is proves that young people place the blame for the crisis situation they experience onto themselves, which consequently might trigger off the process of defensive projection of the blame for the problems they encounter onto the sur-rounding environment, or lead to abandoning the attempts at genuine self-creation (borrowed identity).

Fig. 2: Developmental consquences and the mechanisms underlying the process of identity creaction, as preceived by academic youth (N=173)

Table 2: Developmental consequences and the mechanisms underlying the process of identity creation, as perceived by academic youth (N=173)

Developmental consequences of identity problems n %– pro-developmental “I states” (ego-identity status) 56 32.37– anti-developmental “I states” (ego-identity status) 117 67.63

Total 173 100.00Mechanisms underlying the process of identity creation n %– self-depreciation (internally disintegrated identity) 54 31.21– depreciation of the world (identity disintegrated with the world) 34 19.66– refl ectivity (self-refl ective identity, consciously created) 56 32.37– copying (non-refl ective, borrowed identity) 29 16.76

Total 173 100.00

67.63

16.76

32.3731.2132.37

19.66

0

20

40

60

80

100

pro-d

evelopmental

reflectiveness

anti-developmental

self-

depreciatio

n

depreciatio

n

of the w

orldco

pying,

non-reflectiv

e identit

y


2. Rebellion as experienced by academic students – forms and kinds of rebellionRebellion against the reality created by adults, potentially arising from adolescent

idealistic attitudes and beliefs, is an inherent psychosocial characteristic of young people. Th e study of the fundamental forms of rebellion (Tab. 3, Fig. 3), distin-guished on the basis of the forms of manifestation (open, behavioural rebellion vs. emotional, hidden rebellion), as well as the underlying sources (idealistic altruism vs. rational egoism); reveals a rather interesting regularity, namely prevalence of hidden rebellion (56.65%) of the egoistic nature (60.12%).

Table 3: Forms and underlying sources of rebellion experienced by academic youth (N=173)

Forms of rebellion n %Emotional (hidden) rebellion 98 56.65Behavioural (open) rebellion 75 43.35

Total 173 100.00Underlying sources of rebellion n %Altruistic rebellion (idealism) 69 39.88Egoistic rebellion (realism) 104 60.12

Total 173 100.00

Fig. 3: Forms and underlying sources of rebellion experienced by academic youth (N=173)

56.65

43.35 39.88

60.12

0

20

40

60

80

100

emotional

rebellion

behavioural

rebellion

altruist

ic

rebellion

egoistica

l

rebellion

30 Ewa Wysocka

Th is result proves the existence of both instrumentalism and external control (hidden rebellion), as well as egocentrism (egotistic rebellion). According to the theory of positive disintegration (Dąbrowski 1975, 1979), which emphasizes two fundamental dimensions of the process of identity development: egocentrism vs. pro-social attitude (attitude towards others – “extended I”), external vs. internal control (autonomy and subjectivity of an individual), the development of the surveyed youth is characterized by immature personality (externally controlled, with a “limited I”).

3. Strategies for coping with an identity crisis, reported by the surveyed studentsIt appears that the coping strategies reported by the surveyed students partially

correlate with the self-descriptions they provided, as well as the forms of rebellion (Tab. 4, Fig 4).

Th e survey results appear to show something of a paradox, related to the fact that the surveyed youth reported rebellion against the world of adults, but at the

Table 4: Strategies for coping with a crisis, reported by academic youth (N=173)

Reported coping strategy n % Quotient H:L Rank

Social support – low fi gures (L) – high fi gures (H)

65108

37.5762.43

1.66 1

Total 173 100.0 – –Constructive activity – low fi gures (L) – high fi gures (H)

7895

45.0954.91

1.22 2

Total 173 100.0 – –Indirect, active escape – low fi gures (L) – high fi gures (H)

7994

45.6654.34

1.19 3

Total 173 10.00 – –Direct escape – low fi gures (L) – high fi gures (H)

8786

50.2949.71

0.99 4

Total 173 100.0 – –


same time 62.43% of the respondents declared that they seek adults’ support in coping with problems (quotient H:L=1.66). It provides indirect evidence that there is “hunger for authority”, and describes the underlying mechanism of rebellion, which is rooted in the fact that adults fail to perform certain duties that are aimed at supporting self-creation of an individual.

Th e second common strategy adopted by young people is constructive, rational and conscious coping with inner crises (54.91%; quotient H:L=1.22), which points to considerable autonomy, independence as well as personal and social maturity of the respondents.

Th e survey results indicate that young people attach not much lesser importance to searching for some substitute ways of coping with problems, which undoubtedly springs from lack of other possibilities, and most commonly takes the form of intellectual-distancing (54.34%; quotient H:L=1.19), rather than emotional escape (49.71%; quotient H:L=0.99).

Summing up, the analysis of the coping strategies reported by the surveyed academic youth reveals slight prevalence of anti-developmental coping strategies, which do not allow development of an individual’s potential (quotient H:L=1.25), over pro-developmental ones (quotient H:L=1.22). Th is proves inner chaos, ambivalence in decision-making, reactive bahaviour, insuffi cient ability to control one’s own life in a coherent, integrated and rational way, which simultaneously points at unsolved identity dilemmas.

Fig. 4: Strategies for coping with a crisis, reportedby academic youth (N=173)

1.66

1.22

0.99

1.25

1.22

1.19

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

social support

constructive activity

indirect, active escape

direct escape

anti-developmental coping strategies

pro-developmental coping strategies

32 Ewa Wysocka

Final thoughts

An interdisciplinary perspective on the adaptation problems among the young generation, presented in this study, is characteristic of the social pedagogical approach, which focuses on the very individual who creates his or her own life on the basis of the person’s conceptions of the world and life as well as under the infl uence of the social environment which conditions an individual’s development. However, it should be assumed that even according to the classical conception of social pedagogy (a theory of social forces) the focal point in the refl ection on human everyday life is a human being and his perspective on his own life. It results from the fact that it is a human being who creates his own existence, which has a reciprocal eff ect on an individual. Although the existence conditions prove to be considerably important to an individual’s development, a human being, endowed with awareness, is able to make a refl ective assessment and a fi nal decision. It can be assumed that a young individual is potentially able to choose his or her own path of life, since the person gains a psychological status of an independent individual, which results from the fact that the individual creates his or her own identity (“me like me”), distinct or gradually distinguished from social identity, borrowed during childhood (“me like us”). Th is does not mean that the person loses it, but an individual modifi es the social identity, imparting on it his or her own individual personal attributes, which originally stem from simple, non-refl ective opposition against the concept of the world (and self) introduced by the adult generation (and culture), subsequently transforming as a rule into refl ective opposition, linked with awareness of one’s own individual objectives (transformation of rebellion). It means, however, that in the educational and socializing circumstances, which favour this phenomenon, a generation of educators should adopt an attitude of “democratic consent to independent mistake-making and self-creation”.

Translated by Iwona Mrozińska

Bibliography

Dąbrowski,K. (1975).Osobowość i jej kształtowanie poprzez dezintegrację pozytywną. Warszawa: PTHP.

Dąbrowski, K. (1979). Dezintegracja pozytywna. Warszawa: PIW.Erikson, E.H. (2000). Dzieciństwo i społeczeństwo. Poznań: Rebis.Erikson, E.H. (2004). Tożsamość a cykl życia. Poznań: Zysk i S-ka.Mamzer, H. (2003). Tożsamość w podróży. Poznań UAM.


Marcia, J.E. (1966). Development and validation of ego-identity status, “Journal of Personality and Social Psychology”, no. 3 (5), pp. 551−558.

Marcia, J.E. (1967). Ego-identity status: relationship to change in self-esteem, maladjustment and authoritarianism, “Journal of Personality”, no. (1)35, pp. 118−133.

Mielicka, H. (2000). Proces rozwoju tożsamości, (w:) Socjologia wychowania. Wybór tekstów, (preface and study.) H. Mielicka. Kielce: Stachurski, pp. 11–48.

Oleszkowicz, A. (1995). Kryzys młodzieńczy – istota i przebieg. Wrocław: UWr.Oleszkowicz, A. (1996). Bunt dorastania – jego mechanizmy i funkcje, „Psychologia

Wychowawcza”, no. 5, pp. 394–402.Oleszkowicz, A. (2006). Bunt młodzieńczy. Uwarunkowania. Formy. Skutki.

Warszawa: Scholar.Ostrowska, K. (1998). Wokół rozwoju osobowości i systemu wartości, CM-PPP

MEN, Warszawa.Wysocka, E. (2005). Strategie radzenia sobie z kryzysem w wartościowaniu oraz

konsekwencje i wybrane wyznaczniki zjawisk kryzysowych wśród młodzieży akademickiej, „Auxilium Sociale”, no. 2, pp. 193–216.

The Success of UTB Social Pedagogy Study Discipline Graduates in Working Practice1

Abstract

In this contribution, the authors present the outcomes of fi eld research they conducted into gauging the success-rates of Social Pedagogy students in working practice. Th e authors set out the results of a questionnaire-based investigation, which served as the basis for further investigations into the development and monitoring of the skills, abilities and competences of social pedagogues in practice and in the preparation process for working in jobs in this fi eld. In this research, the authors oriented themselves on monitoring basic skills, abilities and linguistic com-petence as well as their satisfaction with their theoretical and practical preparation in the course of their studies at this university. Th e second part of the research deals with the adaptability of graduates in the workplace. In the concluding part of this study, the authors suggest conclusions and possibilities for further investigations.

Key words: social pedagogy, competence, graduate students, research.

Introduction

Contemporary requirements of social praxis require the improvement of the quality of the professional preparation and education of experts in the fi eld of Social Pedagogy. Th is pressure is transmitted mainly onto faculties and pedagogues

1 Th is paper was written within the work on the framework research grant ‘‘Determinants and development competences of social pedagogue in professional preparation”, GACR 406/09/1220.

Štefan Chudý, Svatava Kašpárková, Štefánia Kročková, Anna MasarikováCzech Republic

35The Success of UTB Social Pedagogy Study Discipline Graduates in Working Practice

concerned with the preparation and education of these students. Th e demading quality of this study discipline rests for instance on the linking of theory with prac-tice. Th e aim of every educational institution is to prepare and educate high-quality experts and professionals to be successful in working practice. Feedback from employers and, above all, from graduates not only provides a mirror for judging the quality of a given institution, but also the lack of such experts and the profi ling of the given professional fi eld (Ivanovičová, 2007 et. al.). One of the key criteria is graduates’ success.

Research activity in a given fi eld, e.g. the graduates’ success in the workplace, is nothing unusual in the course of endeavouring to improve the quality of further activities of tertiary educational establishments from the educational, research and developmental points of view. Th is process is the concern of each and every educational institution as well as of state and self-governing bodies. Th e contem-porary modern society requires the improvement of the quality of the professional preparation and education of experts in the social sphere. Experience gained to-date shows that graduates of individual types of study (e.g. social pedagogy) do not have problems with fi nding success in practice. Th e question, however, does remain – to what extent do graduates of a study discipline fi nd success in a given (their) fi eld and in working practice? Attention to similar problems and issues was paid by Cintulová, 2005, Gašperan 2005, Kremeňová, 2006, Gottvald, 2008 and others.

Basic information about the research

Th e research (whose fi rst part is presented in this study – concerning the 2007/2008 academic year) was oriented on graduates of the social pedagogy study discipline who completed their studies, defended their diploma theses, and suc-ceeded in the Rigorous State Final Examinations at TBU in Zlín. Th e basic aim of the study is to map the graduates’ success and to describe the skills and abilities they acquired in the course of their studies at FHS, TBU in Zlín.

Subsidiary research aims and objectives:To discover graduate success rate in the workplace. •To monitor acquired skills and abilities. •To map linguistic skills. •To achieve qualitative changes in the benefi ts of studies. •

36 Štefan Chudý, Svatava Kašpárková, Štefánia Kročková, Anna Masariková

We presupposed that the majority of the graduates would be promoted to better positions or would change their profession in line with the specialization of their studies at university upon attaining their Master’s degree.

Timetable and design of the research

Prior to the actual resolution of the problems and issues of the research, we took steps to familiarise ourselves in detail with the respondents on the basis of the information provided (e.g. materials and artefacts of their activities in the course of their studies) as well as on personal interviews and discussions. Th e collection of the quantitative data was by means of non-standardised questionnaires.

Feedback was obtained through individual entries used in the questionnaires.Th e research schedule and plan were:

Data collection (questionnaire-based investigation – preparation of the •questionnaire) – August, 2008.Actual selection of the research sample group – September, 2008. •Conducting and administering the questionnaire – November, 2008. •Processing and interpreting the research data – December, 2008 – January, •2009.

Research sample

Th e selection of the research sample was deliberate; of all the students studying in FHS, TBU in Zlin, we chose students who had successfully graduated from the Combined Studies Master’s Degree programme (further only the 2007/2008 academic year). Of the overall number of 47 graduates we approached, 40 returned a completed questionnaire, which represents a return success-rate of 85.1%. It is thus possible to state that the duly-completed questionnaires have such a high degree of reliability that conclusions may safely be drawn and based upon the information contained in them for the further improvement of the quality of the study discipline/fi eld, as well as for their application and exploitation in social-educational working practice (praxis). Th e overall sample was composed of 8 men and 32 women. Further, more precise data is presented in Table.1.


Data analysis procedure and methods

Th e analysis of the research material (i.e. the complete set of data) took place in the following stages:

Analysis of the responses to closed questions. •Analysis of the responses to semi-closed questions. •Analysis of the responses to open questions. •

In our research, we asked the respondents various types of questions. Th ese were sub-divided into three basic categories:

Identifi cation. •Th e willingness, skill and ability to get further educated . •Evaluation of the social benefi ts accruing to FHS, TBU graduates. •

In the further phases of the investigation, we submitted the set of data to the following types of analysis: Content Analysis, Quantitative Analysis, and Qualita-tive Analysis.

In our research, we understand the Content Analysis as a wide spectrum of subsidiary methods and approaches which serve as the analysis of any form of textual document with the aim of clarifying its signifi cance and meaning and determining its structure (Miovský, 2006, p. 238). Th e Content Analysis is oriented on topic, content and form. We designated these two as our basic initial starting-point category. By means of the same, and with the assistance of classifi cation and categorisation, we acquired and processed individual analyses in order to be able to interpret the consequent results and outcomes (cf. also Farkašová, 2006, Švec 2002).

Th e Quantitative Analysis was conducted on the basis of scores, i.e. Absolute Frequency and Relative Frequency. In quantitative research, social phenomena are usually investigated, analysed and evaluated by means of indicators/indices, i.e. inductive categories. Indices are oft en phenomena which are, in and of them-selves, observable and identifi able – including their characteristics (Ondrejkovič, 2005, p. 55). For us, indices were understood as individual entries included in the questionnaire.

Th e Qualitative Analysis was performed on the basis of pre-determined (by us) categorical fi elds and their appropriate inductive categories, i.e. indicators/indices. Th e indices themselves were processed on the basis of questions and answers.

Miovský (2006, p. 240) reminds us that categories (in our case, indices) must be exhaustive; must be mutually exclusive; and should be created in such a way that their inclusion in a research study could be acceptable by a variety of independent researchers. Our categories are the individual entries in our questionnaire and


help to identify their individual parts. In our work, we endeavoured to ensure that the categories issued from the same interpretative basis and maintained the same thematic lines.

In this sense – according to Miovský (2006, p. 240), we are talking about analyti-cal induction. We also made use of well-known facts about the theoretical basis of the problems and issues concerned (Chudý, 2007, 2008, Kraus, 2007, 2008), which were used to improve the quality of the qualitative interpretation of quantitative data.

In our interpretation of the obtained data, quality is represented by the responses which were processed in the form of the above-mentioned categories and quantity is represented by the above-mentioned Absolute Frequency. All of the above-mentioned steps include quantitative descriptions of the Absolute and Relative Frequency of the responses to a given type of question and the qualitative (content) analysis of their discursions.

Analysis of the responses

Within the scope of this study, we took the analysis of the outputs of the empiri-cal investigation to mean the analysis of the subsidiary results and outcomes. Th ese were processed as the results of responses to individual question items included in the questionnaire, which we present ( a selection of them) in this part of the text in the form of tables, graphs (Table 2 to Table 10; Graph 1 and 2.) and their subsequent interpretation.

How could you best characterise your employment or position/standing?Th e majority of our graduates are employed in the public administration •sector in middle – management positions. Th is related to non-profi t organi-sations and the private sector, which represented 30% of all the responses (Tab. 2).Th e responses correspond to the real-life situation, and confi rm the presump- •tion that graduates of the Social Pedagogy Combined Studies study discipline/fi eld at FHS, TBU in Zlin fi nd the validation of their studies (success in the labour market) in middle and higher management positions in the public administration sector as well as in the private sector

Name the fi rm(s), in which you are employedTh e graduates indicated similar results of 17.5% for both the Police ČR (Czech

Police Force) and the non-profi t sector. From the results, it follows that the given study discipline is sought out not only as a means for improving their activities to-


date (e.g. communication skills, diagnostics, social pathology, the legal aspects of their activities) for people working for the Czech Police Force and employees in the state sector), but also for acquiring new knowledge and skills (e.g. the applications of legal norms in practice, increasing their theoretical knowledge-base) and thereby increasing their “price” on the labour market, i.e. with the intent of changing their professional orientation and position (the non-profi t sector).

Seat of the fi rm(s) – Regions and townsWe tracked this question within the context of the diff erentiation of graduates

within the Czech Republic.Th e high percentage of the graduates from the Zlín Region is given by the •demographic composition of these graduates as well as the place of study of the given study discipline/fi eld.An interesting result is the high percentage (25%) of the graduates employed •within the South Moravian Region. We believe that this also results from the geographical division of the “map of the Czech Republic,” i.e. the shared borders of the Zlín and South Moravian regions (Tab. 3).Th is high percentage is also dependent upon the ability of graduates to fi nd •employment on the labour market in larger municipal localities, e.g. Brno, as well as within the overall infrastructure and demography of the Czech Republic.

Do you work in this study disciplinefi eld?Th is question allowed us to track the specifi c identifi cation of the graduates,

i.e. their ability to fi nd employment on the labour market and in praxis in the Socio-educational sphere.

In the course of repeating the given research study, we recommend, on the basis of the data obtained (75% positive responses), further sub-dividing this question according to the appropriate ministerial resorts; or according to the “Classifi ca-tion of Core Educational Field” (further only CCEF) keyword, the “Employment Classifi cation” keyword (further only EC), or the “Sector-related Classifi cation of Economic Activity” keyword (further only SCEA) (cf. Fig. 1).

How satisfi ed are you with the level of theoretical knowledge?Th e high degree represented by the 67.5% of the positive response rate •confi rms the assumption (Tab.4).In repetition of this research study, we would recommend expanding the •given question by including concrete possibilities of responses to the given item (i.e. to its detailed specifi cation) at the following levels: Th e Science of Education, Th e Science of Psychology, Th e Science of Social Sciences, Th e Science of Law and Legislation, and Th e Science of Economic Sciences.


How satisfi ed are you with the level of practical skills and abilities? 67.5% of the respondents were “quite satisfi ed” with the level of practical skills

and abilities. What is interesting is the 10% of the respondents’ dissatisfaction. In further research, we shall concentrate on discovering the reasons for this dis-satisfaction from a content point-of-view, (cf. Tab. 5).

Are you willing to educate yourself further?In the course of refi ning the questionnaire, we would recommend expanding

this question with a concrete professional fi eld scale “CCEF” (cf. Fig. 1. above); or, as required, with concrete Life Long Learning courses provided by FHS, UTB in Zlín (Tab. 6).

How many foreign languages can you speak fl uently? (At least at an upper-intermediate to intermediate level).

Th is question allows us to gauge the linguistic abilities and level of graduates. Th e question is oriented on the growth of language skills in correlation to the tuition of languages at FHS, UTB in Zlin in the given study discipline/fi eld. From the responses, it is clear that the graduates have mastered (50% of responses) only one foreign language at the intermediate level (Fig. 2).

Recommendations for practice:Increasing the intensity of foreign language tuition (i.e. two) during Bachelor •degree studies.Embedding bilingual elements into the tuition process. •Integration of minimum one examination in a foreign language – especially •in English.Providing students with foreign-language literature as well as the basic •literature.

Do you agree with the statement that, as a newly-recruited graduate, you are a benefi t to your fi rm?

In view of the fact that a high percentage of the students changed employers •in the period following their successful graduation, this question is actually oriented more on assessing the benefi t for the “new fi rm” (Tab. 7).75% of the responses were positive; from which it is clear that newly-recruited •graduates are a benefi t for their present employers.

If yes, in what way(s)?35% of the graduates see their benefi t in the acceptance of new strategies •which they might be able to infl uence.50% see their benefi t in the education of their worker(s). •In this question, we would recommend further, more detailed specifi cation •of the item “Education of Workers” (Tab. 8).


Based on your experience, would you recommend other FHS graduates to your employer?

90% of all the responses said yes; from which it is clear that the level of •theoretical knowledge and practical skills and abilities is variable and suc-cessful in practice (Tab. 9).Th e extremely high percentage of positive responses also expresses loyalty to •the study discipline/fi eld at the concrete university (TBU in Zlin).

If Yes, why?Almost 50% of the respondents indicated their willingness to recommend new

employees, the main reason being the requested qualifi cations achieved in the course of studies; 42.5% responded that it was the good theoretical knowledge-base for the given work fi eld (Tab. 10).

Conclusions to the research study – results and recommendations for further research

Th e basic feature of the results and outcomes of this piece of research was success (of the graduates) in the structures of the public administration sector and self-governing bodies, in the academic fi eld (universities) and in professions closely-related to the studied discipline or fi eld.

Th e second category of interest was the willingness, ability and skill to further develop oneself in the given study discipline/fi eld as well as in the fi eld of linguistic skills.

Th e third category of interest was the evaluation of the benefi ts gained by the graduates and their studies at FHS, TBU in Zlín. We had supposed that the majority of the graduates would be promoted to a better position in the current employ-ment upon completion of their Master’s degree studies; or that they would change profession in line with the specialization of their studies at university.

We consider our research as a pilot research project leading to further research into the problems and issues of educating social pedagogues and their success in practice and the labour market. It is essential in the repetition of this research to:

Increase the quality of the data analysis, i.e. to make the questionnaire even •more precise, valid, and reliable. Attempt to integrate rating indices – scales. •Change certain items or entries in the questionnaire – cf. the Interpretation •of the data provided by individual items/entries.


Make the processing of the data even more precise, on a larger sample of •respondents – to make use of Cluster, Correlation and Descriptive Analyses.Make the Qualitative and Content Analyses more specifi c through using •qualitative and values analyses for specifi c indicators/indices.

Conclusion

Our work was concerned with the analysis of the TBU Social Pedagogy gradu-ates` success in practice and on the labour market. It monitored the basic questions relating to the successful validation and development of skills and abilities as the basis for determining the competence of social pedagogues in working practice (praxis). Our study pointed out reserves (defi ciencies) in education and the high level of success of the TBU graduates on the labour market.

In conclusion, we can safely state that, upon completion of this research, it proved necessary to carry out changes in the composition of the subjects off ered, to their content, and also in the accreditation materials of the given study discipline/fi eld.

Our study made up the fi rst part (Input) of the GAČR 406/09/1220 grant-maintained project entitled: “Th e Determination and Development of the Competences of Social Pedagogues in Th eir Professional Education”. More infor-mation about this grant-maintained project can be found at: http://web.fh s.utb.cz/?id=0_5_3_0&lang=cs&type=0.

References

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Fabuš, J., Valovičová, S. & Kremeňová, I. (2006). Uplatnenie absolventov študijného oboru poštová a telekomunikačná prevádzka v praxi. In Pošta telekomunikácie a ektronický. obchod. III/2006. ISSN 1336–8281.

Gašperan, J. (2005). Disparita medzi prácou a vzdelaním. In Hospodárske noviny. 28.1., s. 2.

Gottvald a kol. Uplatnitelnost absolventů škol v podnicích a organizacích Moravsko-slezského kraje. [on-line]. [cit.13.1.2009]. dostupné na: http://resa.rza.cz/www/fi le.php?id=72&PHPSESSID=8661d9bf3740e195ec57392a6f6fc7a3.


Hroncová, J., Emmerová, I. & Kraus, B. (2007). Dejiny sociálnem pedagogiky. Banská Bystrica: UMB. ISBN 978–80–8083–436–4.

Chudý, Š. (2007). Possibilities for Research into the Development of Pedagogical Skills in Resolving Educational Situations. In Th e Educational Review. Vol. 11, No.1, pp 21–37. ISSN 1732–6729.

Chudý, Š. (2008). Development and Creation Determinants of Decision-making Competencies in the Preparation of Social (Services) Pedagogues on TBU in Zlin. In Th e Educational Review. Vol. 16, No.3–4, pp 243–254. ISSN 1732–6729.

Ivanovičová, J. (2007). Súvislá pedagogická prax – vyvrcholenie pregraduálneho štúdia. Medzinárodná vedecká konferencia „Vzdelávanie v zrkadle doby“ Nitra: PF UKF. s. 196–200, ISBN 978–80–8094–085–0.

Kraus, B. (2008). Základy sociální pedagogiky. Praha: Portál. ISBN 978–80–7367–383–3.

Miovský, M. (2006). Kvalitativní přístup a metody v psychologickém výzkumu. Praha: Grada. ISBN 80–247–1362–4.

Švec, Š. (2002). Základné pojmy v pedagogike a andragogike. Bratislava: IRIS. ISBN 80–8901–831–9.


Appendix: Tables and fi gures

Tab. 1: Breakdown of graduates by age

Age Category Graduate Numbers Relative Frequency (%)

Up to 20 0 0.0%21–30 16 40.0%31–40 15 37.5%41–50 9 22.5%

Total: 40 100.0%

Tab. 2: Characteristics of graduates’ employment

Employee of: AbsoluteFrequency

Relative Frequency (%)

Public administration sector at a higher level 2 5%Public administration sector – other levels 12 30%Private companies 8 20%Other 12 30%

Total: 40 100%

Tab. 3: Demographic diff erentiations of employers

Region Absolute Frequency


South Moravia 10 25.0%Zlín 17 42.5%Prague 4 10.0%Moravian-Silesian 4 10.0%Mid-Czech 3 7.5%Olomouc 2 5.0%Total: 40 100.0%


Fig. 1: Graduates’ professional fi eld

Tab. 4: Satisfaction with overall theoretical knowledge

Response Absolute Frequency


Very satisfi ed 13 32.5%Quite satisfi ed 27 67.5%Unsatisfi ed 0 0.0%Rather unsatisfi ed 0 0.0%

Total: 40 100.0%

Tab. 5: Satisfaction with the practical skills and abilities



Very satisfi ed 9 22.5%Quite satisfi ed 27 67.5%Unsatisfi ed 0 0.0%Rather unsatisfi ed 4 10.0%Total: 40 100.0%

Tab. 6: Willingness to educate oneself further



Yes 35 87.5%No 5 12.5%

Total: 40 100%

75%

25% Yes

No


Fig. 2: Linguistic skills

Tab. 7: Graduation as a benefi t 1



Yes 30 75%No 10 25%

Total: 40 100%

Tab. 8: Graduation as a benefi t 2



Low cost 6 15%Education of workers 20 50%Providing new ways of thinking, ideas and opinions 14 35%

Total: 40 100%

Tab. 9: Recommendations of new workers/employees



Yes 36 90%No 4 10%

Total: 40 100%

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

one two 3 or more

Line 1

Foreign Language – Level


Tab. 10: Recommendation of new employees – Why?



Qualifi cations 20 50.0%Adaptability 1 2.5%Good level of theoretical knowledge 17 42.5%Assertiveness 2 5.0%

Total: 40 100.0%

Considerations on the Topic of Deciding about the Fault in Case of the Irretrievable Breakdown of Marriage in

Divorce Proceedings

Abstract

Th e article entitled “Considerations on the topic of deciding about the fault in case of the irretrievable breakdown of marriage in divorce proceedings” deals with the issue connected with the divorce regulations stipulated in the Family and Guardianship Code currently in force. It particularly applies to determining the fault for the irretrievable breakdown of marriage in divorce proceedings. “Looking for persons who are at fault for the breakdown of marriage” is currently a very controversial issue.

Th is article deals with doubts about the relevance of regulations related to the fault for the breakdown of marriage which arise from the increase in the divorce rate observed in recent years as well as growing social acceptance of dissolving a marriage by a divorce. Also, the court practice indicates that a clash of personali-ties is currently the major reason for divorces. Spouses more and more oft en apply for a no-fault dissolution of their marriages. Th ey decide on the so-called “civilised divorce”.

And here the question arises whether “the divorce path” should not be facilitated when the divorce is only the formal statement of the relationship terminated a long time ago.

Key words: divorce, fault for the breakdown of marriage, grounds for divorce, the dissolution of marriage, family and guardianship law.

Th e Polish divorce law states that in the event of the irretrievable breakdown of marriage between spouses (Th e Family and Guardianship Code issued on 25th

Karolina Walancik-RybaPoland

49Considerations on the Topic of Deciding…

February 1964, article 56 § 1 k.r.o, cf. also K. Pietrzykowski 2003, p. 509) each of the spouses may apply to the court for the dissolution of their marriage by a divorce. Divorce is, however, impermissible even though there is this positive ground for it (J. Ignatowicz 1998, p. 147) if, as a result of this, the welfare of their minor children would suff er (Th e Family and Guardianship Code issued on 25th February 1964, article 56 § 2 k.r.o.). Divorce may not also be granted when it would be contradictory to the principles of social intercourse, e.g. when one of the spouses is terminally ill, requires some fi nancial assistance from the other spouse and a divorce would infl ict considerable harm on him/her (K. Siergiej 1997, p. 383). Divorce is also impermissible if it is required by the spouse who is entirely at fault for the breakdown of the marriage (Th e Family and Guardianship Code issued on 25th February 1964, article 56 § 3 k.r.o). Th e empirical research suggests that the number of dismissed actions due to the petitioner’s exclusive fault for the breakdown of their marriage is considerable. Out of 208 dismissed actions – the total number of cases which were studied – in 120 of them the court did not decide on the irretrievable breakdown of the marriage, in 62 of them the exclusive fault of a petitioner was found and in 26 of them the court dismissed the action due to the welfare of the spouses’ minor children or due to the contradiction to the principles of social intercourse for reasons other that the welfare of children (W. Stojanowska 1997, p. 420). In principle, this regulation counteracts the danger of arbitrary ter-mination of marriages. However, it allows for the termination of a dead relationship if both the party at fault and the party who is not at fault unanimously apply for a divorce. Th is standpoint is based on the conviction that a dead relationship is not capable of meeting its social task (Th e Supreme Court Guidelines issued on 26th April 1952, OSN 1952, item 1 point V). Th ere are two exceptions to this principle: when the other spouse gives consent to a divorce or when a refusal to give consent in given circumstances is contradictory to the principles of social intercourse.

Granting a divorce, the court also decides, and if so, which of the spouses is at fault for the breakdown of their marriage (Th e Family and Guardianship Code issued on 25th February 1964, article 56 § 1 k.r.o, J. Ignatowicz 1998, p. 157, Z. Krzemiński 2004, p. 84, H. Hakk 1998 p. 59, B. Czech 2002, p. 365 and further, Z. Gawrońska – Wasilowska 1966, p. 99, M. Kalinowski, M. Nastarewicz 1985 p. 55, cf. also the statement issued on 2nd March 1957 CO 2/57, OSiPKA 1957, item 67 with the opinion of Z. Wiszniewski). As for this principle expressed in article 57 § 1 k.r.o., there is a possibility not to decide who is at fault. (Th e Family and Guardianship Code issued on 25th February 1964, article 57 § 2 k.r.o, H. Haak 1998, p.59, T. Smyczyński 2005 p.135 and further; cf. also J. Gajda 1999, p. 207 and further).

50 Karolina Walancik-Ryba

Planned amendments to divorce regulations in the Polish legislature

Th ere has been a debate related to the amendments to family and guardianship regulations in recent years. Two extreme views have been presented. According to the fi rst one, the regulations relating to divorce shall remain unchanged. According to the other one, de lege ferenda, the institution of legal separation shall be rejected since it limits the institution of divorce, yet the court procedure shall be facilitated practically resigning from positive grounds for a divorce (K. Pietrzykowski 1997, p. 272).

Th e draft bill which was lodged in the Sejm (Polish parliament) in 1994 aimed at maximal facilitation of procedures for spouses to be granted a divorce. Th e aim was to be reached by removing all grounds concerning spouses, leaving the only ground, the so-called negative one, namely “child welfare’ (Druk sejmowy no. 800, 28th September 1994). In practice, this could also mean, for instance, granting a divorce to spouses who, aft er an argument, rush into making a deci-sion that they should part and before they think it over, they are already divorced (W. Stojanowska 1997, p. 305).

Such a solution which provides for a removal of the issue of fault could not deserve approval due to the fact that the decision about a divorce would be left to spouses themselves without any control of the court, in particular, at a petitioner’s request (T. Smyczyński 1997, p. 242). Determination of the fault for the breakdown of marriage may also aff ect the decision related to the parental authority (B. Czech 2002, p. 376). Th e fault for the breakdown of marriage itself does not lead to the limitation, suspension or deprivation of parental authority for a spouse, since, while assessing the behaviour of spouses in the context of the fault for the breakdown of their marriage, the relations between spouses are the point of reference, whereas, while deciding about the parental authority, the assessment of a child’s situation is decisive (K. Gromek, Mon. prawn. 2007, no 2 p. 108). Determination of a spouse’s fault imposes a responsibility on the court in terms of careful examination whether the spouse aft er a divorce will exercise his/her authority to ensure child welfare and will act in compliance with the social interest (J. Winiarz 2003, p. 529).

Th e fault in such a case is not a ground, but one of the circumstances which the court has to consider in order to decide appropriately on rights and responsibilities of spouses towards their minor children. Th ere are no legal obstacles for the court to entrust the parental authority over minor children to the spouse who is at fault for the breakdown of the marriage if the welfare of the children requires so (cf.


the Decision of the Supreme Court issued on 30th November 1954, 2 CR 1229/54, OSN 1957 no. 2 item 35, cf. also J. Sauk 1967, p. 26). However, when the chances of both parents seem more or less equal, the fault is this factor which may have decisive signifi cance. Th ere are also such kinds of fault as alcoholism or immoral conduct which on principle determine the issue of granting the parental authority over a child (Z. Gawrońska – Wasilkowski 1966, p. 97).

Child welfare is then connected with the welfare of family and thus child welfare cannot be precisely and thoroughly assessed without considering the situation of feuding parents (T. Smyczyński 1997, p. 242). Divorce itself does not breach child welfare since this welfare was endangered before due to the breakdown of his/her parents’ marriage (W. Stojanowska 1979, p. 117), however, improper insight into the child’s situation in the family before the divorce may result in a wrong assessment of his/her situation aft er divorce.

Th e draft has been criticized and rejected since the dissolution of marriage, which is the foundation of the family, cannot be deprived of control (W. Stojanowska 1979, p. 244). Th e total elimination of the grounds for a divorce would weaken or even lead to the elimination of the feeling of responsibility for family or for the other person with whom we enter into marriage. Th e number of marriages concluded hastily without any prospects of surviving would increase as well (W. Stojanowska 1997, p. 307).

Final remarks

Since the beginning of the 1990s’, the divorce rate has been on the increase in Poland, which, undoubtedly, contributes to the growing social consent given to the dissolution of marriages “through a divorce” and the liberalization of opinions related to the institution of marriage (BS/43/2008, p. 1). Th e surveys show that in Poland the supporters of divorce constitute a more numerous group than its objectors. (Th e survey entitled “Th e Current Problems and Events” carried out between 1st and 4th February 2008 on a group consisting of 1137 persons chosen at random among the grown-up residents of Poland). Every fi ft h person who took part in the survey claims that if both spouses decide for divorce they should not encounter any obstacles (BS/43/2008, p. 2).

Th e court practice shows that parties oft en apply for the dissolution of their marriage without determining the fault (cf. also J. Winiarz 1985, p. 584, compare W. Siedlecki’s gloss to the decision of the Supreme Court issued on 30th September


1960, OSPiKA 1961, item 314, cf. also the resolution of the Supreme Court issued on 2nd July 1985, III CZO 39/85-OSN CAP 1986, no. 5, item 68). Th e co-called civilised divorce is mentioned in such cases. It enables spouses to terminate an unhappy marriage with dignity (H. Hakk 1998, p. 62). Approximately 75%-80% of cases are solved pursuant to the regulation stated in article 57 § 2 k.r.o. Th is per-centage also applies to the court decisions in which the court does not determine the issue of fault (Z. Krzemiński 2004, p. 86). It does not exempt the court from the obligation to determine whether the irretrievable breakdown of marriage between spouses has taken place (cf. J. Winiarz 1985, p. 584 compare the guidelines of the Supreme Court issued on 28th May 1955, point IV, section 1). However, the court does not make the proceedings more diffi cult if the irretrievable breakdown of marriage has occurred between spouses and they want to terminate their marriage in a civilised way (K. Siergiej 1997, p. 385). Determination of the reasons for the breakdown of marriage does not breach the right for privacy of the divorcing spouses. Th e marriage and its permanence is not a private matter, children who are part of society come from a marriage. Th us, spouses may not be enabled to obtain a divorce without any control of the court.

In doctrine there are some doubts whether in some cases the court control could not be limited e.g. in case of a childless marriage (T. Smyczyński 1997, p. 244). Th e argument against such a solution is the standpoint pursuant to which the lack of off spring may not serve as a kind of privilege which could be a faster and facilitated “divorce procedure”.

In most cases divorce is a formal ending of the breakdown of marriage already lasting for some time. Creating legal obstacles while deciding about divorce will not aff ect the relations between the spouses and will not improve the mental condi-tion of their children who are oft en witnesses of family confl icts and arguments (E. Grzegorzewska-Mischke 1997, p. 401).

Th e legislator striving for reduction in the number of divorces by introducing rigorous regulations reached their goal only formally since such a decision made by two persons is not an easy one and is usually the eff ect of such situations in marriage which cannot be changed or accepted, yet looking for the person who is at fault for the breakdown of marriage usually exacerbates the already existing confl ict (T. Smyczyński 1997, p. 242).

Finishing the considerations about determining the fault for the breakdown of marriage in divorce proceedings I conclude that if the amendment to the family and guardianship law is needed, as for the issue related to divorces maintaining the clause of the breakdown of marriage, the change should apply to article 57 of the family and guardianship code, pursuant to which marriage dissolution without


stating the fault should be the principle (as it happens in practice). However, § 2 of this article should account for the possibility to determine the fault by the court in case when one of the spouses requires that this issue is to be looked into (K. Siergiej 1997, p. 385).

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Stojanowska, W. (1977). Problematyka rozwodów w świetle badań, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Prawnicze.

Stojanowska, W. (1997): Poselski projekt zmian w polskim prawie rozwodowym (przedstawiony w Sejmie w lutym 1995 roku). In: B. Czech (ed.), Czy potrzebna jest w Polsce zmiana prawa rodzinnego i opiekuńczego? Katowice: Instytut Wymi-aru Sprawiedliwości Ośrodek Terenowy przy Sądzie Wojewódzkim.

Stojanowska, W. (1977): Problematyka rozwodów w świetle badań, Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Prawnicze.


Komunikat z badań Centrum Badań Opinii Publicznej BS/43/2008. [Poles’ attitude towards divorce], (2008). Warszawa.

Uchwała SN z dnia 2 lipca 1985, III CZP 39/85 – OSN CAP 1986, nr 5, poz. 68 [Th e decision of the Supreme Court issued on 2nd July 1985, III CZP 39/85 – OSN CAP 1986, no. 5, item 68.]

Wytyczne SN z dnia 26 kwietnia (1952), OSN 1952, poz. 1, pkt V [Th e Guidelines of the Supreme Court dated 26th April (1952), OSN 1952, item 1, point V]

Wytyczne SN z dnia 28 maja (1955), pkt 4, ust. 1 [Th e Guidelines of the Supreme Court dated 28th May (1955), point IV, section 1].

Special Pedagogy

The Community System in Re-Socialization Institutions for Adolescents

Abstract

In the years 2006–2008, a team of university lecturers from the Department of Pedagogy of the University of Ostrava carried out research in institutions for re-education. Th e investigation included all the institutions for re-education in the Czech Republic. Institutions for re-education are boarding homes for re-socializa-tion focusing on adolescents with severe behavioural disorders. Th e research was aimed at the management and inter-personal relations of the staff , mapping the professional duties of the staff , mapping the professional activities of teachers and carers, re-socialization systems and children’s attitudes to their stay at these homes and the co-operation of these institutions with clients’ families, diagnostic centres and guardians. Th e data obtained from this research is cause for concern.

Th is paper concerns the overall design of the research and focuses on its fi rst part, i.e. the management and inter-personal relationships of the staff . Further papers will focus on the other areas of research.

Key words: institutions for re-education and re-socialization of children and youth, re-education, carer, teacher, co-operation with diagnostic centres, guardians and children’s families.

Introduction

Th is study is a follow up to the project called “Th e community system in re-socialization centres for adolescents” registered under No. 406/06/0731 by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic. Th e study draws upon the research carried

Julius Sekera Czech Republic

60 Julius Sekera

out in the years 2006 – 2008, mostly in institutions for re-education in the Czech Republic1. In some cases the institution for re-education was combined with a chil-dren’s home and school, which provided insight into this type of institutional care. Th e main aim of the investigation was to examine the conditions for educational care in these institutions, to assess the quality of educational care in re-education and re-socialization institutions, with a special focus on the areas mentioned below.

Children’s homes with schools and institutions for re-education are primarily established to provide re-education and re-socialization to children and adoles-cents. Children’s homes with schools are re-education and re-socialization institu-tions established to provide care to children up to 15 years of age. Institutions for re-education and re-socialization are established to provide care mostly (please see further) to adolescents over 15 years of age. Children in children’s homes are those who due to their severe behavioural disorders are placed there on the basis of a court order with supplemental institutional or preventive correctional education. Preventive correctional education is defi ned by the penal code. Such treatment is ordered by civil proceedings to all persons between 12 – 15 years of age who commit a crime for which persons who are legally responsible can be prosecuted. In short, preventive correctional education can be applied to persons under 15 years of age who commit crimes considered as criminal acts when persons are legally responsible.

Th e research team was supervised by Julius Sekera. Th e members of the team were Milena Kurelová, Jaroslava Mišíková, Hana Kubíčková, Věra Filipi and Ondřej Sekera. Th ey are all members of the academic staff of the Pedagogical Faculty of the University of Ostrava. Each member of the team was responsible for a specifi c area of the research, for its focus and aims, as follows.

A. Management and interpersonal relationships of staff (Julius Sekera)Th e following questions were raised and focused on:

What are the general theoretical concepts of re-education and re-socializa- •tion? Which theoretical concepts of re-education and re-socialization are frequent •in institutions globally (and particularly in countries socio-culturally similar to ours) and in this country – Th e Czech Republic?

1 Th e fi rst information on this research was published in this journal (SEKERA, J., Project of Research in the Re-educational Institutes of the Czech Republic in the Period from 2006 to 2008. Th e New Educational Review, Vol. 13, 2007, No. 3-4, 217 – 230).

61The Community System in Re-Socialization Institutions for Adolescents

What is our knowledge of the staff in contemporary re-socialization institu- •tions for adolescents? Mainly:

What is the social climate among the various professional groups of a) the staff (management, carers, teachers) and perhaps also among the operational staff ?What is the informal structure of the staff ?b) What are the professional values of the staff ? How are these values c) perceived by the staff ?What is the interpersonal climate among the staff like?d)

In what ways do the institutions which, in comparison with others have •reached the highest values of quality in their social climate, diff er from those which attained the lowest score? Namely in:

the informal structure of the staff ;a) the value orientation of the staff ;b) the interpersonal orientation of the staff ?c)

B. Re-education and re-socialization in an institution (this area of research is divided into two relatively independent parts)

1. Re-education and re-socialization procedures in institutions and children’s views about their stay in these institutions (Hana Kubíčková)

What are the most important issues of re-education in re-education and •re-socialization institutions for adolescents are dealt with in the specialist literature?Which of the most important issues relating to the process of re-education •in re-education institutions for adolescents are dealt with in the specialist literature?Does the specialist literature refl ect the attitudes (opinions, etc.) of the clients •of re-education and re-socialization institutions? What attitudes to these questions can be traced in the specialist literature?Th e investigation itself focused on examining the following issues: •What are the components and contents of the re-education process in •re-socialization institutions, i.e. what concrete re-education programs and procedures are used in the process of re-education in selected institutions?Regarding the aims of the re-education process and designing re-education •programs and procedures, do the institutions start with a unifi ed concept of re-education? Do concrete theoretical principles guide their decisions? If so, what are these principles?

62 Julius Sekera

What documentation is used in the process of re-education in selected •institutions?What is the attitude of children (clients) to the re-education process? •

2. Professional and educational work of carers and teachers (Ondřej Sekera, Milena Kurelová)

How are the personalities of carers and teachers in re-education and re- •socialization institutions (for adolescents) refl ected in the current specialist literature?How does the current specialist literature describe the professional activities •and competences of carers and teachers in these institutions?Th e investigation focused on working out the professional diagram of a carer •and a teacher at a re-education and re-socialization institution for adolescents. Th e following tasks and objectives are related to this issue:To identify the time demands of professional activities carried out by carers •and teachers.To compare the actual professional activities of carers and teachers with the •activities advocated in government documents, in specialist publications and reports published by the Czech School Inspection Authority.To compare the professional activities of carers and teachers in the institutions •identifi ed at the fi rst stage of the research as institutions with a high value quality in the social climate among the staff with the institutions identifi ed as those with a low value of quality in the social climate among the staff .

C. Co-operation of re-education institutions with other important institutions from the point of view of the process of re-education (Jaroslava Mišíková, Věra Filipi)Th e focus of the study was on the following questions:

What co-operation can be seen between re-education institutions and diag- •nostic centres?What are the aspects of co-operation with probation offi cers? •What are the aspects of co-operation between children’s parents and re- •education institutions?

How is this co-operation carried out? What are the conditions and potential of such co-operation? Is there a real co-operation with families or is this co-operation only formal? In what ways can the re-educational process be supported in order to develop successfully?


In this paper, only the research data are presented. Th e theoretical tasks con-nected with the investigated issues are not presented here. Th e research was carried out at three main stages. At the fi rst stage (2006) we selected those re-education institutions in the Czech Republic which according to the chosen criteria were suit-able for further, more detailed analysis. At the second stage (2007), fi eld research was carried out in selected re-education institutions in the Czech Republic. At the third stage (2008), we focused on processing the data and evaluating the results.

Research into the fi elds of the management and interpersonal relations of the staff (A)

1. The issues and objectives of the research into the fi elds of the management and interpersonal relations of the staff Th e research focused on the following question: Do those re-education institu-

tions with a positive social climate among the staff diff er from those which in comparison with the previously mentioned group have a less positive climate among the staff in:

the climate among the main professional groups of the staff ;a) the informal structure of the staff ;b) the value orientation of the staff ;c) the interpersonal relations and attitudes of the staff ?d)

In detail, we researched into the following questions: What is the climate between the staff and the main professional groups 1) (the management, carers, teachers respectively also the climate among the operational staff )?What is the informal structure of the staff ?2) What is the value system of the staff like? How signifi cant is the value system 3) for carrying out the profession? Is there any cohesion among the staff regard-ing the value system?What are the interpersonal relations among the staff ?4)

2. Methodology of selecting sample I and sample II At the fi rst stage (2006), the basic sample of the research subjects was defi ned.

It was formed by all the re-education institutions of the Czech Republic. Besides the re-education institutions, children’s homes with schools were also included in the sample. Th ese were those children’s homes which were coupled with re-education institutions (e.g. a re-education institution and a children’s home with

64 Julius Sekera

school were managed by the same director and both institutions occupied the same premises).

According to the data gathered from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports and other available sources (Vocilka, 2001), there were 34 institutions in total in the period investigated. Other re-socialization institutions such as diagnos-tic institutions or centres for education were not included in the sample.

We found out that the re-education institutions, and children’s homes with a school were accumulated mainly in four regions of the Czech Republic. For the purpose of this investigation we called them Bohemia West, North, Moravia East, and South. Other institutions, geographically not part of any of the regions mentioned above, were included in the group closest to their own geographical area. Institutions providing care for girls were excluded from the sample as it appears that the processes examined may follow a diff erent pattern in institutions for girls (Sekera, 2002).

It was necessary to obtain premission from the director of an institution in order to carry out the investigation. Th e directors of selected institutions were informed in detail about the objectives of the research project. It was guaranteed that the collected data would be treated as anonymous. Th e anonymity of the respondents (members of the staff ) was also guaranteed. Yet, in two cases we were refused access to data collection.

In each of the four geographical regions three re-education institutions were randomly selected. Th e fi nal sample was 13 as in one of the regions, due to its larger number of re-education institutions, four institutions were eventually selected. Th e re-education institutions (further RIs) investigated at the fi rst stage were numbered 1–13. Th is numbering will be observed henceforth.

Only the members of the pedagogical staff participated in the fi rst stage of the research (sample I). Approximately 90 % of all the employees of re-education institutions took part in the investigation. Th e lowest representation was in RI No. 4 (75%) and the highest in RI No. 12 (100%). Table 1 shows the participation of the employees of an institution as well as the total number of employees

Th e basic demographic data regarding the sample are listed in Table 2. All the 311 respondents were coded according to their job positions, gender, age, length of experience, education and therapeutic, experiential or similar training.

From the point of view of job position, the respondents were divided into three relatively small groups: management, carers and teachers. As can be seen in Table 2, some of the institutions were lacking a school, therefore there were no teachers included in the sample. (RIs No. 4, 9, 12). As for gender, female staff prevailed in some institutions (RIs No. 6, 7, 12), but in most institutions, male staff were in the


majority. In RI No. 3, there were only male employees. In total, there were 195 male respondents and 111 female respondents.

Th e largest age group of the respondents was between 36 – 50 years of age (41% of 308 respondents), followed by those over 50 years of age (37%) and under 36 years of age (22%). Th e respondents over 50 years of age prevailed in RIs No. 1, 3 and 10, while the respondents up to 35 years of age prevailed in RI No. 13.

As for the length of experience, 27% of the respondents (from 309 respondents in total) had up to 5 years of experience and 27% had from 6 – 10 years of experi-ence. It may be said that approximately half of the respondents in our sample (54%) had up to 10 years of experience.

Table 1: Number of respondents in research

Number of RI

Numbers of pedagogical staff

Number of respondents Percentage

1 34 30 882 32 27 843 25 23 924 24 18 755 27 24 896 30 27 907 26 24 928 23 20 879 13 11 85

10 29 26 9011 20 19 9512 24 24 10013 40 38 95∑ 347 311 90

Table 2 shows the structure of institutions under investigation. 307 respond-ents answered the question regarding their education. Th e greatest percentage of the respondents had a secondary non-pedagogical education (38%). 21% of the respondents had a secondary pedagogical education and 21% a pedagogical higher education (specialized in special education, tutorship, social pedagogy). Twelve percent had a higher education in teaching and 7% other types of higher education.

66 Julius Sekera

As for psychotherapeutic or experiential2 training, 129 respondents answered our questions. In total, 10 respondents had participated in further training consisting of 500 hours and more. Moreover, three had completed training for supervisors. In total, 66 respondents had completed training consisting of 200 hours. Other numbers are insignifi cant. It is clear that the professionals who had received certifi cates in experiential training are spread among all the institutions in the sample. However, in none of these institutions do they form such a number which could play a more signifi cant role in re-education. It is worth mentioning that there were fairly large numbers of respondents who had gained certifi cates in experiential training consisting of 200 hours in RIs No. 2, 6 and 13.

In order to measure the climate among staff , two research tools were selected. A standardized Scale of Measuring the Social Climate in a Community (further SMC) was used (Kollárik, Černý, Letovancová et al. (T – 220, 1993).

SMC consists of 10 dimensions with 20 items each. A respondent responds to 200 statements in total, on a scale from agreement to disagreement. SMC enables the overall level of climate/social atmosphere to be diagnosed, and also the level of particular dimensions (ibid. p. 35). Th e overall information on our sample is described in Table 3.

Table 2: Main demographic data from sample I3

Identifi cation number of an institution1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 total

Job position

management 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 4 2 4 3 33carer 20 19 15 16 13 16 13 11 10 14 11 22 22 202teacher 7 5 6 0 7 9 5 6 0 8 6 0 12 71total 30 27 23 18 22 27 20 20 11 26 19 26 37 306

Gender male 21 22 23 13 17 8 4 11 4 16 16 11 29 195female 9 4 0 5 6 19 19 9 7 10 3 13 7 111total 30 26 23 18 23 27 23 20 11 26 19 24 36 306

2 Experiential training is training oriented mainly at learning through experience – emo-tional and personal experience from interpersonal relations.

3 Explanations for Table 2: Item Education: sec. – secondary, univ. – university/higher education, spec. – special education, ped. – pedagogy/tutorship, soc-ped. – social pedagogy, ped. – pedagogical, teacher ed. – teacher education.


Identifi cation number of an institution1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 total

Age up to 35 years. 8 5 1 8 3 5 2 4 5 3 2 8 15 69

36–50 years. 10 14 9 3 11 12 15 7 5 8 10 9 12 12551 years. and more 12 7 13 7 9 10 6 9 1 15 6 8 11 114

total 30 26 23 18 23 27 23 20 11 26 18 25 38 308Length of experience

up to 5 years. 7 8 10 10 0 4 8 2 5 7 5 4 14 846–10 years. 17 8 4 4 8 3 2 6 3 6 6 3 14 8411–15 years. 4 3 5 2 5 8 6 7 1 3 1 12 4 6116–20 years. 1 5 0 1 4 4 2 0 0 3 4 3 3 3021–30 years. 1 1 1 1 4 4 3 3 2 2 2 0 1 2531 years. and more 0 2 3 0 2 4 2 2 0 5 1 3 1 25

total 30 27 23 18 23 27 23 20 11 26 19 25 37 309Education sec. – ped. 7 5 4 3 7 8 2 5 3 8 4 2 8 66

sec. – others 16 2 14 14 4 10 12 5 2 7 10 3 19 118univ. – teacher ed. 0 10 2 0 3 0 2 1 0 0 2 14 2 36

univ. – spec., ped., soc-ped. 7 8 1 1 7 2 6 9 5 9 1 6 4 66

univ. – others 0 2 1 0 2 7 0 0 1 2 2 0 4 21total 30 27 22 18 23 27 22 20 11 26 19 25 37 307

Th erapeu-tic training

0 0 0 21 0 0 0 20 0 0 0 0 0 0 41200 hours 1 10 2 2 2 15 1 5 2 7 1 3 15 66500 hours 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 2 0 0 1 2 10supervisor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 3in training now 0 0 0 1 1 0 2 3 1 1 0 0 0 9

total 1 11 23 4 4 16 23 9 6 9 1 4 18 129

68 Julius SekeraTa

ble 3

: Av

erag

e val

ues o

f dim

ensio

ns o

f SM

C in

the s

ampl

e

Iden

tifi c

atio

n no

. of i

nstit

utio

n1

23

45

67

89

1011

1213

Psyc

holo

gica

l atm

osph

ere

15.3

16.4

17.3

17.4

10.9

14.8

17.1

16.9

17.3

12.5

16.7

15.1

16.0

Inte

rper

sona

l rel

atio

ns11

.09.

99.

39.

310

.010

.99.

79.

79.

111

.39.

210

.310

.6C

o-op

erat

ion

12.9

12.9

13.7

14.4

11.2

14.0

13.5

12.9

13.3

12.3

13.6

12.9

13.8

Mat

urity

of t

he g

roup

12.6

12.7

14.1

13.7

8.5

12.5

13.0

12.9

12.9

10.8

13.5

12.6

13.6

Com

mun

icat

ion

9.1

8.2

7.6

8.7

9.1

9.7

8.3

8.3

7.9

8.9

7.8

8.6

8.6

Man

agem

ent s

tyle

12.0

13.6

14.1

13.2

7.4

13.0

12.7

13.0

11.6

11.1

12.6

12.3

13.8

Attit

ude t

o w

ork

12.2

11.6

11.6

11.7

10.6

12.5

12.0

11.1

11.8

12.4

11.6

12.2

11.6

Focu

s on

succ

ess

15.4

14.7

14.3

14.9

12.3

14.9

14.1

14.7

14.4

14.1

15.1

14.6

14.6

Soci

al in

tegr

ity15

.215

.515

.816

.412

.714

.715

.815

.916

.014

.215

.516

.515

.1Sa

tisfa

ctio

n10

.411

.312

.711

.49.

110

.911

.511

.511

.011

.211

.611

.012

.2So

cial

atm

osph

ere –

tota

l12

6.1

126.

713

0.4

131.

210

2.6

127.

912

7.9

126.

812

5.3

118.

612

7.3

126.

112

9.0


Th e highest value of social atmosphere was reached in RI No. 4, i.e. 131.2 points. Another institution with a high value was RI No. 3 – 130.4 points. Th e third was RI No. 13 with the value of 129 points.

Th e lowest value was reached by RI No. 5, i.e. 102.6 points. Th is institution scored lowest in almost all the dimensions (except the dimensions of interpersonal relations and communication).

Th e second lowest score was obtained by RI No. 10, i.e. 118.6 points. Th e third lowest score in social atmosphere was reached by RI No. 9, i.e. 125.3 points.

Owing to the fact that the standardized Scale of Measuring the Social Climate is considered to be a general tool, not specifi cally aimed at measuring the school environment, and also due to the methodological requirement of examining the area of research by two tools at least, Th e Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire – OCDQ-RS designed by Kottkamp, Tarter and Hoy (further OCDQ) was selected.

Th is questionnaire was adapted and standardized for the conditions amongst Czech teaching staff by Lašek (2001, pp. 119–129). Th e questionnaire consists of 34 items which are evaluated by respondents using the scale: rarely, sometimes, frequently, very frequently. Th ere are fi ve components measured by these items – the fi rst two are focused on a management style, while the other three are focused on teachers’ feelings as a consequence of a particular management style and other factors of the climate (ibid., p. 120) Th e components are as follows:.

Th e principal’s / director’s supportive behaviour (PSB)1. 4 is characterized by constructive criticism and focuses on the welfare of the institution and that of the staff . Th e director motivates teachers and sets an example. Th e tasks of the education and teachers’ social needs are at the forefront of his/her interest.Th e principal’s / director’s directive behaviour (PDB)2. means that the director is a very strict, authoritative personality with rigorous criteria of assessment. Th e director supervises teachers’ work down to the smallest detail.Teacher’s enthusiastic behaviour (TEB) is represented by a person who is 3. proud of his/her school, and who enjoys co-operation with colleagues and is focused on pupils’ success. S/he has friendly relations with pupils, trusts them and believes in their abilities and their work results.

4 PSB, PDB, TEB, TFB, TIB, Open: abbreviations of English names of dimensions of the questionnaire used

70 Julius Sekera

Teacher’s frustrated behaviour (TFB) is represented by a person who feels 4. overloaded with routine duties, bureaucratic overload and unfriendly rela-tions with colleagues in the staff .Teacher’s intimate behaviour (TIB) is represented by a person with positive 5. responses to cohesive and friendly relations amongst the pedagogical staff . Teachers in the staff know each other well, they are close friends and they also spend time together even outside their place of work.

Th e whole climate can also be described using the index of openness (open). Th e questionnaire was adapted in such a way that it was possible to be accepted in the conditions of re-education institutions, but at the same time, the essential characteristics of items were observed. For example, the original term ‘teacher’ was replaced by the term ‘pedagogical worker’.

Th e following Table 4 compiles the fundamental data obtained in the 13 institu-tions.

An analysis of the statistical signifi cance of diff erences in the fi ve measured dimensions and the value of the index of openness (OCDQ) was carried out using a t-test.

On the basis of the methods used (SMC, OCDQ) for measuring the climate in 13 institutions (Sample I), three institutions with the highest values of the climate were generated as well as two institutions with the lowest values of the climate. Th ese institutions (Sample II) were also statistically signifi cantly diff erent from the whole of the sample. (cf. Table 5).5

It should be mentioned that the Spearman correlation coeffi cient between the overall index of SMC and the overall index of openness from the questionnaire OCDQ was 0.78.

Aft er evaluating all the results a more detailed analysis of selected re-education institutions (Sample II) was carried out. Th is analysis may hopefully shed more light on the area under investigation.

5 RI No. 8 was excluded from Sample II for the management’s lesser degree of readiness to co-operate.

71The Community System in Re-Socialization Institutions for AdolescentsTa

ble 4

: M

eans

and

stan

dard

dev

iatio

ns o

f dim

ensio

ns o

f OCD

Q in

inst

itutio

ns

Iden

tifi c

atio

n nu

mbe

r of a

n in

stitu

tion

12

34

56

78

910

1112

13M

ean

Mea

nM

ean

Mea

nM

ean

Mea

nM

ean

Mea

nM

ean

Mea

nM

ean

Mea

nM

ean

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

PSB

20.6

618

.42

21.5

222

.59

13.1

420

.72

22.7

721

.79

19.1

817

.96

20.0

716

.50

22.9

75.

214.

515.

934.

053.

973.

342.

843.

173.

284.

483.

244.

523.

13

PDB

18.2

119

.12

18.8

717

.56

20.7

320

.30

18.5

517

.42

19.6

016

.65

16.0

614

.83

18.8

33.

083.

244.

694.

342.

762.

512.

582.

571.

903.

262.

953.

803.

36

TEB

26.1

026

.48

25.4

827

.33

20.2

325

.96

27.5

728

.32

27.0

922

.23

25.7

924

.74

27.0

66.

134.

923.

952.

744.

833.

604.

673.

464.

705.

193.

013.

053.

93

TFB

10.9

011

.96

9.09

10.5

611

.91

10.4

410

.78

9.89

10.5

512

.40

9.68

12.5

410

.89

2.66

2.74

1.48

1.95

2.79

2.02

1.93

2.28

2.58

3.28

1.29

2.75

2.85

TIB

9.07

9.63

9.78

10.3

38.

878.

7810

.00

8.95

11.8

27.

278.

679.

809.

472.

392.

172.

041.

532.

492.

472.

732.

702.

042.

152.

382.

742.

63

OPE

N17

.37

13.9

518

.91

22.2

40.

8515

.30

20.7

122

.00

15.8

09.

0519

.87

14.0

521

.00

10.7

610

.57

7.08

4.97

11.1

67.

556.

707.

235.

578.

245.

406.

317.

75

Insti

tutio

ns w

ith th

e hig

hest

inde

x of

ope

nnes

s

Insti

tutio

ns w

ith th

e low

est i

ndex

of o

penn

ess

72 Julius Sekera

3. A sample of re-education institutionsIn each of the fi ve institutions examined (Sample II) we identifi ed four relatively

independent groups of workers. Th e (educational) management group, selected ad hoc, consisted of the director, the deputy director for school education, the deputy director for education/upbringing (the head carer), the behavioural disor-ders therapist and social workers. In some RIs there was only one social worker, while in some there was no behavioural disorders therapist, i.e. either s/he did not work on a permanent basis, or s/he was not a full-time worker. Th e position of a behavioural disorder therapist was fully occupied only in one RI, and in another RI it was established as a part-time job during the period of the research. It would have been appropriate to include a full-time psychologist in this group, but there was no full-time psychologist in any of the RIs during the period of our research. An economist or a chef, etc., were not included in the management group as these members of staff are not responsible for educational management.

Teachers and carers are self-explanatory groups of workers, though it should be mentioned that the so-called pedagogical assistants were included in the carers (in the majority of cases these were night carers). Th e group of workers providing the day-to-day running of the institution, i.e. the operational staff , were composed of a variety of workers such as clerical staff , cooks, maintenance workers, etc.

In the observed management groups there were very few specialist educators who held Masters Degree qualifi cations. In one institution, not even the director’s position was fi lled by a person with higher education qualifi cations.

Four of the directors of the observed RIs were over 50 years old; two of them were close to the retirement age. In one institution, the director was a middle-aged

Table 5: Re-education institutions with the highest and lowest values of climate amongst pedagogical staff (Sample II)

Order Th e highest values of SMC Th e lowest values of SMC1. RI No. 4 RI No. 52. RI No. 3 RI No. 103. RI No. 13

Th e highest values of OCDQ Th e lowest values of OCDQ1. RI No. 4 RI No. 52. RI No. 8 RI No. 103. RI No. 13


person who had just fi nished his Master’s degree in a distance learning program in special education.

Th ere were 13 female employees in the pedagogical staff of the observed RIs. Th e percentage of female staff was much higher among the operational staff (clerical staff , cooks, cleaners, etc.) than in other groups.

As for the carers’ education, a relatively large number of them had completed secondary education specialized in pedagogy/ education. Relatively few carers had completed distance learning higher education programs in special education. Th e reasons for not having done such programs were diffi culties in being admitted to courses of study and the high fi nancial costs of being admitted to a private HEI or to fee-paying courses at state universities. In many cases, older carers had not studied at all, and they showed no intention of doing so in the future. Systematic study outside the educational system (seminars, courses provided by a re-education institution, etc.) was, according to the pedagogical workers, usually at a very low level (if provided at all).

It was exceptional to fi nd carers with a specialized higher education degree (e.g. in music, art and craft s, physical education, etc.)

As for experiential training, the situation in all the fi ve institutions was poor. Th e majority of the carers did not even have short-term training, let alone long-term one(over 500 hours).

4. The climate among groups of workers in fi ve re-education institutions (Sample II)In 2007, the climate amongst groups of workers in fi ve re-education institutions

was investigated using the SMC (Scale of Measuring the Social Climate in a Com-munity) by Kollárik, Černý, Letovancová et al. (T–220, 1993). Repeated measure-ment was undertaken aft er a period of one year, and this measurement diff ered from the previous one in that we examined the climate in the whole institution as well as the climate amongst the four relatively independent groups of workers: management (i.e. educational management); carers (including pedagogical assist-ants, meaning night carers); teachers; and operational staff . Percentages of the respondents included in the study are given in Table 6.

Th e average values of the observed dimensions in the fi ve selected RIs are given in Table 7.

We compared the values obtained in 2007 in all the fi ve RIs with the results obtained in 2006. Using a t-test the statistical signifi cance of the diff erences between the measurements carried out in the years 2006 and 2007 was verifi ed.

Th e most important fi ndings can be summarized as follows:

74 Julius Sekera

Table 6: Percentage ratio of the respondents in comparison with the total number of employees in RIs during the measurement of the

institutional climate

Re-education institution Identifi cation number of a re-education institution5 10 4 3 13 Total

Profession management 75 100 100 50 66.7 79.2carer 88.2 63.2 63.2 100 91.3 81.1teacher 71.4 60 – 100 85.7 77.8operational staff 83.3 53.8 53.8 53.8 23.5 51.5total 82.5 63.8 64.9 79.5 68.3 71.3

Table 7: Average values of dimensions – Scale of Measuring the Social Climate in the selected sample of fi ve re-education institutions

Dimension Identifi cation number of an institution

5 10 4 3 13Psychological atmosphere 13.7 14.3 15.1 14.1 16.1Interpersonal relations 10.5 10.4 9.8 14.0 10.1Co-operation 12.4 12.8 12.5 10.8 13.0Maturity of the group 9.8 11.4 10.4 11.2 13.3Communication 8.7 9.5 8.8 11.3 8.7Management style 9.8 13.7 11.8 8.8 13.7Attitude to work 11.4 11.9 10.7 12.0 12.1Focus on success 13.8 14.4 13.0 11.6 14.6Social inclusiveness 14.9 15.1 15.0 13.8 15.4Satisfaction 10.6 11.0 10.5 12.3 11.8Social atmosphere – total 115.6 124.5 117.6 119.8 128.7


In the course of one year, signifi cant changes in the climate of three of the 1) fi ve selected re-education institutions were noticed. In two of those (RI No. 3, and RI No. 4), which in 2006 were measured as those with high values of the climate among the staff , we noticed signifi cant deterioration/decline in 2007. On the other hand, in another re-education institution (RI No. 5) which in 2006 showed extremely low values of climate in comparison with other re-education institutions of the wider sample, some improvement was observed, even if this improvement was not very signifi cant in comparison with other institutions included in our sample.Th e other two re-education institutions (RI No. 13, RI No. 10) showed rela-2) tive stability during the period of our investigation, even if some changes in some of the dimensions can be mentioned. As may be seen from the data, both RI No. 13, which had had high values of the climate, and RI No. 10, which had had relatively low values of the climate could be called “stabilized” institutions.We also looked into the perceptions of the climate by the professional groups 3) in each of the re-education institutions (the educational management, carers, teachers, and the operational staff ):

In RI No. 3, it was possible to notice a signifi cantly higher level of accord-a) ance between the management and carers compared to that between the management and teachers or the management and the operational staff . Th e carers assessed the situation more positively than the teachers and the operational staff . Th e teachers and the operational staff were close to one another, they perceived the climate as worse in comparison with the management and the carers.In RI No. 4, it was possible to notice a decline in all dimensions under b) investigation, but there were no signifi cant diff erences between the professional groups. Th e group of teachers, though, was missing in this sample of respondents, as this institution did not provide schooling.RI No. 13 showed stabilized results in the assessment of the climate by c) the staff , i.e. relatively high values were achieved in this institution.RI No. 5, which obtained the lowest values of the climate in 2006, d) showed a moderate improvement. It was a bit surprising to fi nd out that the operational staff assessed the climate most positively. Th e item “management style” was interesting from this point of view. Th is item was assessed much more positively by the operational staff than by the carers and teachers. According to our data from the year of 2006, this institution had a very autocratic management style. We deduce that this

76 Julius Sekera

management style was applied to the teachers and carers to a higher degree than to the members of the operational staff . Th ere was a signifi cant diff erence in assessing the climate between the e) management and the teachers in RI No. 10. Th e teachers assessed the situation as much worse than the management. On the whole, this institution was among those with a stabilized climate among the staff .

On the basis of the collected data which is related to the dynamics of the change of climate over one school year, we decided not to compare individual re-education institutions as we had originally intended. We modifi ed our research focus and decided to aim at examining the fundamental areas. Comparisons were applied with caution.

5. Sociometric cohesion of Sample IIIt was our intention to carry out sociometric measurements in all the fi ve

selected re-education institutions. On the basis of the data obtained, sociometric matrices were worked out. We drew upon the traditional methodology described in available specialist literature (e.g. Petrusek, 1969, Musil, 2003, etc.). Th e aim was to identify small informal groups within the framework of the professional structure and the diff erentiation inside each of the observed re-education institutions. Th e criterion for selection was the pedagogical authority of the members of the staff . As the following statement demonstrates, we used a positively formulated question in our test of sociometric choice:

Imagine a situation where you are experiencing a serious schooling or educational problem. Which of your colleagues in the institution would you turn to if you needed their advice on how to solve the situation in accordance with the principles of education? List the names of your col-leagues in such a way that the fi rst place will be occupied by someone who you would turn to fi rst for his/her pedagogical abilities, then list the second one, and so on. Th e number of colleagues to be listed is not limited. Please use surnames (if you wish, use the fi rst names too). We assure you that such data will not be presented to a third party – it will be used only for the purpose of our research.

As indicated in the statement above, the number of choices was not limited so as to enable us to carry out the calculation of group cohesion. Characterizing this index Musil (2003, p. 108) says, in reference to Nejezchleb, that “… it expresses the degree of sociometric mutuality of the members of a group depending on the


number of mutual preferences.” Nejezchleb draws upon F. Festinger, who according to Nejezchleb, understands cohesion (ibid., p. 108) as “… a result of all forces which bind a person to a group”.

Our original intention was to enumerate indices of group cohesion so as to compare the data with the cohesion measured by the method of value oriented unity – (see below) and with the results of measuring the climate which we had at our disposal. Th is intention was diffi cult to put into practice as only some of the respondents were able to face the fact that sociometrics does not allow anonymity.

We noticed a variety of responses not only within an institution, but also between the institutions in our sample. It was possible to identify a smaller or a larger group of respondents in each institution in our selected sample who refused to take part in this stage of research, or even if they participated, they made their response invalid (e.g. they did not include their signature, although this requirement was emphasized over and over again). We encountered a total refusal to cooperate among the staff in RI No. 10 who claimed that they had been victims of revealing their opinions and attitudes many times before. Th is attitude can probably be traced back to the relatively long term of offi ce of one of the highly positioned workers. Although he was no longer working in the institution during the time of our research, his management style (autocratic and based on informing) was still prevalent in the institution.

Th e selections were made mainly within professional groups (management, carers, teachers, and operational staff ). It may well be that within the framework of these groups, informal social structures are formed. However, we did not get an insight into these structures. We did not succeed in verifying correlations between the values of the climate and of cohesion gauged by sociometrics or, as will be shown below, by using another method called Value Oriented Unity. Sociometric measurements can thus help us only in providing supplementary information.

6. Value oriented unity of Sample IIWhen applying the Value Oriented Unity method (further VOU), we drew upon

the procedure suggested by Špalinskij (Petrovskij, Špalinskij, 1978, pp. 135–138). At the fi rst (preparation) stage of our research, the respondents (i.e. in our 1. research, all the staff from a re-education institution) were asked to list an unlimited number of (positive and negative) values which from their point of view are of fundamental importance for the functioning of the re-education institution, i.e. education and re-education of the clients.

78 Julius Sekera

On the basis of frequency of all the items (values) gathered from the 2. respondents at the fi rst stage, a so-called inventory of most frequent data was formed. Th e data was then generalized and categorized.Th e fi ft een most frequent items from the fi rst stage of the investigation were 3. selected (in accordance with the procedures suggested by leading meth-odologists). Th us, a so-called modal tier was formed. Th ese most frequent fi ft een items were then randomly mixed into the prepared questionnaire so that the order would not resemble the previously acquired values of frequency. Each re-education institution had its own modal tier, i.e. its “own” values 4. (items), which were rated according to their importance. Th e designed questionnaires were then submitted to respondents in a given institution. Th ey were instructed to order the items from the most important to the least important ones. Th e inventory of all the fi ve selected re-education institu-tions where the questionnaires were administered are listed in Appendix 4: Inventory of value-oriented unity in fi ve re-education institutions.On the basis of the data collected, a hierarchy of values valid for each re-5. education institution as a whole was calculated. Th e same procedure was followed for specifi c groups of workers and professionals (i.e. management, carers, teachers and operational staff ).Th e degree of correlation between a modal tier valid for a particular group 6. (cf. point 5) and hierarchic tiers of individual members of the group was calculated using the Spearman correlation coeffi cient. Th e higher the cor-relation coeffi cient, the higher the correlation between the modal tier valid for the group as a whole and hierarchies of values valid for members.

As for judging the degree of opinion unity, we used the benchmarks stated by the authors of the methodology mentioned above (Petrovskij, Špalinskij, 1978). A Spearman correlation coeffi cient within the range 0.6 to 0.92 is considered to show from a high to a very high degree of opinion unity. A Spearman correlation coeffi cient within the range 0.1 to 0.4 – 0.5 is considered to show a low degree of opinion unity.

Th e percentage representation of the respondents in relation to the total number of staff members in a selected sample of re-education institutions is given in Table No. 8.

Conclusions to the measurement of values can be summed up as follows. Th e two institutions with the worst climate (RI No. 5, RI No. 10) showed a high degree of cohesion in the area of values. However, the causes of the poor climate


Table 8: Measuring value-oriented unity – percentage representation of respondents in relation to the total number of staff members in selected RIs

Re-education institutionIdentifi cation number of a re-education institution

5 10 4 3 13 TotalProfession management 75 40 80 75 50 62.5

carer 94.1 47.4 68.4 76.5 82.6 73.7teacher 85.7 50 – 100 92.9 80.6operational staff 75 23.1 38.5 69.2 11.8 41.2total 85 40.4 59.5 76.9 61.7 63.7

in these two institutions were diff erent. It is possible to conclude that for RI No. 5, the problems with the autocratic management and at the same time, the less professional performance of the management resulted in the perceptions of the poor climate. As for RI No. 10, the problems arising from working with clients, in/ability to manage their re-education and also problems connected with mutual dis/trust and un/reliability of staff may have caused the fi nal results.

A similar quality of value orientation, which could be described as “educating children”, was noticed in two of the other re-education institutions – RI No. 4 and RI No. 13. Nevertheless, the causes of the results obtained may be interpreted in diff erent ways. Children in RI No. 4 were off ered a great deal of freedom (almost to the degree that they were left alone to themselves in their free time, and not much care was off ered to them). Th is combined with the perception of the staff that the management had no time to listen to their views resulted in the situation described above. As for RI No. 13, educating children played the leading role in the system of values. However, this concern seemed to be in the sphere of “improving the situation”, “discussing how to manage things better” rather than focusing on solv-ing conceptual and fundamental issues of re-education. Th e members of staff held diff erent views on these matters, and they discussed the issues. However, there were no reservations expressed against the main line of re-education in the institution.

RI No. 3 was specifi c in its own way. Th e core values were the interpersonal relations in the workplace. Th is result may have been infl uenced by not very good relations between the management and the teachers. On the other hand, most of the carers supported the director, which resulted in a strong tension between the carers and teachers. Moreover, the situation when the director was about to retire may have contributed to the fi nal result.

80 Julius Sekera

7. Interpersonal relations of staff in re-education institutions in Sample IIIn order to fi nd out about the interpersonal relations of the staff in the fi ve

re-education institutions which fi gured in our Sample II, a standardized tool called the Interpersonal Check List – further ICL, by Leary, Laforge and Suczek (1976) was used. Th e method draws upon the theory of interpersonal diagnostics. Interpersonal behaviour is defi ned (ibid. p. 5) as “… behaviour which is observable, consciously or symbolically in relation to another real, modal or imagined person in…”. According to this theory, interpersonal behaviour can be structured as a circle around orthogonal polarized axes, respectively power (dominance – submission) and affi liation (love – hate/ hostility).

Table 9: ICL – Dimensions/ Concepts

Interpersonal variables Eight basic conceptsA (dominate, boss, order) AP (managerial – autocratic)P (seeks respect compulsively, pedantic, dogmatic actions) B (boast, act proud, narcissistically exhibitionistic)

BC (competitive – exploitive)

C (exploit, reject, withhold)D (punitive, sarcastic or unkind actions) DE (blunt – aggressive)E (attack, unfriendly actions)F (bitter, rebellious actions, complain) FG (sceptical – distrustful)G (to act hurt or suspicious, distrustful)H (anxious, guilty, or self-eff acing ac-tions, condemn self)

HI (modest – self-eff acing)

I (weak and spineless actions, submit)J (act in an over-respecting manner. docilely conforms)

JK (docile – dependent)

K (cling to, beg aid, depend on)L (over-conventional, agree at all times, compromise)

LM (cooperative – over-conventional)

M (seeks friendly feelings from others, eff usive actions)N (pity, dote on, soft -hearted behaviour) NO (responsible – overgenerous)O (takes responsibility compulsively, overgenerous activities)


Th e authors state further (ibid. p. 13) that: “(Contiguous) variables (those imme-diately next to each other) are considered similar and should correlate positively, variables at the opposite sides of the circle are considered contradictory and should correlate negatively.” So as to support the interpretation and heighten the reliability the variables were combined in pairs (cf. Table 9).

As the detailed description of the theory and methods of ICL are available in the specialist literature, we may proceed to the description of the obtained data and its interpretation using this tool.

8. The summary of the data – Respondents to the ICL questionnaireNumbers of respondents to the ICL questionnaire: cf. Table 10. Th e percentage representation of the respondents in relation to the total number

of staff in a re-education institution is listed in Table11.Key for the diagrams – Table 12

Table 10: Numbers of respondents in the sample of re-education institutions – Interpersonal Diagnostics

Re-education institutionIdentifi cation number of an institution

5 10 4 3 13 TotalProfession management 4 5 5 4 4 22

carer 17 19 19 17 21 93teacher 7 10 – 5 11 33operational staff 10 13 11 12 4 50total 38 47 35 38 40 198

Table 11: Percentage representation of respondents in relation to the total number of staff in a re-education institution when distributing the ICL

questionnaire

Re-education institutionIdentifi cation number of an institution

5 10 4 3 13 TotalProfession management 100 100 100 100 66.7 91.7

carer 100 100 100 100 91.3 97.9teacher 100 100 – 100 78.6 91.7operational staff 83.3 100 84.6 92.3 23.5 73.5total 95 100 94.6 97.4 66.7 88.8

82 Julius Sekera

Neither the values of DOM and LOV for calculating the position of individual groups of workers nor the methodological procedures are described here.

Re-education institution No. 5Table 13 provides information on the mean values of dimensions of staff from

institution No. 5.It is clear from Diagram 1 that the members of the management overstepped

the middle circle (sigma 1), and therefore they belong to the group characterized by maladaptive forms of behaviour. Other groups of workers show signs of an adaptive form of interpersonal behaviour. Th e members of the management are placed in octant AP (managerial – autocratic). In the case of the management of a re-education institution it can be qualifi ed as maladaptive behaviour. What characterizes such behaviour is a strong emphasis on autocratic and dictatorial conduct with pedantic features. Such persons tend to use compulsive strategies to organize their own lives and also the lives of others. Th eir activities are stigmatized by hyperactivity and manic signs. Th ey usually activate aggression and hostility in others. Th e attitude mentioned above is not suitable for clients of re-education institutions. When the management follow similar behavioural models in re-education institutions, this can have a negative eff ect on the performance of the whole institution, both of the employees and the clients.

Carers are found in octant BC (competitive – exploitive). Persons of such behaviour can be characterized as those who are oriented towards themselves, towards their own independence and self-confi dence. Furthermore, they require obedience from others. Th ey tend to manipulate others and use others to help them achieve their own goals.

Teachers are located in octant FG (sceptical – distrustful). It is typical of such persons to behave in a critical and suspicious way towards the social environment. A certain amount of criticism and scepticism is considered to be positive. Such an attitude helps a person to protect him/herself against disappointment and frustra-tion. However, this may not be an ideal approach for the teaching profession.

Table 12: Key to pictograms of professions in the ICL results diagrams

Profession Management Carers Operational staff Teachers


Table 13: Mean values of dimensions of groups of workers in RI No. 5

AP BC DE FG HI JK LM NO DOM LOVRI No. 5

member of management 10.00 10.00 9.00 3.00 2.00 7.00 6.00 8.00 13.60 –1.60

Carers 7.25 7.06 6.50 5.06 4.81 6.69 7.06 7.38 4.32 1.92Teachers 4.17 4.33 7.50 6.83 6.67 6.50 6.17 7.00 –3.90 0.30Operational staff 5.89 6.56 4.89 4.78 6.44 7.67 7.56 7.33 0.46 5.23

Diagram 1: Th e placement of groups of workers in RI No. 5 among the ICL dimensions

AP

NO

JK

HI

FG

BC

LMDE

Th e operational staff are located in octant LM (cooperative – over-conventional). Th is may be perceived more positively than the characteristics of the pedagogical staff and the management. Persons with these characteristic features behave posi-tively towards others, and they like to co-operate. Th ey activate tenderness and love in others. Th ey enjoy co-operation and they try to satisfy the needs of others.

84 Julius Sekera

Re-education institution No. 10Table 14 provides information on the mean values of ICL dimensions of staff

from re-education institution No. 10.


AP BC DE FG HI JK LM NO DOM LOVInstitu-tion No. 10

members of man-agement

8.67 7.67 8.33 9.00 6.67 8.33 7.00 10.00 2.23 –0.17

carers 6.08 6.92 7.00 6.50 7.33 8.00 7.25 8.58 –0.55 2.47teachers 5.43 6.00 5.00 3.86 5.29 5.86 6.57 5.71 1.54 2.77operation-al staff 6.30 6.20 7.00 6.40 6.70 6.80 6.60 7.40 –0.12 0.72


All the staff members in RI No. 10 were located only in two octants (Diagram 2). Th e members of the management along with the teachers are placed in octant DE (blunt – aggressive). Th ey appear to be aggressive personality types, who approach others in a tough and harsh way; they usually use punishment for disobedience. Th ey usually activate aggression and hostility in others. Th is approach cannot be considered as suitable for dealing with clients in a re-education institution.

AP

NO

JK

HI

FG

BC

LMDE


Carers and operational staff were located in octant FG (sceptical – distrustful). Th ese are persons with prevailing features of critical and suspicious attitudes to their environment. Th is may sometimes be an unconscious self-defence strategy which the persons use in order to protect themselves against disappointment and incidental frustration. A certain amount of criticism and scepticism is considered healthy. However, it should not exceed the adaptive form of behaviour, especially in the behaviour of carers who are most frequently in contact with the clients of an institution.

Re-education institution No. 4Table 15 provides information on the mean values of ICL dimensions of the staff

from re-education institution No. 4. It is necessary to remind ourselves that there were no teachers employed in this institution.



members of manage-ment

6.33 6.67 6.33 5.67 4.33 5.00 6.33 7.00 4.10 –0.23

carers 6.58 6.42 6.75 6.00 6.50 8.42 9.00 9.00 0.78 5.75teachers – – – – – – – – – –operational staff 5.56 6.33 6.89 7.00 6.89 7.89 7.44 7.56 -2.03 2.03

It is clear from Diagram 3 that no professionals are placed in the maladaptive areas of behaviour.

Th e members of the management were located in dimension BC (competitive – exploitive). Such behaviour expresses aff ection to oneself, independence and self-confi dence. However, persons in this octant may be bossy. Th ey can activate feelings of inferiority and distrust in others. Th ere is a danger that the management of the institution may have such an impact on their staff and clients.

Carers were placed in octant LM (co-operative – over-conventional), which represents trustful co-operation. It means that they prefer friendly communication and affi liation. Persons who behave in this way towards others are prepared to reach a compromise and they are extrovert, friendly and ready to co-operate. In their relations with others, they activate trust, co-operation and thoughtfulness. Th e placement of carers in this octant can be regarded as positive.

86 Julius Sekera


Th e operational staff were placed in octant FG (sceptical – distrustful). Persons with these characteristic features are usually excessively critical towards other people. Th eir emotional stability is secured only by psychological alienation from others. However, a certain amount of criticism and scepticism is considered healthy, and therefore positive. Th is attitude protects a person from disappointment and frustration.

Re-education institution No. 3Table 16 provides information on the mean values of ICL dimensions of the staff

from re-education institution No. 3. It is possible to deduce from the table and from Diagram 4 that none of the professional groups exceeded the limit sigma 1 (the middle circle), so all the professionals show the adaptive form of interpersonal behaviour.

Th e members of the management were located in octant AP (managerial – autocratic). Th ey tend to dominate, seek respect compulsively, and their authority is based mainly on pedantic, dogmatic actions. Mutual interactions among such persons may lead to a mutual fi ght for power and infl uence. Such persons may be expected to be authoritative and ambitious to keep their power at all costs.

Carers were placed in octant BC (competitive – exploitive). Such behaviour may be characterized as narcissistic. A person expresses self-aff ection and satisfaction with oneself, but also superiority over others and self-confi dence. Such persons may tend to require admiration from others and they elicit obedience. Neverthe-

AP

NO

JK

HI

FG

BC

LMDE


less, when feeling inferior and subordinate, they may experience a strong anxiety. Th eir eff orts to gain and keep self-esteem may lead to a demonstration of the weakness of others (in this case most probably that of their clients).

Teachers are placed in octant NO (responsible – overgenerous). Such persons behave responsibly and tactfully. Th ey can be characterized as strong personalities who use their power and self-confi dent independence in a friendly manner. Th ey strive to be emotionally close to others, help others, off er advice, support others and side with others. Th ey wish to be perceived as kind, sensible and responsible persons. Th ey elicit a feeling of their own maturity and parental strength in others.

Th e operational staff were located in octant HI (modest – self-eff acing). Such persons are openly modest and shy, and display honest emotional reservation and an ability to succumb. Th ey may elicit arrogant behaviour in others.

Table 16: Mean values of ICL dimensions of groups of workers in RI No. 3



8.67 7.67 8.00 4.67 4.67 7.00 7.67 9.33 7.73 2.47

carers 7.75 7.69 7.88 5.56 4.88 6.88 7.25 7.88 5.06 0.43teachers 7.67 5.80 6.50 5.83 4.83 7.83 8.00 7.83 1.72 4.52operational staff 3.86 5.86 4.86 5.00 6.86 8.57 6.71 6.86 –3.60 5.06


AP

NO

JK

HI

FG

BC

LMDE

88 Julius Sekera

Re-education institution No. 13Table 17 provides information on the mean values of ICL dimensions in re-

education institution No. 13.




8.20 5.60 6.60 5.40 5.20 8.80 7.40 9.60 3.70 5.98

carers 6.86 7.32 6.91 6.00 6.36 8.09 8.45 8.45 1.51 3.89teachers 6.73 7.27 7.91 6.45 6.27 6.80 8.73 8.73 2.89 1.89operational staff 7.25 6.25 6.25 5.50 7.00 8.25 9.50 8.50 0.95 6.75


All the groups of workers in RI no. 13 are placed in the area of an adaptive form of interpersonal behaviour. (Diagram 5). Th e members of the management were located in octant NO (responsible – overgenerous). As mentioned above, such persons are usually strong personalities who use their strength and self-confi dent independence in a friendly manner. Th ey try to be emotionally close to others, try

AP

NO

JK

HI

FG

BC

LMDE


to help them, give them advice, support them and side with them. Th ey wish to be considered as kind, sensible and responsible persons by others.

Carers were placed, as in some cases mentioned before, in octant BC (competi-tive – exploitive). Th ey are persons with egocentric features of behaviour, such as self-aff ection, satisfaction with oneself, superiority and self-confi dence. Such persons require obedience from others.

Teachers were placed in octant DE (blunt – aggressive). Such persons are aggres-sive personalities. Th ey usually treat others in an oppressive, harsh manner and their punishment-oriented approach frequently elicits feelings of guilt in others.

Th e operational staff were located in octant LM (cooperative – over-conven-tional). Such persons are hyper-aff ectionate. Th ey behave in a positive manner towards others, and like to co-operate with others. Th ey elicit feelings of tenderness and love in others. Th ey try to satisfy the needs of others.

Sample of fi ve re-education institutions from the point of view of ICLWe can now assess the situation in the whole sample of fi ve re-education insti-

tutions drawing upon the data obtained by the ICL method. Th e basic data are summarized in Table 18.

Table 18: Mean values of dimensions of groups of workers in the sample of fi ve RIs

Th e sample of all fi ve RIs AP BC DE FG HI JK LM NO DOM LOVmembers of management 8.13 6.93 7.33 5.87 5.00 7.47 7.07 9.00 4.95 2.30

carers 6.96 7.14 7.01 5.79 5.91 7.59 7.82 8.22 2.40 2.83teachers 6.10 6.10 6.87 5.80 5.83 6.72 7.57 7.50 0.89 2.24operational staff 5.69 6.26 6.03 5.82 6.74 7.72 7.33 7.44 -0.94 3.46

All the categories of workers are located in the area of an adaptive form of behaviour (Diagram 6). Th e members of the management teams and carers were placed in octant BC (competitive-exploitive). Th eir behaviour can be characterized as mostly oriented towards their own selves. Th ese persons demonstrate signs of self-esteem and self-satisfaction, but also of superiority and self-confi dence. Such persons tend to require admiration and obedience from others. When feeling inferior and subordinate, they experience a strong anxiety, and their eff orts to gain and keep self-esteem may elicit inferiority in others.

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Th e teachers in the sample were located in octant DE (blunt – aggressive). Such persons are usually aggressive personalities. Th ey usually treat others in an oppres-sive, harsh manner. Th ey tend to punish others. Th e aim of such an interpersonal behaviour model is to initiate a feeling in others that the person may be dangerous to them. In this way, the persons in octant DE secure their own emotional stability. Regarding the teachers, such behaviour is not appropriate, even though it was identifi ed as the adaptive form (the middle circle) of aggressive behaviour.

Th e operational staff were located in octant HI (modest – self-eff acing). Such persons demonstrate open modesty, shyness, honest emotional reservation and humbleness. Others may perceive their need to be led. Quite frequently, they may experience arrogant behaviour from others.

Diagram 6: Th e placement of groups of workers among the ICL dimensions in the sample of fi ve RIs

8. An attempt at integral interpretation of the situation in RI No. 13For an attempt at an integral interpretation, educational institution No.13 has

been chosen. Th is institution seems to be the most interesting out of all the fi ve institutions for re-education included in sample II.

Th e institution is situated to the west of Prague, in a small village with not more than 1000 inhabitants. Th e district is close to a small non-industrial town. Th e institution itself consists of the main building (School 6) and houses where individual educational groups are housed. One educational group lives in each house. At the school, situated on a hill above the village, there are classrooms

AP

NO

JK

HI

FG

BC

LMDE


along with a school canteen and kitchen. It is staff ed by management, carers and teachers.

During our visit, there were 42 pupils divided into fi ve groups (altogether there were seven groups but two were joined to others). Th ere were 4 to 13 boys in each group, and the bigger groups had 4 carers while the smaller groups had just one carer and one teaching assistant. Th ere was a clear attempt at creating pairs (a male and a female), but this was not always carried out for operational reasons.

Th e children were divided into groups according to certain criteria. One of the criteria was the fi eld of study of an individual ward. Th e children are educated in the following fi elds: bricklaying, carpentry, joinery and furniture making. For those who were not able to attend or fi nish secondary school, a two-year course known as ’Practical School’ is available.

Th e second criterion which we noticed was the application of elements of the Borstal educational system for adolescents. Th e system was originally used at Borstal prison near Rochester. Th e principle is grouping wards according to their level of disturbance.

Th e elements of the Borstal system used are those of dividing the wards into groups according to their diagnosis and dividing them according to their behaviour over a length of time.

One educational group was situated in the ’School’. Th is group was for newly arrived wards. Aft er two months each boy was moved into a diff erent group according to his diagnosis or behaviour in that time.

Th e other educational groups were situated in the village houses. Th e houses were well-equipped and the fi xtures and fi ttings were checked from time to time and also repaired by the boys. Th ey had to repair what they damaged. Each house had a name: Little House, Summer House, the Manse and the Joinery Workshop. Th e Little House was situated in the grounds of the Summer House and it was inhabited by those wards who did not need any supervision. Th ey lived almost independently. Th ey still had their own carer, but he just dropped in from time to time to see them. Th e boys prepared breakfast and lunch every day on their own. During working days they went for lunch at the School building along with all the other groups, and at weekends they prepared all their food on their own. In the Little House the boys also kept records regarding their activities. Th ey organized their own leisure time and were really given a great deal of trust and independence by their carers.

Th e wards lacking any extreme behavioural problems were housed in the Sum-mer House. However, they were not suffi ciently independent or prepared to have more freedom and space in their regime. When the boys were not able to keep

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to the rules, they were sent to the educational group situated in the Manse. Such a decision was partly regarded as a punishment. Th e main activity there was work in the garden, in the house and if needed, also in the village, etc. Th e wards in the Manse had less leisure time than the other groups. Th e fi xtures and fi ttings of the Manse were basic and perhaps intentionally the worst of all the houses. Relocation to the Manse was mostly done unwillingly by the wards. However, we spoke to one boy who enjoyed the relocation. He liked the calm environment of the group (fewer wards) and he also preferred the work activities.

Th e Joinery Workshop was named aft er the craft which was carried out there. Th e group was designed for those clients with low frustration tolerance, emotional deprivation and shy behaviour. Everything was subordinated to their adaptation to the group. Th e institution had a big garden and greenhouses which were looked aft er by the wards. Th ey grew potatoes and vegetables in the garden and there were also fruit trees.

At the time of our research, the management of the institution consisted of the director (a former high-ranking offi cer in the Czechoslovak Folk Army), the head carer (MA, special pedagogical work), the head teacher (MA, physical education, physics), a therapist specialized in behavioural disorders (MA, special pedagogical work) and two social workers.

Th ere were altogether 15 carers, of whom 5 had graduated from secondary peda-gogical school, 2 had studied at university (the private J.A.Komenský Academy), 4 had graduated from a secondary vocational school or a training college, 1 had graduated from a grammar school, 1 had a university education in special peda-gogy and 2 were engineers ( military academy). Most of the carers had attended 100 hours of social psychological training in the past. Th ere were also 8 teaching assistants, who had mostly graduated from a training college (without a school-leaving exam).

Nobody had long-term (at least 500 hours) or medium-term (350 hours) on-the-job or therapeutic training. Th erefore, psychotherapy (sociotherapy) was not systemically included to a greater extent in the educational process as part of re-socialization.

We noticed the pedagogical workers had a largely positive approach towards their wards. Th ey respected their individuality and they also worked in the chil-dren’s interests concerning the educational programmes. Th ere was no evaluation based on a points system in this institution. Evaluation was oral and aft er one week each ward was either kept in, or moved into, one of three categories (from the best to the worst). We noticed that it was mainly focused on the program concerning the children’s development. Th e program was carried out by a therapist specialized


in behavioural disorders in cooperation with the educators and the teachers. Th e pedagogical workers had access to all of the program documentation and they took part in its practical implementation.

Th e head teacher’s conception of re-socialization was mainly aimed at the wards honouring their indentures and their preparation for future self-reliance and independence. Th e main principle was that each group of wards was supervised by two members of staff , preferably a man and a woman. Each group managed its resources relatively independently and also looked aft er the accommodation. Th is involved not only routine tidying up, but also more complex repairs, painting and other work. Th e regime was surprisingly liberal. We were able to follow the wards during the day – watching as they moved around the village (for a purpose) or carried building tools, and in the aft ernoon as they walked up the hill to the School canteen (in groups and without a carer).

Th e so-called aft ernoon command had a military-like character, which involved gathering the wards together, an evaluation of the previous 24 hours and notify-ing the carers of the attendance (supervision). Th us, each carer received updated information on each client and on the situation within the group.

When we asked the director how he had initiated the principle of small houses and whether he knew of the study by Howard W. Polský (1962), he was surprised. He had never heard of such a study and the re-socialization was just his idea. He bought some older houses in the village, repaired them, and then provided them for the educational groups. He would like to extend his business so that the wards could earn their own money and also to reach a status whereby the institution would be mostly fi nancially independent of the state. Nowadays they work on the principle of an above-standard fi nancial remuneration paid for work. However, the head teacher of the institution is still fi ghting the legislative norms which obstruct the implementation of further business activities.

Not many wards run away from the institution. Th e head teacher’s view is eloquent: “When a ward whom I offi cially cannot release runs away, and he has a serious reason for doing so, it is from his point of view a socially advanced solution. I have to punish him offi cially, but not very hard, rather more symboli-cally.” Th e relative freedom of the children in comparison with other institutions of re-education is evident.

We did not witness the head teacher shouting or raising his voice. He even sat back from things at meetings. Th e meetings were run by the main carer (con-cerning the carers) and the main teacher (concerning the teachers). Th ere were no symptoms of tension between the participants. Th ey were calm and able to exchange rational arguments.

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It was a little bit surprising that the atmosphere was so calm and positive in the light of the fact that there was a relatively high number of former regular soldiers in the institution. At the beginning we were expecting something akin to a military regime. Perhaps it was caused by the calm personality of the head teacher, who was a very good organizer, or by the presence of female educators, or by the placement of the children in independently managed units in small houses, or by a combina-tion of all these, or by a factor which we did not notice in the institution.

As we have already stated, in the period from 2006 to 2007, when we were doing our research into this educational institution, no statistically important changes in the data measuring the climate among the staff occurred. Th e values of the climate remained steady.

Statistically important diff erences among the professional groups were noticed only in four cases, always at a 5% level of signifi cance. Th e diff erences were discovered in the sub-dimension of the “psychological atmosphere” between the carers and the operational staff and also between the teachers and the operational staff . In the dimension of “focus on success” there was a signifi cant diff erence between the head teacher and the operational staff and also between the teachers and the operational staff . However, in the overall context, these are not signifi cant diff erences.

Th e institution achieved a relatively high index of cohesion (index of group soli-darity) according to socio-metric measurements. Th e greatest number of mutual preferences meant the management had the highest index. In the second place were the teachers, followed by the operational staff and the carers. Th e number of prefer-ences from the management for the other professional groups was insignifi cant.

Th e teachers preferred the head teacher (management) and only then did they select each other. Th ey did not select the carers or the operational staff . Th e carers mostly made selections amongst themselves and then they also elected the head teacher (management). Th ey gave more preferences to the teachers than to the operational staff . Th e number of preferences made by the operational staff was also insignifi cant.

Th e sociometric measurements showed that the individual professional groups were oriented towards the authority of the head teacher (management) in terms of informal relationships or towards the members of their own professional groups.

Values focusing on the organization of work with children were selected as the most important by the respondents at this institution. Th e most signifi cant values were: “to work out a system of organization which would not be changed too oft en” and “to unify the pedagogical work” – both partly perhaps a call for a more accurate fl ow of information concerning the wards at changeovers of supervision


and at meetings focused on dealing with the current problems. Another value, also connected with education, was “the prohibition of unprofessional educational procedures and obscene behaviour towards the wards”.

Of least importance were values of the type “to refute the opinion that women do not belong in an institution of re-education for boys”, “to release from the institution those clients who use drugs” and “to increase empathy towards clients and employees”. In other words, such problems were present in this institution, but were seen as marginal in comparison to those seen as the most important. As a matter of fact, all of these problems create an interesting mosaic of diffi culties in the institution.

A surprising fi nding was that the level of unifi cation regarding the value ori-entation was low. In fact it was the lowest out of the sample of fi ve education institutions. In some cases there was even a reverse evaluation (items with minus values), which we did not see in the other institutions of our sample. Th ere are probably diff erences in opinions among individual staff and these diff erences show up as individual rather than unifi ed views. We can assume there are diff erences in views and opinions both between and within the diff erent professional groups. Th e emphasis on the item “to unify the pedagogical work” takes us back to the socio-metric preferences. Perhaps the sociometric “non-preferences” among the teachers and the carers and the low level of value cohesion shows a problem in the institution connected with the “culture of non – intervention”.

Concerns about an unprofessional educational approach, occasional obscene behaviour and the question of empathy towards the wards relate to novice peda-gogical workers. We came across this information through informal dialogues. Novice pedagogical workers reputedly handle the wards in an unskilful way (we do not have such information regarding teachers, but this does not mean that this problem does not exist). Th e fact that these problems were later seen in the value system is appreciated by us. Th e people in the institution want to deal with these questions and they want to fi nd solutions, no matter that the problem is not extremely serious.

Another question is whether female carers belong in an educational institu-tion for adolescent boys. In this institution this question was marginal, but this problem was regarded as a diffi culty in one of the institutions in Sample II where the head teacher did not accept women as pedagogical workers, which we evaluate as a cardinal error from the point of view of pedagogy.

In most boys the root of their disorder is in unresolved confl icts with their fathers, leading to disorders in their sense of masculinity. Th e treatment of this problem is usually aimed at leading their development towards a desired sense of masculinity.

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As Štúrová states (Labáth, 2001, pp. 113-114), thanks to a professional female carer a boy can learn a new type of female authority (a new communicational model of femininity) diff erent from that he was used to in his family or at school. Th e most signifi cant person of re-education in this case should be a male (communicational model of masculinity) and also professionals (communicational model of brothers and sisters). However, a female represents a very important element for the boy’s masculinity. Th e optimal balance of masculinity and femininity (p.116) serves as a corrective experience in the relationship with a male and a female – it contributes to his own psychosexual identifi cation.

When measuring interpersonal attitudes by means of ICL, we found out that all the professional groups of staff in this institution were in the adaptive zone of interpersonal behaviour. Th e management were situated predominantly in the octant NO (responsible – overgenerous). Th ese are usually strong personalities who use their power and self-confi dent independence in an affi nitive and friendly way. Th ey try to be emotionally close to other people, and to help, advise, support and sympathize with them. Th eir wish is to be favoured and regarded as kind, intelligent and responsible individuals.

Th e carers were situated in the octant BC (competitive – exploitive) as in some of the previous cases of our sample. By their behaviour these types of personality indicate a certain number of egocentric traits. Th eir behaviour is infl uenced by self-aff ection, self-satisfaction, tendencies towards dominance and supremacy, self-confi dence, etc. Th ey are satisfi ed when other people are obedient. Th e question is how much and in which situations these behavioural features are refl ected in professional actions in relation to a ward? It would be optimal for a carer to be familiar with this situation and prepared to lead and correct them.

Th e teachers were found in the octant DE (blunt – aggressive). Th is could represent an aggressive type of personality. Individuals showing this adaptive form of behaviour treat others predominantly in a hard, rigid way and they have a disciplinary attitude, which leads to a sense of being guilty. Th is combination is not very positive when working with children placed in institutions of re-education and re-socialization. Th e situation is the same as with the carers, but with an even greater emphasis. Th e question is whether the presence of such personalities is not actually counterproductive regarding the aims of the institution?

Th e operational staff were in the octant LM (cooperative – over-conventional). Such personalities treat other people in a friendly way and like working with them. Th ey activate tenderness and love in others. Th ey try to satisfy the needs of other people. In an institution of re-education they can represent a calming zone to children, full of empathy and support. In our opinion, affi nitive personality


orientation is desirable in such types of institutions and it represents a very useful resource for working with children.

Concerning the educational experience of the staff , we have two thoughts: fi rstly, it is a very diffi cult and expensive form of education which some of the current staff of the institution have to go through. Also the ombudsman asks in his report (Motejl, 2007) whether it is not better to prefer “people” to “concrete” when invest-ing money. Investing money into “concrete” is what the Ministry of Education is doing currently.

Th e second thought is related to on-the-job training. Because nobody from the educational institution has had long-term on-the-job training (we regard this institution as comparatively better than similar institutions in our sample), it means that:

the pedagogical vision of re-education and re-socialization without psycho-a) therapy can be successful.the investigated parameters of management and interpersonal relations b) of the working staff are irrelevant concerning success in re-education and re-socialization of the wards. However, this would not correspond with the results which we got when doing research into the processes of re-education and re-socialization in educational institution No. 13.

In all the cases, on-the-job training of the educators and fi nally of the teachers should be part of their professional remit.

Th e conception of the head teacher of education institution No.13, aiming at balanced staff in each educational group consisting of both males and females, is in agreement with what the ombudsman referred to in his report. Motejl (2007) uses the speech of a lawyer and mentions “the position of a key worker”, which we would professionally regard as each ward should have a devoted person, preferably a carer. It would be optimal if carers were given on-the-job training.

Th e idea of wards earning while preparing for a future profession sounds quite interesting. Th e possible danger that economic activity might outweigh the pedagogical purpose is a frequent concern. We suggest that such a danger can be avoided citing the historic experiments of Makarenko and William R. George, the creator of the co-educational republic of deprived youth in Freeville in New York State, amongst others. We can also state that educational institution No.13 has the basic material and resources for a successful re-educational and resocializational role. Th e head teacher of the institution has a fi rm pedagogical vision, but it is essential to supplement it with therapeutic aspects. A suggested request is for at least some long-term on-the-job training for chosen carers. Concerning the peda-gogical workers (especially the carers), BA and MA degree education would also

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move the institution forward in its re-educational and re-socializational role and impact. As we have already mentioned, the other parts of our research investigated the educational system, pedagogical workers’ work, cooperation of the institution with families of the wards and other signifi cant institutions.

9. Discussion, summary and conclusionsAlthough there may be legitimate hopes to re-socialize “at risk” young people

outside institutional care, it is highly likely that a need for re-educational insti-tutional care will continue into the future (perhaps to a more limited extent). To abolish or not to abolish residential re-educational institutions is not the issue here. Th e question is what qualitative and quantitative changes are necessary in order to make these institutions more eff ective than they have been until now. It may be suggested that the fundamental basis of changes in re-education and re-socialization should be in implementing further education. A major weakness of re-education in residential institutions (possibly not only in the Czech Republic) is, besides others, a lack of individual and group programs designed for re-education and re-socialization (Whittaker, 1979) which would also include co-operation with children’s families and communities.

It is important to focus on changing the perception of a re-education and re-socialization institution from being a correctional institution into understanding this institution as one of the last opportunities to ensure a successful life for a person in the future. Th is issue is related to the quality of re-educational policy, to the functioning of a re-education institution oriented towards the prospective development of a child’s personality, to the quality of the staff and, undoubtedly, also to the number of children placed in a particular institution.

In our opinion, another burning issue is whether re-education institutions should be regarded as mainly therapeutic, or as mainly training centres. On the one hand, there is a concept of re-education as treatment with psycho-therapeutic care; while on the other hand, there is a concept of training centres based mainly on behavioural programs of re-education and re-socialization. In practice this will probably lead us to making compromises, which is not always the optimal solution. It is possible that both types of institutions will be established or that eclectic or integrated institutions implementing both approaches will be introduced. It appears that solving this issue is fundamental, both from the theoretical and conceptual point of view and in order to introduce changes in the practice of re-education.

It is clear that re-education in the conditions of institutional care cannot off er a model of re-educational care approved by everyone. So far, no intervention has proved to be highly successful in the long run. On the basis of the investigating mod-


els of re-education and re-socialization in institutions the following questions have been asked : What models of re-education are applied in the conditions of Czech re-education institutions? What is the climate in these re-education institutions? What educational values are preferred? What educational and other professional issues are dealt with by the staff ? Is the climate and non-formal structure of the institutions appropriate for therapeutic re-education models, or does the current practice remind us of correctional, isolation caring models? It was beyond the scope of this study to include all these questions in our investigation.

Despite our eff orts, it was impossible to fi nd research projects in the Czech Republic examining re-education institutions as specifi c organizational units from the point of view of their climate. It seems that the only available data can be obtained from our previous investigations carried out on a small sample of re-education institutions in the late 1990s and aft er the year 2003 (Sekera, 2001, 2002, 2003).

According to this data, the directors of the examined institutions were concerned mainly with everyday and relatively simple problems, “as life brought them”, or medium-term tasks, which were not usually of an educational character (Sekera, 2002, p. 118): “It was not important to work on changing the interpersonal relations among staff or building-up a supportive climate.”

It may be said that in their interpersonal relations towards the pedagogical staff , the management preferred to focus on tasks, whereas the pedagogical staff preferred to focus on the clients, on “ people” in general (at least the group of carers did so). It appears that carers and teachers are, contrary to the management, more signifi cantly drawn into the primary educational work where it is more important to concentrate on interpersonal relations between carers and clients than to “tick off “ fulfi lled tasks. In short, it may be said (Sekera, 2002, p. 119) that “… only when the focus is on “people” are the real and primary tasks of educational work fulfi lled …”.

It was very common that deputy directors were charged with the management of the educational work (Sekera, 2002, p. 123; 2003). However, they were not always able to manage these tasks adequately, the reasons being a lack of specialist education, their own psychological features and their position in the non-formal structure of the pedagogical staff . Th is situation had an impact on the climate among the staff .

Th e autocratic approach of some of the directors was sometimes accompanied by creating partisan groups among the staff . In such cases when the management was too autocratic, the more cohesive relations among the staff probably resulted from the defensive responses of the staff (Sekera, 2003).

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It is of note that increased levels of rivalry between two professional groups, that of the teachers and that of the carers, were observed in some of the institutions. Still, friendly relations and professional cooperation were found among the major-ity of staff in various institutions in our previous study (Sekera, 2002, p. 124). Th e data from the current investigation repeated the same pattern (e.g. in RI No. 3, RI No. 5, RI No. 10).

Communication between the management and carers was close to a bureaucratic style of management, i.e. subordinate (Sekera, 2003).

Th e diff erences between carers and teachers regarding their opinions concerning management styles, interpersonal relations within groups of pedagogical workers and their views of the eff ectiveness of work were observed even in our previous research. For example, in our previous research as well as in the current investiga-tion the teachers, in comparison with the carers, tended to be more critical of the management of their institution. It is possible to suggest that this may be the result of a closer relationship of the directors to carers (rather than to teachers). Similar results were obtained in our current investigation in the years 2006 – 2008.

Th e obtained data regarding teachers’ and carers’ beliefs as to the possibility of causing deep internal changes in clients’ attitudes as a result of re-education showed (to a statistically signifi cant degree) that they did not believe such changes were possible. Yet, both carers and teachers believed that educational work was important and useful for their clients. Th ey mentioned that at least during the time of their clients’ stay in a re-education institution they were cared for, had the means to live on and could not commit crimes to such an extent as would have been the case had they not been in institutional care.

Th e data obtained regarding the climate in institutions showed a statistically signifi cant diff erence between teachers and carers. Th e carers, in comparison with the teachers, assessed the climate in their institutions as average or above average. Similar results were obtained in our investigation in the years 2006–2008.

Th e analysis of the demographic data obtained from our Sample II of fi ve re-education institutions in the years 2006–2008 revealed several issues. It may be said that the process of educating the pedagogical staff is far from being complete. Th is is partly due to the fact that many young, or relatively young, employees without proper qualifi cations enter these professions. However, the data showed that the number of professionally unprepared employees exceeds the limits which might have been expected under the conditions of natural recruitment. It is also a result of a high turnover of workers in such institutions (Motejl, 2007). It is clear that fresh graduates in special education, and perhaps those in other fi elds such as social education, are not prepared to focus on the issues of re-education and


re-socialization and to seek employment in these institutions. It may be suggested that graduates in special education with Master’s Degrees mainly enter more lucra-tive and less mentally stressful posts. Neither carers nor teachers have the levels of education common in schools outside the re-education institution sector.

It appears that obtaining the required higher education, mainly in the fi eld of special education, via distance learning study programs may not be an accessible option for the pedagogical staff of re-education institutions. Many of them are forced to attend fee-paying study programs. Moreover, as for further education, there seems to be an insuffi cient structure focused on activities specifi cally targeted at the needs of pedagogical staff in re-education and re-socialization institutions. Th is in itself contributes to the burnout of these workers. Th e same applies to the directors of these institutions, which makes the situation even worse. It is necessary to ask what vision of re-education and re-socialization might be expected from the directors without a profound theoretical education. It may be suggested that the directors frequently adopted previous models from their predecessors, added “new procedures” acquired through a trial-and-error method, and, due to their age and long-term practice, followed their rigid procedures for years.

It seems surprising to note that in our sample of institutions, there were no psychologists. Only some institutions in our sample employed specialists in behav-ioural disorders on a full-time basis.

Th e data collected from sociometric measurements in the re-education institu-tions of our Sample II were to a certain extent invalid, particularly because of the low readiness of some employees to participate in this research. It seems that the personnel did not believe that the data would not be misused, or disclosed to the management. Th erefore, even though the calculations extracted from the data are presented in this study, the results indicating sociometric cohesion cannot be considered as valid. In general, the data collected from sociometric measurements can only be used as additional data. It may be concluded that informal professional groups are formed only within the same professional groups. It is rare for members of a group to overstep the boundaries of their own groups.

Surprisingly, in some of the institutions, teachers and carers ignored each other. Groups of teachers and groups of carers worked so separately and individually that they did not need each other in everyday work, and they did not search each other out in everyday practice. To illustrate this fi nding with another example, Pol (2007, pp. 68–70) refers to the highly individualized character of educational work which results in poor communication among pedagogical staff . It may be argued that it is possible for the management to coordinate educational work at staff meetings, but there is a danger of applying a formal approach. As a result, a young educator

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(especially a novice educator) is forced to form his/her own educational approaches so as to “survive” and be successful. S/he learns mainly through trial-and-error, because s/he has no opportunity to draw upon the “bank of experience”, as this bank may not exist in a particular institution or it may be full of prejudice and myths. Matoušek (In Matoušek, Kroft ová, 2003) refers to institutional doctrines. As Pol says (Pol, 2007) there may be “a culture of non-interference” spread in some institutions. Th is results in a lack of feedback on institutional policy. “Questions regarding the core of work and methods of carrying out the work are not considered appropriate in such a culture.”(Pol, 2007, p. 70)

In the case of the institutions described here, it is possible to assume that the employees followed the rules of their own professional cultures. Th ey also drew upon the experience of their own groups – carers drew upon the carers’ experience, and teachers on the teachers’ experience. It may be proposed that the educational authority for each of these two groups is diff erent. For the teachers, there is very little they can use from the work of the carers, and vice versa. Both groups are connected only by the management.

As for investigating the value oriented unity within groups of workers, it is possible to state the following information. Firstly, values important for the staff of particular institutions were found, and secondly, specifi c values for whole institu-tions and their individual professional groups were identifi ed. In general, the values in institutions of the whole of Sample II were focused on:

interpersonal relationships between the management and the staff , and 1) furthermore, among the members of the staff themselves;the management of the staff , the coordination of the staff ;2) the approaches to the education of the clients and relationships of the staff 3) to the clients;material resources and the equipment in the workplace.4)

Furthermore, the investigative tool of value-oriented unity revealed data regard-ing the cohesion of the professional groups of employees in the way they viewed the values. It was surprising to discover a relatively high correlation of views of values in four institutions (RIs No. 5, No. 10, No. 3 and No. 4). At the same time, concerning the social climate data, the most problematic were RI No. 5 and RI No. 10. Yet, there were high degrees of cohesion of values in these institutions. It was also interesting to discover that RI No. 13, which at both stages of our research showed high values of the social climate, was among those scoring at the lowest levels of value cohesion in our sample. Th e value cohesion in those institutions with worse degrees of the social climate among the staff may paradoxically unite the staff in their views of the values considered as important. Furthermore, it


is important to scrutinize the quality of those values considered as important as far as the re-education of children and the functioning of the re-education institution are concerned. In contrast with the institutions mentioned above, the institutions which are more stabilized and well-run may allow the personnel the luxury to discuss values, to clarify views of them, and to supplement them.

Th e analysis of ICL revealed a number of noticeable results which illustrate the picture of fi ve re-education institutions. Th e personnel of each of the institutions had their own specifi c features. Th e values found via ICL were, with the exception of RI No. 5, in the adaptive area. As mentioned before, the management of RI No. 5 overstepped the limit of the adaptive area. Indeed, an explicit preference for managing an institution via power and aggression was identifi ed in this institution, which resulted in worsening the climate among the personnel as a whole.

It is noticeable that another institution (RI No. 10) with a poor social climate among the personnel had values characterizing the management (and the teachers) at the level of aggression and hostility (even if in an adaptive area) while the carers and the operational staff were described as sceptical – distrustful personalities.

Th e professional group of the management in the remaining institutions (even in RI No. 13, which may be considered as the most successful one) were also characterized by their self-assertive attitudes, which certainly include a certain level of aggression. In short, it is not possible to determine that this level of self-assertion is a problem. It seems that it may be acceptable and common for the management group. Aggression on its own is considered as neutral and it is considered as such by psychologists, too.

On the basis of our data, the carers acted confi dently and assertively in the majority of cases. Th ey demanded obedience from their clients. It might be possible to observe manipulative and exploitative tendencies in their behaviour. It is true that the core of their profession is to manage and control others. What may be dangerous for carrying out their profession is a situation where they personally feel mentally threatened. It is possible that in some cases, they might compensate for this feeling of anxiety by demonstrating power over the weakness of children they work with. Th is group of professionals seems to urgently require experiential training.

Th e teachers in the sample were not such a large group of pedagogical staff as the carers. Th e attitudes of those in RIs No. 5 and 10 were aggressive, even hostile. However, this may have been caused by the management of the institution. A similar situation could be observed in RI No. 3, whose director was in an open confl ict with two teachers who held important positions among their colleagues according to our sociometric measurements. Moreover, these teachers as a profes-

104 Julius Sekera

sional group worked in a school located outside the re-education institution, and therefore they could feel isolated. It may be suggested that at least some of them perceived their isolation in a positive way. Attitudes based on power and force were also noted among the teachers in RI No. 13. On the whole, the teachers in the four institutions we examined (there was no school in RI No. 4) adopted rather tough positions. It needs more investigation to fi nd out the reasons which would explain their behaviour. We may speculate that there may be several causes. Th e most frequent might be the teachers’ frustration from the low motivation of their pupils, and in some cases from uncooperative attitudes from the management and carers. Th e teachers’ isolation from the whole process of re-education might contribute to their attitudes.

Th e operational staff adopted aff ectionate attitudes mixed with passive resistance far more than the other professional groups. Th is was a slightly surprising result. It seems to correspond with the conclusions made by Matoušek (In Matoušek, 1995; Matoušek, Kroft ová, 2003), who mentioned the importance of the operational staff for children. Its members may be perceived as persons who are close to children, who understand them and who accept them, even if cautiously. Th e operational staff were perceived as “a soft ening element”, and the most understanding persons among the employees of the re-education institutions.

On the basis of our data it is possible to conclude that (besides the age factor and the level of education achieved) the important factors for the selection of the staff of re-education institutions are the interpersonal relations and attitudes to children. Th e currently applied psychological examinations of staff aimed only at eliminating persons with deviant characteristic features appear to be insuffi cient. Regarding the high requirements placed upon the professional staff teams and their psychological profi les, it may be suggested that the directors of institutions (or other experts) should monitor and supervise this area. Socially and psychologically oriented team work is most probably the key to success in re-education institutions (Hayes, 2005). In this respect, a system of supervision is lacking in the institutions evaluated in this study. Th is is probably typical of the majority of similar re-education institutions (if not all of them). Unfortunately, as far as supervision is concerned, we perceive the School Inspection Authority as an irrelevant, incompetent and insuffi cient body as its tasks are of a diff erent character. Th erefore, it is wrong to assume that the School Inspection Authority could act as a supervisory body, as some of the directors seemed to understand its role.


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Polish Corrections – Halfway to Late Modernity (the Text for the Conference on International Corrections

and Prisons Association “A Decade of Lessons Learned”, Prague, October 2008)

Abstract:

Th e paper is aimed at indicating the position of a rehabilitative ideal in the Polish prison system in relation to dominant Western penal trends. As a theo-retical framework of such described exploration, categories of modernity and late modernity are used. Th e author shares the point of view that many changes which have taken place especially in the USA and the UK for the period of the last four decades may outline the direction of universal trends in penalties. It does not exclude the possibility of the inner diversity of national penal systems to the extent to which traits of modernity and late modernity can co-exist. Th e Polish case may just be interpreted in terms of such a kind of complexity and will show – towards Western penitentiaries – some kind of shift on the way leading to late modern society. Th reads and issues mentioned in the paper have not been profoundly considered in the Polish theory of correction so far. Th e problem of the current Polish correctional facility – especially when it comes to the aspect of its effi ciency – is quite rarely taken up in the perspective of challenges determined by the time of advanced modernity.

key words: penal late modernity, penal system, correctional rehabilitation, penal reform, Central Europe, high crime society, risk society, “what works” philosophy.

Let me start with saying that this is the fi rst time I have attended the ICPA annual meeting, and what is more, I am doing that as the only representative of my country. Th is is why my response to the key-question of lessons learned will be

Mariusz SztukaPoland

110 Mariusz Sztuka

made from a bit wider perspective and as such may not encompass all the themes of the ICPA general meetings over the last ten years. If we look at the presentations topics of this section, as well as the presentations made by our Czech colleagues on Monday, we could see that the debate about Central-European penal issues oft en employs the metaphor of a journey, movement and passage. And it says a lot about our common problems. One is tempted to say that we are travelling on the same train but in diff erent compartments.

As suggested in the title, my aim is to present the current state of Polish peniten-tiaries in terms of penal modernity vs. late modernity or postmodernity discourse. Th ese theoretical frameworks may be controversial when used in the fi eld of penal-ties, however. Scholarly opinions are divided over the problem if we are faced with the features of a postmodern penal policy or just with some advanced stage of a modern ideal rooted in the Enlightenment, which have shaped our penal theory and practice. Leaving aside these polemics, there is a general consensus that for about the last forty years penal policy has been visibly rearranged. What remains to be seen is whether we are dealing with continuity or a radical break. Nevertheless, the complex of doubtless changes may outline both the ideal type of – post or late – modern penitentiaries and direction of correctional facilities development in the future. And how it may reveal its utility as a tool for examining any particular penal practice as well as its theoretical background. What we can term as penal late modernity may be described, according to David Garland (2001, pp. 6–20), as a cluster of features which comprises: the fading of the rehabilitative model, the renaissance of punitive sanctions, the fear of crime as a dominant thread of the crime policy, the return of the victim, the emphasis on protecting the public, the twilight of experts and the politicization of crime control, the reinvention of the prison (as a means of incapacitation), the re-emergence of control theories in the theoretical thought, the expanding infrastructure of community safety, the com-mercialization of crime control, new management styles and working practices, a sense of crisis among the considerable group of professionals and practitioners.

Nothing could be easier than to demonstrate that all these features are far from principles around which the penal modernity was organized. And as such, they may be worrying for those who are actively engaged in the institutional process of correction. But on the other hand, regarding the current dominant traits in the penal policy as those which completely replaced modern values seems to be oversimplifi ed (Hallsworth, 2002). Th us, given any particular penal system we are dealing with a mix of heterogeneous traits. If so, any individual penal system may be marked by a pattern of modern and late modern features deployment. Let us look at Polish prisons reality from the perspective described in this way.

111Polish Corrections – Halfway to Late Modernity…

As far as the most important characteristic is concerned, which is the changing status of the rehabilitative model of the penal policy, one might say that Polish experiences do not justify any uncompromising judgment in this regard. It could be reasonably argued that the state of correctional treatment in Poland – in both ideal and practice – has been far from what can be observed in the USA, for example. Unlike in the USA, the tendency to diminish the relevance of the rehabilitative ideal has been less visible for the last four decades. Th e popularity of the so-called rehabilitation pedagogy as a fi eld of study at Polish universities is good evidence.

Th is popularity, nevertheless, could be misleading. In contrast to the USA and the UK, the modern ideal of correctionalism in the communist Poland existed mainly as a theoretical notion and hardly shaped the penal policy, due to many structural and ideological limitations. Being part of the educational thought, the correctional theory before the 1990s was, on the one hand, a kind of special needs education, but on the other hand – in correctional facilities we were faced with repression behind the façade of educational phraseology. What remains aft er that time is a tradition of dealing with correctional treatment within the framework of educational studies. It is clear when we look at the education profi le among case managers in Polish penitentiary (Fig.1). As we can see, the majority of them graduated from educational departments. And this seems to be a distinctive feature of almost all the post-communist penal systems. It is worth noticing that the day before yesterday, when the Czech penal experiences were presented at the parallel session (Michal Petras, Martina Míčová &Václav Jiřička. Czech Prisons and System of the Work with Prisoners – presentation on the 10th ICPA AGM, 27 Oct. 2008), the speaker started with mentioning Jan Amos Comenius, one of the fathers of modern pedagogy.

Th e structural changes of the last decade of the 20th century brought about, among others, an attempt at real introduction of the rehabilitative ideal into Polish penal practice. Th at process had something in common with the Western postwar model of penal welfarism which enjoyed its heyday in the 1950s and the 1960s. One might say, by way of analogy, that during the last decade of the 20th century the Polish penal system had to do its homework on correctional treatment. Th at is to say, we had to make up for the time we were outside the mainstream of Western penal trends. Th e fi rst task, in that state of aff airs, was to restore the sense of correction which had been distorted before, as the idea of correction was formally treated as a duty to which every inmate should be subjected. Such changes came to existence when new regulations were enacted. One of the most essential principles underlying the new legislation related to this issue is reformulation of the aim of penitentiary isolation. It became evident that the main goal of the penitentiary was

112 Mariusz Sztuka

not to be rehabilitation and it had to be evident that enforced rehabilitation (forced upon the inmates) could no longer be the main target of the penitentiary and the emphasis had to be shift ed from obligatory correction to the right for rehabilita-tion. Broadly speaking, correctional treatment had to become an off er of aid in contrast to the prior time when it had been an inmate’s duty. Of course, it means that a prisoner may reject this off er and it is the normal state of aff airs given that the aim of prison is not limited to rehabilitation only. Th is main shift in the teleology of penalties demanded reorganization of the structure of the penitentiary system. Th us, the new regulation, which was enacted in 1997, introduced the following three types of prison-serving systems (Fig.2): the regular system, the system of programmed treatment, the therapeutic system.

Th ose three aspects of prison service arose from the crucial shift in the under-standing of the notion of the prison aim. Th e regular system is for the prisoners that do not need rehabilitation or those who reject the off er of rehabilitation, for those who simply do not want to work on correcting themselves.

From our point of view the second system is the most interesting one – the so-called system of programmed treatment. It is addressed to the prisoners who show readiness to change themselves and become law-abiding citizens of soci-ety. Let me try to describe it in more detail. Th e existence of the system may be treated as an answer to postulates put forward by theoreticians for many years. Th e cooperation between a case manager and a prisoner in this system is based upon individual agreement. As you know, we can notice a very similar kind of contract in therapeutic activities with drug addicts. Th is agreement involves a set of duties that an inmate has to fulfi ll and it describes the goals they have to reach. Th e program is designed for adults who want to help themselves, but it is obligatory for juvenile delinquents. Th is is an important division, because the idea of rehabilitation as an inmate’s right does not apply to juvenile delinquents, because they have to cooperate with the penitentiary staff . Th us, an adult prisoner makes his/her own decision if he/she wants to be part of this program or not. In the case of juvenile prisoners the decision is made for them.

And the third system, the so-called therapeutic one, is an eff ect of the existence of a special category of criminals that comprises individuals with personality dis-orders, with drug or alcohol addictions. Th is system demands a bit more specifi c infrastructure that involves a need for therapeutic staff and special organization of the prison.

Let us have a look at fi gures that illustrate the percentage of prisoners receiving specifi c kinds of treatment (Fig. 3 and 4). In 2002 the recipients of the programmed treatment system formed about 60% of prisoner population. Th e percentage of


inmates who were part of the therapeutic system was about 10%. We could say the majority of the prisoners were part of the programmed treatment system, the regular system comprised as many as 30%. Let us note the fl uctuation in ratios of prisoners serving under the systems in the space of 5 years. We can see that the percentage of those who were in the programmed treatment system and the therapeutic one was substantially reduced in favour of receiving the regular service. Th is shift seems to be signifi cant in the light of what will be said further.

In the West, in the early 1970s, the decline of the rehabilitative ideal corre-sponded to subsequent more punitive sanctions as well as to commonly shared sentiment for the “get tough” ideal and reappearance of thinking about prison as a means of incapacitation rather than as a place of eff ective treatment. Th is can be illustrated by prison population growth. Th e scale of the growth is well-known. It is suffi cient to refer to yesterday’s session on American penal problems where respective fi gures were presented (Martin Horn, Th e Challenge of Reducing Prisoner Numbers – presentation on the 10th ICPA AGM, 28 Oct. 2008).

When viewed from this perspective, the Polish penitentiary in the space of the last two decades shows a specifi c character (Fig.5). If we look at the fl uctuation of the prison population in Poland, we can see that the incarceration rate was relatively high throughout the 1980s but in 1989 a drop in the number of prison-ers took place as an eff ect of the radical reform, whose main goal was to make prison a more humane and decent place. As I said earlier, we dealt with the real start of the rehabilitative model’s golden era. In many respects it was the same enthusiasm about a possibility of a penal reform which had been observed in Western penitentiaries forty years before. But it is tempting to say that both the decrease in prisoner population and emphasis on true rehabilitation of prisoners in Poland were contrary to contemporary Western trends and were anachronistic from the point of view of these trends. Th is is what justifi es my point which is that we have to face a specifi c shift in the development of Polish prisons towards their Western counterparts.

Th is new philosophy was shared especially among a large number of young staff members. It is worth mentioning that by the end of 1992 only 55% of former staff remained. Th us, the new condition for rethinking the former idea of rehabilitation was settled. All those paradigmatic changes were preceded and accompanied by a number of necessary managerial improvements such as partial system decen-tralization, wider presence of religious service, cooperation with NGO’s; the latter in particular resulted in commonness of the Twelve Steps program in Polish penitentiary. Part of my professional life as a prison case manager took place at that time and I must admit that the new philosophy of reform aroused enthusiasm

114 Mariusz Sztuka

in younger staff . My personal retrospective view of these years is dominated by the picture of the introduction of the Alcoholics Anonymous ideal into prisons, which showed receptiveness for alternative styles of treatment. In chosen facilities the Minnesota model was implemented then; in general, we witnessed apparent openness to new solutions in the fi eld of correction.

One aspect of that time should not be overlooked. At the early stage of the Polish prison transformation, politicians quite rarely used the issues of crime control as a means of their political game. Broadly speaking, they were too busy managing wide-range economic and structural reforms. Government offi cials had confi dence in new prison headquarters staff and their projects of reforming facilities. In such circumstances, the shape of penal strategies was created mainly by correctional experts and the whole process of rearrangement was relatively free of political impact. Similarly, in the face of rapid socio-economic change the media paid rela-tively less attention to crime control strategies and to what was going on behind the bars in general. Th e most evident support for the authentic correctional turnabout showed liberal intellectual elites as the group where the ideal of welfare-state and the enlightened social engineering was still lasting. According to these ideals, the problems of suffi cient punishment might have come to existence as a problem of institutional adjustment mainly. Furthermore, the ethos of Solidarity, important as a factor of social change in our part of Europe, underpinned the model of the humane and decent prison as a place of personal reform. To sum up, all those facts created favourable conditions for a rehabilitation-centred correctional system.

Th e picture described above would be evidently one-sided if we did not take into consideration the key-problem of qualitative and quantitative changes in criminal activities and the problem of how those changes were perceived amongst the public. As with all rapid social changes, the process of Polish democratization in the early 1990s gave rise to a crime rate increase and what was the most worrying, the highest increase in violent crime. Th e scale of change in this matter let us defi ne the problem, in Garland terms, as a typically late modern features of high crime societies. Consequently, we were faced with a new social fact which was crucial in changing the previous context of prison reform. One might say that at that moment we started joining the Western world in terms of the features of high crime society. Th e key issue is whether the Polish penal policy-making would follow the route outlined by late modern responses to the problem of high crime. Th is brings us back to the prisoner rate overview as indicative of changes in the mode of punish-ment. As we can see, aft er an initial drop in prison population at the beginning of the 1990s, the inmate rate tended to increase rapidly at the end of the decade along with more and more negative sentiment among the public towards the direction


of correctional reforms. Th is tendency seems to be representative for the current decade as well. In this light, the shift in the ratio of inmates serving sentences in particular systems in favour of the regular system seems to be meaningful. Th e latter change, however, does not of necessity mean a move away from the rehabilitative ideal of correction. It might be an eff ect of the conclusion, drawn from the early stage of new systems operation, according to which the treatment must be addressed to the selected group of inmates and should not to be regarded as a universal goal of prison service.

So, at the turn of the 21st century, refl ections of Western postmodern trends in crime and crime control became quite visible. While the sense of socioeconomic insecurity was more and more acutely felt among Polish society along with the advent of the free market, it was soon complemented by the increasing fear of crime. Th is overall realization of risk has changed the common view of the world and is one of the key factors infl uencing the social background of the newly established mode of institutional punishment. Due to the changing social context we have been witnessing the pressure for reformulation of penitentiary reforms premises. And as with similar processes initiated thirty years before in the Western world, the ideal of rehabilitation as a potential means of crime reduction started to be questioned. In other words, the rapidly changing common view of the world has facilitated a deepened receptiveness to what is up-to date in penal trends.

What I wish to point out is that the phenomena we are talking about have the same nature as those observed among Western societies, but in Poland the climate over penal policy-making has changed much more rapidly. One might say that we were late when it comes to the popularity of penal modernity with its stress on rehabilitative strategies but we were not late in questioning them. And the distance between the time of positive sentiment toward rehabilitation-oriented prison and the time of questioning this model was relatively short. Th is is why the state of our corrections manifests itself as the mix of solutions relying upon modern as well as late modern values. Let us show some aspects of this situation.

As mentioned earlier, the new penal code (and punishment execution code) underlined the signifi cance of an inmate’s will in the process of prison serving. Th ese same regulations emphasized the position of victims throughout the trial. Th e recent legislation even extended the role of crime victims. For instance, they are allowed to receive support from prisoners’ aft er-care fund, and – in case of sex crime victims – they are informed about the moment an inmate is released. Th ese changes are parallel with the more audible voice of victims in a wider penal debate. Th e noticeable return of a victim theme may be observed in the increased inter-est in conceptions of restorative justice and in models of mediation between the

116 Mariusz Sztuka

off ender and the victim. But the place where the fi gure of the victim is represented the most visibly is the media world and politicians debate. And what remains to be an open question in such cases is whether we deal with the refl ection of a real public problem or just an anxiety-creating issue. Th e disconnection between fear increase and crime rates dynamics throughout the last few years could be a point in favour of the other solution.

With no doubt, the central theme of victimhood is imprinted in the overall context of the penal discourse. It was at the end of the 1990s when in public space it became more and more popular to repeat slogans like “zero tolerance”, “getting tough”, “no frills prisons”, of course the martinsonian “nothing works in correction”, etc. One can risk a guess that, as with many other traits drift ed from American pop-culture into everyday life, the language of our public debate has been visibly infi ltrated with statements expressing the need for punitive turnabout in the penal policy. Th ose strictly counter-rehabilitative ideas have come across a favourable response from the people sharing common consciousness of crime increase, which in turn has prompted politicians to use this threat in political, especially electoral declarations. Being up-to date in proposals of crime reduction has come to mean being pessimistic about the possibilities of eff ective rehabilitation. Many offi cials have explicitly opted for mechanical implementation of solutions typical of the North American penal system. Reappearing, on a regular basis, of the polemics about the death penalty may be a good case in point.

Signifi cant growth of incarceration was what emerged as a consequence of the changed tone of the crime control discourse at the turn of the century. Being the central managerial problem of Polish penitentiaries, overcrowded prison appears as a directed menace to reforms initiated near twenty years ago (nowadays Polish prison occupancy level is nearly 107 %). Th is undeniable statement has been promoted mainly by the practitioners; prison staff is a group that most openly claims against projects of transforming their workplace environment into a place of incapacitation only, into a place which can be, according to Polish sociolo-gist Sigmund Bauman (1998, 2004), termed as a human rubbish pit. Th e experts’ voice, still supportive towards the rehabilitation-centred prison reforms however, is barely perceptible in the wider public space dominated by projects appealing to collective sentiments typical of risk society. Unfortunately, what is downgrading the professional elite’s voice is the fact that they oft en use the slightly old-fashioned mode of rehabilitation. Burdened with the traits of the utopian vision of social engineering, which is facilitated by educational frameworks of penal refl ection, specialists’ proposals hardly keep pace with challenges of the present.


Th us, to take one example, views on correctional treatment in terms of the what works philosophy is almost absent from theoretical debates. Th e work on the fi rst in Polish version of measure for the risk assessment has been only just initiated. With the aim of adopting and implementing, in the Polish correctional settings, the tool for the risk of reoff ending appraisal, which is the HCR-20, we are in touch with Mental Health, Law and Policy Institute of Simon Fraser University, Canada. As a director of an interdisciplinary research team working on it, I hope that if we succeed, the present picture of both Polish correctional practice and theory will be complemented with the contributive element: namely, rehabilitation will gain a chance to be seen not only in the framework of welfare but also in the framework of risk management. My point is simply that the Polish correctional system needs such empirically grounded answers to questions of what works, what does not work and what is promising in the light of risk, need and responsibility principles. We need them because such answers would prove our receptiveness to not only more punitive and more segregative late modern penal practice, but also would provide a much more hopeful sort of responses to the crisis of penal modernity. Th e awareness of these needs and the eff orts we are taking is both: the lesson we have learned throughout the last decade and the homework we should do.

Being where we are now, the Polish penitentiary is bound to develop under continuous tension resulting from two clashing tendencies. On the one hand, we have an uncompleted prison reform, initiated from the welfare-state position, based on the set of still vital modern values. On the other hand, there is a process of implementing the Western responses to the problem of high crime society. Th ese incompatible elements outline the model which discloses our ambivalent state of being halfway.

Bibliography

Bauman, S. (1998). Globalization. Th e human consequences. New York: Columbia University Press.

Bauman, S. (2004). Wasted Lives. Modernity and its Outcasts. Cambridge: Polity Press.

Garland, D. (2001). Th e Culture of Control. Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society. Chicago: Th e University of Chicago Press.

Hallsworth, S. (2002). Th e case for a postmodern penality. Th eoretical Criminol-ogy”. 6(2), 145–163.

Speech of People with Autism

Abstract

Speech in people with autism is one of the basic diagnostic, therapeutic and theoretical problems. In case of a child with autism, one of the most common symptoms in speech is echolalia of diff erently described types and intensity.

Th is paper presents the results of studies on the intensity of the element of speech (in both normally developing children and children with diff erential illnesses and autism, divided according to the level of intensity), discusses the diff erences between simple echolalia and echolalic speech (which can be considered a symp-tom characteristic of children with autism). And the correlations between echolalic speech and other symptoms in autism. Th is problem can be an introduction to the perception of autism as a communicative disorder and present autism – specifi c speech development and ways of acquiring social communication skills.

Key words: autism, speech, echolalia, echolalic speech.

Introduction

Th e speech of people with autism is one of the basic problems concerning a diagnosis, therapy actions and also a theoretical look into the etiology of this developmental disorder. In the case of children with autism echolalia, whose intensity and kind is described in various ways, is a characteristic feature. While dealing with autism we oft en encounter a lack of speech, underdeveloped speech, echolalic disorders, pronoun misuse e.g. a lack of or 1st person singular pronoun change, non-verbal communication disorders, articulation anomalies, impairment of starting and keeping a conversation ( J. Błeszyński, 1998, p. 44).

Jacek J. BłeszyńskiPoland

119Speech of People with Autism

In my presentation I would like to present the results of the research concerning the intensity of this speech element –developmental stage ( of properly developing children, and also of diff erent illnesses and autism), I would also like to point out diff erences between simple echolalia and echolalic speech ( which may be considered a characteristic element of the speech of children with autism) and co-relations between echolalic speech and other autism symptoms. Th is problem may introduce a diff erent look at autism as a communication disorder, it may also show specifi c speech development and possibilities of gaining social communica-tion skills.

1. Echolalia – as a stage, speech development system

Echolalia is most oft en defi ned as an exact repetition of words, phrases and longer utterances. It may be of a developmental character and it also may be a pathological symptom (this problem has been presented more thoroughly in my publications e.g. in 1998, 2005). In the case of autism it is one of its symptoms. It is worth remembering that echolalia might be one of the symptoms which:

does not need to appear in a full spectrum of autistic disorders (it is not •a distinctive feature ) – for instance U. Frith (2008, p. 154) shows that echo-lalia appears in ¾ of the diagnosed children with autism ,which suggests that intensity is not a distinctive feature of autism; may appear at a diff erent age (from the melody period on ): •

As a stage in a child’s proper speech development placed by J. Piaget –(2005) in the melody period –about 11 months old ( now appearing earlier as a result of acceleration);Appearing at a later stage of speech development, which shows speech –under-development, as transferring at individual speed but with at least a 3-month-long delay ; as a constant or prolonged feature, yet showing speech development –existence, which may withdraw in the speech development process or slow down at some stage (prolonged stage );

it may appear with a diff erent intensity, which might originate from the •situation a given person is in, so it could be from incidental utterances to a multitude of speech (which may have a repetitive character ),it may also appear with a diff erent character e.g. direct echolalia, postponed •or functional –these types will be described as well (cf. H. Jaklewicz, 1993; E. Pisula, 1993, 2000; B. Winczura, 2008; J. Błeszyński 1998 and others ).

120 Jacek J. Błeszyński

It is also essential to make a division according to specifi c usage of echolalia in children’s utterances (also in autism ) which we noticed in relation to the time of appearance and also to the use of this utterance in interpersonal communication:

direct echolalia a) – aft er hearing there is a repetition, oft en called direct repetition, which may have a character of a communication act, and it oft en appears in additional situations, such as:

supporting action process (repeating while performing an action-as –though following through an action with verbal repeating action stages preventing a lack of concentration-strengthening performed actions by –repetition, as an inner speech eff ect, looking for associations, a common commu- –nication circle, etc,

indirect echolalia , postponed b) (H. Jaklewicz, 1993 – postponed ) –aft er some time the whole heard phrase is repeated, e.g. an advertisement, an utterance or a melody;mild echolalia c) (J. M. Roberts 1989) – (or functional ) – in the child’s speech there are many separate words related to certain situations, to the child’s interests. If a child with autism is able to use echolalia in a proper way and conducts a simple conversation, we consider this to be a huge success in communication.

As I have already proved (J. Błeszyński, 1998) in case of the child with autism the specifi city of echolalia appearance is oriented on a supra-segmental utterance element. Nowadays, based on the experience of the speech therapy of the child with autism, we are able to come to such a conclusion. In accordance with the theory proposed by I. Lovaasa and his wife (at the conference organised by the Society for Helping Autistic People in Gdansk ), echolalia was used to provoke active speech and to improve communication with an autistic child. Such an approach introduced a cognitive dissonance to the research concerning specifi c elements in the speech of both children and adults with autism.

2. Echolalia and echolalic speech

It has been possible to redefi ne the existing approach to the limited communica-tion abilities of people with autism. It has been a necessity to analyse thoroughly the intensity and specifi city of echolalic utterances of the children diagnosed with autism.


In relation to specifi c echolalic utterances of people with autism a graphic analysis of the articulation has been made. Only in this way may we show the diff erences between simple echolalia and an echolalic utterance. Not only do they refer to the voice pitch in a given utterance, but also to an individual composition of a given utterance.

Picture. 1. Th erapist’s utterance and echolalic speech of a child with autism: “Jak się masz?” (how are you?).

j a k s ’e m a š j a k s’ e m a š Th erapist Child

In this graphic representation of the therapist’s utterance and the child’s response we can see diff erences in the achieved result. Th ey refer to supra-segmental ele-ments, such as: intonation, loudness, stress, etc. Our attention ought to be paid to the fact that the child’s utterance does not fi nish with the question intonation – it is transformed into a statement. Th is is the proper way of having a conversation-when we answer a question affi rmatively ( seldom do we answer a question with a question – especially when we want to specify the question we ask).

A diff erent utterance-also keeping the category presented in picture 2, refers to a common question “Jak masz na imię?”(what is your name?).

Also in the case of this utterance we may notice fi rst of all a time diff erence between the therapist’s and the child’s uttered phrases and sound nasality. A dynam-ics change between the therapist’s and the child’s utterances is also visible, which shows individuality of an echolalic utterance in a considerable way. Th is is not simple echolalia, an echolike type where we have an exact, although a delayed rep-


Picture. 2. Th erapist’s utterance and echolalic speech of a child with autism: “Jak masz na imię?” (what is your name?).

j a k m a š n a i m ’ ę jak ma š na im’ ę Th erapist Child

etition of a phrase. In this utterance we can see not only references to the therapist, but also the functional state of the child with autism at the moment.

Th is diff erentiation enables us to pay attention to the autistic child’s infl uence on the utterance-message which is not a passive or trained one ( children with autism are oft en taught how to concentrate and to repeat the task they are given in order to confi rm that they have understood-and that is not always a logical conclusion ), but despite being a repetition it possesses some elements of a personal infl uence. Th us, we may state that segmental and supra-segmental levels of the utterance to a child are split –and in the response we get a repetition with a changed supra-segmental form apart from a content change, however, with a meaning change, which is really essential.

Th e problem is understanding the autistic child’s intentions of his/her actions. Is it:

a from of play-uttering sounds; not proved by recapitulation ; •a form of a trained reaction – as stimulus – (question) ←→ reaction (answer); •which may originate from the observation of people’s social functioning;patterning – disability to answer; which may be a form of subordination to •somebody, compliance;creating a peculiar language/communication system-by a lack of manipulat- •ing within a text with moving onto the form.


Th e next chart shows a complex phenomenon of changes taking part in utter-ances. However, what has been stressed here is extending the utterance by the elements of time stratifi cation of the message itself. Th e picture presented here demonstrates that the child is, as if, playing with uttering the words, which may prove that the child has phonological awareness.

Picture. 3. Th erapist’s utterance and echolalic speech of a child with autism: “Co robisz? (what are you doing?).

c o r o b i š c o r o b i š Th erapist Child

A very important conclusion is the fact that children with autism do not seem to have phonemic or phonological hearing disorders. Also, the articulatory com-petence and the formulated message of an echolalic utterance make us realise that there is no connection between autism and disorders concerning perception, transforming and performing verbal communication.

3. Echolalic speech and consciousness

As there is a great deal of theories concerning the etiology, intensity of specifi c disorders and autism course, it seems necessary to refer to the autism etiology theory in connection with echolalic speech appearance. Although there is no theory that directly points to the existence of echolalic speech in autism (which


may be explained by the fact that in only ⅔ of the people with autism we may observe echolalic speech ), there is a problem of the infl uence/co-existence –eff ect of echolalic speech in autism in relation to theoretical assumptions. As there is a great deal of theories concerning the etiology, intensity of specifi c disorders and autism course fi rst of all as far as children are concerned, it seems necessary to refer to the autism etiology theory in connection with echolalic speech appearance. I would personally include here the theories ( selected out of many ) concerning:

Discovering one’s own self – R. F. Baumeister writes about it (2004a), showing •three basic functions of Me: refl ective consciousness, interpersonal affi liation and executor for ‘ego’-introduced to self-regulation, initiative choice, alterna-tive explanation and infl uencing motivation and behaviour. According to the author, our behaviour is adjusted by Me as the superior element as far as shaping our experience is concerned (R.F. Baumeister, 2004b, p. 39). Me-you, inter-subjective model by R. P. Hobson • (1993), in which it has been assumed that already in infants’ brains there is a division into two informa-tion processes (Me-You, as the process of understanding people and Me-It, as the process of understanding things), S. Baron-Cohen’s theory – Stages of cognition mechanism • (1995) in which four inborn functional patterns of the mind are presented. Th ey create a basis of the correct development of social cognition development (Intentional Detector – ID defi nes the objective, needs, desires; Eye-Direction Detector – EDD as a possibility of getting to know situations stimulated by vision, esti-mating the preferred direction of vision stimulation, which lets us conclude that eyes are oriented on the object that is being detected with other senses; Shared-Attention Mechanism – SAM – responsible for building the triad that surrounds each person. Th e triad consists of: me as self-cognition, me plus – another person/other people, me-plus another, additional object; Th eory of Mind Mechanism – ToMM – which integrates all the above-mentioned patterns (ID, EDD, SAM) with the theory of mind mechanism.Neuro-physiological approach is presented by • L. Waterhouse, D. Feina, C. Modahla in Multifactor model (1996) where autistic disorders are related to one of the four mechanisms which may co-exist causing disorders of diff erent intensity and course (they may concern: 1. canalesthesia – wrong functions of hippocampus that is responsible for storing and making avail-able sensory experience, which causes disorders of information integrity; 2. limited ability; 3. non-verbal message decoding where wrong functions of almond-shaped body/amygdala disturb socialization, meeting and making friends (vasopressin and oeoxytocin weakening ), fl attening the social links


and the feeling of belonging; 4. limits of social attention development where the incorrect cerebral cortex organisation leads to the disappearance of the shift ing attention process,Whereas S. Ozonoff claims that such disorders may point to the weaken- •ing of these functions and to the delayed social development. S. Ozonoff (1995) believes that autistic people suff er from the following social disorders: disorders of emotion perception, copying, creating appearances/pretending, inter-subjectivity, common attention, and from executive functions weaken-ing. S. P. Springer and G. Deutsch (2004) presented the conception of • brain hemi-spheres asymmetry in which they discussed the most recent results of cogni-tive neuro-biology research related to human functional behaviour. Relating to autism, they paid attention to D.Fein’s research (1984) concerning autistic children’s being left /right-handed, which shows that 52% of the children lack direct lateralization or are left -handed. Similar research by G.Dawson (1982) proved that the left ear is preferred or lateralization is not stated. Th us, it is tempting to conclude that autistic disorders increase the activity of the right brain hemisphere, which confi rms the cause of communication disorders and also such children’s abilities.

Th e presented research does not provide a direct answer to the issue of the etiology and clear clinical picture of the disorder based on the theory of cognitive neurobiology. Th erefore, it is advisable to approach autistic disorders as a wider aspect of wrong functioning of brain structures where one factor may originate from the immaturity or wrong development of brain structures or brain disorders, whose symptom or eff ect might be lateralization abnormalities.

Summary

While analyzing the communication of people with autism (especially children at the age of 2–5 ), it is important to carry out a wider analysis of the echolalic speech as it is used quite commonly by these people ( by 2/3 of the diagnosed ).

Undoubtedly, in the case of people with autism, the echolalic speech gets the symptoms of retarded speech development ( retardation, inhibition or withdrawal from the stage a person with autism has achieved ) which is characterised by a specifi c, individual communication form that may be changed as far as its supra-segmental layer is concerned, yet with the preserved segmental one. More importantly, it may be stated that conscious and intentional actions taken by


a person with autism contradict the belief that there is randomness or lack of conscious actions taken by such a person and thus such actions might prove the willingness to start and keep communication. Th is conclusion allows us to move away from the statement that people with autism do not have communication abilities, skills and needs.

Th e consequence of such an approach is a diff erent view of the autistic person’s identity and consciousness also in relation to the frequent pronoun change from me to other forms. Autism is not a disorder making the acquisition of social skills impossible, it is a disorder limiting perception, cognitive abilities and reactions to signals coming from the outside. According to various theories ( including psycho-analytical, interactive, brain structure, neuro-physiological and functional ones ), the problems of comprehending, processing and using the acquired information and skills become of primary importance. Th ese processes are diff erent from the common developmental processes ( both at the perception level and also at the level of parallel and re-adaptive processing and using ). Th is essential statement, no matter how obvious it seems, has its representation in the existence of echolalic speech that shows the model of perception skills in accordance with the theory of C. H. Delacato [1995] diversifi ed as far as the receptor, intensity and reception type are concerned.

Echolalic speech makes it possible to:Evaluate the level of a person with autism – to state linguistic skills and •intensity of autistic disorders, State a possible etiology of autism and orient onto the most probable factors •being the cause of this disorder, Forecast the shaping of communication skills, and based on them social skills, •according to the assumption that communication develops social skills, Defi ne the actions taken to improve and shape the skills-individual therapy •programme .

Th e attempts to follow the child with autism (the option method by L. N. Kaufman) or to use echolalia in the therapy to establish contact and to struc-ture it in a wider perspective in the case of a child with a mild intellectual handicap seem advisable and effi cient, which has proved to be useful in the directive method usage in special pedagogy .

Th us, a proper approach to the problem of echolalia and its usage in a diag-nostic process and in a therapy may turn out to be helpful for the optimization of actions taken while establishing and shaping contacts with children with autism and those with autism-like disorders, and also with children who are in a normal developmental standard.


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Baumeister, R.F., (2004). Wczepianie się ego i funkcja wykonawcza Ja. In: A. Tesser, R.B. Felson, J.M. Suls, Ja i tożsamość, Gdańsk.

Błeszynski, J.J. (2008). Rozwój mowy i języka dziecka z niepełnosprawnością intelektualną. In: Z. Gajdzica (ed), Wspólne i swoiste zagadnienia edukacji i rehabilitacji osób z upośledzeniem umysłowym. Sosnowiec.

Błeszyński, J.J., (1997). Echolalia i użycie zaimka „ja” w kształtowaniu się mowy dziecka z autyzmem. Dziecko Autystyczne, 5, 2, 14–27.

Błeszyński, J.J. (1998). Mowa i język dzieci z autyzmem, Wybrane zagadnienia. Słupsk.

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The Process of Diagnosing the Underachievement Syndrome in Gifted and Creative Children

Abstract

Th e core of interest in the article concerns the process of identifying the undera-chievement syndrome in the group of gift ed and creative pupils. Recognising the syndrome among gift ed students relies on formal and informal diagnoses. Formal diagnosis demands the cooperation of educationalists and psychologists and depends on the comparison of school marks and scholastic achievement tests with the results of standardised tests for intelligence, creativity and special abilities. Informal diagnosis demands that the teacher be well informed about the syndrome and involves recognising specifi c details of the students’ behaviour and functioning in the school and family environments. Such a diagnosis can be divided into fi ve component elements: a diagnosis of constant tendencies and patterns in the student’s behaviour at home and at school, a diagnosis of how the student behaves in typical school situations, a diagnosis of certain aspects of their personality, a diagnosis of typical factors in the family environment, a diagnosis of the school environment.

Key words: underachievement syndrome; gift ed, creative students; process of diag-nosing.

Th e problem of the underachievement syndrome, which aff ects many gift ed children, is a peculiar phenomenon. Oft en for unexplained reasons students who had previously achieved the highest and most promising results, raising hopes for their future academic careers, “lower their sights” and do not learn as well as they could. Th e process of recognising this damaging phenomenon, defi ning it and identifying students aff ected by it, as well as discovering what causes it, is not

Beata DyrdaPoland

130 Beata Dyrda

a simple task and is still a cause of considerable controversy among researchers, educationalists and psychologists, as well as among those who are directly involved – teachers and parents.

Th e underachievement syndrome can most simply be defi ned as a damaging situation in which gift ed students fail to make use of their potential and abili-ties. A deeper psycho-educational analysis of these students shows considerable discrepancies between their results in intelligence tests, special abilities or creativity and low scores in tests of scholastic achievement, general school tests and school marks.

Underachieving students can be divided into two groups. Th e fi rst group is comprised of students with a chronic and recurrent discrepancy between their potential and scholastic achievement. Th e second group consists of students whose underachievement is sporadic, episodic and situational. Th e students in the second group experience a short-term drop in achievement. Th is situation is a reaction to temporary, unfavourable circumstances, which manifests itself as a reluctance to study, indiff erence or lack of ambition and is caused by temporary crises, emotional problems and family problems (such as illness, confl ict in the family, personal prob-lems, death in the family, long term stress, divorce of the parents, losing a friend or confl ict with teachers), which can be easily diagnosed (French, 1973). In the vast majority of cases such situational drops in achievement evolve with time into chronic underachievement, making an expert and accurate diagnosis of the causes of this damaging phenomenon extremely important. Th e latest research results (Colangelo, 2003) concerning the etiology of the Scholastic Underachievement Syndrome provide the following conclusions: the syndrome is most oft en revealed as early as in the fi rst form of primary school; the syndrome appears periodically or episodically, can last months or years and suddenly disappear, or can also appear in middle school aft er satisfactory achievement in primary school. Delisle (1992, quoted in: Colangelo, 2003) suggests dividing students who do not make the most of their abilities into underachievers and non-producers. Th ese two types require diff erent therapeutic approaches. Non-producers need a small amount of work and help from educationalists and psychologists for their underachievement to be quickly overcome. Students with full Scholastic Underachievement Syndrome need a long-term and holistic therapy which engages the cooperation of the school, the parents and psycho-educational counselling.

131The Process of Diagnosing…

Diagnosing the Scholastic Underachievement Syndrome

Th e reasons why gift ed students fail to use their exceptional abilities are of a diverse character and result from both internal and external factors. Recognising the syndrome among gift ed students relies on formal and informal diagnoses. A formal diagnosis demands the cooperation of educationalists and psychologists and depends on the comparison of school marks and scholastic achievement tests with the results of standardised tests for intelligence, creativity and special abili-ties. An informal diagnosis demands that the teacher be well informed about the syndrome and involves recognising specifi c details of the students’ behaviour and functioning in the school and family environments. Such a diagnosis can be divided into 5 component elements: a diagnosis of constant tendencies and patterns in the student’s behaviour at home and at school, a diagnosis of how the student behaves in typical school situations, a diagnosis of certain aspects of their personality, a diagnosis of typical factors in the family environment, a diagnosis of the school environment. Students with SUS cannot be classifi ed into one homogenous group. As with the example of the characteristics of gift ed children, we can fi nd a large diversity and variability in their behaviour, interests and abilities.

Diagnosis of constant tendencies and patterns in the students’ behaviour at home and at schoolTh e diagnosis of constant tendencies and patterns in the student’s behaviour at

home and at school involves identifying characteristic and established symptoms in the behaviour and conduct of the student. Th e psychological qualities of gift ed students which lead to underachievement in their studies include emotional characteristics connected with emotional and social immaturity. We can also distinguish here between the group of students who are aggressive, the group who are withdrawn and the type which is a mix of the rebellious and the withdrawn. Students who are publicly and visibly aggressive demonstrate temperamental, vio-lent and confrontational behaviour. Withdrawn students are bored, disinterested and unengaged. Th e third type (rebellious and withdrawn) are a combination of aggressive and passive behaviour, students displaying a mix of behaviours (Whit-more,1980). S. Rimm (1994, 2003), describing the types of behaviour characteristic of students with the syndrome diff erentiates between submissiveness and domina-tion. Submissive students (“withdrawn”) are those who are apprehensive, who oft en cry and who are disorganised. Th ey are characterised by a withdrawn posture,

132 Beata Dyrda

passivity, excessive subservience and dependence on the infl uence of other people, shyness, a tendency towards isolation, seclusion, low self-esteem and a lack of faith in their own abilities. Dominant students (displaying diff erent kinds of hyperactiv-ity, including emotional, intellectual, psycho-kinaesthetic, sensory, imagination), oft en presenting aggressive and hostile behaviour, are undisciplined and distrustful. Th ey are group leaders who force their will on others and with a tendency towards mood swings they are confrontational, contrary and manipulative. Th e author also identifi es sub-groups of the submissive and dominant types, dividing them into submissive conformist and nonconformist and dominant conformist and nonconformist. Students with nonconformist behaviour demonstrate stronger and clearer characteristics of submissiveness or dominance. Nonconformist students possess a strong sense of self-worth, confi dence in their own abilities, implying self-confi dence and decisiveness.

Diagnosis of how the student behaves in typical school situationsTh e diagnosis of how the student behaves in typical school situations comes

down to identifying the most common behaviour of students on the basis of the teacher’s perceptive observations. If the teacher notices certain symptoms, at least some of the aforementioned student behaviours, this is the fi rst signal that the child has learning diffi culties despite its abilities. Such symptoms could be: weak results in class work, tests and answers, lack of eff ort in class work and homework, signifi cant disproportion between a high level of cognitive abilities and a low level of execution of school work, emotional hyperactivity, excessive shyness, large potential abilities and a simultaneous lack of the ability to learn, a tendency to manipulate their surroundings, a wide range of knowledge, but a simultaneous lack of mastery of the material covered in class, wide interests outside school and a minimal eff ort applied to school work, a discrepancy between the level of oral and written answers (oral answers are signifi cantly better than written work), concen-tration of their attention on a chosen subject, having one passion or hobby, which overrides their schoolwork, low self-esteem, large untapped creative potential, impulsiveness and diffi culty in making their own judgements, an inability to set realistic goals and unrealistic expectations of themselves, a tendency to withdraw or aggressive domination in a group, problems in creating contacts with peers, an inability to work in a group, discipline problems and opposition to the teacher’s orders, a passive or negative attitude towards school duties, avoiding involvement in unfamiliar and new situations because of a fear of failure, diffi culties fi nish-ing tasks or work they have started, problems with concentration, daydreaming, disorganised work (Whitmore, 1980; Butler-Por, 1993; Rimm, 1994, 2000, 2003).


Diagnosis of certain aspects of their personalityPsychologists point out that one factor in why gift ed students do not achieve

satisfactory school results is that they have personal problems with interpersonal relationships in their families, at school and among their peers. Children who do not achieve success are oft en unaware of their learning problems. Th is is related to the fact that they have not discovered their own study methods and are not good at managing their own work. For such students it is easier to blame their lack of success on boring programmes of study or incompetent teachers. Underachieving students have a negative attitude to themselves, characterised by an unfavourable self-image, negative self-esteem and a low level of the sense of self-worth. Th ese traits reveal themselves as a lack of faith in themselves and others, hostility towards their surroundings, weak motivation to study and a lack of perseverance in their endeavours. Th ese traits also lead to a signifi cantly high level of apprehensive-ness in these students. Th ese children learn slowly and cannot make use of their knowledge and experience. Among gift ed children one can also fi nd individuals who see no sense in mastering new information or skills and are not interested in them. Weak results at school are also a result of numerous, diverse interests, values and goals which do not have an intellectual character and are not connected with school (Borzym, 1979, Tyszkowa, 1990). Gift ed students who do badly at school reveal lacks in their personalities. Th ey have a lower level of capability of system-atic and organised study, characterised by a fear of success or passive-aggressive behaviour (Borzym, 1979, Tyszkowa, 1990, Rimm, 1994). Gift ed students with weak or bad performance on school work oft en do not believe in their ability to achieve success at school, are full of complexes, do not trust themselves and in this way they approach new tasks with a pre-fabricated negative attitude. Gift ed students who do not make use of their above average abilities are, as a rule, less emotionally mature, including the group of students who are hyperactive, psycho-kinaesthetically inhibited or strongly neurotic and also those with slight brain damage (Borzym, 1979). Numerous studies also show that the majority of gift ed students who do badly at school have a tendency to hasty generalisations and chaotic thinking which lacks reasoning. Many studies on the causes of the syn-drome stress the role of the locus of control, which in underachieving students has typically external roots. Students with the Scholastic Underachievement Syndrome blame others (parents, teachers, peers, school) for their lack of success, claiming that they have the proverbial bad luck and thinking that they cannot be in control of their school activities. Th eir behaviour is dominated by a fear of failure, so they oft en choose tasks which are too easy and do not contribute to their development. Th e next signifi cant element connected with the personality traits of students with

134 Beata Dyrda

SUS is lowered self-esteem and motivation to study. Th e results of the research (Reis, McCoach, 2004, 181–212) into the personality factors which lead to the underachievement syndrome stress the role of the low sense of self-worth or low evaluation of the eff ectiveness of actions. Students with SUS are also characterised by pessimism, a withdrawn attitude, distrust and reluctance to take on challenges. Th e majority of students who perform below their abilities at school set themselves goals which are not directly connected with studying and do not have an intel-lectual character. Th eir motivation to study is oft en low and not commensurate with their abilities. However, the main causes of low self-esteem are opposition and subconscious hostility to pressure from adults, external motivation based on goals and standards set by adults, instead of internal motivation based on internal standards of behaviour and a sense of self-worth. Th e research into the self-image of underachieving students reveals that they perceive themselves very negatively in relation to their surroundings. Th ey think that they are not accepted by their peers or adults, have problems communicating with those around them, cannot show their emotions and cannot face up to problematic situation connected with social functioning. Th eir lack of belief in their own abilities and lack of self-confi dence are characterised by apprehensiveness, emotional instability, inability to deal with confl ict, an excessive need to belong and excessive adaptation to their surround-ings, fear of negative peer opinions typical of puberty, alienation, opposition and rebellion against authority, lack of ability to learn, weak self-control, lack of perseverance in activities, lack of determination and persistence in achieving goals and unwillingness to take on tasks which involve responsibility. (Whitmore, 1980; Rimm, 2003). Among the personality factors which characterise gift ed students who do not achieve satisfactory results at school we can also notice behaviour which suggests a tendency to impulsiveness, hyperactivity, aggression and hostility towards their surroundings.

Diagnosis of typical factors in the family environment.Many studies on the family circumstances of students with SUS reveal that their

home environment is closely connected with their level of achievement at school. One of the most important factors infl uencing the appearance of the syndrome is the parents’ preferred style of bringing up their children. Th e diagnosis of factors typical of the family environment leads to the conclusion that oft en the real reasons for underachievement are directly connected with the cultural conditions of the family, the level of care for the child and its school work, the educational atmosphere in the home and the parents’ attitude. Th e majority of behaviours characteristic of underachieving students is based on family relationships, especially in early


childhood. Many gift ed children do not make use of their rich talents in family life, which places no value on qualities linked with education. It is very common to hear the parents criticise the school and teachers in front of the child. Parents’ belittling of the value of qualities connected with studying, gaining knowledge or hard work is an important factor in the appearance of the underachievement syndrome in their children. Students who follow their parents’ example do not set themselves goals connected with education based on their abilities.

Among the most common mistakes made in children upbringing we must point out: a lack of consistency in their upbringing, spoiling the child or being too strict. Many parents put too much pressure on intellectual development, set unrealistic goals and have too high expectations of their children’s achievements. Lack of acceptance, insuffi cient or excessive attention from parents, a lack of interest or support from the side of the parents and parental indiff erence to or neglect of the child can lead to the formation of submissive or dominant behaviour in the child. Negative role models in the family or a lack of positive role models mean that by following their parents’ example, children learn to achieve results which are below their abilities. Another unfortunate situation involves all sorts of diff er-ent diffi culties, problems and pathologies in the family (unemployment, divorce, alcoholism, a disorganised home) and are connected with a lack of support in the family, a lack of a sense of safety and family warmth, which leads to a lack of motivation and ability to study. Among domestic factors which raise the danger of SUS occurrence, we must mention the situation of long awaited children, children raised by single mothers, sickly children and prodigal children (Rimm, 1994). Very oft en these situations lead to overprotective behaviour or excessive leniency, which in turn leads to overinfl ated expectations of the child. Consequently, this leads to the formation of dominant or submissive behaviour in the child, which has a negative infl uence on the development of independence and ability to deal with diffi cult situations. Submissiveness in children comes from their dependence on their parents and appears at school age as a sense of a lack of security, immaturity, hyperactivity or inability to study. Dominant behaviour, which has the same roots, may not appear during the fi rst school years as long as the child is satisfi ed with its ability to achieve success. Problems appear in later forms when students have to face tasks of increasing diffi culty.

Th e fi nal domestic cause of the syndrome is the situation of “unwanted children” or “unaccepted children”, where the parents show aversion to the child. Th is failure to meet the child’s needs means the child cannot form a true self-image and has lowered self-esteem, which oft en manifests itself as aggressive behaviour with the goal of attracting attention. (Rimm, 1994, 2000).

136 Beata Dyrda

Diagnosis of the school environmentTh e diagnosis of the school environment allows us to isolate the most common

factors connected with school which lead to the appearance of the syndrome. Unsatisfactory results at school can be a consequence of inappropriate teacher attitudes, peers, defective educational programmes or teaching methods. In school life we oft en come across teachers who are not prepared for work with gift ed chil-dren. Among the mistakes teachers make, the most common one is a lack of proper psycho-educational diagnosis and consequent lowering of expectations because of a faulty diagnosis of gift ed children. In schools the following negative behaviour by teachers is not uncommon: unfair marks, inappropriate comments about grades, comparing students’ results, concentrating on mistakes and failures, unconstructive criticism of bad results of individual students in front of the whole class and expres-sions of surprise when students the teacher thinks are weak get good marks. Many teachers still prefer traditional and deductive methods of teaching which lead to boredom and a loss of interest in the subject. Teaching programmes which are not stimulating or suitable for gift ed children are another signifi cant factor, creating a confl ict between their hobbies and interests and the study programmes they are obliged to follow at school. Schools oft en prefer conventional behaviour, connected with imitative and convergent thinking. Gift ed students tend to be people with large creative potential, nonconformists with divergent thinking, whose ideas and ways of behaving do not meet with approval from traditional teachers.

Th e research of F. Painter (1993) shows that a large portion of outstanding stu-dents deliberately do not show their abilities in front of their parents and teachers because they do not want them to know how easily they cope with school work.

Th e signifi cant role of the personality, psychological and environmental factors described in the occurrence of the underachievement syndrome in gift ed children is not the same at all stages of development. Oft en these factors co-occur and lead to strong and lasting underachievement at school. In early childhood the factors related to personality or family dominate, but at later stages the factors related to the environment play a signifi cantly greater role, particularly those connected with school, and they can even be enough to cause the syndrome on their own.


Bibliography

Borzym, I. (1979). Uczniowie zdolni. Warszawa: PWN.Butler-Por,, N. (1993). Underachieving Gift ed Students. In: K.A Heller., F.J. Mönks,

A.H. Passow (eds.) International Handbook of Research and Development of Gift edness and Talent (pp. 649–667). Oxford, New York, Tokyo: Pergamon.

Colangelo, N. (2003). Counseling Gift ed Students. In: N. Colangelo, G.A. Davis (eds.), Handbook of Gift ed Education. Th ird Edition (pp. 373–387). Boston, New York, San Francisco: Allyn and Bacon.

French, J.L. (1973). Dzieci szczególnie uzdolnione – badania i metody kształcenia. In: N.G. Haring, R.L. Schiefelbusch (eds.), Metody pedagogiki specjalnej. Warszawa: PWN.

Painter, F. (1993). Kim są wybitni? Charakterystyka, identyfi kacja, kształcenie. Warszawa: WSiP.

Reis, S.M. & McCoach, D.B. (2004). Th e Underachievement of gift ed students: What do we know and where do we go? In: S.M. Moon (ed.), Social/Emotional Issues, Underachievement, and Counseling of Gift ed and Talented Students (pp. 181–212). Th ousand Oaks: Corwin Press A Sage Publications Company.

Rimm, S. (1994). Bariery szkolnej kariery. Dlaczego dzieci zdolne mają słabe stopnie? Warszawa: WSiP.

Rimm, S. (2000). Dlaczego zdolne dzieci nie radzą sobie w szkole? Poznań: Wydaw-nictwo Moderski i S-ka.

Rimm, S. (2003). Underachievement: A National Epidemic. In: N. Colangelo, G.A. Davis (ed.), Handbook of Gift ed Education. Th ird Edition (pp. 424–443). Boston, New York, San Francisco: Allyn and Bacon.

Tyszkowa, M. (1990). Zdolności, osobowość i działalność uczniów. Warszawa: PWN.

Whitmore, J.R. (1980). Gift edness confl ict and underachievement. Allyn and Bacon, INC.

Pedeutology

Exploring Teachers’ Real Lives and Voices – A Vital Research Focus in Pedeutological Inquiry

How the teacher believes, thinks, acts and reacts is central to edu-cational endeavour, but about the EFL language teacher we know almost nothing. (Richards, 1997, p. 243)

Th e universe is made of stories, not of atoms. (Muriel Rukeyser, “Th e Speed of Darkness”, 1968)

Abstract

Researching the lives of teachers and their life stories can provide a concrete, empirically grounded fund of knowledge for looking at a great variety of questions in the fi eld of teaching English as a foreign language (TEFL), and should be a prime focus of inquiry in comparative pedeutology. Th is pragmatic article discusses aspects of a narrative-based multifaceted initiative of empirical inquiry on teach-ers’ work and lives. It centres on TEFL, but can be extrapolated to a spectrum of pedeutological perspectives on teachers in any subject matter area. Th ere is a clear need to explore the vital links between what educators do and who they are—that is, between their work worlds and their personal subjectivities and identities.

Key words: lives of teachers, pedeutology, narrative inquiry, TEFL, life history.

Bill TemplerMalaysia

142 Bill Templer

1. What we do and who we are: the need for a “narrative turn” in inquiry

Th e present paper is programmatic, and seeks to provide a general frame of orientation for LOT (Lives of Teachers) investigation, focusing primarily on the fi eld of TEFL, teachers of English as a foreign language, and centering on teachers’ personal narratives. Th e perspectives elaborated here can be extended to educators in a fi eld or capacity, including administrators. It proceeds from a core thesis: there is a clear need to explore the crucial links between what educators do and who they are—that is, between their work and their identities—and to do so through a narrative inquiry. Th is entails tapping teachers’ life stories, in their own words: “what matters is that teachers’ voices are heard comparatively and contextually” (Hargreaves, 1996, p. 17), an inquiry into educational life history. Jalongo & Isen-berg (1995) remind us that

It is through careful examination of real-life classroom experiences – both lived one’s self and borrowed from other teachers – that teachers explore the complexities of what it means to teach. It is in the narrative mode that teachers consider daily dilemmas, examine their motives and misgivings, savor their successes, and anguish over their failures […] Th e good teacher’s life is not an orderly professional pathway; rather, it is a personal journey shaped by context and choice, perspective and values. Narrative is uniquely well suited to that personal/professional odyssey (p. xvii).

Such experiences need to be articulated, recorded, exchanged, archived, pub-lished, and discussed. Nearly two decades ago, Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1990) lamented that in research on TESL, “what is missing […] are the voices of the teachers themselves, the particular contexts in which teachers work, the questions teachers ask of themselves and others […] the ways that teachers interpret experi-ence as they strive to improve their own practice” (p. 2). Keith Richards (1997) sug-gests that the world of the EFL teacher is indeed a kind of “terra incognita” (1997, p 251). Inside qualitative research more broadly, it is a neglected and potentially promising sub-current, as he stresses in his now classic introduction to qualitative research in TESOL (Richards, 2003, pp. 22–24, 102–103).

My prime thesis is that LOT is needed as a sustained focus inside pedeutology (teacher studies) more broadly, and inside the profession of teaching English as a foreign language in particular: in empirical research on who we are and think we are, and in our own collaborative interaction, telling each other chunks of those

143Exploring Teachers’ Real Lives and Voices…

narratives. Which we oft en do anyhow, all the time, perhaps without realizing we are in fact engaging in talk that is part of LOT. It has a dynamic role to play in teacher development discourse and praxis, part of a refl ective “self-ethnography of teaching” (Templer, 2004). Hayes (2005) stresses that LOT off ers teachers “oppor-tunities to validate and endorse their own lives through sharing them with others” (p. 191). One option for dynamic exchange and ‘cross-pollination’ is the paradigm in Nieto (2003), involving extended discussion among teachers in a focus group on the challenges they face day in, day out.

Questions centering on how teachers perceive themselves, how they change, share and exchange experience, cross-pollinate and develop, as professionals and human beings, are central to any analysis of teachers’ lives and voices. Th is is a broad canvas for empirical research, and ‘making voices heard,’ exploring nuclear episodes in teachers’ storied lives, their own identities, personal and professional in the social and cultural contexts in which their lives are deeply embedded (Rob-inson, 2008). Educational autobiography along these lines indeed foregrounds teacher voice, oft en silent in educational reform discussion and documents. Th ough potentially central to prime concerns in Polish and Central European pedeutological thought and inquiry, LOT has been developed largely in North America and some corners of Western Europe, and is largely unexplored in teacher studies in the Global South.

As Johnson & Golombek (2002) observe:

we believe that teachers’ stories of inquiry are not only about professional development; they are professional development. […] Narrative inquiry enables teachers to organize, articulate and communicate what they know and believe about teaching and who they have become as teachers. Th eir stories reveal the knowledge, ideas, perspectives, understandings, and experiences that guide their work. […] Th eir stories refl ect the struggles, tensions, triumphs, and rewards of their lives as teachers (pp. 6–7).

Such narrative practice also enables teachers “to make signifi cant and worthwhile change within themselves and in their teaching practices” (ibid.)

Longitudinal studies (Levin, 2001; 2003) may involve many hours of interview and interaction with one or a small group of teachers at diff erent points in their careers, over the span of years. Such a LOT inquiry moves toward a kind of “ethnography of being a teacher,” a “thick description” (Geertz, 1973) of teachers’ real lives and life worlds, work, and subjectivities – seen through the prism of detailed narratives collected from teachers as they speak about their own develop-

144 Bill Templer

ment, their everyday experience at work, their sense of power and its lack. Th is is especially important for beginning to understand the situation of real teachers and their personal and professional life histories on the numerous more rural peripheries.

2. Exploring terra incognita

Within EFL, Bill Johnston’s work on Polish teachers (1997) and Hardy’s ground-breaking brief study on Slovenia (2007), including comparison with teachers in Poland, has extended that ‘social geography of teachers’ voices’ into East-Central Europe. As Johnston noted a decade ago:

In fact, little is known about the lives of teachers who work in this fi eld. It is time to gather empirical data about the working lives of actual teachers and to make these lives the focus of research […] Do the fi ndings refl ect the lives and the conditions (discursive and sociopolitical) of EFL/ESL teachers elsewhere? […] Th e fi eld must surely benefi t from a deepened understanding of teachers’ lives set in the rich context in which they are lived (pp. 682, 707).

Based on his work with teacher narrative in South Africa and New Zealand, Barhuizen (2007) sees such a teacher narrative inquiry as a sounding board for sparking teacher collaboration. He suggests that teachers everywhere could write their teaching life histories; they could record in story form signifi cant or problem-atic teaching and learning events in their classrooms; they could relate to each other in scheduled conversations the desires, fears, expectations and personal meanings they experience in their daily teaching lives. By doing so they would necessarily engage with the context of their teaching and the broader everyday world.

3. Toward a pedagogy of solidarity and empathy

In my view, this is a major strand of what we should be doing in humanizing teacher cooperative development (Edge, 2002), within what can be called a ‘peda-gogy of solidarity’ – forging community with other teachers across the planet, with our students, and their families. To foreground teacher narratives is one step forward in generating a profession of greater equity and mutual aid. Th e TEFL of inclusion seeks to build bridges of awareness and empathy between us all.


Gathering, reading and exchange of such teacher narratives can build a kind of ‘curriculum of social empathy’ inside teacher development. Such an approach seeks to place teachers ‘inside’ the life worlds of other teachers, revitalizing a sense of authentic community. It operates mainly by energizing our ‘social imagination,’ and is akin to the work of Christensen (2000, pp. 134–136; Bigelow & Christensen, 2001) on building a curriculum of social empathy in the classroom through interior monologues.

I want to argue that this kind of authentic ‘grassroots empathy’ with ordinary people — i.e. with each other as teachers, and with our students, their families — is needed in teacher development, grounded more consciously on training in the schooling of emotional intelligence. EI is comprised of an ensemble of compe-tences, including self-awareness, empathy, adaptability and self-confi dence. In an excellent new study on educational biography and introduction to ‘lives of teachers’ inquiry in science education, Robinson (2008: xii-xiii) stresses:

Emotional literacy is a way of knowing and being premised on care and empathy in educational contexts. […] Empathy and care are two essential dispositions for the development of highly qualifi ed teachers who can help students reach their learning potentials […] Just as knowing academic content and applying pedagogical content knowledge are essential for eff ective science instruction so is emotional literacy.

Th is can be directly applied in teacher education, trainee mentoring and in-service teacher development, as emphasized by Goleman (1995, pp. 279–285). Empathy involves better learning to stand in another’s shoes and getting closer to what it is like to be in their situation (Stein & Book, 2000, pp. 111–124). It can be deepened and sharpened by listening to – and responding to — other teach-ers’ candid narratives. Th is is at the very core of what Edge (2002) sketches in his framework and practical exercises for cooperative development, including refl ection on the role of empathy (pp. 28–30). I think part of the complexity of Edge’s program for dynamic cooperative development could be in fact signifi cantly simplifi ed by a fuller awareness of LOT as a unifying and integrative approach.

4. ‘Indigenizing’ the prism of inquiry

LOT has developed largely looking at teachers in the richer economies. A truly central challenge facing Lives of Teachers narrative research is how to decolonize

146 Bill Templer

(Smith, 1999) and ‘indigenize’ (Ling, 2007) the perspective. Hayes (2005) stresses that the perception of EFL/ESL teachers on the ground in the Global South is especially important: “We need to ensure that these Other histories are recorded and that they are available to inform policy and practice. Th e potential impact of this research is considerable and it may help to lessen the ethnocentrism of western-based TESOL practitioners and publishing companies as they dominate both the research and practice agendas” (p. 191). He underscores the fact that LOT research is also a means to give non-native speaker (NNS) teachers of English a voice, since they are the vast majority in the profession. Yalin’s (2008) wonderfully rich description of her encounters with village teachers in a remote area of Nepal gives an inkling of what LOT could explore in such a grassroots, vernacular set-ting, restoring dignity to NNS teachers. Eleanor Watts (2004) describes the inner landscape (“submerged coral reef ”) of what teaching can be in an Indian village; it would be useful to gather probing narratives from educators in TESL, specifi cally in rural India, about the challenges they face.

Ours is a world where 3 billion humans survive on less than US$2 a day. A teacher in Scandinavia or Luxembourg with several years of experience may earn some 150x more per month than a senior teacher in Laos, or Nepal. Th is huge variance in income shapes a whole topography of diff erence in teachers’ life worlds, families, peer groups, cohorts, dreams, values and expectations. Th at needs to be given tangible contours in extended grassroots narratives, their analysis and comparison, part of the ‘political economy’ of pedagogy and comparative pedeutol-ogy on a more planetary scale. It is in eff ect an entire genre of discourse woefully lacking in our profession.

Hayes (2009) explores the realities of English teaching in Th ailand as experienced by NNS [non-native speaker] teachers themselves, looking at teacher attitudes toward communicative teaching pedagogy in the distinctive Th ai context, major constraints on time, and teacher pedagogy conceptions and values in the grassroots classroom.

It is hoped that such an inquiry, giving teachers their voice, “will contribute to an understanding of the many and varied locally-based practices of ELT, as well as help to correct a monolithic view of ELT based on western conceptions of practice” (Sec. 5).

His earlier study (2005) centres on extensive experience in Sri Lanka. He looks at why Sri Lankan teachers enter the profession, the confl ict between teaching as a ‘job’ and as a ‘vocation,’ interviewees’ role models, perception of their training, and their lived ‘career paths,’ and the place of English in Sri Lankan society over time, not least its ideological import as an (ex)colonial language. Th is later aspect is


extremely important for beginning to get a “bottom-up” view of English as a global language and lingua franca from ordinary local teachers’ perspectives, moored on place-based vernacular realities and within local lived experience.

5. The broader research frame: narrative psychology and narrative therapy

Th is renewed focus on biography is part of what some call a ‘turn’ in methodol-ogy toward the in-depth narrative in the social sciences (Chamberlayne et al., 2000; Miller, 2000, pp. 1–10). McAdams (2001) notes:

A wide-ranging and loosely coordinated movement in the social sciences, the narrative study of lives, has emerged in recent years as an interdisciplinary eff ort to write, interpret, and disseminate people’s life stories, with special attention paid to the accounts of women, people of color, and representatives of other groups whose lives and stories have historically been ignored or even suppressed (p. 115).

Central here is narrative psychology, an approach centering on the “storied nature of human conduct” (Sarbin, 1986) and how human beings deal with experi-ence by constructing stories and listening to the stories of others. Vince Hevern

( http://www.narrativepsych.com [retrieved 12 July 2008]) provides a framework for this. It is also refl ected in the practice of narrative therapy, which “focuses on the stories of people’s lives and is based on the idea that problems are manufactured in social, cultural and political contexts. Each person produces the meaning of their life from the stories that are available in these contexts”

( http://www.narrativetherapycentre.com/index_fi les/Page378.htm [retrieved 14 July 2008]). Th ese stories both describe and shape people’s perspectives on their lives, histories and futures. Morgan (2000, p. 2) stresses:

Our lives are multistoried. Th ere are many stories occurring at the same time and diff erent stories can be told about the same events. No single story can be free of ambiguity or contradiction and no single story can encapsulate or handle all the contingencies of life.

Inside narrative therapy, Winslade & Monk (1999) explore narrative counseling and the stories that shape pupils’ lives, a vantage relevant for educators.

148 Bill Templer

As McAdams (ibid.) reminds us: “Stories live to be told to others. Life stories, therefore, are continually made and remade in social relationships and in the over-all social context provided by culture. […] Stories always have audiences, explicit or implied” (p. 118). For teachers everywhere in TESOL, articulating life stories can “become a tool for refl ection and stimulus to tell or write factual accounts of their own personal and professional lives that lead to deeper insights” (Jalongo & Isenberg, 1995, p. xxi). Th ey are also of central interest to teacher educators, school and college administrators, and offi cials in education ministries, and can provide new insights to parents and students about the inside realities of what it is like to be a teacher.

6. A portal to LOT: oral history narratives in the ESL classroom

One way for teachers to begin to gear themselves toward doing hands-on research on LOT with colleagues is to introduce their own students to working with oral history interviews in the classroom. We need to use more such texts, the actual voices of ordinary people, as a genre in classes for reading. Th e use of genuine personal narratives of everyday people, from all ages and walks of life and social backgrounds and cultures, seems to me lacking in TEFL materials and is a wonderful window onto humanizing our materials base: real people talking about real life worlds.

An obvious text base is Studs Terkel’s battery of oral history books: Terkel’s Working (1974) and Th e Great Divide (1988) and Race (1993) are classic collections of short focused biographies of ordinary people, in their own voice. Ayers (2001) can be used as a teaching guide for getting students into techniques in oral history and individual projects, interviewing peers, family members, people from the community (pp. 3–65). As teachers introduce and work with these materials, they can gain insight into how to elicit life stories, techniques of interviewing, interview ethics, and much more. Race contains several narratives from teachers, and that by Peter, a Swedish-American working with African-American kids, largely working-class, is insightful:

I feel like a white missionary down in an area where I don’t belong. I’m saying here’s my religion, education. It worked great for me, it’s going to work great for you, too. Th ey don’t buy it. Th at’s what you believe in. You’re one of the ministers of it. But these kids do have to fi nd a way to live in a world where they’re going to have bosses, authority fi gures all over the place (p. 195).


His narrative gives a glimpse into what Willis (1977) calls the “counter-school culture” and working-class opposition to authority, part of their counter-curriculum of resistance. Th at resistance is also palpable in Rose Hofmann’s vivid story of teaching her third-graders over the years (Terkel, 1974, pp. 629–635). Including a spectrum of fi rst-person narratives from Terkel’s array of ordinary people’s stories as a genre in EFL reading is in itself a useful semi-ethnographic addition to the discourse students read. And it can serve as a portal for teachers to refl ect on how they could begin themselves to collect and exchange narratives about themselves and with colleagues within a kind of local, grassroots LOT project.

7. Starting out: “Tell us the story of your life”

In qualitative research of this kind, there is ample fl exibility in how you begin to explore teachers’ voices and life worlds for the fi rst time. Tom Wengraf , in eliciting a life history narrative rich with detail, starts by telling the respondent: “I want you to tell me your life story, all the events and experiences which were important for you, up to now. Start wherever you like. Please take the time you need. I’ll listen fi rst, I won’t interrupt, I’ll just take some notes for aft er you’ve fi nished telling me about your experiences” (Wengraf, 2001, p. 121). Wengraf then recommends follow-up interviews that are more directive and structured (ibid., especially chap. 6). Miller (2000) has many useful pointers for being to collect and organize interview data, how to record, the ethics of such interviewing, and much more. Huberman’s (1993) interviews ranged between 3 to 9 hours, averaging about 5. Some of his questions for interview (pp. 2–3) are incorporated below.

Another point of departure for a group discussion or workshop among col-leagues on LOT is using Canfi eld & Hansen (2002), which has stories from and about teachers, their trials and triumphs, in the familiar mode of the ‘chicken soup for the soul’ narratives. Somewhat similar is Wright (1999), foregrounding teacher narratives about ‘magic moments’ in their professional lives.

A working catalogue of questions for an in-depth LOT analysis can select a set of focal points from the following diverse array. Th ese are meant as guideposts for potential exploration. Each question focus can elicit extended oft en surprisingly textured narratives from some respondents, and function as a heuristis for further generation of ideas, memories, insights, new lines of narrative:

Why did you become a teacher of English? What was your motivation as you •reconstruct it? What was the process?

150 Bill Templer

Did you have a role model, a person who infl uenced you to become •a teacher?How much have you learned from other teachers on the job? — give some •stories. What is the greatest challenge you face at the moment as a teacher? •What was your biggest single challenge when you began to teach? •Teachers work in an envelope of ‘privatism,’ isolated from other teachers. •Do you? In what ways, be specifi c? How much do you collaborate with other teachers, team teach, or invite teachers to observe your own classes & com-ment on them? Time is always a scarce commodity for teachers. In what senses are you under •time stress? Discuss what is called the ‘hidden work of teachers’ (administra-tion, counseling, etc.). How has this aff ected you concretely?Is everything learned during a teacher preparation program lost or changed •when beginning teachers face the reality of classroom life—in the process of becoming socialized to the profession and school culture? What did your study / preparation as a teacher not prepare you for?Career trajectory: What phases can you see in your own development? How •have you changed your approach, outlook over the years? Are you in the midst of changing now? Have your levels of ‘job contentment’ changed over time?How would you characterize the ‘kind’ of teacher you are? How is this mani- •fested in your work? How has that developed over time?Do you attempt to create a ‘constructivist’ classroom and syllabus (Marlowe •& Page, 2005), or experiment with more ‘open architectures of learning’ (Wrigley, 2007)? How? What are the obstacles, what is student and colleague response?What do you do in your teaching that is especially ‘creative’ as you see it? •Do you think you have become more ‘competent’ over the years, or not? Do you •have some period you might describe as the ‘best years of your teaching?What kind of tension have you had with other colleagues? Tell some tales. •What would you like to change (or have changed) about your own teach- •ing? What really needs to be changed in your broader work environment to •improve it?Have you ever reached a point where you just wanted to quit, threat of ‘burn- •out’?


Have you begun to experience any ‘rustout’, i.e. a loss of interest, enthusi- •asm?How do you cope with bullying and more generally with disciplinary prob- •lems? Has your approach changed over time? Were you yourself subjected to ‘caning’ as a pupil?Describe one of your worst days as a teacher. One of your best days. •Describe an incident that left you quite depressed (or elated) as a teacher. •Tell something about your most outstanding students, and about a ‘problem •student’ or two. Is there any student who stands out in your mind in all the years of teaching?What do you fi nd hardest, most stressful about being a teacher here & now? •What is your biggest hassle at the moment?What would you like to transform / experiment with in the way you assess •students?What has given you the strongest sense of achievement/accomplishment in •your work?How do you reach out to students’ parents? Describe some aspects of parent- •teacher relations as you have experienced them, positively or negatively.How much individual autonomy do you have on the job? In what way is your •work regulated by prescribed syllabuses?Have you dealt with managing curricular reform, restructuring? How have •you managed?How do you see the new technologies in terms of your own classroom teach- •ing?Is there some contradiction between what the syllabus expects of you, and •the way you prefer to teach?Tell something about the physical state of the schools you have worked at, •abundance or lack of facilities. Any stories about unusual deterrent problems, including class size?Beyond teaching EFL, how do you want to infl uence your students critically? •Morally?

Do you or your fellow teachers need to have a ‘parallel extra job’ to make –ends meet? Is your salary adequate? Describe some of your fi nancial problems.Do you belong to a union? How do you see such membership? What has –the teacher union done for you?

152 Bill Templer

Have you ever faced being sacked? Have you ever gone out on strike? –What did you learn from that action? Is a teachers’ strike possible where you work?Do you see yourself as working class? Was your own background in the –family working-class? What did your father do for a living?Were you the fi rst in your family to attend college? How did you experi- –ence this (Heathcott, 1999)?

How do you get along with your school director? Provide some instances. •Say something about your specifi c family background, growing up, the role •of reading in your life as a kid.Do you teach kids from working-class or ‘minority’ backgrounds? If so, how •has this shaped your teaching? In what ways do they resist school culture?Do you recall instances where students have suff ered from labeling, stereotyp- •ing, or even prejudice from their teachers, or their peers? In what ways?Have you ever had feedback much later on from some students about how •they think you changed their thinking, or even their lives?Do you experience a clash between family responsibilities, taking care of your •children, for example, and the world of work, your job and its commitments and time pressure? Be specifi c.

Th e British Council site Teaching English has several teacher interviews. Imag-ine an in-depth interview with Laxman Gnawali in Kathmandu, or Jane Willis, exploring a number of the questions above at extended length.[1]

In a distinctive approach to LOT, Johnston (2002) centres on narratives refl ect-ing “the ways in which values, and clashes of values, inhere in ev erything we do as teachers” (p. 4), including moral dilemmas in our relations with students. Th e catalogue of questions above can be supplemented by attempting to probe the values we teachers work by in dealing with how we grade students, cajole and pressure them to perform, and how this has changed over time as we ourselves change. Johnston uses “stories and examples of clashes of values experienced by actual teachers to exemplify common moral dilemmas” (p. 144).

8. LOT inquiry: some bibliographical orientation

Th e AERA (American Education Research Association) has an active Special Interest Group LOT (founded 1999). Th e LOT SIG website (http://galileo.stmarys-ca.edu/jbrunett/livestch/menu.html [retrieved 12 July 2008]) is useful for initial orientation. Th ere is a substantial base of literature, mainly from the UK and North


America, though relatively little centres on the specifi c fi eld of EFL teaching. Barkhuizen (2007) is a brief useful introduction to the narrative perspective and its workings inside EFL, as is Hayes (2005; 2009). Morgan (2000) is useful from the psychological perspective, as an overview of how we make and use stories about the self, the fi rst chapter of which is online: “Understanding and Living Our Lives Th rough Stories” (http://www.dulwichcentre.com.au/alicearticle.html [retrieved 14 July 2008]).

Nancy Lemberger’s (1997) in-depth narrative-based investigation into eight bilingual teachers in the United States is a paradigm study. Muchmore (2004) off ers a unique case study of Anna, a teacher of English. Robinson (2008) provides an intriguing look at the autobiography of a science educator.

A graphic online site is Atkinson’s Center for the Study of Lives (http://usm.maine.edu/cehd/csl/ [retrieved 13 July 2008]), with an archive, educational materi-als (including a video with four immigrant students’ narratives), valuable links, and other materials – it is a well-grounded place to begin a journey in discovering life history as a lens. Atkinson (1998) provides a widely cited compact and highly readable introduction to life story interviewing, and can be supplemented by Sei-dman (2006). Wengraf (2001) is a popular introductory textbook on conducting qualitative interviewing. Miller (2000) is good in particular for looking at family history and aspects of cohort related to an individual life.

A good solid volume replete with teacher narratives from the United States is Mary Jalongo & Joan Isenberg (1995). It is recommended as a fi rst introduc-tion to the potential of collecting teachers’ narrative. Goodson & Sikes (2001) is an excellent guidebook to life history research in the educational sciences. Th e authors provide clear, personally grounded, practical hands-on advice on how to do such research. Goodson (1992) is a valuable overview summing up a fi rst-rate collective volume. Pioneering in the fi eld was Michael Huberman’s (1993) classic in-depth study done in Geneva, involving 160 teachers. A stimulating collection from around the world is edited by Day, Fernandez, Hauge & Møller (2000). An American anthology edited by Witherell & Noddings (1991) introduces readers to applications of narrative in educational research. And in a less scholarly but very accessible mode, Canfi eld & Hansen (2002) can be also be utilized, combined with Wright (1999).

An exemplary study is Casey (1993), focusing on radical activist teachers from diverse religious and racial backgrounds in the U.S. and their narratives. Tattam (1998) gathers together a unique selection of narratives by several hundred Austral-ian teachers, dealing with memorable events, colleagues, working with the disabled, cultural expectations, encountering bullies, coping with stress.

154 Bill Templer

9. LOT as a case study – a form of action research on ourselves

Johnston (1997) emphasizes the notion of “transferability” in such studies, rather than “generalizability.” He hopes to “allow these stories to resonate with other contexts with which readers may be familiar and to leave largely to them the task of determining to what extent, if any, my fi ndings may also apply elsewhere” (p. 688). Such narratives exemplify a key form of qualitative case study inquiry, which centres on “the particularity and complexity of a single case, coming to understand its activity within important circumstances” (Stake, 1995, p. xi.). As Stake (p. 8) stresses:

Th e real business of case study is particularization, not generalization. We take a particular case study and come to know it well, not primarily as to how it diff ers from others but what it is, what it does. Th ere is emphasis on uniqueness, and that implies knowledge of others that the case is diff erent from, but the fi rst emphasis is on understanding the case itself.

LOT is case study research many teachers could engage in themselves, at the grassroots, building collaboratively toward multiple case study comparison (Stake, 2006). No other research focus is so much about us, in our own words, valuing the dignity of our own selves, and perceptions as professionals, and human beings. And like action research (Burns, 1999; Mertler, 2006), it is doable, practicable, it can be explored in depth and breadth by teachers anywhere.

10. Longitudinal studies

Levin (2003) represents a kind of breakthrough in the study of teacher develop-ment: a longitudinal study of the professional lives of four elementary teachers over a 15-year period. Such longitudinal studies are badly needed everywhere. Nias (1989) details a longitudinal study of British primary school teachers, looking at how their conceptions of their careers change over time, and how they defi ne their sense of self as teachers. Robert Bullough, Jr. (1989) conducted an in-depth, longitudinal case study of one teacher’s development during her fi rst year in the classroom, along with a follow-up book co-authored with his subject that looks at her life and career as a teacher across eight years (Bullough & Baughman, 1997). Th is is a fascinating case-study investigation of teacher development, and a model for inquiry elsewhere.


11. Cohorts, turning points: seeing a person in their historical and social context

In her LOT study in Slovenia, Hardy (2007) does not address a key dimension that I believe life history narrative inquiry needs to explore: the teacher in her own society, and what was happening at the time, and in the past. And whether the teacher’s life could be seen as connected to a particular generation of teachers, a cohort with similar experiences (Miller, 2000, pp. 29–35; Stewart, 1994).

Slovenia, part of the former socialist Yugoslavia, declared independence in June 1991. In further research, Hardy could explore how the older teachers in her sample really saw and experienced this possibly traumatic transition, in what ways they changed aft er the new Slovenia had begun to emerge. In her comparative analysis dealing with Polish teachers in Sec. 5, Hardy notes that “the discourse used by the Polish teachers to describe their professional lives sounded very diff erent from that used by the Slovenian teachers”:

the Polish teachers described their entry into teaching as accidental or as a second choice. In fact, none of them described teaching as their fi rst choice of occupation. Th is was obviously very diff erent for the Slovenian teachers […] In fact, all of the Slovenian teachers described teaching as their profes-sional goal. […] EFL was described by the Polish teachers as a ‘permeable’ occupation-that is, a profession which is easy to enter and easy to leave. Th e possibility of leaving teaching was constantly present in the teachers’ discourse. Job changes represented ‘skillful adaptation to changing circumstances rather than progression along a career path’ […]. In contrast, all of the Slovenian teachers seemed content with their decisions to become English teachers, and none mentioned the possibility of leaving teaching

Yet one of the reasons why the teachers interviewed by Johnston in Poland expressed doubts about whether they wish to continue as teachers was probably the diffi cult economic crisis which Poland went through during the transition, experienced by a specifi c cohort of teachers. Th ey were looking for other income options. Was that diff erent in Slovenia? It seems fundamental that any comparison of teacher career trajectories, as Hardy ventures, has to look very carefully at the specifi c economy and society being examined.

Of particular interest in cohort research is whether some shaping similar experience was shared, a watershed moment or period, especially if that was at some point in their own development as teenagers or young adults (Stewart, 1994,

156 Bill Templer

pp. 230–250). Th e collapse of state socialism in Bulgaria in November 1989 was clearly just such a juncture, and many of my own students, from the cohort born 1972–1976, directly experienced those momentous events as young teens. Th ey have left an indelible mark of their own process of maturation, a kind of “fl ashbulb memory” (ibid., p. 230). All teachers in Bulgaria born before 1970 experienced that transition as a shaping key event in their own biographies. It is a process that still reverberates throughout Bulgarian society, in complex ways that need to be further researched, and there is little LOT inquiry published on Bulgaria aft er 1990.

12. The context of family

Miller (2000, p. 3) reminds us that the “maintenance of the atomized individual becomes untenable with adoption of a biographical perspective. Lives are lived within social networks from early socialization on. People grow up in families […].” A focus on family history of a given teacher can shed important light on that person’s biography and identity, and is generally much neglected in LOT. Miller (pp. 41–72) is especially rich in suggestions for collecting and analyzing family histories. You may think about how your own process of maturation in the family infl uenced your development, interest in reading and language, and perhaps very directly your own career choice. Were there any teachers in your own family? Was/is there working class, your family (Zandy, 1995)? A whole range of fascinating questions open up in charting and excavating family history.

13. Gendered terrain

Given the fact that in many corners, a great majority of teachers are women, it is important to note that “the subjective-refl ective nature of the narrative coincides with the feminist ideology of compassionate, unauthoritarian understanding of the Other” (Lieblich & Josselson, 1994, p. xii). It is an especially powerful lens for looking at female teachers who share the physical and social condition of women in their respective society, and can help us better analyze the distinctive gendered contours of “being a teacher” in specifi c teaching situations.

Teachers’ narratives frequently probe the lived confl ict-ridden experience of being simultaneously a mother and a teacher. Casey (1993) looks at female activist teachers as “partisan artisans” in the U.S. classroom, at the intersection of politics and pedagogy and personhood. Weiler & Middleton (1999) is an exemplary study


of female teachers through narrative-based inquiry. Nias & Aspinwall (1995) look at female teachers’ careers through extended life-history narrative, where a teacher Sarah comes to realize the need

not to be afraid/guilty about examining my past, but to see it positively. Th at things which seem crucial, happy/painful today may not be signifi cant in the long term. Th at me ‘the teacher’ cannot be separated from me ‘the person’(p. 202).

Asked about the eff ect of talking about herself at length in biographical conver-sation, her response was unequivocal: “As a process it has helped me enormously […] It’s helped me to come to terms, to face what I’m doing in a calmer, more rational way because I realize why I’m here and what I’m doing” (ibid.). Stewart (1994) explores aspects of generational identifi cation among women as it shapes their subjectivity.

14. Class matters

Class in the classroom impacts on all aspects of EFL learning and student attitude, and the relation between students and teachers. LOT also looks at working class as it is manifested in teacher narratives and identity, and in the arena of teacher classroom experience. Many TESOL teachers are working with ‘fi rst-generation’ students from the working class – the fi rst in their family to enter tertiary education (Christopher, 2005). Zandy (1995) shows how students can learn to write about their own working-class life worlds, in the process of “liberating memory” that tends to be suppressed. Teachers can do the same through personal narrative. Understanding our own working-class identity, through self-refl ective narrative, can be an important bridge to grasping the identity and life worlds of our students and their families.

Th e Center for Working Class Studies (CWCS) at Youngstown State University in Ohio “places working-class people, their voices, experiences, and perspectives, at the center of its research, teaching, and activism” (Russo & Linkon, 2005, p. 111). Teachers need to probe their own class background, especially in terms of their family origin and upbringing.[2] Economists like Michael Zweig[3] argue that some two-thirds of the U.S. population is working class. How the real-world experience of being working class impacts on student learning styles, motivation, access to books and print, attitudes toward reading, their cultures of orality, and

158 Bill Templer

other dimensions is an important question that teachers should deal with, and ponder in terms of their own identities, narratives and solidarities.

We have to be able to look beyond the distorting lenses of our own highly interi-orized literacy as teachers, unpacking the oft en confl icting and elitist values of our own praxis. Green (1999) is a good place to begin thinking about what teaching working-class students can mean. Willis (1977) is a classic study of consciousness among working class youth in the classroom, and their strategies of resistance. As Christopher (ibid.) stresses, we need to and can “transform higher education into something that works for, instead of against, the working class” (p. 220).

15. Confronting constraints: deskilling and its narratives

Th e dramatically increased stress on teachers in many school systems worldwide is destroying innovation, eroding motivation and leading to ‘deskilling’ on the job. As a new initiative online notes:

From kindergarten to university, national education systems are being trans-formed. Privatisation is increasing. ‘Choice’ and ‘diversity’ – codenames for the working of market forces – provide a new model of school organisation. Teaching and learning are guided and regulated by central government, in the name of ‘standards’ and competitiveness. Faced with these changes, the movements which, in an earlier era, fought for egalitarian reform, are on the defensive; even where educational provision is expanding, class and ethnic inequalities remain. Th ese transformations are European in scale.[⁴]

We need teachers’ narratives (and student narratives as well) that reveal how they are actually coping with profound new tensions due to ‘neo-liberal’ restructuring in many diff erent countries (Wrigley, 2006; 2007), growing more imperative as the world around us spins into ever deeper fi nancial and environmental crisis.

16. In conclusion: applying insights from LOT to our workaday realities

“We live our lives according to the stories we tell ourselves and the stories that others tell about us” (Winslade & Monk, 1999, p. 2). Researching into the life stories of teachers can provide a concrete, empirically grounded fund of knowledge


for looking at a great variety of questions in the fi eld of TEFL. Th e challenges for a narrative-based multifaceted initiative of empirical inquiry on teachers’ work and lives in TESOL globally are huge. Th ere is a clear need to explore the vital links between what educators do and who they are—that is, between their work worlds and their personal subjectivities and identities. Undergraduate and post-graduate research on this needs to be spurred. Th e British Council should encourage more work in this terrain, based in part inside national teachers’ associations. Th e resonance of our voices as practitioners forms part of the base for building more egalitarian, democratic learning spaces, embodying values of solidarity and col-laborative transformative encounter (Edge, 2002) in our praxis. LOT concretizes strategies and genres for “inventing new ways of talking to one another, ways that bridge the categories that so oft en divide us” (Green, 1999, p. 27) — across this region and planet.

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Path Analysis of How Prospective Teachers’ Sense of Effi cacy Aff ects Their Styles of Coping

with Stress, Student Control Orientations and Attitudes toward Teaching Profession

Abstract

Teachers’ sense of effi cacy has become an important concept in both teacher education and in the teaching profession. Th e purpose of this study was to deter-mine whether there were multiple relationships between the sense of self-effi cacy (a dependent variable) and student control orientations and also between styles of coping with stress and attitudes toward the teaching profession among prospec-tive teachers. Th e fi ndings showed that there was a noticeable direct and indirect relationship between self-effi cacy beliefs and student control orientations and between styles of coping with stress and attitudes toward teaching.

Key words : prospective teachers, effi cacy, stress, control, attitude.

Introduction

Effi cacy has evolved from two distinct theoretical perspectives: locus of control (Rotter, 1966) and the social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 1998). Locus of control, as defi ned by Rotter, is a global personality trait that is either internal or external. It has been studied in teachers, using various forms of measurement, over many years (for example, Lefcourt,1982; Spector, 1982; Czubaj, 1996; Cheng, 1994; Parkay, Olejnik & Proller, 1986; Alderman, 1990; Kremer & Lifmann, 1982).

According to Bandura (1977), people’s level of motivation, aff ective states and actions were based more on what they believed than individual possesses and

Engin Karadağ, Nuri BaloğluTurkey

165Path Analysis of How Prospective Teachers’ Sense…

was defi ned as a belief in one’s capability to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given results. He proposed two types of expectation: (i), outcome expectancy; and (ii), effi cacy expectancy. Outcome expectancy is a person’s estimate that a given behaviour will lead to a specifi c outcome. Effi cacy expectancy is a person’s conviction that he or she can execute successfully the behaviour required to produce a specifi c outcome. Since the introduction of the concept of self-effi cacy to the literature, there has been a growing interest in discovering the eff ects of self-effi cacy beliefs among teachers and prospective teachers. Bandura (1977) hypothesised that: Effi cacy expectation is a major determinant of people’s choice of how much eff ort they will spend, and how long they will sustain eff ort in dealing with stressful situations.

Martin (1989) suggested that a high sense of effi cacy began early in teacher preparation programs and that there were developmental stages of effi cacy. Th ere is evidence to support the view that teachers’ sense of effi cacy is highest during the pre-service years and that it decreases with teaching experience (Hebert, Lee & Williamson, 1988; Soodak & Podell, 1993; Witcher, Onwuegbuzie, Collins, Witcher, Minor & James, 2002).

Naring (1990) found out that teachers at the beginning level perceived themselves as having high ability and Walker (1992) reported that pre-service teachers were idealistic about their performance in the classroom. In a study of the self-effi cacy beliefs of teachers at the beginning level, Cole (1995) reported that beginners held naïve views of teaching and their own effi cacy as teachers. Soodak & Podell (1993) also found that the personal effi cacy of pre-service teachers was quite high during their fi eldwork and student teaching experience, but dropped during their fi rst year of teaching.

Woolfolk-Hoy (1990) examined the relationship between pre-service teach-ers’ sense of effi cacy and their beliefs about student control. Using the Teacher Effi cacy Scale (Gibson & Dembo, 1984) and the Pupil Control Ideology (PCI) form (Willower, Eidell & Hoy, 1967), they reported that prospective teachers with a high sense of teaching effi cacy were more humanistic in their student control ideology than those with a low sense of teaching effi cacy; however, the relationship existed only among prospective teachers who believed that they had the ability to make a diff erence in student achievement. Th e development of effi cacy beliefs among prospective teachers has generated a great deal of research interest because when effi cacy beliefs are established, they tend to be somewhat resistant to change (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998).

Interest in student control ideology fi rst appeared in the early 1960s. A study by Willower & Jones in 1963 highlighted the emphasis placed upon student control

166 Engin Karadağ, Nuri Baloğlu

by the staff in a large American junior high school. Observing that public school educators seemed to spend a lot of time regulating student behaviour, they began to develop concepts that eventually led to the creation of the fi rst PCI instrument. Other researchers soon joined Willower in exploring student control (Hoy, 1967; Willower, Eidell, &Hoy, 1967).

Th e student control ideology of teachers has been connected with a number of diff erent variables over the past 30 years. Positive correlations have been found between student control ideology and organisational climate factors (such as disengagement and aloofness) (Hoy & Applebery, 1970) and instructional climate factors (such as the use of lectures, teacher talk, lower cognitive levels and test grade stress)(Bean & Hoy, 1974). PCI has also been correlated positively with aspects of principals’ roles and behaviours in terms of authoritarianism (Nachtscheim & Hoy, 1976).

Teachers’ control ideology has been signifi cantly positively correlated with two aspects of personality: orderliness (Leppert & Hoy, 1972) and authoritarianism (Nachtscheim & Hoy, 1976). Teacher attitudes represented by the subject matter emphasis also showed a positive correlation with PCI (Barlett, 1976).

Studies have found that if teachers believe that their control ideologies and those of their principals are consistent (regardless of whether both are custodial or humanistic), they tend to rate their principals’ leadership abilities more highly. Finally, PCI has been related to student control behaviour: both measured custo-dialism and humanism equally (Helsel & Willower, 1974).

Teacher education programs introduce many eff ective management strategies to prospective teachers (Emmer, 1986) and identifi cation of classroom manage-ment style is important in promoting humanistic, positive styles among those with interventionist orientations.

Teacher self-effi cacy refers to a specifi c self-referent belief in an ability to organise and execute the actions necessary to reach certain goals. It has been found to be an important factor in eff ective classroom management, teaching and learning (Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Henson, 2003; Podell & Soodak, 1993; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998). Students of eff ective teachers have outperformed students of other teachers on a variety of achievement tests (Anderson, Greene & Loewen, 1988; Moore & Esselman, 1992; Ross, 1992).

Teacher stress is being recognised increasingly as a widespread problem that merits research attention (Boyle, Borg, Falzon & Baglioni, 1995; van Dick & Wag-ner, 2001; Kyriacou, 1987, 1998). Some studies have claimed that at least one-third of the teachers surveyed indicated that they regarded teaching as highly stressful (Borg, 1990). Stress in teaching begins as early as prospective teachers’ fi rst teach-


ing experiences (Morton, Vesco, Williams & Awender, 1997), when inexperienced practitioners attempt to make the transition to becoming teachers. Th e beliefs and attitudes of teachers and student teachers-cultural, ideological and personal-are signifi cant determinants of the way in which they view their role as educators, although they are not oft en articulated consciously and hence neither rationalised nor integrated into a coherent whole (Clark & Petersen, 1986; Feiman-Nemser & Floden, 1986).

Eagly & Chaiken (1993) defi ned attitude as the psychological tendency expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour. Attitudes comprise a cognitive component (the individual’s ideas, thoughts, perceptions, beliefs or opinions about the attitude referent) (Antonak & Livneh, 1988), an aff ec-tive component (feelings about an entity) and a behavioural component (behaviour as a result of knowing and feeling about an entity).

Effi cacy beliefs of pre-service teachers have been linked to beliefs about educa-tion (Witcher, Onwuegbuzie, Collins, Witcher, Minor & James 2002), attitudes toward children and control (Whoolfolk & Hoy, 1990) and instructional decisions (Gerges, 2001). Teacher candidates enter their programs with clusters of beliefs based on their experiences as students, values, and other background determinants that make each of them unique. Th ese life experiences infl uence the way in which they approach their programs and their developing perceptions of what it means to be a teacher (Richardson, 1996). Villeme & Hall (1980) found that student teachers’ attitudes toward education could also vary depending on their selected majors and anticipated teaching grade levels.

As mentioned above, research on teacher effi cacy is not new. Th ere have been many investigations into the relationship between teachers’ sense of effi cacy and their levels of stress and between their attitudes toward the teaching profession and their classroom control orientations.

But there are few examples in the literature of multiple analyses of the relation-ship between the sense of effi cacy and styles of coping with stress and between attitudes toward the teaching profession and the locus of student control. Th e study reported here aimed to determine whether there were direct or indirect multiple relationships between the prospective teachers’ sense of effi cacy and their styles of coping with stress, and between their student control orientation and attitudes toward teaching.


Methodology

Universe and Sampling Th e research group consisted of 267 volunteer senior class students in a college

of education, determined by the stratifi ed cluster sampling method. One hundred and fi ft y-nine students (59.6%) were female and 108 (40.4%) were male, drawn from the following areas: primary teachers (η76, 28.5%), social studies teachers (η74, 27.7%), science teachers (η49, 18.4%) and Turkish language teachers (68. 25.5%).

Data Collecting Instrument Four scales were used to collect data;

Ohio Teacher Effi cacy Scale1. (OTES) was developed by Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk-Hoy (2001) and adapted to Turkish by researchers (2008) by using a fi ve-point Likert-type scale, and consisted of 24 items. To defi ne the factor structure of this scale, the technique of Kaiser Myer Oklin =.90 and analysis of Bartlet [p< 0.1] and Varimax techniques were used for factor anlysis. It was found that the scale consisted of three sub-scales and the factor loadings called Effi cacy in Sudent Engagement, Effi cacy in Teaching Applications, and Effi cacy in Classroom Management ranged from 0.33 and 0.79. Self-value was 4.66 in sub-scales and the explained variant percentage was 53.24. Cronbah Alpha coeffi cients were found between 0.81 and 0.86.Th e Scale of Student Control Orientation2. (SFCO) was found by using a 5-point Likert type scale and consisted of 20 items. Th is scale was devel-oped by Miller et.al. (1988). Th e factor analyses revealed four factors, called Authoritarian Attitude, Ruler Attitude, Helping the Student, and Supporting the Student. Authoritarian and Ruler Attitude can be considered as external; Helping and Supporting Attitudes are internal locuses of student control. Th e quality level of each item which forms the Likert scale varied from totally agreed to totally not agreed. To defi ne the factor structure of SFCC, the technique of Kaiser Meyer Olkin=.83 and Bartlet Analysis [p<.01] were used. Th e Varimax technique was used for factor analysis. It was found that SPM had one dimension and that factor loadings ranged from 0.31 to 0.69. Th e total internal consistency level of the scale was found fairly high [.81]. Th e Cronbach Alpha reliability coeffi cients were found to be .74 for the whole scale. For sub-groups it ranged from .70 to .89.Th e Scale of Coping with Stress3. (SCS) was a 4-point Likert-type scale, origi-nally developed by Lazarus & Folkman (1984). Th e scale was adapted to the


Turkish culture and shortened to 30 items by Şahin & Durak (1995). Th e factor analyses revealed 5 factors, called, Self-confi dent approach, Helpless approach, Submissive approach, Optimistic approach and Receiving social support. Based on the four-point Likert type scale, the choices varied from Totally Correct to Lacking. Th e Cronbach Alpha reliability coeffi cients for groups were from .70 to .80 Th e Scale of Attitude Toward the Teaching Profession4. (SATTP) which consists of 34 items was developed by Üstüner (2006). Th e internal consistency coeffi cient of the scale was .93. Th e factor analyses made by researchers revealed 6 factors called Occupational preference, Professional success, Professional esteem, Professional value, Willingness to be Teacher and Professional Concern. Based on the fi ve-point Likert type scale, the choices varied from totally agree to totally disagree. To defi ne the factor structure of SCS, the techniques of Kaiser Meyer Olkin=.91 and Bartlet Analysis [p<.01] were used. Th e Varimax technique was used for the analysis of factors. It was found that SATTP had six dimensions and that factor load-ings ranged from .46 to .80. Eigen value of the scale was 19.84 and exp. variants were 60.13. Th e total internal consistency level of the scale was found fairly high. Th e Cronbach Alpha reliability coeffi cients for groups were from 0.73 to .94

Analysis of DataPath analysis technique was used to defi ne multiple relations among the sense

of effi cacy and other dependent variables. Factor values of the sense of effi cacy were taken as internal variables. In this scope, sub-scales of the sense of effi cacy (x) which consisted of three factors called (x1) effi cacy in student engagement, (x2) effi cacy for instructional strategies and (x3) effi cacy in classroom management were appointed as aff ected factors (dependent or result). Sub-scales of Student Control Orientation (y1) [(Authoritarian Attitude (y1.1), ruler attitude (y1.2), helping the student (y1.3), and supporting the student(y1.4)], sub- scales of coping with stress (y2), [self-confi dent approach (y2.1), helpless approach (y2.2), submissive approach (y2.3), optimistic approach (y2.4) and receiving social support (y2.5)], and sub-scales of attitude toward the teaching profession (y3) [occupational preference (y3.1), professional success (y3.2), professional esteem(y3.3), professional value (y3.4), willingness for profession (y3.5) and professional concern (y3.6)] were appointed as eff ects (independent or as reason).

Factor values of the sense of effi cacy were taken as internal variables. In this study, standardisation of data was not required because standardised regression


was used in the analysis process. Relations among the variables were determined using the technique of PATH analysis. To defi ne the eff ects of external variables on internal variables, a multiple regression analysis was used and for total eff ect, a correlation analysis.

Table 1: Scales Used to Collect Data

(X) OHIO TEACHER EFFICACY SCALE (OTES) Likert Scale Items Alpha(x1) Effi cacy in Student Engagement 5 points:

‘totally agreed’ to ‘totally not agreed’

8 0.81(x2) Effi cacy for Instructional Strategies 8 0.86(x3) Effi cacy in Classroom Management 8 0.86(Y1) SCALE OF STUDENT CONTROL ORIENTATION (SSCO)(y1.1) Authoritarian Attitude

5 points: ‘totally agreed’ to ‘totally not agreed’

5 0.70(y1.2) Ruler Attitude 5 0.76(y1.3) Helping the Student 5 0.89(y1.4) Supporting the Student 5 0.87(Y2) SCALE OF COPING WITH STRESS (SCS)(y2.1) Self-confi dent Approach

4 points: ‘totally correct’ to ‘lack-ing’

7 0.80(y2.2) Helpless Approach 8 0.73(y2.3) Submissive Approach 6 0.70(y2.4) Optimistic Approach 5 0.68(y2.5) Receiving Social Support 4 0.74(Y3) SCALE OF ATTITUDE TOWARD THE TEACHING PROFESSION (SATTP)(y3.1) Occupational Preference

5 points: ‘totally agree’ to ‘totally disagree’

9 0.85(y3.2) Professional Success 7 0.73(y3.3) Professional Esteem 7 0.79

(y3.4) Professional Value 4 0.91

(y3.5) Willingness to be a Teacher 4 0.94(y3.6) Professional Concern 3 0.88


Findings

Effi cacy in Student EngagementOur fi ndings showed no statistically-signifi cant relationships between Help-

ing the Student, Supporting the Student and Self-confi dent Approach, and Receiving Social Support. However, there were positive relationships between Occupational Preference [r=.167, p<.05]; Professional Success [r=.466, p<.01], Professional Esteem [r=.336, p<.01]; Professional Value [r=.358, p<.01]; Willing-ness to be a Teacher [r=.215, p<.01;] and Professional Concern [r=.334, p<.01], and Helpless Approach [r=.164, p<.01], Submissive Approach [r=.144, p.<.05] and Optimistic Approach [r=.137, p<.05]. Th ere was a statistically signifi cant negative relationship between Effi cacy in Student Engagement and Authoritarian Attitude [r=-.137, p<.05]. Authoritarian Attitude [px1y1.1=-0.167, p<.01], Ruler Attitude [px1y1.4=0.157, p<.05], Occupational Preference [px1y3.1=-0.175, p<.05], Profes-sional Success [px1y3.2=0.373, p<.01], Professional Value [px1y3.4=0.211, p<.01] and PATH, showing the direct eff ect of effi cacy on student engagement, were found to be statistically signifi cant. Other fi ndings included:

the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Student Control Orientation •sub-scale of Authoritarian Attitude (external variable) to Effi cacy in Student Engagement (internal variable) was observed to be -0.167 and its indirect eff ect 0.030; the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Student Control Orientation •sub-scale of Ruler Attitude (external variable) to Effi cacy in Student Engage-ment was observed to be 0.157 and its indirect eff ect 0.047;the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teach- •ing Profession sub-scale of Occupational Preference (external variable) to Effi cacy in Student Engagement was observed to be -0.175 and its indirect eff ect 0.342; the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Success (external variable) to Effi cacy in Student Engagement was observed to be 0.373 and its indirect eff ect 0.093; the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Value (external variable) to Effi cacy in Student Engagement was observed to be 0.211 and its indirect eff ect 0.147; when the greatest direct eff ect was the Attitude Toward the Teaching Profes- •sion sub-scale of Professional Success [ry1x3.2=.466], the least was the Coping with Stress sub-scale of Receiving Social Support [ry1x2.5=.007];


when the greatest direct eff ect was the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Value [ry1x3.4=.211], the least was the Attitude Toward the Teaching Profession sub-Scale of Professional Esteem [ry1x3.3=.020]; and when the greatest indirect eff ect was the Attitude Toward the Teaching Pro- •fession sub-scale of Occupational Preference [ry1x3.1=.342], the least was the Coping with Stress sub-scale of Self-confi dent Approach [ry1x2.1=.014].

the Authoritarian Attitude [py2x1.1=-0.134, p<.05] and the Attitude Toward the Teaching Profession sub-scale of Occupational Preference [py2x3.1=-0.184, p<.05], Professional Success [py2x3.2=0.379, p<.01] and on Effi cacy in Student Engagement [py2x3.6=0.171, p<.05], showing direct eff ect of effi cacy on student engagement was statistically signifi cant.

Effi cacy for Instructional StrategiesTh ere were no statistically-signifi cant relationships between Effi cacy for instruc-

tional strategies and Occupational Preference, Ruler Attitude, Helping the Student, Supporting the Student, Self-confi dent Approach, Helpless Approach, Submissive Approach, Optimistic Approach and Receiving Social Support.

However, there were positive relationships between Effi cacy for instructional strategies and Professional Success [r=.428, p<.01], Professional Esteem [r=.294, p<.01], (X3.4), Professional Value [r=.285, p<.01], Willingness to be a Teacher [r=.133, p<.05] and Professional Concern [r=.343, p<.01]. Th ere was a statistically signifi cant negative relationship between Effi cacy for instructional strategies and Authoritarian Attitude [r=-.134, p<.05]. Other fi ndings in relation to Effi cacy for instructional strategies included:

the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Success (external variable) was observed to be -0.134 and its indirect eff ect 0.000; the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teach- •ing Profession sub-scale of Occupational Preference (external variable) was observed to be -0.184 and its indirect eff ect 0.303; the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Success (external variable) to Effi cacy In Student Engagement was observed to be 0.379 and its indirect eff ect 0.049; the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Concern (external variable) was observed to be 0.171 and its indirect eff ect 0.173;


when the greatest direct eff ect was the Attitude Toward the Teaching Pro- •fession sub-scale of Professional Success [rx2y3.2=.428], the least eff ective variable was the Coping with Stress sub-scale of Self-confi dent Approach [rx2y2.5=-.017];when the greatest direct eff ect was the Attitude Toward the Teaching Pro- •fession sub-scale of Professional Success [rx2y3.2=.379], the least eff ective variable was the Coping with Stress sub-scale of Self-confi dent Approach [rx2y2.1=-.002]; when the greatest indirect eff ect was the Attitude Toward the Teaching Pro- •fession sub-scale of Occupational Preference [Rx2y3.1=.303], the least eff ective variable was the Student Control Orientation sub-scale of Authoritarian Attitude [rx2y1.1=.000].

Our fi ndings about Effi cacy for instructional strategies showed that the model [–0.134x1.1 + –0.073x1.2 + 0.037x1.3 + 0.074x1.4 + –0.002x2.1 + 0.025x2.2 + –0.057x2.3 + 0.051x2.4 + –0.047x2.5 + –0.184x3.1 + 0.379x3.2 + 0.061x3.3 + 0.127x3.4 + –0.104x3.5 + 0.171x3.6] was statistically signifi cant at the level of p<.01.

Effi cacy in Classroom ManagementTh ere were no statistically-signifi cant relationships between Effi cacy in Class-

room Management and Helping the Student, Supporting the Student and Sub-missive Approach, Optimistic Approach and Receiving Social Support. However, there were positive relationships between Effi cacy in Classroom Management and Occupational Preference [r=.128, p<.05]; Professional Success [r=.435, p<.01], Pro-fessional Esteem [r=.320, p<.01], Professional Value [r=.303, p<.01], Willingness to be a Teacher [r=.126, p<.05], Professional Concern [r=.342, p<.01]; and Helpless Approach [r=.129, p<.05]. Th ere was a statistically signifi cant negative relationship between Effi cacy in Classroom Management and Authoritarian Attitude [r=–.163, p<.05].

To determine the direct eff ect of Student Control Orientation, Coping with Stress and Attitude toward the Teaching Profession (external variables) on the Sense of Effi cacy (internal variable) at the level of the sub-scales, a regression analysis was used. Th e model [–0.167y1.1 + –0.062y1.2 + 0.050y1.3 + 0.157y1.4 + 0.023y2.1 + 0.057y2.2 + –0.023y2.3 + 0.067y2.4 + –0.060y2.5 + –0.175y3.1 + 0.373y3.2 + 0.020y3.3 + 0.211y3.4 + –0.034y3.5 + 0.082y3.6] was statistically signifi cant at the level of p<.01.

By the multiple regression analysis, coeffi cient of standardised regression, direct eff ect from external variables to internal variables, equal coeffi cient of path does


not make sense, other fi ndings in relation to Effi cacy in Classroom Management included:

the Student Control Orientation sub-scale of Authoritarian Attitude [P • x3y1.1 = –0.178, P<.01] and Ruler Attitude [Px3y1.4 = 0.176, P<.01] and the Atti-tude Toward the Teaching Profession sub-scales of Occupational Preference [Px3y3.1 = –0.176, P<.05], (Y3.2) Professional Success [Px3y3.2 = 0.350, P<.01], Willingness to be a Teacher [Px3y3.5 = –0.145, P<.05] and Professional Con-cern [Px3y3.6 = 0.143, P<.05] were statistically signifi cant;the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Student Control Orientation •sub-scale of Authoritarian Attitude (external variable) was observed to be –0.178 and its indirect eff ect 0.015;the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Student Control Orientation •sub-scale of Authoritarian Attitude (external variable) was observed to be 0.176 and its indirect eff ect 0.128;the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teach- •ing Profession sub- scale of Occupational Preference (external variable) was observed to be -0.176 and its indirect eff ect 0.304; the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Success (external variable) was observed to be 0.350 and its indirect eff ect 0.085;the direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Willingness to be a Teacher (external variable) was observed to be -0.145 and its indirect eff ect 0.271; andthe direct eff ect of one unit deviation from the Attitude Toward the Teaching •Profession sub-scale of Professional Concern (external variable) was observed to be 0.143 and its indirect eff ect 0.199.

Findings for Effi cacy In Classroom Management showed that the model [–0.178y1.1 + –0.058y1.2 + 0.038y1.3 + 0.176y1.4 + –0.018y2.1 + 0.037y2.2 + –0.006y2.3 + -0.018y2.4 + -0.021y2.5 + -0.176y3.1 + 0.350y3.2 + 0.114y3.3 + 0.142y3.4 + -0.145y3.5 + 0.143y3.6] was statistically signifi cant at the level of p<.01. According to these fi ndings, in relation to Effi cacy in Classroom Management:

when the most eff ective infl uence is the Attitude Toward the Teaching Profes- •sion sub-scale of Professional Success [rx3y3.2 = .435], the least eff ective is the Coping with Stress sub-scale Receiving Social Support [rx1y2.5 = .007]; when the most eff ective infl uence is the Attitude Toward the Teaching Profes- •sion sub-scale of Professional Success [rx3y3.2 =. 350], the least eff ective is the Coping with Stress sub-scale Helpless Approach [rx2y2.3 = –.006]; and


when the most eff ective indirect infl uence is the Attitude Toward the Teach- •ing Profession sub-scale of Occupational Preference [rx3y3.1 = .304], the least eff ective is the Coping with Stress sub-scale Self-confi dent Approach [rx3y2.1 = –.001].

Discussion

Individuals overcome diff erent diffi culties, evaluate the outcomes of endeavours and thereby develop beliefs of effi cacy and then behave according to their beliefs (Bandura, 1995; Koul & Rubba, 1999; Pajares, 2002). In essence, people’s sense of self-effi cacy can aff ect their job performance as well as their interaction with others. Th e sense of effi cacy for prospective teachers is developed through the eff ects of various factors. Many researchers (for example, Taylor & Tashakkori, 1995; Imants & Zoelen, 1995; Milson & Mehlig, 2002; Knobloch, 2006; Zientek, 2006; Wolters & Daugherty, 2007; and Ohmer, 2007) argue that one of the most important factors is occupational experience and that this contributes to reinforcing the sense of effi cacy (Bandura, 1986; Delcourt & Kinzie, 1993). Lent, Lopez, Brown & Gore (1996) pointed out that factors that aff ect teachers’ sense of effi cacy should be explored to contribute to both social cognitive theory and practice.

In this study it was found that the Authoritarian Attitude had a negative eff ect on Effi cacy in Student Engagement. However, the meaning and measurement of teacher effi cacy are subject to debate (cf.,e.g., Goddary, Hoy &Woolfolk-Hoy, 2000) and cause some diffi culties. Many researchers argue that locus of control aff ects teachers’ sense of effi cacy (Henson, Kogan & Vacha-Haase, 2001; Gordon, Lim, McKinnon & Nkala, 1998), while others hold contrary views (Woolfolk-Hoy, 1990; Bandura, 1995). Th e clearest fi nding of our research is that the interaction of locus of control and the sense of effi cacy for prospective teachers is too complex to explore. Teacher effi cacy has been defi ned as the extent to which teachers believe that they have the capacity to aff ect student performance (Asthon, 1984) and as the realisation of teaching, belief or judgment of teachers about their capacity (Gordon, Lim, McKinnon & Nkala, 1998). Th e relationship between teachers’ self-effi cacy and students’ performance has also been investigated by many researchers, with similar conclusions (Bandura, 1993; Bandura, 1986; Dembo & Gibson, 1985; Gibson & Dembo, 1984; Guyton, Fox, & Sisk; 1991; Hebert, Lee, & Williamson; 1998; Kagan, 1992; Ross, 1995; Soodak & Podell; 1993; Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy, & Hoy; 1998; Woolfolk & Hoy, 1990). Studies have shown that individuals’ perception of effi cacy is an eff ective variable also in choosing their


occupation (Taylor & Tashakkori, 1994; Fouad & Smith, 1996; Lapan, Shaughnessy & Boggs, 1996; Rottinghaus, Lindley, Green & Borgen, 2002). Betz & Hackett (1981) found that if individuals defi ned their aims, collected the right information about occupations, evaluated features of occupations and planned accordingly, they could raise their level of effi cacy in making decisions about job choices. Lent & Hackett (1987) and Robbins (1985) showed that making decisions about the choice of occupation was closely related to self-effi cacy and self-assurance. Th e variable which has the most signifi cant direct eff ect on effi cacy is the Attitude toward the Teaching Profession sub-scale of Professional Success, and that with the least direct eff ect is the Coping with Stress sub-scale of Receiving Social Support. Th e variable which has the most signifi cant indirect eff ect on effi cacy is the Attitude toward the Teaching Profession sub-scale of Occupational Preference, and that the Coping with Stress sub-scale of Self-confi dent Approach has the least indirect eff ect. Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk-Hoy (2001) showed that teachers’ sense of effi cacy was related to student engagement, teaching applications and eff ective classroom management. Brennan, Robison & Shaughnessy (1996), Hebert, Lee & Williamson (1998), Gordon, Lim, McKinnon & Nkala (1998), Henson (2001) and Henson, Kogan & Vacha-Haase (2001) suggested that teachers with a high sense of effi cacy were more successful in relations with students, had more tolerance in classroom, were more willing to teach and to use teaching materials than teachers who had a low sense of effi cacy.

It is known that variables that aff ect the sense of effi cacy are very important. Our research shows that prospective teachers’ attitudes toward the teaching profession aff ect their sense of effi cacy. A great deal of research shows that the results also matter to teachers.

Bandura (1977) suggested that early career experiences contributed to the development of teachers’ perception of self-effi cacy. Martin (1989) found that a high sense of effi cacy began early in teacher education programs and suggested that there were developmental stages of effi cacy. Bandura (1977, 1986 and 1997) postulated four sources of effi cacy expectations: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion and psychological and emotional states. Th e most infl uential was the interpreted result of one’s previous performance, or mastery experience. As individuals engage in tasks and activities, they interpret the results of their actions and use these interpretations to develop their beliefs about their capacity to perform in subsequent tasks or activities.

Beliefs about capability not only aff ect individuals’ behaviours but also motiva-tion and success (Henson, 2001). Pajares (2002) pointed out that if people did not believe that they could succeed in a subject, they failed to be persistent about


it. Research shows that effi cacy expectancy is a person’s conviction that he or she can execute successfully the behaviour required to produce the intended outcome (Bandura, 1977).

Bandura asserted that effi cacy expectations precede outcome expectations because they develop from the projected level of competence a person expects to bring in a certain situation. Th erefore, individuals may believe that certain actions can produce a given outcome, but if they do not have confi dence in their ability to perform those actions, such information will not infl uence their behaviour (Bandura, 1986).

Numerous researchers have found that the sense of effi cacy is related to people’s eagerness, level of perseverance, aims, ability to plan their future, willingness to practise new methodologies and level of persistence in overcoming diffi culties (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk-Hoy & Hoy, 1998; Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk-Hoy, 2001).

When the variables that have been aff ected by the sense of effi cacy were exam-ined, it was apparent that almost all of them were related to the attitude toward the teaching profession ( e.g., Louis, 1998; Tschannen-Moran & Gareis, 2004; Hene-man, Kimball & Milanowski, 2006; Schechter & Tschannen-Moran, 2006; Vieno, 2007). Wheatley (2000), on the other hand, doubted whether teachers’ effi cacy aff ected teaching performance positively. According to Wheedle, it should be kept in mind that a teacher can develop a sense of effi cacy as long as he/she thinks his/her teaching performance is the best.

People can gauge their degree of confi dence by the emotional state they experi-ence as they contemplate an action. Indicators of arousal, such as increased heart rate, perspiration or trembling hands, can indicate (positive) excitement or (nega-tive) stress and anxiety. People with a high sense of effi cacy are likely to view their state of aff ective arousal as an energising facilitator of performance, whereas those with a low sense of effi cacy regard arousal as an inhibitor. When people experience negative thoughts and fears about their capabilities, they tend to dwell on their coping defi ciencies, and limit their level of functioning (Bandura, 1989).

Individuals—and especially prospective teachers—should recognise their effi -cacy in their professions. Teacher training programs and education faculties should assist all teacher candidates to develop this capacity. It could even be said that this is the most important issue for prospective teachers and education organisations.


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Teacher Trainees’ Epistemological Beliefs :Eff ects of Gender, Institution, and Discipline

(Mathematics/Social Sciences)

Abstract

How knowledge is acquired in various disciplines or the existence of other knowledge sources have been the focus of more recent research. Th ree types of knowledge have been specifi ed in relation to the teaching of a discipline content, pedagogical and pedagogical content knowledge. Teachers and teacher trainees are expected to have expertise on these three knowledge areas. Within the process individuals develop epistemological beliefs. Little research exists which studies how similar/diff erent mathematics and social sciences students are in terms of their epistemological beliefs. Th erefore, the aim of this research was to investigate whether mathematics and social sciences teacher trainees diff ered in terms of their epistemological beliefs and if they did to test these diff erences with regards to certain variables. Th e sample consisted of mathematics and social sciences teacher trainees registered at four departments of two education faculties at two universi-ties in Turkey. Th e data was collected using an ‘Epistemological Beliefs Scale’ and a background information schedule. Th e results indicated gender diff erences in all three sub-scales of the epistemological beliefs scale. A diff erence in terms of discipline was also observed in the ‘belief that learning depends on ability’ factor of the epistemological beliefs scale.

Keywords: epistemological beliefs, teacher trainees.

Erhan Ertekin, Bülent Dilmaç, Ali Delice, Emin AydinTurkey

185Teacher Trainees’ Epistemological Beliefs…

Introduction

Individual diff erences have attracted a lot of attention in education. Research on cognitive, psychological, and aff ective diff erences, in particular, has been foregrounded. Th e source of these diff erences can typically be related to inherit-ance and environment. Th ese elements could, in fact, be found in the defi nitions of educational terms. For instance, Piaget states that cognitive development “is a result of the interaction between inheritance and environment” (Baykul, 2002). However, among diff erences certain patterns could be observed. For example, despite individual diff erences in terms of learning styles, which could be defi ned as learners’ preferred ways of learning (kinetic, tactile, auditory, visual, etc.), groups of learners with a common learning style could be established. Research in this area inspired some educators to group learners with similar learning styles in the same classroom and provide a relevant learning environment. Still discussions continue among educators on the validity of this idea and the immense number of individual diff erences results in questioning the possibility to teach diff erently in line with each individual diff erence. Educational research indicated that teaching in the light of these diff erences would be eff ective. Kuzgun and Deryakulu (2004) emphasized that teaching could be successful to the extent to which it takes learners’ cognitive, aff ective, social and physiological characteristics and their needs based on these characteristics into consideration.

Some of these individual diff erences are epistemological beliefs which belong to the aff ective category in Smith and Ragan’s (1999) classifi cation of individual diff erences of cognitive, aff ective, social and physiological categories. In the last 15 years, learners’ epistemological beliefs have attracted research interest in the area of educational psychology (Eynde et.al., 2006). Epistemology, composed of Greek words of episteme and logia, deals with the knowledge issue of philosophy and is the study that seeks answers to various questions such as what is knowledge, what are the knowledge sources and how do people know. Epistemological beliefs, on the other hand, in general, are defi ned as individuals’ subjective beliefs of what knowledge is and how knowing and learning take place. Perry (1981) defi ned this concept as “the views of an individual on what knowledge is, how it is gained, and the limits and criteria for determining knowledge” (cited in; Muis, 2004). While philosophically, epistemology is related with the nature of knowledge, the ways to obtain knowledge and its limits and validity; educationally or psychologi-cally, epistemology focuses on the development of an individual’s knowledge and understanding and how one uses these to understand the world (Hofer, 2002).

186 Erhan Ertekin, Bülent Dilmaç, Ali Delice, Emin Aydin

Epistemological beliefs are not innate stable individual traits but they are psycho-logical structures that can change-develop in time (Deryakulu, 2004; Holschuch, 2006). Th erefore, it is important to investigate factors which are infl uential in the development of beliefs. Deryakulu (2004) specifi ed basic elements that aff ect the development of individuals’ epistemological beliefs, such as cognitive development, age, family structure, education, and culture. On the other hand, other research fi ndings indicated that gender and educational discipline were also infl uential in the formation of these beliefs. However, the latter relationships have yet to be evidenced precisely and signifi cantly.

Several researchers expressed the need to investigate whether epistemologi-cal beliefs are common or discipline specifi c (Hofer, 2002; Schommer & Walker, 1995). Initial research acknowledged that epistemological beliefs were common (Schommer, 1990); however, other studies identifi ed certain discipline specifi c beliefs. Epistemological beliefs are defi ned as individual subjective beliefs about what knowledge is, and how knowledge and learning take place (Schommer, 1990). For instance, Buehl et. al. (2002) used a discipline specifi c beliefs questionnaire to explore learners’ academic knowledge beliefs in mathematics and history. Th eir results indicated signifi cant diff erences in learners’ beliefs in displaying neces-sary eff orts to obtain knowledge in mathematics and history. Jehng, Johnson and Anderson (1993; cited in: Youn, 2000), also found that university students’ episte-mological beliefs were related to their disciplines. Social sciences and arts students were observed to possess more developed epistemological beliefs than sciences and engineering students (Deryakulu, 2004). Th ese suggest possible diff erences in students’ epistemological beliefs.

Most research into epistemological beliefs acknowledges these beliefs to be valid for all disciplines (Banks, 2005). Hofer (2002) accepted the assumption that epistemological beliefs are discipline specifi c. Research into diff erent disciplines, especially mathematics and sciences, represent variability in individuals’ episte-mological beliefs according to discipline (Banks, 2005).

On the other hand, epistemological beliefs as an aff ective diff erence can aff ect learners’ approach to learning and teaching. Th erefore, the highly established idea that learners construct knowledge by themselves in educational environments could be adopted primarily through teachers’ belief in this philosophy, who are one of the main elements of teaching. Studies on both learning styles and individual diff erences such as epistemological beliefs indicate that teachers’ preferred learning styles and their parallel teaching styles and epistemological beliefs are similar to those of their own teachers’. Th is clearly refl ects the value of epistemological beliefs in teacher education programmes to educate future teachers who will then educate


future individuals who think, can solve problems and who do research. Th erefore, Pajares (1993) argued that teacher trainees’ beliefs should be central in teacher education. Fang (1996) and Richardson et. al. (1991) reported that most research evidenced the need to focus on supporting teacher trainees’ thoughts and beliefs in teacher education programmes in order to realize changes in the teaching-learning process.

When beliefs about mathematics, which is one of the elements of this research, are explored, certain beliefs generally emerge as a result of traditional teaching. All levels of learners believe that mathematics is not benefi cial (Kloosterman & Stage, 1992; Muis, 2004; Schoenfeld, 1988; cited in: Steiner, 2007). Th ese beliefs include “mathematics is based on defi nitions, rules, formulas and operations”, “learning mathematics should be quick”; “mathematics is to fi nd the correct answer”; “math-ematics knowledge is passively gained from some experts” and “mathematics is not benefi cial in daily life” (Cobb, 1986; Frank, 1988; Garofalo, 1989a; Kloosterman & Stage, 1992; Mason, 2003; Mcleod, 1992; Mletwa & Garafalo, 1989; Schoenfeld, 1988; Schoenfeld, 1989; Schommer-Aikins et. al., 2005; cited in: Steiner, 2007).

It is possible to observe the eff ects of these beliefs on teachers’ classroom behaviour. Similarly Krows (1999) stated that many teacher education programmes include teachers’ beliefs as they aff ect classroom behaviour.

In order to educate the new generation in accordance with the requirements of the new era, in addition to curriculum modifi cations, it is crucial to develop teacher trainees’ epistemological beliefs in teacher education institutions. Th us, the relationship between epistemological beliefs, which should be foregrounded in teacher education programmes, and discipline is not clear enough. In order to enrich literature in the area and to prevent ambiguities, this study explored teacher trainees’ epistemological beliefs in two disciplines: literature, as a social science discipline, and mathematics, as a sciences discipline. Th e relationship between epistemological beliefs and disciplines was then questioned.

Methods

Th e methodology, model, sample of research as well as data collection and analy-sis methods will be explained in this section. Th e study belongs to a quantitative research paradigm and uses a relational survey model. Convenience purposeful sampling was chosen as the sampling method which seeks to economize on time, expenses and eff ort (Patton, 1990). Th e population of this study consisted of students at secondary school mathematics teaching and secondary school Turk-


ish language and literature teaching departments of education faculties at two universities in Turkey situated in the west and middle regions of the country (West University and Middle University hereaft er) in the 2007–2008 academic year. Th e sample of this research consisted of 521 teacher trainees registered at the aforemen-tioned departments of these universities. Despite diffi culties in assessing episte-mological beliefs due to their unconscious and hidden qualities (Holchuch, 2006) several types of assessment tools were developed. Th ree types of data collection methods are generally used in recent research. Th ese are interviews, open-ended questionnaires and Likert-type questionnaires (Holchuch, 2006). A Likert-type “Epistemological Beliefs Scale” and a “Background Information Schedule” was used in this study as quantitative methods.

Epistemological Beliefs Scale: In order to determine learners’ epistemological beliefs the Epistemological Beliefs Scale (EBS) was used which was developed by Schommer (1990) and the reliability and validity studies on Turkish university students was carried out by Deryakulu and Büyüköztürk (2002). Th e original scale consists of four factors; “Fixed/Innate Ability”, “Quick Learning”, “Simple Knowl-edge” and “Certain Knowledge”. When applied to the Turkish context the scale was found to contain three factors “Belief that Learning Depends on Eff ort” (BLDE), “Belief that Learning Depends on Ability” (BLDA) and “Belief that a Single Truth Exists” (BSTE). Th e scale is a Likert-type scale and responses are elicited between (1) Strongly Disagree and (5) Strongly Agree. Th e scores are calculated based on the factors and aggregate scores obtained from the whole scale are not used. Th e BLDE factor of the scale consists of 18 statements, 17 of which are negative and one of which is positive. An exemplary statement of this factor is: “If someone cannot understand something quickly, s/he needs to continue his/her eff orts to understand”. Th e BLDA factor of the scale consists of nine positive statements. An exemplary statement of this factor is: “Students who are innately clever do not need to work hard at school to be successful”. Th e third factor of the scale (BSTE) consists of eight positive statements. An exemplary statement of this factor is: “Th e best thing in science lessons is that most problems only have a single correct answer”. High scores obtained in each factor indicate sophisticated beliefs of an individual for that factor. Th e test re-test reliability of the original scale was 0.74 and the reliability coeffi cients of the factors varied between .85 and .63 (Schommer, 1993). Th e Cronbach Alpha internal consistency scores of the adapted scale which consisted of 35 items were calculated as .83 for the fi rst factor, .62 for the second, .59 for the third and .71 for the whole scale (Deryakulu and Büyüköztürk, 2002).

Background Information Schedule: In order to determine teacher trainees’ gender, year of study, university and discipline they were registered at a background


information schedule developed and administered by the researchers. Multiple-choice questions in relation to these variables were addressed in the Background Information Schedule and teacher trainees were asked to choose the best answer.

Data AnalysisAt the end of the data collection questionnaires missing data were removed and

the remaining data were statistically analysed. Independent groups t-test was used in order to investigate diff erences in terms of gender, discipline and university. A one-way variance analysis (ANOVA) was administered to explore diff erentiation in terms of the year of study.

Findings

Th e results of the statistical analysis of the data obtained from the Epistemo-logical Beliefs Scale and background information schedule by teacher trainees are presented in this section. Four diff erent analyses were carried out in order to obtain answers to the sub-problems of this research.

Table 1: t-Test Results for Average Epistemological Beliefs Scores of Teacher Trainees in terms of Gender Gender N X– S.S. t P

Belief that Learning De-pends on Eff ort (BLDE)

Male 248 38.61 9.804.072* .000

Female 273 35.63 6.65

Belief that Learning De-pends on Ability (BLDA)

Male 248 20.70 4.432.761* .006

Female 273 19.68 3.96

Belief that a Single Truth Exists (BSTE)

Male 248 26.41 4.82–2.853* .005

Female 273 27.71 5.47

*p<.05

Average epistemological beliefs score of male teacher trainees for the “Belief that Learning Depends on Eff ort” (BLDE) factor was found to be 38.61 whereas average female score was 35.63 and t-value between the two groups was 4.072 (p<0.05). Th is suggested a signifi cant diff erence between the two groups at 0.05 level. For the “Belief that Learning Depends on Ability” (BLDA)factor, the female average level of epistemological beliefs was 20.70 and the male average was 19.68. Th e t-value calculated to determine the relationship between these two groups was


2.761 (p<0.05). Th is suggested a signifi cant diff erence between the two groups at 0.05 level. Th e epistemological beliefs average score for the “Belief that a Single Truth Exists” (BSFE) factor was 26.41 for the females and 27.71 for the males. Th e t-value calculated to investigate the diff erence between these two groups was – 2.853 (p<0.05). Th is suggested a signifi cant diff erence between the two groups at 0.05 level.

Table 2: t-test Results for Average Epistemological Beliefs Scores of Teacher Trainees in terms of Discipline

Alan N X– S.s. T P


Social 186 36.17 7.83–1.762 . 079

Mathematics 335 37.54 8.78


Social 186 19.47 4.05–2.821* . 005



Social 186 26.58 5.89–1.679 . 094


*p<.005

When the teacher trainees’ epistemological beliefs were compared in terms of discipline, for the BLDE factor, the social sciences teacher trainees’ average score was 36.17, whereas the mathematics trainees’ average was 37.54. Th e t-value obtained at the end of the t-test administered to test whether these averages diff ered was – 1.762 (p>0.05). Th is value suggested that the social sciences and mathematics teacher trainees did not signifi cantly diff er for the BLDE at 0.05 level. Th e average score for the epistemological beliefs of the social sciences teacher trainees for the BLDA was 19.47 and of the mathematics teacher trainees was 20.55. Th ese two groups were not signifi cantly diff erent for the BLDA factor as suggested by the t-value (–2.821; p<0.05). For the BSTE the social sciences trainees’ average score was 26.58 and the mathematics trainees’ average score was 27.37. Th e t-value calculated to test whether these averages were diff erent was –1.679; (p>0.05). Th is implied that the groups were not signifi cantly diff erent.

Th e teacher trainees’ epistemological beliefs average scores in terms of the university were 37.02 for the trainees registered at Middle University and 37.09 for the trainees at West University in relation to the BLDE factor. Th e t-value of – 0.088 (p>0.05) was obtained at the end of the t-test administered to test whether the averages were diff erent. Th is t-value suggested that the universities were not statistically diff erent for the BLDE at 0.05 level. For the BLDA factor the


epistemological beliefs average score of the teacher trainees registered at Middle University was 20.01 and of the trainees registered at West University was 20.44. Th e t-value for the BLDA factor was – 1.105; (p>0.05) which suggested that the two groups were not signifi cantly diff erent at 0.05 level. For the BSTE factor the teacher trainees’ average score was 27.46 at Middle University and 26.41 at West University. Th e t-test results revealed the t-value of 2.212 (p>0.05) which suggested a signifi cant diff erence between the average scores of the teacher trainees registered at diff erent universities.

Table 4: ANOVA Results for Average Epistemological Beliefs Scores of Teacher Trainees’ in terms of their Years of Study at the University

Source of Variance

Sum of Squares df Mean

Square F P


Between Groups 932.446 4 233.1123.303* .011

Within Group 36420.049 516 70.581


Between Groups 38.866 4 9.717.543 .704

Within Group 9236.270 516 17.900


Between Groups 175.134 4 43.783.620 .168

Within Group 13945.258 516 27.026

*p<.005

Th e F values calculated in terms of the teacher trainees’ years of study were “3.303” (p<0.05) for the BLDE factor, “0.543” (p>0.05) for the BLDA factor and “1.620” (p>0.05) for the BSTE factor. Th ese values indicated that the groups were not diff erent for the BLDA and BSTE factors whereas they were signifi cantly diff er-

Table 3: t-test Results for Average Epistemological Beliefs Scores of Teacher Trainees’ in terms of University

University N X– S.S. t P


Middle 337 37.02 8.97–.088 .930

West 184 37.09 7.50


Middle 337 20.01 4.15–1.105 .269

West 184 20.44 4.34


Middle 337 27.46 5.442.212* .027

West 184 26.41 4.68

*p<.005


ent at 0.05 level for the BLDE. Tukey test was administered in order to determine among which variables the diff erences were. Th e results suggested a diff erence between the third and fourth years in favour of the third year.

Discussion

Th is study investigated epistemological beliefs of university students. Th e statis-tical fi ndings reported in the previous section about the epistemological beliefs of the teacher trainees who constituted the sample of research will be discussed below. Th e statistical fi ndings suggested signifi cant diff erences in diff erent factors of the epistemological beliefs for gender, discipline, university, and year of study.

Th e fi ndings revealed a signifi cant eff ect of gender on epistemological beliefs. Th is eff ect was observed in all the three factors of the epistemological beliefs scale and in terms of total scores. Th e male teacher trainees had higher scores for the BLDE and BLDA sub-factors of the epistemological beliefs scale than the female teacher trainees. In other words, the male trainees were found to believe more strongly that learning depends on eff ort and ability than the female trainees. Th is fi nding is in relation to the fi ndings of other studies such as Paulsen and Wells (1998); Eroğlu and Güven (2006) and Deryakulu and Büyüköztürk (2005).

Epistemological beliefs are not hereditary but are psychological characteristics that can change-develop in time (Deryakulu, 2004; Holschuh, 2006). However, gender is also infl uential on epistemological beliefs. When these two fi ndings are interpreted together, the following conclusion is drawn: Although the process of beliefs development itself does not depend on genetic heritage, it can undergo changes due to variables related to genetic heritage. Th us, an indirect heritage infl uence could be observed. What is more important here are the variables which result in diff erentiation. Certain cognitive, sociological or psychological eff ects based on gender could generate diff erent epistemological understandings.

Our fi ndings suggested that secondary school mathematics teacher trainees’ and Turkish language and literature teacher trainees’ epistemological beliefs were signifi cantly diff erent in terms of their discipline for the BLDA factor of the epistemological beliefs scale. Similarly Jehng, Johnson and Anderson (1993) and Enman and Lupart (2000) observed diff erences between university students registered at social sciences and sciences departments (cited in: Deryakulu ve Büyüköztürk, 2005). Likewise, Paulsen and Wells (1998) revealed diff erences in epistemological diff erences among university students registered at six diff erent disciplines.


Several studies revealed individual diff erences in learning styles within groups (Viteli, 1989; Gabe, 2002; Price, 2004). Other studies, on the other hand, indicated that teaching styles can infl uence learning styles (Heikkinen, 1985; Montgomery, 1995). Th erefore, certain frequently used discipline specifi c teaching styles and methods in the teaching process could diminish already established individual diff erences within the group. Th us, this could generate a common epistemological beliefs system. Another interesting research area is the relationship between epis-temological beliefs and cognitive diff erences which are observed among students of social sciences and sciences.

Th e university teacher trainees who were registered at diff erent universities dis-played diff erences in their epistemological beliefs for the BSTE sub-dimension of the epistemological beliefs scale. Th is result implied that the students at the Middle University had stronger beliefs in the existence of a single truth than the students at West University. Believing in the existence of a single truth can be considered to be the opposite of ‘believing in the existence of multiple realities’. Th erefore, we could argue that the students at West University believed in multiple realities. Th e observed diff erence can also be interpreted in terms of the dilemma between behaviourism and constructionism. Th us, the diff erence could be due to the fact that the students at West University were more ‘constructivist’. As epistemologi-cal beliefs can undergo changes with environmental eff ects, when the eff ects of teaching are considered, we could argue that the academics at West University were closer to the constructivist approach and were successful in transferring this approach to their students during the teaching process. Işıksal et.al. (2007) found similar results.

Another variable that could explain institutional diff erences could be the regis-tered students’ standardised scores of university entrance examination (Bowen & Bok, 1998; Dale & Krueger, 1999; Flowers, Osterlind, Pascarella, & Pierson, 2001; Rumberger & Th omas, 1993). Th e fact that the university entrance examination results of the students at the university situated in the Middle Anatolia were lower than those of the university in the west could explain institutional diff erences.

A statistically signifi cant diff erence was observed between teacher trainees’ years of study in terms of the BLDE sub-scale. Th e fi nding which was also supported by the results of Işıksal, Kurt, Doğan & Çakıroğlu (2007) suggested that students at the lower years of study more strongly believe that learning depends on eff ort. Th is could be due to students being more anxious at the higher years of study as they are closer to professional life. No diff erences were observed for the BLDA and BSTE factors. Th is could mean that beliefs could be more resistant to time for these factors. However, future research would be benefi cial to confi rm this claim.


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The Problem of Theory and Practice in University Course Theory and Methods of Literacy Development1

Abstract

Th is article looks at the position of so-called practical and theoretical compo-nents in university teacher training study programmes. Attention is paid mainly to the area which makes it possible to distinguish university and non-university teach-ers’ education and to the status and composition of teaching practice. In its eff ort to guarantee the academic character of university teacher training programmes, with the idea of a theoretically competent graduate, it draws on the notion of a so-called refl ective practitioner. Teaching practice is then taken as an integral part of specifi c study units connected with the need to explore in detail their potentials in developing students’ thinking skills in individual areas of study. Th e contribution also provides examples of including such cognitive regimes into the specifi c area of training teachers for preschool education – the area of literacy and language development in children based on observed practices in kindergartens.

Key words: Th eory and practice in teachers’ education, theoretical regime of uni-versity studies, refl ective practice, kindergarten teachers´ education, the study area preparing teachers for developing language literacy.

1 Th is article is a partial outcome of the grant task VEGA n. 1{3637{06 Discursive and non-discursive school practice in designing primary education.

Branislav Pupala, Zuzana PetrováSlovak Republic

198 Branislav Pupala, Zuzana Petrová

Introduction

Th e eff ort to improve the quality of teacher education has become commonplace recently, focusing on the use of instruments that involve the refl ection of everyday educational experience as a qualitatively more valuable alternative to expanding formal declarative knowledge (Kasáčová, 2001, 2005; Slavík, Čapková, 1994; Musil, 2003).Th is trend in teacher education is known as refl ective teacher education (Schön, 1983), with specifi c contextual connections in Slovakia. Th e primary stand-ard reason is to fi nd possibilities of improving teacher education, whose quality comes from the very essence of the pedagogical colleges operating in the university context. Th ese must look for strategies that will enable the harmonisation of the student’s experiential knowledge with a mediated theoretical understanding. Th is eff ort is most prominently concentrated on directing teachers to consider their choices of individual educational means to improve the educational process so that it has an enriching infl uence on learners. Another reason is related to ways of educating female kindergarten teachers within the Slovak educational system, in which multiple possible educational levels coexist leading to the certifi cation of a kindergarten teacher. Th erefore, the design of educational programmes for female kindergarten teachers must not only manage to defi ne the graduate profi le and the character of studies at the university level (bachelor, master and doctoral) but also distinguish it from the programmes training female kindergarten teach-ers at secondary vocational pedagogical schools, which have a long tradition in Slovakia.

Th is need has reopened a few topics in the discussion of teacher education, some of them having a specifi c signifi cance: how to guarantee a university character of university teacher programmes? How important is acquiring theory and practical knowledge? Th e discussion that these questions provoke has a key importance in bringing up the arguments that should support, justify and accept university teacher education programmes (not limited to those for kindergarten teachers).

1. Changes in the Target Regime of Pedagogical Training A discussion on teacher education oft en follows a pattern in which one side

accentuates the importance of acquiring practical pedagogic skills and the other the signifi cance of theoretical understanding as the foundation of performing the teaching profession. Th is discussion becomes more focused when such an impor-tant component of teacher training programmes as various types of pedagogical training is in question.

199The Problem of Theory and Practice in University Course…

Pedagogical training is traditionally considered a corner stone in developing practical classroom skills by connecting student teachers with real performance of the profession.

Within a few types of pedagogical training (most oft en observing good practi-tioners and peer student teaching) students can observe the educational process under “natural“ circumstances, and having had the chance of learning the profes-sion from an experienced practitioner, they can put their ideas into practice when dealing with actual classroom situations. Despite the fact that this approach in directing the pedagogical training in teacher education has a long tradition, it is based on the isolated interpretation of professional training and a craft -like understanding of the profession. However, in the case of university discussions on extending or reducing the programme training component, developing classroom skills without proportionally revising its objectives as a possible discriminating cri-terion between secondary school programmes and university programmes renders the discussion meaningless. Although it may be justifi ed in teacher education to talk about acquiring practical classroom skills in the situation when intellectual capacities of students are decreasing, it does not contribute to a fruitful discus-sion about the place of pedagogical training in university study programmes. Th e question to be answered is not how to outline university pedagogical training that better develops classroom skills (in comparison with non-university teacher programmes), but which guarantees a university character based primarily on theoretical understanding in teacher study programmes specifi cally connected with school experience.

Th is approach shift s the teaching profession (and teacher education) from its craft -like reception to an intellectual one that primarily considers the existence of specifi c theoretical understanding involving methods of theoretical exploration. Respectively, the academic environment has produced the idea of a refl ective practitioner, who is supposed to possess higher intellectual potential, namely the ability to theorise ongoing events and abstract thinking closely approaching a specifi c scientifi c activity. Th en the foundation of university teacher education programmes (for kindergartens) involves setting up an intellectual regime that approximates scientifi c exploration in the area of pedagogic thinking. Th us, when talking about pedagogical training in this framework, it ceases to be a source of acquiring classroom skills in the fi rst place, and is not an aim in itself. A highly problematic point in this area is setting up a corresponding intellectual regime that would develop judgement in university students. A problematic issue in design-ing teacher education university study programmes, then, paradoxically becomes theory, not pedagogical training. Incorporating pedagogical training as independ-


ent study units (this has also been well-established in Slovakia) without the relevant theoretical background connection cannot meet the higher university study level of intellectual requirements. In case that theory is the result of an endeavour to grasp and explain practice at a notional level, pedagogical training may serve as a means and direct source of cognition. As theory and theorising are always related to specifi c areas (of science) and experience is an integral part of the respective area, pedagogical training should be integrated into them in the form of university courses covering these areas.

Consequently, the eff ort to design university study programmes for kindergarten teachers should focus on a realistic solution to the question how and in what form to incorporate pedagogical training into individual courses (mainly into didactics courses) and how to structure them so that they contribute to and deepen judgement and considerations that are relevant in terms of the course’s theoretical background. Th en, there is the frequently heard statement that the problem of implementing pedagogical training at universities is sometimes a yawning gap between “theory“ and “practice“. Th is contradiction will be easily eliminated by transforming the experience into conceptual and interpretative schemes of the relevant theory, which will enable understanding of and insight into this fi eld.

As individual scientifi c areas covering educational contents have their own origin and were built on specifi c issues that became their subject matter, it is natural that these general questions of theory and practice’s place in teacher education will take their specifi c shape within courses which mediate these areas in university teacher preparation. We will try to demonstrate the possibilities of integrating pedagogical training into a university course in one specifi c area – theory and methods of developing language literacy at the preschool age.

2. Study area framework rationale2.1. Changing the theoretical perception of language literacy development. In

Slovakia the theoretical study of language literacy has a relatively short tradition, with the initial interest possibly dating back to the mid-90s of the 20th century. At its initial stages, the discussion focussed on criticism of teaching reading and writing by the analytic-synthetic spelling method and associated topics which developed simultaneously among experts. Traditional topics concentrating mainly on the formal aspects of reading and writing were contrasted with more complex language and speech development competences of individuals in all language com-ponents and functions, both in the oral and written form (Zápotočná, 2001, 2004, 2007). In these attention is mainly paid to meaningful and appropriately varied language usage, which is anchored in connections such as cultural development of


an individual, his/her conditions and target eff ects (Englert, Mariage, 1996; Gee, 2000; Hruby, 2001). Th e cultural context, comprehensibility and communicative purposes achieved by individuals are stressed in language usage, as well as inde-pendence in further usage and self-education. However, the motif of this discussion is not to expand the variety of the topics related to teaching reading and writing, but to establish a new, epistemologically diff erent approach to understanding speech competence development of individuals and its psychological, socio-cultural and educational bearings.

From the point of view of a university course directed at the issue of developing language literacy within preschool teacher education programmes, a few areas in which expert discourse on language literacy is profi led are of special interest.

Th us, this is about confl icting motifs and positions in traditional interest in teaching reading and writing and developing literacy connected with more general topics, which change their shape in the ongoing discussion. Simultaneously, it is about the eff ects on language literacy development. For the education area the increased interest in context, meaningfulness and purposeful use of language have a few essential consequences (Zápotočná, 2001):

More broadly understood language competences covering a few experience •areas, namely understanding and the ability of an individual in both modes of language – written and oral speech, use and knowledge of language (Ravid, Tolchinsky, 2002), contents and language forms (Adams, 1990; van Kleeck, 1998). Various language functions at intrapersonal and interpersonal levels are emphasized.Language is no more understood as a merely abstract linguistic system; the •cultural and social dimension of its use are stressed, which in the language literacy development process leads to exploring and using the language in meaningful and contextualised learning tasks.Initial interest in exploring written language traditionally delineated to •the fi rst form in primary school (through getting familiar with individual graphemes) is losing its legitimacy, and the interest in language literacy development is, on the one hand, shift ing to the preschool age by working out options off ered in this area by book-reading culture, and, on the other hand, to the stages going beyond the period of an individual’s compulsory school attendance. Th erefore, preschool education becomes interesting for language literacy development.As literacy development is considered as a long-term process of developing •a wide range of language competences, the view of individuals’ perform-ance in this area is also changing. Just like in other developmental areas it


is expected that the acquisition will be gradual, including some problems, and thus in the learning process deviations from standard norm (errors) will become tolerable.

Th e view presented above also identifi es the areas by which the traditional offi cial conception of developing language competences in preschool children may be confronted.

2.2. The existing concept of the development of children´s speech in kindergar-tens. Th e offi cial concept of preschool education (Th e Program of the Education of Children in Kindergartens, 1999) that originated during the 1960s is typifi ed by its focus on the cultivation of the oral form of speech. It is based on a trivial presup-position that written speech only represents a transformed form of oral speech into graphic signs, and therefore experience acquired by a child in the sphere of the individual levels of language by using the spoken form of language has a signifi cant infl uence on the cognition of written speech, and later on the extension of meta-lingual cognition. Th e concrete interest in written speech should be perceived through the point of view of competences as divided between kindergartens and primary schools. In accord with the traditional understanding of the possibilities of reading and writing, the beginning of the teaching of reading and writing is only considered in the 1st form of primary school, when pupils start to learn individual graphemes and relevant analytical and synthetic activities necessary for reading and writing under school conditions. Th erefore, kindergarten limits itself to so-called pre-preparation graphomotoric exercises and activities focused on the auditory, phonic and syllabic analysis and the synthesis of word in this sphere.

Th e spheres related to the development of children´s speech can be identifi ed as three independent spheres of preschool education: the spoken form of language is the focus of language education (as part of the so-called intellectual education), and it is focused on the cultivation of the spoken form of language with the emphasis on correct pronunciation, grammatical correctness, vocabulary enlargement and the development of the communicative competence of children; art (as part of the so-called artistic education) includes exercises focused on mastering the basic shapes of the characters of the written alphabet, focusing on mastering the form of written speech; but they do not refer to its functions or meaning. Last but not least, literature (which is also part of artistic education) should fi rst fulfi l an aesthetic-educational function and mediate the child’s contact with written culture.

From the point of view of the theory of language literacy development, not only the spheres within the framework of which kindergarten should be involved, but also the hierarchy of their importance and the presupposed eff ectiveness of edu-


cational activities that should ensure their development, seem to be problematic. Th e development of children´s speech is realised through training, and as imitation is considered to be a signifi cant mechanism of learning, the choice of activities in this sphere is realised regardless of children’s previous experience. Teachers create formalised exercises to develop the correct pronunciation of phonemes (regardless of whether a child has a problem in a given sphere or not), to train the grammatical correctness of the statement (activities focused on infl exion, prepositional phrases, etc.), to broaden vocabulary (most oft en naming pictures), and they do not take into account the fact that from the psychological point of view, these spheres are developed implicitly, by the normal use of language in meaningful situations. Of no less importance is to be the fact that the development of speech in its oral form is traditionally separated from the cognition of literature and textual culture, which gives the impression that the spoken and written forms of language are two separate areas that should be discussed and developed separately. What stays in the background is the fact that school education contributes to the development of language literacy not only by the explicit learning of language rules at individual linguistic levels, but fi rst of all by the purposive learning of written speech and written culture, by learning its place in the culture of local society as well as by explicit learning of the rules of meaningful usage.

2.3. Recognition of contradictions. Long-held traditions and the absence of more serious refl ection on trends in the theory of literacy by the creators of cur-ricula contribute to the fi xation of the traditional approach in the development of children´s speech in kindergartens (cf. Petrová, 2007) and they produce several side-eff ects that infl uence the understanding of students of preschool pedagogy when they come in contact with educational practice at kindergartens:

Th e offi cial conception of preschool education has the character of a centrally •controlled curriculum. As neither signifi cant revision of this curriculum has taken place during the period of its existence, nor original theoretical cornerstones for the concept of children´s speech development have been discussed, this offi cial conception is entrenched in educational practice as the only existing alternative. It is expected that teachers will have not only a more relaxed and more critical attitude to this concept, but also the ability to harmonise teaching activities realised in-classroom with the goals and tasks defi ned in the offi cial curriculum. In accord with this, it is expected, given the professional education of kindergarten teachers, that on the basis of the mentor-trainee relationship, the trainee will acquire a detailed “manual“ for practical orientation in his/her profession and for its execution. On


the one hand, such an approach to the education of kindergarten teachers may decrease adaptation problems regarding the entry of the teacher to the education reality, but on the other hand it fi xates traditions in preschool education regardless of their professional relevance and it prevents teachers from creating a cognitive distance from educational practice that acts as the basis for refl ection. Within the framework of the beginnings of preschool education, special •terminology and the structuring of assignments into individual target spheres have established themselves in the offi cial curriculum and the practice of kindergartens, which does not correspond with current professional dis-course in all cases. As a good example of this, we mention the spheres of the development of phonemic awareness that appear in the offi cial curriculum under the term “play with words“ structured as the spheres of development of vocabulary and standard pronunciation and speech clarity, despite the fact that no linguistically relevant connection is associated. Th erefore, the introduction of students into professional discourse should take into account the fact that terminology used by the theory of literacy and the relations with which it operates do not correspond with currently used terms and the arrangement of the content and goals of preschool education into relevant spheres in the practice of kindergartens.

3. Practice based on the structured observation of educational reality Th e above-mentioned particularities regarding the professional discourse of

literacy theory and the concept of children´s speech development in kindergartens prove that these two approaches are based on diff erent theoretical foundations. Th erefore, they have diff erent priorities for the development of children´s speech, diff erent links and relations in the development of children´s speech and its sources regarding the acquisition of spoken and written forms of language. Th us, the theory of language literacy does not off er any ideas to enrich educational practice, but it represents an epistemologically diff erent approach to mastering speech and language competences of children. Th erefore, the concept of a university course focused on this sphere should take into account the fact that it cannot simply respond (from the point of view of literacy) to the limits of educational practice and use current practical terms and explanatory schemes. Th e process of distinguishing the explanatory schemes of literacy theory and educational practice during “ theo-retical” discussions and discussions about educational practice off ers conditions for the acquisition of formal, declarative knowledge by students, and thus it reinforces the idea that in fact, theory and practice do not relate to each other.


Th at is why the particularities between the formation of educatioal practice from the point of view of the theory of literacy and the offi cial concept of educa-tional practice are not available based on a simple comparison, but they require the knowledge of the critical moments of professional discussions that lead to diff erent priorities for the development of the individual´s language and speech competences.

On the other hand, pedagogy is bound to educational practice whose real shape cannot be ignored in the case when the discrepancy between theory and practice seems to be enormous. Th e conceptual implementation of pedagogical practice into the organisational structure of university courses may adequately respond to educational practice in kindergartens as well as relevant theoretical relations under the condition that it sets the level of the course optimally. Certainly, this reduction will not result in a loss of key connections that are important with regard to professional discourse.

Th e adaptation of the course concept to the conditions of educational practice does not mean its subordination to the state of educational practice. It relates to looking for a suitable use of pedagogical practice within the concept of the course in such a manner that it will facilitate the students´ orientation in the conceptual and explanatory categories of literacy theory and will off er some space for argu-mentation supported by the rhetoric of professional discourse. Th e implementation of teaching practice into the organisational structure of the course, will, among other things, document that theoretical relations regarding the development of language competence are not only some compulsory content that every student must master in accordance with requirements for relevant education, but fi rst and foremost it is a tool that in its general form will allow one to describe, evaluate and adapt the educational practice to the concrete goals of the teacher. Th is theoretical cognition will allow students to select among events that occur in everyday life of kindergartens and are signifi cant for the development of language literacy, and to operate with them at the conceptual level as well as to evaluate their eff ectiveness. On the other hand, the fact that the acquisition of theoretical knowledge is realised on the basis of real activities during everyday practice of kindergartens, it is less demanding for students, compared to “pure” theoretical knowledge. Th is contact with practice will facilitate the understanding of issues without any reduction of the intellectual level of their studies. However, the introduction into the theory of language competence development as a tool to refl ect everyday educational practice has another consequence: it eliminates incorrect understanding of refl ec-tion as a space for stating one´s own subjective opinion or attitude that is valuable regardless of its professional relevance. Th us, the links between theory and practice


will also facilitate the understanding of fundamental principles for the creation and mastering of scientifi c knowledge.

Of course, the links between professional discourse and educational practice may have various forms of realisation. First of all, it is necessary to ensure that the course progress will be continuously and directly connected with regular visits in kindergartens (thus, the practice will not be an independent study unit in addition to lectures and seminars, it will “only “ be the third organizational element of course). At the same time, it is necessary to create adequate methodological tools to ensure purposive analytic contact of the student with practice. As the applied form of language literacy in preschool education under domestic conditions is signifi cantly diff usive and the precise and detailed defi nition of areas with regard to which kindergarten should be involved lacks the design of courses focused on the possibilities of the development of language literacy in kindergartens represents a good choice for the structured observation of educational practice. Th erefore, when conceiving such a course, one should focus on the system of categories suitable for the analysis of educational practice that will include all the professionally relevant dimensions for the development of language literacy in preschool education covering both current and traditional spheres of children´s speech development included in the national curriculum of preschool education.

4. Delimitation of spheres for the development of language literacy for children in kindergartens When conceiving educational practice, the fi rst step will be the defi nition of such

spheres of experience, knowledge and abilities that are signifi cant for the forma-tion of language literacy in preschool education and their transformation into the observable spheres of preschool education. As initial sources for this purpose, we consider the publications of Marilyn J. Adams (1990) and Anne van Kleeck (1998) to be very useful. Th ey organize the spheres of language literacy in four basic domains: contextual, semantic, phonological and orthographical processors. Th is concept of language literacy domains off ers students a more complex insight into the issue of language literacy and it demonstrates the spheres that can be taken into account when developing the language literacy of the individual. Th ese spheres cover general experience, knowledge and competences that children need with regard to the surrounding social reality: information about the world, experience with the formal structure of narrative genres in spoken and written forms, relations between objects and events that allow them to take an evaluating attitude, the vocabulary related to the various spheres of human cognition, knowledge regarding print, letters and phonological awareness.


Th ese spheres of language literacy development should be arranged into a mean-ingful system in such a manner that they will demonstrate mutual, professionally relevant relations and links between them. Furthermore, it is also necessary to include target spheres for children´s speech development, defi ned in the offi cial preschool curriculum, and to take into account the developmental currency and association of these spheres, together with the diff erentiation of

activities relating to the spoken and written forms of language, •activities that develop the ability to use speech adequately in a situation and •activities developing the child’s knowledge about language, activities relating to the forms of spoken and written language as well as to •its importance.

Th e fi nal product, the categories of structural observation in kindergartens in the sphere of language literacy development will then consist of subcategories poten-tially developed or developable in kindergartens: i.e. the spoken form of language, writing system and writing and textual and written culture (cf. Enclosure 1).

Th e categories of the structured observation of language literacy development in kindergartens are comprised by:

the spoken form of language – comprising the domains of language literacy 1. related to phonetic-phonological, morpheme-syntactic, pragmatic (worked out in more details according to Massey, 2004) and lexical-semantic levels of language; and, at the same time, the activities developing the usage of language and its explicit cognition are diff erentiated (if relevant for the preschool age) .writing system and written speech – the domains of language literacy are 2. organised into subcategories related to the training of graphomotoric skills, the knowledge of graphemes ( the knowledge of links between grapheme and phoneme), pre-conventional and conventional written expressions of children.text and written culture – the domains of language literacy are organised into 3. subcategories relating to the conventions of print; i.e. the concrete direction orientation of text, the conventions of text segmentation, the concept of print (worked out in more details according to Clay, 1993), book conventions, the genres of texts for children, activities supporting the understanding of texts before, during and aft er reading/ telling a story, strategies of pre-conventional reading by children and conventional reading.

Th e use of these categories for structured observation as the basis of the analysis of children´s language literacy development has several advantages:


the categories of structured observation reveal the relations between the •domains of language literacy, and during the analysis of educational activities, the student may register the position of activity in the sphere of language literacy (at the lowest level of categorisation) and at the same time, the posi-tion of such an activity in the domains of language literacy as a whole,as the categories of language literacy domains consist of the spheres that •are relevant from the point of view of literacy theory as well as those which are traditionally present in curriculum for kindergartens, the concept of categories indicates which of the types of activities are present in educational practice, which of them are absent, what relations are between them, what represents a good starting point for discussion regarding what infl uenced their presence or absence, and what are potential consequences for the development of children´s language literacy, the analysis of educational activities through the categorisation sheet will •facilitate the acquisition of specifi c professional terminology associated with this sphere, and the replacement of unsuitable terms used in educational practice with professionally relevant terms (e.g. “plays with words” to “the training of phonemic awareness“). Th e organisation of the domains of lan-guage literacy into categories, the demonstration of the types of activities that may ensure the development of the relevant sphere, and the explanation of intersections and diff erences in the meaning of the terms that are used with regard to theses spheres strengthen the student’s understanding.

3.2. Analysis and theorising of observed activities. Th e analysis itself is infl u-enced by the variability of activities that students observe in kindergartens and it is organised in such a manner that discussions during seminars will result in the explanation of individual activities signifi cance for the development of language literacy. Th is analysis is made under the supervision of the teacher who asks assisting questions related to a given sphere. Th ese assisting questions will help students to identify which of the characteristics of a situation are signifi cant for the identifi cation of the sphere whose development the activity relates to. Th us, students are guided to be able to:

identify the domain of the development of language literacy to which the 1. observed activity relates and where the categories of structured observation serve as a medium and to explain which of the characteristics of the situation enable this attribution,


discuss the psychological connections of language literacy development in 2. its individual domains and to decide whether they are present during the execution of the observed activity and in which form, evaluate the potential of the observed activity for the development of lan-3. guage literacy from the point of view of the theory of language literacy in general and its relevance from the point of view of the current and prospec-tive development of the child, .

With regard to wider prospects of discussions about the possibilities of realisation and the signifi cance of refl ective practice in the university education of teachers, the dominant focus on the development of the student’s abilities to recognise basic dimensions and categories for the development of pupils’ cognition and experi-ence related to a concrete content sphere of education are not comprehensive. Th e realisation of refl ective practice must also extend beyond the area of concrete teaching planning and the evaluation of its eff ects in order to enable the teacher to choose diagnostic means, the content of teaching, educational means and evalua-tion tools with regard to the possibilities of the development of children’s language literacy purposively. However, the focus on the identifi cation of language literacy individual dimensions and categories relates to the current need to defi ne or re-conceptualise the categories related to the issue of the development of language literacy in kindergartens. First of all, the aforementioned emphasis is a response to identifi ed discrepancies between professional discourse in the fi eld of language literacy theory and the discourse of everyday practice in kindergartens, and it should help to establish the issue of language literacy in the professional discourse of teachers as a topic with many branching target domains, developmental associa-tions and potentials for the formation of language and meta-language cognition, competences and experience of preschool age children.

Conclusion

Th e university education of teachers uses a diff erent lens for the perception of the relation between the theoretical and practical content of student preparation. Th e issue of the quantitative proportions between the practical acquisition of the profession and the theoretical studies of pedagogical texts is no longer signifi cant. Today, we should ask the question how the reality of practice is transformed into conceptual, meaningful and theoretical thinking.

It is this lens that transforms the attitude to teaching practice, either with regard to the contextual item of studies or with regard to the source of cognition specifi -


cally, as practice as a source of cognition acts as a key to how practice should be perceived in other relevant relations. Teaching practice cannot be organisationally or contextually perceived as a relatively independent element of curriculum. If theory and theorising represent the conceptualisation of practice, then practice can “only” represent one source of cognition meaningfully, and it is a direct constituent of cognition. As cognition is always considered as a particular theoretical (scientifi c) fi eld, practice is the organisational constituent of these spheres and corresponding university courses. Th e inclusion of “practice” as an organisation unit into current (theoretical) university courses attributes not only a diff erent function to it during studies, but at the same time, it represents a natural bridging and anchoring of the theoretical cognition itself, a tool for the validation of this cognition, a tool for the methodological homogenisation of university studies content.

Based on the aforementioned example of how practice directly enters basic theoretical courses, it is clear that each of the courses requires a special methodo-logical preparation, more profound conceptual and methodological detailing, and specifi cally the necessity to become accustomed to the fact that practice changes its function and targets. If the model of university studies in its essence increases the intellectual level of formation, it is a function of practice to be one of the causes of such a formation without any primary relation to the eff orts to acquire practical tricks and behavioural pedagogical skills.

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Englert, C.S. , Mariage, T.V. (1996). A Sociocultural Perspective: Teaching Ways-of-Th inking and Ways-of-Talking in a Literacy Community. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 11(3), pp. 157–167.

Gee, J.P. 2000. Discourse and Sociocultural Studies in Reading. In: M.L. Kamil et al (eds.): Handbook of Reading Research (pp. 195–205): Vol. III. Newark: International Reading Association.

Hruby, G.G. (2001). Sociological, Postmoderm and New realism Perspectives in Social Constructionism: Implications for Literacy Research. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(1), pp. 48–62.


Kasáčová, B. (2001). Stávanie sa učiteľom ako process zmeny aj jeho refl exia. In: B. Lazarová (ed.), Vzdělávat učitele. Příspěvky o inovativní praxi, pp. 36–45. Brno, Paido.

Kasáčová, B. (2005). Refl exívna výučba a refl exia v učiteľskej príprave. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.

Massey, S.L. (2004). Teacher-Child Conversation in the Preschool Classroom. Early Childhood Education Journal, 31(1), pp. 227–231.

Petrová, Z. (2007). Rozvíjanie jazykovej gramotnosti detí v MŠ: Poznanie a presvedčenia učiteliek v MŠ a ich zdroj v ofi ciálnom kurikule pre predškolskú výchovu. In: O. Kaščák a K. Žoldošová (eds.): Námety na reformu počiatočného vzdelávania. Bratislava: Renesans pre PdF TU a ŠPÚ, pp. 73–96.

Program výchovy a vzdelávania detí v materských školách (1999). Bratislava: MŠ SR.

Ravid, D., Tolchinsky, L. (2002). Developing Linguistic Literacy: A Comprehensive Model. Journal of Child Language, 29(2).

Schön, D. (1983). Th e Refl ective Practitioner. New York: Basic Books. Slavík, J., Čapková, D. (1994). Refl exe učitelské profese. Pedagogika, 44(4), pp.

377–387.Švec, V., Musil, R. (2003). Vliv pedagogických intervencí na změnu studentova

pojetí výuky. Pedagogiká orientace, 2, pp. 61–82. van Kleeck, A. (1998). Preliteracy Domains and Stages: Laying the Foundations

for Beginning Reading. Journal of Childhood Communication Development, 20 (1), pp. 33–51.

Zápotočná, O. (2001). Rozvoj počiatočnej literárnej gramotnosti. In: Z. Kolláriková a B. Pupala (eds.): Predškolská a elementárna pedagogika. Praha: Portál, pp. 271–306.

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Apendix I: Categories for structured observation of activities for language literacy development at preschool

I. O

RAL

LAN

GUA

GE

1.1 Phonology and Phonetics

1.1.1 Training the correctness of children’s articulation

1.1.2 Developing pho-nological processes

1.1.2.1 Production of rhymes and alliterations1.1.2.2 Segmentation of words into syllables 1.1.2.3 Phonemic segmentation1.1.2.4 Phoneme manipulation task1.1.2.5 Diff erentiating word form from word meaning

1.2 Morphol-ogy and Syntax

1.2.1 Correction or training child’s speech in using standard form of language (not the vernacular language forms)1.2.2 Correction or training correct infl ections in child’s speech 1.2.3 Extending the use of diff erent word classes in child’s speech 1.2.4 Correction or training the word order in child’s speech

1.3 Pragmatics

1.3.1 Communication conventions

1.3.1.1 Listening (while other person speaks to child)1.3.1.2 Speaking (responding, following the topic of conversation) 1.3.1.3 One directional communication (teacher’s explanation)

1.3.2 Strategies of com-munication (based on diff erent levels of cogni-tive complexity)

1.3.2.1 Labelling or locating objects, events and characters 1.3.2.2 Selective analysis and integration of perception 1.3.2.3 Reordering or inferring about percep-tion1.3.2.4 Reasoning about perception

1.4 Semantics and metalin-guistics

1.4.1 Vocabulary devel-opment

1.4.1.1 Learning vocabulary unique to written culture and reading (metalinguistic terms)1.4.1.2 Learning vocabulary not related to written culture and reading (other terms)

1.4.2 Diff erentiating the vocabulary based on meaning and form


II.

WRI

TTEN

LA

NG

UAG

E A

ND

W

RITI

NG

2.1 Preparing children for learning correct forms of letters; training of fi ne motor skills

2.2 Learning the relation be-tween phonemes and letters

2.2.1 Learning the names of letters2.2.2 Learning the shapes of letters

2.3 Non-conventional writings of children 2.4 Conventional writing

III.

TEXT

AN

D W

RITT

EN C

ULT

URE

3.1 Print conventions

3.1.1 Forms of written language (newsletters, magazines, books)3.1.2 Conventions of text segmentation (chapter, indentation, sentence, etc.)3.1.3 Print directionality3.1.4 Book conventions

3.2 Genres of literature for children

3.2.1 Fairy tales3.2.2 Fables3.2.3 Stories for children 3.2.4 Educational literature for children (encyclopaedias, dic-tionaries, etc.)3.2.5 Interactive text media3.2.6 Rhymes for children 3.2.7 Riddles3.2.8 Comics3.2.9 Literary-dramatic genres (TV, radio and theatre dramati-sations) 3.2.10 Other (e.g. Pop up books)

3.3. Increasing compre-hension of the story

3.3.1 Activities before reading/story telling

3.3.1.1 Introducing the topic of the book or the story

3.3.2 Activities dur-ing reading/story telling

3.3.2.1 Voice modulation aimed to point out important story events 3.3.2.2 Interrupting the story telling or reading and summarising the antecedent story events3.3.2.3 Interrupting the story telling or reading and asking questions to check the comprehension of children 3.3.2.4 Interrupting the story telling or reading and asking for predictions of future events


III.

TEXT

AN

D W

RITT

EN…

(con

t.)

3.3. Increasing compre-hension … (cont.)

3.3.3 Activities aft er reading/story telling

3.3.3.1 Free conversation about the story 3.3.3.2 Summarising the important story events 3.3.3.3 Retelling the story events 3.3.3.4 Dramatisation of story events 3.3.3.5 Materialisation of story events or characters through painting, creating one’s own book, etc.

3.4 Strategies of pre-conventional reading (based on pictures of books, identifi cation of memorised words or letters, etc.)3.5 Conventional reading

Technology of Education

Modelling of ICT Literacy and Its Evaluation Among Principals and Staff in Educational Organizations

Abstract:

Th e research goal is “Modelling of ICT Literacy and Its Evaluation Among Principals and Staff in Educational Organizations”. Its method was a survey and to study particular goals of the research, two tools, a questionnaire and an interview, were used to compare and evaluate ICT literacy. For analyzing the description and inferences statistics, chi-square tests were used by exploiting two-dimensional tables. A deductive analysis of the data shows that there is a meaningful diff erence between ICT literacy of principals and staff . Th e general result of the research showed that ICT literacy of staff in all factors was higher and greater than that of principals.

Keywords: ICT literacy; adult learning; development of organization; human resource learning; ICT literacy model.

1. Introduction

Information and communication technology (ICT) has been accepted as part of the contemporary world especially in industrialized societies. In fact, cultures and societies have adjusted to meeting the challenges of the knowledge age. So, the pervasiveness of ICT has brought about rapid changes in technology, social, political, and global economic transformation. However, the fi eld of educational organization has not been unaff ected by the penetrating infl uence of information and communication technology. Unquestionably, ICT has impacted on the quality and quantity of instruction, learning, and research in staff education. Th erefore, ICT

Saeid MoradiIran

218 Saeid Moradi

provides opportunities for principals and staff to communicate more eff ectively with one another during formal and informal instruction and learning (Yusuf, 2005). Principals need training not only in computer literacy but also in the application of various kinds of educational soft ware in learning (Ololube, 2006). Furthermore, they need to learn how to integrate ICT into their organizational activities and organization structure. Th e quality of principals is acknowledged in virtually all countries as a key predictor of staff learning (Ololube, 2005a; 2005b). Th erefore, principal training is crucial using ICT, because ICT is a tool that, on the one hand, can facilitate principal training and, on the other hand, help to take full advan-tage of the potential of technology to enhance staff learning (UNESCO, 2003). Correspondingly, ICT has introduced a new era in traditional methods of learning and off ered new instruction and learning experiences to both principals and staff . Hence, educational organizations should take advantage of this capability to provide easy access to information, since technologies enable the visualization of educational materials in an innovative and realistic manner (UNESCO, 2002). Th erefore, this research tried to develop this technology between principals and staff by providing a suitable model of ICT literacy skills. Also, this research was done aft er principals’ and staff s’ knowledge development about information and communication technol-ogy. Th us, the main goals of this research are the following:

Determination and evaluation of principals’ and staff s’ literacy educational 1. organizations for accessing information (collecting and/or retrieving data). Determination and evaluation of principals’ and staff s’ literacy educational 2. organizations for information management (information application and classifi cation). Determination and evaluation of principals’ and staff s’ literacy educational 3. organizations for incorporating and integrating information (interpretation, information representation, and summation and information exchange). Determination and evaluation of principals’ and staff s’ literacy educational 4. organizations for the evaluation of information (judgment about the quality and effi ciency of information). Determination and evaluation of principals’ and staff s’ literacy educational 5. organizations for producing information (designing, innovating and creating information).

219Modelling of ICT Literacy and Its Evaluation Among Principals…

2. Background

Based on the performed studies in Singapore that related to the processes that staff applied for data accessing and using information to perform their responsibili-ties, this research showed that ICT literacy is not a regular and systematic process, but a personal and innovative process and it is not identical for all people, so it should be fl exible, innovative and reactive. Based on the study, eight inspec-tors from diff erent companies were interviewed for their inspection tasks. Th is interview showed that people have diff erent manners of information acquisition in the workplace, which is not systematic. ICT literacy in the workplace is useful and eff ective if it is innovative, dynamic and based on critical thinking and cooperation. Th e information acquisition manner should be integrated in all complex thinking processes and people should develop their information acquisition behaviours. ICT literacy is developed in the workplace when companies pay attention to promoting good communication, participation in the information acquisition, and technology as a tool not an aim and staff fl exibility (Cheuk, 2000).

Correspondingly, in her recent article in Change magazine, Patricia Senn Breivik, an acknowledged author dealing with information literacy, argues that even with a wealth of information available to them, today’s graduates are not more adept at information skills or more informed than their less information-rich predecessors: “What is growing ever more obvious is that today’s undergraduates are generally far less prepared to do research than were students of earlier generations, despite their familiarity with powerful new information-gathering tools” (Breivik, 2005).

One study was conducted in 1998 for determining principals’ special needs from staff ’s preparation point of view for the eff ective use of information and participation in facilitating information resource-based learning in New Zealand. Th e results showed that although training information and communication tech-nology literacy skills in educational organizations is necessary, it is not appropri-ately included in curriculum, and even though trainers value ICT literacy skills, they do not have enough knowledge about it and ICT literacy is not supported in educational organizations. Studies show that although in the present policies ICT literacy instruction is necessary in educational institutions, its execution is very diffi cult without appropriate programs for principals and staff professional progress and collaborating with other people like organization librarians (Moore, 2000).

In the study, Yangen and et al. (2003) presented a case study in educational organi-zations of Hong Kong in an article “Th e eff ect and role of information technology” to show how economic and social changes and information and communication technology pressure aff ect Hong Kong educational institutions and their staff daily

220 Saeid Moradi

practice. Th ey found that staff and principals should be familiar with ICT applica-tion and development in organizations. Th ey emphasized the necessity of further research and studies to prove successful eff ects of information technology educa-tional programs on principals, pupils, graduates and staff professional promotion in Hong Kong. Also, the study “Investigating desirable pattern of principals’ computer literacy in Iran’s schools” was conducted by Fathian and Noroozy (2004) in science and industry university. Th ey tried to investigate the results of principals’ polling to suggest a suitable pattern for information technology skills training and principals’ computer literacy in schools. Th erefore, they fi rst investigated the computer literacy position in education, especially principals’ computer literacy in schools, and then the results were presented obtained from principals’ polling and fi eld research about skills that they had learnt and skills that they should learn. Th e results showed that principals are very poor at computer literacy and skills, so the ministry of education should resolve principals’ weakness in this fi eld.

One electronic measurement was conducted in 2001 for evaluating the rate of ICT literacy organizational support and its current activities in southern Africa and 26 academic institutions in this country had formed the research population. Th e results of this measurement showed that only one institution emphasized the importance of life-long learning and some evidence was obtained based on the existence of organizational strategic programs for incorporating ICT literacy in curriculums. In most institutions, libraries in diff erent forms of courses presented information skills for students and many attempts were made at incorporating these instructions in curriculums. Th e evaluation of the obtained results of ICT literacy education was considered signifi cant. Nowadays academic organizations of southern Africa found out that information and communication literacy education should be incorporated in the curriculum to obtain the best results and in this case, common experience and executing the best measurement would be necessary (Nassimbeni & Dejager, 2002).

3. Defi nition and the model of ICT literacy

Discussions about information and communication technology literacy should start with the concept of information literacy. Th e term “information literacy” was coined in the 1970s by library and information professionals; librarians read-ily chose “information literacy” over “library literacy”. With the emergence of information technologies in the 1980s, it became an acceptable education term. American libraries association defi nes ICT literacy as follows: the individual should


recognize necessary information and have an ability to evaluate information and use it (American libraries association, 1989). Also, information literacy consists of many skills related to directing and seeking information and communication. Th us, ICT literacy is part of the specialization of information literacy that concentrates on information merit explanation via technology (Diane Lee, 2002). ICT literacy contains information like storage, regulation, publishing and other outstanding changes in recent years. So, we should defi ne literacy within the changes that contain recent knowledge and skills related to the contemporary world. Th erefore ICT literacy consists of the ability to use technology tools like: information and communication search and sorting and access to the digitalized context and using data (ETS, 2002). Moreover, ICT literacy includes using digital technology, communicative tools and access to communicative and informative networks, information management, data incorporation and integration, data evaluation and creation for accessing the cognitive function in society. In this defi nition, fi ve components of ICT literacy are distinguished. In these fi ve parts, a set of skills and knowledge is represented that has an increased cognitive complexity. Th ese fi ve components are the following:

Data accessing: knowing how to collect and retrieve data. 1. Data management: applying an existing organizational or classifi cation 2. scheme. Data integration: interpreting and representing information. It involves 3. summarizing, comparing and contrasting. Data evaluation: making judgments about the quality, relevance, usefulness, 4. or effi ciency of information. Data creation: data production by data invention, establishment and design 5. in digital environment.

Table 1: Th e model of ICT literacy in the 21st century.

Skills ExplanationAccess Collecting and/or retrieving information in digital environmentsManage Using ICT tools to apply an existing organizational or classifi cation scheme for in-

formationIntegrate Interpreting and representing information, such as using ICT tools to synthesize,

summarize, compare and contrast information from multiple sourcesEvaluate Judging the degree to which information satisfi es the needs of the task in ICT envi-

ronments, including determining authority, bias and timeliness of materialsCreate Adapting, applying, designing or inventing information in ICT environments

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4. Research Method

4.1. Statistic population, sample and sampling method Data collection in this research is limited to factors that aff ect the educational

institutions of Mazandaran, a province of Iran, which consist of principals and staff (male and female) in the year 2006–2007. In this research sampling was done at two stages. Stage one was performed via randomized sampling and at stage two Kergsy and Morgan tables were used for selecting the statistical sample. Th e principals statistic sample contained 367 people out of whom 152 were female (41.4%) and 215 were male (58.6%). Among the 367 principals, 5 (1.4%) had a diploma, 33 (8.9%) had a supreme diploma, and 188 (51.2%) had a graduate degree. 134 of them (36.6%) had a Master of Arts and above. 7 people (1.9%) did not specify their degree. Also, 179 principals (48.8%) out of 367 had a record of service longer than 15 years. Th e shortest record of service was 5 years, which 11 principals had (3%). 38 principals (10.4%) had a 5 – to 10-year record of service. 122 principals (33.2%) had a 10–15-year record of service. 17 principals (4.6%) did not specify their record of service. Among the 367 principals, 65 (17.8%) were 20 to 30 years old and 204 (55.5%) were 30–40 years old and 98 principals (26.7%) were over 40 years old. Th e staff statistic sample consisted of 384 people out of whom 216 were female (56.2%) and 168 (43.8%) male. Among them 22 people (5.8%) had a diploma, 74 (19.3%) had a supreme diploma, and 239 (62.2%) had a graduate degree. 43 persons (11.2%) had a Master of Arts and above. 6 people (1.5%) did not specify their degree. Also, 103 staff (26.8%) out of 384 had a record of service longer than 15 years. Th e shortest record of service was 5 years and 36 staff had it (9.4%). 85 staff (22.1%) had a 5 to 10-year record of service. 144 staff (37.5%) had a 10–15 year record of service. 16 staff (4.2%) did not show their record of services. Also, from 384 staff , 65 persons (17%) were 20 to 30 years old and 214 people (55.7%) were 30–40 years old and 105 staff (27.3%) were over 40 years old.

4.2. Research procedure and data measurement tools A questionnaire and an interview were used in this research for data collection.

Th e questionnaire was provided for data collection by diff erent studies, and then it was distributed among the samples of principals and staff . Th en, each subject was asked to explain his/her answers to assure his/her answer correctness. So it was a kind of interview and then the questionnaires were collected and analyzed. Th e questionnaire consisted of 3 parts. Part one was an introduction on how to answer the questions. Part two related to personal information that consists of such data as gender, academic qualifi cations, age and record of service. Part three was related


to questionnaire questions regulated as two-option answers (Yes-No). Th erefore, the self-constructed questionnaire was the main tool for data measurement and collection and had 27 questions. Questions 1–6 related to aim 1 of the research; questions 7–14 related to aim 2 of the research and 15–19 related to aim 3 of the research, questions 20–23 related to aim 4 of the research and questions 24–27 related to aim 5 of the research.

A pretest method was used for removing the questionnaires’ defects and ambiguities. Before the questionnaires’ fi nal adjustment and replication, two ICT experts were asked to study the questionnaire to comment on question fi t with the research objectives. Th eir comments were collected and the questions accepted by them were selected. Th en the questionnaire was tested among 75 people that were 10% of the sample population of the principals and staff . Also, their comments on the questionnaires were collected. Th en at the fi nal stage of complete acceptance, it was executed on all subjects from the research population.

For determining the questionnaire reliability by SPSS soft ware, Cronbach Alpha was obtained for the skill level measurement options. Th e result was satisfactory. Cronbach Alpha was more than 75% for the skill level measurement concepts that was acceptable and showed that these questions measured more than 95% variance of the related variable. Table 2 shows the rate of Cronbach Alpha for the research objectives.

Table 2: Th e rate of Cronbach Alpha of research question.

Th e concepts of skill level measurement concepts Th e number of questions Alfa rate

Th e skill of data retrieval 6 0/79Th e skill of data use and classifi cation 8 0/81Th e skill of data representation and interpretation 5 0/77Th e skill of data utility and quality judgment 4 0/78Th e skill of data design and creation 4 0/82

4.3. Data analysis Descriptive statistics were used for data analysis that was the respondents’ fre-

quency and percentage distribution tables and two dimensional tables and then deductive statistics (Chi-square test) were used, because the research variables were measured in nominal level measurement, Chi-square test is the most appropriate test for these data and 2×2 tables.

224 Saeid Moradi

5. Results

In this section, all the research objectives in the sample population and results and fi ndings obtained from skill measurement in LCT literacy among the principals and staff are investigated for data analysis by using the indicators of descriptive and deductive statistics.

5.1. The evaluation of principals’ and staff ’s competences based on the level of skills in data retrieval Th e results obtained from the evaluation of the principals’ and staff s’ compe-

tences based on the skill level of data retrieval show that out of the 751 respondents, 528 (70.3%) had skills and 223 (29.7%) were not skillful. Th erefore, 211 principals (40%) and 317 staff (60%) had skills in data retrieval. But 139 principals (62.3%) and 84 staff (37.7%) were not skillful.

For diff erence evaluation of skill level among the principals and staff in data retrieval, Chi-square meaningful test was used, whose results are shown in Table 3. Based on this table, we can say that in freedom degree of 1 and confi dence distance of 99.9, there is a meaningful diff erence between the skill level of the principals and staff in data retrieval.

Table 3: Chi-square Tests for meaningfulness of the fi rst goal

Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Exact Sig. (2-sided)


Pearson Chi-Square 30.299 1 .000Continuity Correction(a) 29.442 1 .000Likelihood Ratio 30.540 1 .000Fisher’s Exact Test .000 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 30.259 1 .000N of Valid Cases 751

5.2. The evaluation of principals’ and staff ’s literacy based on skill level in data application and classifi cation Th e results obtained from the evaluation of the principals and staff s’ compe-

tences based on the skill level of data application and classifi cation show that out of the 751 respondents 498 (66.3%) had skills and 253 (33.7%) were not skillful. Th erefore, 187 principals (37.6) and 311 staff (62.4%) were skillful in data applica-


tion and classifi cation. But, 161 principals (63.6%) and 92 staff (36.4%) were not skillful in this area.

For diff erence evaluation of the skill level of the principals and staff for data application and classifi cation, Chi-square test was used, whose results are shown in Table 4. Based on this test, there is a meaningful diff erence between the skill level of the principals and staff in confi dence distance of 99.9. On the other hand, the skill level of the principals and staff is diff erent in this area.

Table 4: Chi-square Tests fore meaningfulness of the second goal

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)



Pearson Chi-Square 34.001(b) 1 .000 Continuity Correction(a) 33.108 1 .000 Likelihood Ratio 34.284 1 .000 Linear-by-Linear Association 33.956 1 .000 N of Valid Cases 751

A Computed only for a 2x2 tableB 0 cells (.0%) have expected counts under 5. Th e minimum expected count is 123.14.

5.3. The evaluation of principals’ and staff s’ competences based on the level of skills in data interpretation and representation Th e results obtained from the evaluation of the principals’ and staff ’s compe-

tences based on the skill levels of data interpretation and representation show that out of the 751 respondents 388 (51.6%) had skills and 363 (48.3%) were not

Table 5: Chi-square test for meaningfulness of the third goal of the research

Value Df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)



Pearson Chi-Square 43.069(b) 1 .000Continuity Correction(a) 42.119 1 .000Likelihood Ratio 43.478 1 .000Linear-by-Linear Association 43.012 1 .000N of Valid Cases 751

A Computed only for a 2x2 tableB 0 cells (.0%) have expected counts under 5. Th e minimum expected count is 178.89

226 Saeid Moradi

skillful. Th erefore, 143 principals (36.9%) and 254 staff (63.1%) were skillful in data representation and interpretation. But 221 principals (60.9%) and 142 staff (39.1%) were not skillful in this area.

For diff erence evaluation of skill level between the principals and staff for data interpretation and classifi cation, Chi-square test was used. Th is test showed that there is a meaningful diff erence between the skill level of the principals and staff in confi dence distance of 99.9 in data interpretation and representation, shown in Table 5.

5.4. The evaluation of principals’ and staff ’s competences based on data quality and utility judgment Th e results obtained from the evaluation of the principals’ and staff ’s compe-

tences based on the skill level of data utility and quality judgment show that out of the 751 respondents 411 (54.7%) had skills and 340 (45.3%) were not skillful. Th erefore, 152 principals (37.0%) and 259 staff (63.0%) were skillful in data quality and utility judgment. But, 212 principals (62.4%) and 128 staff (37.6%) were not skilled in this area.

To evaluate the diff erence between the principals and staff , the skill level in data quality and utility judgment, Chi-square test was used, which showed that there is a meaningful diff erence between the principals’ and staff ’s level of skill in data quality and utility judgment in confi dence distance of 99.9 from the statistical point of view. Th is test is shown in Table 6.

Table 6: Chi-square test for meaningfulness of the fourth goal







5.5. The evaluation of principals’ and staff ’s competences based on the skill level of data designing and creation Th e obtained results from the evaluation of the principals’ and staff ’s compe-

tences based on the skill level of data designing and creation show that out of the 751 respondents 335 (44.6%) had skills and 416 (55.4%) were not skillful. Th erefore, 114 principals (34.0%) and 221 staff (66.0%) were skillful in data design-ing and creation. But, 247 principals (59.4) and 169 staff (40.6%) were not skilled in this area.

Chi-square test was used to evaluate the diff erence between the principals’ and staff ’s level of skill in data designing and creation. Th is test shows that there is a meaningful diff erence between the principals’ and staff ’s level of skill in data designing and creating in confi dence distance of 99.9. Th is test is shown in Table 7.

Table 7: Chi-square test for meaningfulness of the fi ft h goal






6. Discussion and conclusion

Th e presented research attempted to evaluate and compare ICT literacy between principals and staff of educational institutions, to provide a suitable model of ICT literacy skills to develop these literacy skills in organizations. Correspondingly, fi ve components were provided in this research to compare ICT literacy between principals and staff . Th ese fi ve components were set and analyzed as the main aims of this research. Th e results of this research are the following.

Goal one: Out of the 751 respondents, 528 (70.3%) stated that they were skilled in data retrieval. Th is rate was 40.0% among the principals and 60.0% among the

228 Saeid Moradi

staff , which shows that the staff s are more profi cient than the principals. Chi-square test shows this meaningful diff erence in confi dence distance of 99.9.

Goal two: Out of the 751 respondents, 498 (66.3%) were skilled in data applica-tion and classifi cation. Th is rate was 37.6% for the principals and 62.4% for the staff which shows a higher level of skill among the staff than among the principals. Chi square test shows this meaningful diff erence.

Goal three: Out of the 751 respondents, 388 (51.6%) were skillful in data inter-pretation and representation. Th is scale was 36.9% among the principals and 63.1% among the staff . Th at shows a higher level of skill among the staff than among the principals and chi-square test shows this meaningful diff erence.

Goal four: out of the 751 respondents 411 (54.7%) were skilled in data quality and utility judgment. Th is rate is 37% for the principals and 63% for the staff , which shows a higher level of skill among the staff than among the principals and Chi-square test shows this meaningful diff erence.

Goal fi ve: out of the 751 respondents, 355 (44.6%) were skilled in data designing and creation. Th is rate was 34% for the principals and 66% for the staff , which shows a higher level of skill among the staff than among the principals. Chi-square test shows a meaningful diff erence between the skill level of the principals and staff .

Th e main result of this research shows that the staff ’s ICT literacy is higher than the principals’. Th e principal is responsible for the instruction and learning process and transferring knowledge to staff and his/her lack of ICT literacy and skill is a lack of the main key of learning skill in the 21st century. As we have said, based on this research results, the principals have a lower level of skill in ICT, which shows a weakness of educational organizations in Iran. So, it is suggested that organizations should try to develop ICT literacy among principals. Th us, education offi cials should try to provide suitable approaches towards promoting principals’ ICT literacy to develop the training-learning process in organizations especially among principals and staff . In their studies Yangen et al. (2003) concluded that principals have a lower level of ICT skills. Th ey suggested that principals should be familiar with this technology to be successful in the learning-teaching process. Th e results of this research indicate this fact. Also, the research conducted by Fathian and Noroozy (2004) showed that principals are poor at computer literacy and skills. Th ey suggested that educational organization should try to remove this weakness. In the study by Tang and Ang (2002) the eff ects of communication in ICT literacy integration were studied. Th ey suggested that principals and staff should not be considered as training receivers but they should be considered as


participants in training and learning. Also, in another study, Larose et al. (1999) argue that regardless of the quality of the ICT equipment available to principals and staff in the educational environment and independently of the number of courses which they have taken during their undergraduate studies, the level of transfer of the acquired competences and learning to practice is very low. However, the major impact of instruction remains at the level of “private” use of these technologies and not in their integration into daily training and learning practices. Larose and colleagues further pointed out that many of the educated, no matter what their level of training, is have minimal computer literacy but do not use it in their pedagogy because of the fear that the rapidity of obsolescence of the hardware and soft ware will make their task more complex and interminable. In “Th e study of eff ective factors in using ICT” Hakimy (2004) concluded that principals were not prepared for using ICT . Principals’ necessary needs and services were limited, and they were not prepared for using computers and their soft ware and hardware. Additionally, principals’ responses to the questionnaire and the analysis of their data showed that using soft ware and hardware is a big problem for principals. Th is research shows the principals’ weakness in ICT literacy. In the research conducted by Rakes and Dowson (2003) it was shown that if principals of educational organizations have higher instruction in ICT literacy, they promote staff and organization in this area (ICT). Th ey suggested that without good and educated principals with skills in ICT literacy, it is impossible to execute ICT programs in organizations and integrate them with staff curricula. Th erefore, one should not hope to see staff development in ICT skills. Principals report in this study that they are not good at ICT and they cannot use ICT skills in their organizational programs.

Another fi nding of this study is the meaningful diff erence between the skill level of the principals and the staff in all the fi ve components of this research. To justify these fi ndings we can say that all these fi ve components are useful for helping principals and staff in the training-learning process. Considering these fi ndings, we can say that the knowledge of these fi ve components, data retrieval, data applica-tion and classifi cation, data representation and interpretation, data evaluation, data designing and creation and their correct application in organizational systems are eff ective in developing principals’ and staff ’s training-learning process and promote ICT in organizations. Th ese components are the main tools in the training-learning process in the 21st century. Th erefore, the present research attempts at helping principals and staff to be profi cient at ICT and preparing them to create a desirable training-learning process and promoting them in organizations. Also, some sug-gestions were presented about ICT skills with respect to the research results that

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were suitable approaches to developing ICT literacy in educational organizations. Th ese suggestions are as follows:

It is suggested that an ICT literacy conception should be developed like 6. general literacy in society, especially in educational organizations. Th e offi cials of educational institutions should support educational experts 7. and researchers that promote new political and social research into ICT literacy. Data obtained from research help politicians, educators and craft s-men to prepare a comprehensive program. Th e offi cials of educational organizations should prepare programs for 8. principals and staff to use ICT in curricula and diff erent scientifi c activities. Principals’ and staff s’ activities should be evaluated. It is suggested that national and global research and ICT educational research 9. should be done at diff erent levels in educational institutions. It is suggested that national and global standards for developing ICT literacy 10. should be compiled at diff erent levels especially between principals and staff . It is suggested that conditions should be prepared for all educational organi-11. zation members, especially teachers and students, to access the computer and the Internet and to use technology resources like LCT specialists and other scientifi c and data tools at a low cost. Also, by accessing computer soft ware and hardware and the Internet, learning and training should be developed in the future in organizations. Th e offi cials should evaluate ICT literacy based on global scales and evaluate 12. international ICT literacy of principals and staff .

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Dawson, C., & Rakes, G.C. (2003). Th e infl uence of principals’ technology training on the integration of technology into education. Journal of research on Technol-ogy in Education, 36, 29–49.


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Educational Policy

Policy and Evidence of Marketisation of Education in Singapore Schools

Abstract

Th e Singapore government introduced education policy initiatives under the Th inking Schools, Learning Nation vision in 1997 to promote greater diversity, autonomy and innovation amonsgt schools. Th e fi rst part of the paper provides a review of educational policies launched since 1997, and highlights how these reforms manifest salient features of marketing orientation in the Singapore educational system. Th e second part of the paper illustrates the marketisation of education through one recent nation-wide initiative – the niche area scheme. We argue that schools should instead identify parents’ and students’ needs, and then develop their ‘products’ based on competences.

Keywords: marketisation of education, educational marketing, diff erentiation, niche area scheme, and edcational reform.

Introduction

In the 1980s we witnessed the emergence of a remarkable phenomenon – the globalization of ‘markets’ through the convergence of cultures into a ‘commonal-ity’ of shared goals and values. As technology advances rapidly through intense communication, standardization and similar decision technology, world markets and cultures are drawn closer together (Levitt, 1983; Tse et al., 1988). Today, we continue to live in an epoch of rapid social change where capital, goods, technol-ogy, people, ideas, and information move inexorably across political borders and cultural boundaries (Green, 2007; Holton, 2000). Clearly, the advancement of

Jonathan W.P. Goh, Charlene H.P. TanSingapore

236 Jonathan W.P. Goh, Charlene H.P. Tan

human capital is paramount in many countries in the world. Convergent educa-tion reforms across countries include neo-liberal measures and the trend towards decentralisation and performativity in education (e.g. Green, 1999; Marginson, 1999; Angus, 2004; Steiner-Khamsi & Stolpe, 2004). Gopinathan (2007) notes that:

All reform proposals stress the need for greater attention to process, higher order thinking skills, better utilisation of technology in education, changes to assessment, greater devolution of power to principals, etc, in tandem, it must be said, in some developed economies, with moves towards greater central control over curriculum and pedagogy, more frequent assessment and on meeting specifi ed academic outcome targets (p. 56).

Th e Singapore government introduced education reforms under the banner of ‘Th inking Schools, Learning Nation’ (TSLN) in 1997. Neo-liberal education strate-gies are found in four main areas in Singapore’s education: critical and creative thinking, the use of information technology in education, citizenship education, and administrative excellence. Th ey serve to encourage greater fl exibility, choice and innovation in the educational programmes; and greater autonomy, and inter-school competition at the school level. Underpinning these neo-liberal educational strategies is the phenomenon of the ‘marketisation of education’. According to Tan (1998), the marketisation of education includes the following key features: the devolution of autonomy to individual school sites; increased competition among schools; the promotion of entrepreneurial activities among schools; and the involvement of schools in marketing activities. Th e proceeding section provides an explanation on how recent educational policies in Singapore manifest the salient features of the marketisation of education.

The “Marketisation of Education” in Singapore – An Overview

Th ere are three phases of educational reforms in Singapore, the fi rst phase being the ‘survival’ stage (1959–1978) when the aim was to produce trained and effi cient workers in the early years of Singapore’s independence and industrialisation. Up to 1955, Singapore was under the British colonial rule and was socially divided along ethnic and religious lines. Th e 1956 All-Party Report on Chinese Educa-tion advocated an education system that valued and propagated the cultures and languages of the major ethic groups. With self-government in 1959, the concern

237Policy and Evidence of Marketisation of Education in Singapore Schools

for social cohesion, together with the establishment of national identity, was of paramount importance. Th is was attempted through the introduction of a uniform curriculum and locally produced textbooks to give schools a common identity. In terms of moral education, a fi xed curriculum was adopted for all students with an emphasis on the history of Singapore. Th e aim was citizenship education where students were taught civic duties and secular ethics for them to be good citizens. When Singapore became a sovereign state in 1965, the educational system was further refi ned with the introduction of bilingualism in 1966. Technical educa-tion was also emphasised with the development of post-secondary technical and vocational education at the polytechnics to educate students for the workforce through linguistic and technical skills.

Th e ‘survival’ phase was followed by the ‘effi ciency’ stage (1979–1996) which fi ne-tuned the system in order to produce skilled workers for the economy in the most effi cient way. In other words, the government projected the manpower demands in various sectors of the economy and trained people to fi t into jobs in those sectors. Students were assessed primarily according to their level of languages and mathematics, and streamed into diff erent courses at primary and second-ary schools. Changing economic factors in the mid 1980s necessitated further educational changes during that decade. Th e recession in the mid 1980s aff ected Singapore and revealed that its labour force was under-educated compared to that in the US, Taiwan and Japan. In 1987, a number of policy initiatives to produce students who would be educated, creative and innovative was proposed in the Towards Excellence in Schools report. All students were encouraged to complete at least ten years of education in primary and secondary schools before they specialised in diff erent areas of study. Consistent with the view that higher abil-ity students study the arts and sciences, and weaker students choose vocational training, the government worked towards having 20% of the school cohort receive technical-vocational education at the Institute of Technical Education, 40% receive polytechnic education and another 20% university education. It is evident that political, economic and social considerations strongly infl uenced the development of education in Singapore. Sharpe and Gopinathan (2002) observe that:

Th e education system was used as a major vehicle in nation building, with the state acting as ‘strategic trader’ to align provision with the needs of the economy and social cohesion (p. 154).

More radical changes took place from 1997 on under the educational vision of TSLN. Th is vision aims to develop creative thinking skills, a lifelong passion for


learning and nationalistic commitment in the young. Th e former Prime Minister, Goh Chok Tong pointed out the need for Singapore schools to nurture thinking and for committed citizens to keep Singapore vibrant and successful in the age of globalisation. He explained that ‘thinking schools’ are ‘the crucibles for questioning and searching, within and outside the classroom, to forge this passion for learning among our young’ (Goh, 1997). Th is marks a signifi cant shift from the effi cient-driven paradigm to one that focused on ability-driven education (ADE). One of the major premises of the ability-driven paradigm was to nurture every child based on his or her talents and ability through mass customization (Shanmugaratnam, 2004; Teo, 2001 & 2002). Clearly, in a knowledge economy, students need to have a passion for learning, and not just study for the sake of getting good grades in their examinations. Admitting that this passion is generally lacking among students in Singapore, he cautioned that their knowledge would be fragile unless they had the desire and aptitude to continue discovering new knowledge aft er they graduate. Th is vision is driven by an educational paradigm known as an Ability-Driven Education which was offi cially introduced in 1999. Th is paradigm aims to identify and develop the talents and abilities of every child to the maximum, whether the talent is in the intellect, arts, sports, or community endeavours. Th rough such a paradigm, the Ministry of Education (MOE) hopes to inculcate in the students the conviction of being committed to the nation and contributing their talents for the good of society.

Th e education policy initiatives under the TSLN vision serve to promote greater diversity, autonomy and innovation at the school level. Clearly, the aims expressed in these initiatives are salient features of marketing orientation in the Singapore educational system:

Increased choice of schools at all levels • (i.e., primary to post-secondary)Wider choice of academic progression and assessment routes • (e.g., Integrated Programs, International Baccalaureate, GCE ‘A’ levels and GCE ‘O’ levels);Corporatization of schools • (e.g., Focus on service quality, and referring to parents and students as clients);Increased autonomy for schools • (e.g., Independent and autonomous schools);Increased competition amongst schools • (both in academia and in co-curricular activities);Increasing use of business models • (e.g., Singapore Quality Class award, Schools Excellence Model and People Developer awards);Increase in private sector schools • (e.g., increased demand for private tutoring, and commercial schools);


Promotion of innovation and entrepreneurial activities in schools. •Schools are encouraged to develop ‘niche areas’ to attract students as well as •funding from MOE;Industrial attachment programs for teachers in industries outside education •(e.g., in hotels, banks, commercial companies and government agencies).

Th ese initiatives promote greater autonomy of schools; the promotion of entrepreneurial activities among schools; increased inter-school competition; diff erent education progression routes; and the practice of marketing activities in schools. Greater autonomy is given to schools through the diversifi cation of the educational landscape in Singapore. Diversity is provided in the diff erent types of schools and programmes now available to students. For example, students may choose to attend schools that off er the Integrated Programme where they skip the General Certifi cate in Education (GCE) ‘O’ levels and head straight for the GCE ‘A’ levels or the International Baccalaureate diploma. Th e school curriculum, assess-ment and pedagogy have also changed to encourage higher-order thinking and student-centred learning. Information Technology has been used widely to develop students’ communication skills and habits of independent learning. Teachers are exalted to expand their repertoire of teaching and learning strategies under the ‘Teach Less, Learn More’ (TLLM) initiative so as to encourage their students to learn more actively and independently beyond the formal curriculum.

Students have more options to take subjects such as physical education, drama and computer studies at the GCE ‘O’ level examination in Singapore. Th e MOE has also adopted a more fl exible and diff erentiated approach to school and university admissions. Secondary students may also study hands-on electives such as game design, online entrepreneurship and electronic gizmo design, and use these grades for admission into a junior college or polytechnic. Shift ing away from a centrally controlled admission system, schools are now given more leeway in admitting their own students. It is believed that the increased fl exibility will enable schools to be more responsive to their strategic objectives and changes in market demand, compete for the best students, and move away from a fi xed formula of success.

To promote entrepreneurial activities among schools, the MOE has encouraged schools to move towards innovation. Th e government stated that greater autonomy will lead to “greater innovation and variety in the programmes off ered in our schools, especially our secondary schools: schools with strengths and emphases in diff erent fi elds, schools trying out new ideas in diff erent areas, all adding to the richness of our education system” (Teo 2000a). School principals are entrusted with the responsibility to manage their schools like companies, with their own vision statements and plans specifi c to the needs of their schools. A number of schools


have developed specialization areas based on their strengths and student interests. To cultivate an attitude of innovation through a system-wide approach, ‘Innovation and Enterprise’ (I&E) was launched in 2004. Th e I&E initiative aims to motivate schools in Singapore to experiment with new types of learning for their students. Th rough an annual MOE festival, outstanding I&E projects are show-cased among schools and members of the public for professional sharing and encouragement to the students.

Increased inter school competiton is evident in the School Achievement Tables which were introduced in 2004 to replace school ranking. Th e School Achieve-ment Tables band schools based on their academic results as well as highlight the school achievements in academic value-added and non-academic domains. Th ese results, together with the Masterplan of Awards, are made available to the public so as to guide the schools in their journey towards excellence and to help parents and students make decisions when selecting schools (MOE, 2006a). Schools in Singapore are still reliant on academic performance as a yardstick of success. Th is is in spite of the shift from ranking schools based on exact academic scores to banding schools with similar academic performance. Although the exact ranking positions of schools are no longer revealed under the banding system, schools are still assessed based on how high a band they are placed in. Th is means that schools still need to compete with one another to get into or remain in the desired band. While academic performance is no longer the main determinant of a school’s ranking, it remains a signifi cant indicator for a school to be favourably banded. Th e last feature of the marketisation of education – the practice of marketing activities in schools – is also palpable in schools in Singapore. A good example of the practice of marketing activities is the Niche Area Scheme introduced by the MOE in 2001. Th e next section will provide a discussion on the development of niche areas in Singapore schools.

Developing Niche Areas and Specialisations in Schools

Gone are the days when education is seen as public service to a homogene-ous group of parents and their children. Th is is because these parents and their children are becoming more sophisticated and expect more in relation to their educational experiences. As a result, diversity in off er may very well represent the key to a school’s success, future growth and possibly competitive advantage in the education industry. Likewise, schools are also infl uenced by the language of market economics in education, and have begun to adopt marketing practices. Accepting


the model of the ‘school as enterprise’, schools are actively “undertaking marketing and promotional activities in order to attract parents and potential students” (Tan 1998, p. 50; cf. also Barnes, 1993).

Acknowledging these challenges, the MOE continues to move Singapore’s educa-tion to a paradigm that is ability-driven. Th e changes and refi nements are generally focused on creating better opportunities and fl exibility in terms of school choice and admissions (Shanmugaratnam, 2005a). Th e Niche Area Scheme was introduced for autonomous Secondary schools in 2001. Autonomous Schools were established in 1994 to provide students with quality education within the framework of non-independent status but with greater autonomy entrusted to schools. Th is scheme encourages schools to develop niche areas to nurture the talents and abilities of their students. According to the MOE, these niche areas could be in sports, culture and the arts, or a subject area in the curriculum. It is hoped that once the scheme is fully implemented, it will provide variety and distinctiveness to our school system, and give students the opportunity to excel in areas where they have special talents or abilities (Teo, 2000b & c). In so doing, both primary and secondary schools can broaden their admission policies for students with special talent and ability in the school’s chosen niche. Schools awarded the niche-school status will receive generous grants from the MOE and have the discretion to admit up to 5 per cent of their intake to build up their niche.

In Singapore, the primary schools have also started to focus on distinct strengths in diverse areas such as new teaching approaches or pedagogies (e.g., human dynamics or infusing information technology into teaching and learning), aes-thetics (e.g., calligraphy or art), and character development (e.g., outdoor rugged activities). Th e schools awarded with additional funds from the MOE can employ additional staff or instructors, train teachers in the niche area, make minor infra-structural improvements to the school, or purchase relevant materials. In fact, 16 primary schools were recently awarded additional resources of up to $100,000 per year to develop their own special strengths under the Program for School-based excellence (PSE) (MOE, 2005a). In fact, a principal from Fuhua Primary school recently commented on how the school was unknown until recently, when the school chose information technology (IT) as their niche. Th e school enrolment increased from 210 to 330 last year and the school is oft en mentioned in ‘market talk’ (street talk) among housewives in the Jurong precinct (Davie, 2006). Upon graduation from primary schools, students with talents and interest in the niche areas can gain admission to secondary schools even though they may not have qualifi ed strictly based on their academic performance. Th e MOE approved 47 secondary schools to off er discretionary places in January 2007 under the Direct


School Admissions – Secondary (DSA-Sec) Exercise for schools with approved niche programs (MOE, 2006b). However, only up to 5 percent of the planned Secondary 1 (Year 8) intake of the school will be set aside for this purpose. Table 1 depicts a sample of ten primary and ten secondary schools with their chosen niche areas.

Table 1: 10 primary and 10 secondary schools with their approved niche areas

Levels Schools Niche Areas

Primary Schools

Admiralty PrimaryCHIJ St. NicholasFuhua PrimaryKong Hwa PrimaryNgee Ann Primary Rosyth PrimaryRulung PrimarySt. Stephen’s SchoolTao Nan PrimaryZhenghua Primary

National EducationBi-cultural StudiesInformation TechnologyChinese Cultural ProgramsPerforming ArtsAesthetics – MusicRoboticsTrack and FieldMathematicsDance

SecondarySchools

Admiralty SecondaryAhmed Ibrahim SecondaryClementi Town SecondaryDeyi SecondaryJurong SecondaryNorthland SecondarySt. Andrew’s SecondarySt. Hilda’s SecondarySt. Margaret’s SecondaryYishun Town Secondary

Robotics EnterpriseShootingUniformed GroupsPerforming ArtsBasketballHockeyRugbyVolleyballPerforming and Visual ArtsUniformed Groups

Sources: Davie, S. (2006), Niche Primary Schools a Big Draw, Th e Straits Times, July 3, p. 4; Ministry of Education (2005c). Available online at http://www.moe.gov.sg/press/2006/pr20060518.htm. Accessed on 3rd July 2006.

Th e opening of specialised secondary schools in Singapore is another outcome of the Niche Area Scheme. For example, in 2004, Singapore Sports School was opened to cater for students with the desire to develop their sporting talents professionally. 2005 marked the opening of the NUS High School of Mathematics and Science promising a stimulating environment for students with exceptional aptitude and interest in mathematics and science. Soon we will also witness the opening of the Arts School catering for students with talents in the arts. Th e introduction of specialised schools and the Niche Area Scheme, Singapore schools are provided


far more diverse opportunities to develop distinctive characteristics than they did before (Shanmugaratnam, 2005a & b). Mainstream schools in Singapore are now responding to the MOE’s directive to focus on areas of excellence and develop specifi c ‘niche area(s)’ (MOE, 2005b).

Evidence of Diff erentiation of Schools in Singapore

In the era of the marketisation of education, schools need to adopt a marketing oriented approach. In other words, schools “must know their markets; attract suf-fi cient resources; convert these resources into appropriate programs, services, and ideas; and eff ectively distribute them to various consuming publics” (Kotler & Fox, 1985, p.7). Th ey can do this by effi cient market segmentation and creating value for their customers in terms of the educational experience. Only then can schools decide which segment(s) to target or focus on. Th e principles of segmentation and market targeting are certainly embedded in the quote by the then Education Minister, RADM Teo Chee Hean. Clearly, the focus was on a school-wide approach rather than a small group of students. Noting that the school:

will be able to draw together a critical mass of students and develop the neces-sary staff and programs that can fully develop the interest and ability of these students in this special area”, he added that students with the same interests or talents “will have classmates and school-mates, and well qualifi ed staff and facilities, to stimulate and spur them on to higher levels of achievement. (Teo 2000b, point 23)

To illustrate how schools are responding to this call to diff erentiate their programs and possibly develop a strong school branding, we will take a look at four primary schools in one of Singapore’s newest satellite towns – Sengkang. Th is town comprises mainly married and working couples with young families. Th e competition amongst primary schools is intense and being able to appraise the attractiveness of diff erent segments of ‘consumers’ (i.e., parents and students) is essential in the understanding of their needs, expectations and motivation. In so doing, schools should develop a favourable brands to distinguish itself from other neighboring primary schools.

Rivervale Primary School is a government school and is into its tenth year of existence. RPS continues to push new peaks of excellence in the curriculum, programs, administration, resource management, data management and peo-


ple management. Apart from obtaining good academic results in the national examinations, the school is also known for its inclination towards innovation and enterpreneuership in its programs and service off erings. To nurture innovation and enterpreneurial skills, the school infuses information technology into the curriculum to enhance creativity and thinking skills are made more interactive. It introduces marketing strategies to students for their project work, which includes selling vegetables grown in the school’s own greenehouse through hydroponics (i.e. the process of growing plants without soil in water) to parents. Th e school also conducts learning activities outside the school such as visits to neighbouring shop-ping malls, instruction journeys and overseas trips to Malaysia. Furthermore, it has set up an Entrepreneurship Club for students to honne in on their entrepreneurial and public relations skills through working on innovative projects and with the community.

Sengkang Primary School was formed in 1997 with 327 students and a staff strength of 23. Th e school has grown rapidly ever since with about 1500 students and 75 staff members. Th e school is driven by its vision which is ‘Community of Happy Learners’ with the desired outcomes of happy, motivated, healthy and well-balanced students and staff members. In its endeavor for well-balanced education, the school moved to introduce daily half-an-hour physical education lessons for students in 2004. Today, physical education remains an integral and daily part of the curriculum in the school. Th e school management strongly believes that such activities will help the students to be alert and active learners.

Compassvale Primary School is a government school which started about the same time as Rivervale Primary school. Th e school’s vision is ‘Soaring Individuals, Serving Citizens,’ which aims to motivate students to go beyond what is ordinary, and achieve new heights while grounded in humility and serve the community. Th e school aims to provide a holistic education that balances between making learning enjoyable, building character and ensuring that the child attains the necessary academic achievements. One of the school’s key programs is the Seamless Cur-riculum project in Primary 1and 2. Th is approach is new, innovative, and unique to the school. It allows for the teaching of several disciplines, namely, English, mathematics, science, health education, social studies, art, physical education, and music, as an integrated and holistic whole. Th e emphasis is on teaching the child important life skills such as communication and interaction skills.

Nan Chai Primary School is a government-aided school established by the Sin-gapore Hokien Huay Kuan (SHHK – a Chinese clan). Nan Chiau Primary School has always been receiving strong support, guidance and fi nancial assistance from SHHK. Although the primary school was established in January 2001, its history


can be traced back to 1947 when Nan Chiau Girls’ High School was fi rst estab-lished. Th e primary section was part of Nan Chiau High School, which operated as a full school in 1979. As a result of the school’s association and history, it has a strong Chinese values program.Th e school has also developed three niche areas and they are Innovation and Enterprise, Information Technology (IT) Teaching and Learning and Centre of Excellence (COE) for Chinese. Some of the programs developed for the niche areas include ‘Recitation of the Chinese classics’, ‘Learn-ing Culture’ (students teach one another using Information and Communication Technology and Data fl ash-loggers), ‘Artifi cial Intelligence in Maths’ (soft ware using artifi cal intelligence to guide students in the learning of maths), and ‘Th e eNCee Program’ (learning with handheld devices using Microsoft Class Server in a wireless environment). Th e school is also known for its strong Chinese values.

From the examples, it is clear that Singapore schools are making a concerted attempt to diff erentiate their services and programs to meet the needs of their key

stakeholders (i.e., parents and students). However, it does not mean that the schools need to dispense with their mission and competitive competences to provide what-ever the ‘customers’ want, or educational programs that are popular or fashionable

Figure 1: Segmentation and Strategic Planning

Segment 1

Segment 2

Segment 3

Segment 4

Segment 5

Operationalization

Formulation of strategies and implementation

Development

Promotion

Creation of value

School B

Parents and Students

1

23

45

6

Understanding Needs

Staff MembersMust understand, believe and

know how to implement

Mission and VisionBased on preferences of its constituencies, resources

and distinctive competences

Curriculum Design, Pedagogy and AssessmentBases for Teaching and Learning

Evaluation and Control

7

School A

8


at the moment. Rather the school should identify customers who are interested and would value its service off er, and then develop this off er based on their competences to make it attractive. Figure 1 depicts these key considerations:

Th e fi rst step is for the school to segment the market in order to identify groups of students and parents with similar needs, preferences and aspirations. Second, the school’s mission and vision should be based on the competences and resources as well as the information obtained from the needs analysis through segmentation. Here, resources are defi ned as the tangible and intangible entities available to the school, which enable it to produce effi ciently and/or eff ectively a market off er that has value for some market segment(s). Such resources include physical, informa-tional, legal, fi nancial, human, relational and organizational ones (Hunt & Morgan, 1995 & 1996). Th ird, the school’s mission and vision must be operationalised in the school’s context (i.e., what are the key principles and values which form an overarching theme for the school). Fourth, staff members must be educated on the school’s vision and mission so that they can understand, subscribe and know how to strategically implement or infuse these key principles and values in their work with students – namely, curriculum design, pedagogy and assessment. Fift h, following successful formulation of strategies and implementation, the school must now measure and evaluate performance so as to determine if the objectives are achieved. In so doing, Step Six, the school will be able to generate favourably perceived values for the product off er amongst potential and current consumers. Here, the ‘perceived value’ would include functional value (i.e., utilitarian and physical performance), emotional (e.g., pride), epistemic (e.g., inquiry and dis-covery of new knowledge) and social (e.g., sense of belonging) (Sheth, Newman and Gross, 1991). Seventh, the school must communicate, promote or educate the key stakeholders on the quality of the off er (i.e., programs and services) as well as the central educational theme of the school. Parents and students need to be well-informed on the school and its off er so that they can make a better school choice in terms of their educational consumption experience. Finally, equipped with a better understanding of the market segments, schools can better identify competitors and use appropriate marketing strategies to compete for students.

Conclusion

Th is paper points out that the marketisation of education in Singapore involves greater autonomy to schools; increased inter-school competition; the encourage-ment of entrepreneurial activities among schools; and the adoption of marketing


activities in schools. Th rough the niche area scheme, the paper further illustrates the adoption of the marketisation of education in schools in Singapore. A dis-cussion on the nature of this scheme was provided that schools should identify customers who are interested and would value its service off er, and then develop this off er based on their competences to make it attractive. In its quest to develop distinctive areas of competences or excellence, schools should avoid the temptation of focussing narrowly on a particular ‘niche area’ (e.g., shooting, dance, basketball or life sciences). It is more helpful for the school to focus on a broader theme which can ‘direct’ them in their endeavour and communication with the public. Th is will allow schools to better manage their resources and attract a greater segment of students interested in the type of education off ered by the school.

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Health Education

Television as a Health Value Carrier . World of Illusion – World without Health?

Abstract

Trying to evaluate contemporary messages from the media one can notice – in reference to the value of health – the comparison of positivist traditions and idealis-tic visions with contradictory standpoints and opinions. It is important to recognise and understand messages of consumer and pop cultures which refl ect the pursuit of the world of illusions and dreams. In this world medical and scientifi c debates frequently blend with popular convictions and myths. It seems that individual and subjective concepts referring to health as a value are becoming decisive categories in designing the concept of freedom. Health, then, is a factor that enters “cultural fl exibility” as an element of cultural pressure, connected with concrete physical and psychological results.

Key words: health education, health, television.

Health (understood as a lack of illness) is undeniably taken as one of the most important values by a major part of every society. It seems that this value – it can be identifi ed with good, activity and well-being – has a universal character and appeals to most of the cultural systems created by humans. Health – as a value being the main factor determining attitudes and health behaviours – should be given a suit-ably high position in the hierarchy of demands and aspirations of every human being (Syrek E., 2000, 2008). Nevertheless, it should be pointed out, that on the one hand health is a value that in social awareness is commonly recognised, understood and accepted, but on the other hand (what we oft en experience ourselves) is not commonly respected. What can explain that kind of attitudes? Appealing to human awareness, K. Janicka (1990) remarks that there are two independent areas existing

Mirosław KowalskiPoland

254 Mirosław Kowalski

in its structure. Th e fi rst one, embracing abstract thinking, which contributes to giving the health value the highest note, and the second one concerning concrete thinking, which can contribute, in everyday-life confrontations, to decreasing the importance of this value.

It is equally important to point out that health, which is more and more oft en not the highest value, is being appreciated only if some symptoms of an illness are noticed. K. Puchalski (1997, p. 74) states: (…) the value which people actually associate with health is defi nitely diff erent from the one it should be given. It appears, that health value is very oft en lower in the hierarchy than other values like career or fi nancial funds. Th at can result in a supposition that the listed values lead to a creation of instrumental values, which mediate in the realisation of particular desires. If career, as well as wealth, becomes the aim, then the value of health should be equally important as the one which appears to be necessary in order to achieve the primary aim. Th e value of health perceived in this way is a means (to achieve other values important for the individual and/or society), which of course is not alternative and should not create any dangers in the selection of actions (Słońska Z., 1989). H. Sęk (1997, p. 52) emphasises this by writing that actions (…) should not be associated with the human’s values system, while health is not usually threatened as an autotelic value but a servile one.

On the other hand, treating the value of health as one of the most important values, which all the others are dependent on, seems to be self-limitation, omitting the signifi cance of other equally important priorities (health, family happiness, ‘the existential minimum’). Nevertheless, without any doubt, health is the value ‘by itself ’, ‘obvious’, and commonly accepted and in this sense autotelic (Kowalski M., Gaweł A., 2006; Borzucka-Sitkiewicz K., 2006).

Health – depending on how it is understood – can be analysed from the perspective of: declared values (health is universally perceived as something very important, which people care about and treat as a condition of happiness); accepted values (everybody thinks that health should be respected and taken care of); demanded values (to achieve health, keep, or improve it, one has to be ready to sacrifi ce the time, energy, fi nancial funds, etc.); practised values (actual actions aimed at improving health and using it in order to achieve other goals) (Ratajczak Z., 1997, pp. 58–59).

According to that, it seems that it is most signifi cant to search for the way that would make it possible to recognise the value of health, and at the same time will not minimalise the importance of other, not less valuable things or objects. Eventu-ally, the research based on reading the made choices between the value of health and other values will not contribute to a deepened analysing of health as a value

255Television as a Health Value Carrier…

(especially its place in the hierarchy), as well as the correct view on the importance of this value in human life. It can result from the fact that the valuating relation to health has a dynamic character, which can contribute to – from the perspective of other values infl uence – changing our judgements about this value.

Th e multitude of independent multimedia messages, oft en opposite to each other, having diff erent sources, ‘identifying themselves’ with authority, whose power is too big to oppose, contributes to the development of freedom. Freedom establishes the basis of functioning, it is an element of order and it is oft en understood as a way to or away from the universal values. F. Mayor (2001, p. 11) says: We cannot look into future, because it will never be what it was. We can prepare it, because it is not written down in the ’great book’, but is the uncertainty, the crossroads, the creation of accident. However, it is in our hands, because it is the freedom, the liberty: to a signifi cant degree it will be what we make of it.

It is worth (however only for a while) thinking about the relationship between freedom and the responsibility for health (our own and the others’). Th e mental stereotype indicating that it is freedom that is the condition of responsibility, also for health, is very oft en repeated. Perhaps the above elements should be analysed inversely: responsibility for health is the condition for freedom. Not getting deep into details, I would like to emphasise the fact that, as far as health is concerned, freedom and responsibility could (or perhaps even should) be taken as a whole – a unity. A unity that from the point of view of the performer (e.g. medial-health factors) appears as responsibility and from the perspective of the receiver – as freedom. It seems that thinking, and especially actions, in the area of health which divides itself from freedom and responsibility, can become the cause of disintegra-tion of being free and responsible (Juszczyk S., 2000; Kowalski M., Dróżdż M., 2008). In connection with this, I will try – on the background of freedom and responsibility – to illustrate the value of health from the perspective of the infl u-ence of the media-health messages on the present youth.

It is oft en said that health is the value ‘by itself ’, ‘obvious’, and commonly accepted and in this sense autotelic. It is also said that health is ‘a banner slogan’ (H.D. Lasswell’s defi nition), a social key-symbol. But, in fact, is health undeniably recognized as one of the most important values by society? Does not the never ending media-health carnival around the body and the human health create a sense of defencelessness and uncertainty, contributing to an intensifi ed anxiety about health? Th en, does the multitude of media images (signs, symbols) make it possible to make a rational, responsible choice in the area of the value of health?

On the one hand, health as a value is recognised with good, activity and well-being, but on the other hand with the eff ectiveness of the preventive measures,


unusual eff orts, and exceptional caution. T. Lewowicki (1994, p. 21) wrote: Th e visions of the worlds of values are neither solid nor obvious. Th ey are shaped in constant struggle, disputes and dilemmas. Even the universally accepted values (like good, beauty and truth, or freedom, the right to live, and unlimited development, etc.) are being subjected to diff erent attempts at relativisation. In the individual dimension (…) it is oft en a heroic struggle, choices, doubts. Analysing the value of health from the cultural point of view, we can state that it is shaped by society in cultural development, it is a conception that shows itself in diff erent forms of social awareness, bio-psychosocial balance of a human being in the environment. It seems that this value has a universal character and refers to the majority of cultural systems created by humans (Zalewska D., 1994, p. 50).

Nowadays, the body has become, on the one hand, a receiver of sensations, an instrument of pleasure, and on the other hand, a synonym of a subject of desire associated with a more and more idealised image of youth, health and beauty. B. Baczko (1994, p. 42) remarks that (…) the power of images is possible thanks to the connection of truth and norm, information and values, made by symbolism. It can appear to us that the value of the body is the higher, the closer it is, in its corporeality, to the perfect model, preferred by the media-health factors. Th is image can be compared to terror in the area of health and beauty (Wolf N., 1991). Specifi c advertising of the human corporeality is overwhelming in the mass media, which have a strong infl uence on the way we perceive and interpret the world. Th e words of U. Eco (1997, p. 20) are symptomatic here: (…) we live in a world, where mass media not only exist but also determine our way of thinking, even if we feel eff ectively isolated in our academic towers of ivory, resistant to the charm of coca-cola, closer to Plato than to Madison Avenue, (…) the way we, or in any case, our students read Plato – if they do – is determined by the existence of the ’Dallas’ series even for those who do not watch it at all. A person with a body of a high value is not insensible to life’s pleasures, does not react drowsily to visual, auditory, sexual or gastronomic temptations, has a wide variety of desires and demands. His/her happiness, from the perspective of the functioning of his/her body, is formed through actions aimed at creating deep, passionate, exciting sensations and experiences. Th ese – subjective – sensations are hard to survey or to describe using measurement tools. It is even harder to compare them form the perspective of normality and anomaly. Th ere is a game around the human corporeality and health in which the body wears a shirt with a name ‘product’, i.e. something which is made, advertised, sold, and oft en striven for. Th e game around the human body and health is played on a fi eld with no side lines (nothing symbolises where the fi eld ends), there is no half-time break (for the body to have a rest), there are no referees who would be authorities in the world


of ‘health consumerism’. Th e ‘health game’ is played on an arena surrounded by experts, who by propagating ‘healthy’ articles that are supposed to help in exercises, diets, hygienic or surgical interventions, bring a temporary ease for a human being, and at the same time burden them with responsibility for their own outlook. In other words (…) there is a desire created which makes him want to adjust himself to the model of his tendencies. An escape into dreams is the compensation he receives. Usually he is given such ideals that will create a tension between him and them (…) and that will make the tension escape only by projection, not chain of eff ective actions that would aim at changing anything (Eco U., 1995, p. 27).

A total medication of life, an increasing addition to the pharmaceutical industry’s products, are the elements that are more and more oft en noticed by the human from the perspective of the infl uence of the media. Every day, medical experts have ‘clients’ with an illusion of an illness, with the use of a few lines on a chart thousands of medical apparatuses analyse if the man is ‘still’ healthy or already ill. As a result of the infl uence of the medial-health messages we can notice a ‘panic’ belief among people that their lifestyle is incorrect, because it is oft en wrong according to the rules made by the so-called medical ‘professionals’. Advertising healthy attitudes – by creating a sense of guilt – oft en makes treating people as ‘consumers’ and health as a ‘product’ seem to be the right thing to do. Paradoxically, we can get a feeling (as an eff ect of the infl uence of media-health messages) that, for example, pharmaceutical concerns only want people not to have headaches, and the experts in plastic and aesthetic surgery do not want to impose ‘fake needs’ of always having a young body at all. Th ose elements associated with the com-mon, widespread in the media idea of ‘keeping health, body and the car in a good condition’ cause people to be under the constant pressure of having a particular lifestyle and rhythm. Obsessive, mechanical use of – oft en changing – orders and bans, ‘expert’ advice and imitating the models propagated by the media can directly lead to bulimia or anorexia (Melosik Z., 1996, pp. 157–160). Th e media very oft en promote ambiguity in the area of health and body. On the one hand, the ‘idea of slimness’ as the present ideal of a woman, as an eff ect of which the body is being subjected to more and more rigorous norms, and on the other hand, thanks to a slim body an individual is able to (…) achieve better results, stimulate its senses, (…) the tension on individual success is increasing (Vigarello G., 1997, p. 283). Th us, it is possible to state that being in the vortex of health consumerism, in some extreme cases we take on a media-health identity and our life has a more and more commercial character (Kowalski M., Falcman D., 2008, pp. 70–84).

More and more oft en we can get an impression that the inhuman ‘health com-mercialism’ is based on constant production and advertisement of new products


symbolising health, which irretrievably replace the items which were useful yesterday. As a result of constant repetition of a story, the health novelty/obsolete stops being a useful guide, a subject of healthy activities, becoming a wanderer around media signs/symbols of health. Th e media space of health-images of the contemporary man is at its full capacity. Th e eff ort of making the right choice in the area of health-chaos, where the items do not have a recognisable shape – only shadows – contributes to creative destruction, serves the choice of sensations, experiences which create the individual, their own ‘healthy world’. To make a con-scious choice means to separate the shape from the shadow, the need from desire, dream from reality. It also means to design and build one’s own dustbin it which there will be buckets signed ‘to be taken out.’ To take up an attitude of a ‘dialectic distance’ (defi nition by M. Nowicka–Kozioł) appealing, on the one hand, to being open, susceptible to new elements from the area of health and, on the other hand, being closed for media-health images implying emotional involvement.

Contemporary media-health images do not simplify the pro-health images, signs/symbols, trying to portray ‘the reality’ of the aims regarded as ‘possible to realize only sometimes’ and at the same time precluding the refl ection from the fi eld of vision of the individual. Th e projects, which are in abundance, are created in the name of the human’s and world’s pro-healthy, ‘positive’ health of the dream – receivers. Each health project, recognized more than once as a reliable one and not burdened with a risk, is simultaneously an attempt at glossing over the consequences of the previous project. Th e number of the projects, the zeal of their creating, not taking into account the costs of the actions, have an infl uence on the whole process, which is disregarding for the idea of health, or else, to be more sensitive in interpreta-tion – ‘worthless eff ect of health illusion’. Th e value of health treated as the ruthless ‘rule of society’ have to precede media reality. Since creating media-health projects is endless, there occurs the problem not only about their interpretations, but fi rst and foremost of their removing. Th us the media-health projects having clear-cut boundaries of ‘dialogue without freedom’, are more than once to present a crooked image of the health reality, the stereotypes of ‘the health civilisation’.

Obviously, one can ask an uncomfortable question: whether by any chance we are careless spokesmen of uncertainty and fear not to recognise the discussion about ‘our wonderful pro-healthy lifestyle’? A lifestyle which is equally fertile and capricious, restricted and at the same time very fi rm about undertaking fast actions, where the key to success will be… access to the mass media. Th e health-circle has been closed. Th e presence of the media signs, symbols of health, excuses itself through making a promise of health-safety for each person and simultaneously it identifi es to us the impossibility of off ering resistance from the perspective of the


fragility of the human body (this represents the transmission: if you eat cereals from the ‘X’ company, enriched in vitamins and iron, you can eat fewer vegetables and fruit, or ‘by exercising regularly in a gym you will secure smooth skin and slim fi gure for yourself ’). It is the power in the area of health relying more than once on fear creating media-health shadows, popularizing health-relativism which seems to be the key for creating ‘the existential fear’(as S. Kracauer names them) among individuals. Th erefore, the main reason for functioning of the media-health power is defenceless and healthy uncertainty of the human being around whom one has to constantly and regularly create (or remind) elements that can be a threat to him/her (which intensifi es the increase in the demand for pro-health elements).

True understanding of the television health source nature is the resultant of two factors: cognitive activeness of a young person, which translates into insightful learning the content of health nature, quantity, kind and the forms of informa-tion of widely defi ned health, which is made available by television content and images. Health culture of society is shaping in a very widely defi ned educational process, in which school, parents, and television play the crucial roles. At fi rst television provided a young person with knowledge in the area of health issues not undertaken (or rarely undertaken) by school and parents. Contemporary televi-sion shapes health problems (mainly by advertisements), creates health behaviour patterns towards pleasure spheres associated with human corporeality, preparing the young man for playing specifi c roles towards the possible health consumption strategies, therefore educating to health and not to health. In connection with these problems doubt appears if it is really possible to talk about communicative democracy with reference to television (in the health area). It seems that it should consist in providing cognitive tools to the recipient, for conscious and critical reception of announcements of health nature. If it is not in this way, you can speak of the so-called functional television (or even more broadly, the media) “health ignorance”, where the recipient, client-to-be does not analyze things he/she hears and sees. Such a situation can have far-reaching consequences for health activeness especially for young people, who obtain major part of the information about health from television advertisements.

In accordance with this it is possible to formulate new tasks facing contemporary school, teachers and parents. Th eir role should not only consist in providing book knowledge, but also in organizing the knowledge obtained by students from diff er-ent kinds of sources, and making good use of them in the didactic process. Th e mass media do not infl uence young people automatically, but it is possible to acknowledge them as partner, among other things, as an educational process teacher. It depends on how children and young people use them, can they consciously choose pro-


grammes and obtain the content shown on the television screen, and also can they use the obtained, in this way, knowledge in the educational process.

Crooked refl ections of ‘the healthy nature’ of the human being, so visible in the mirrors of everyday life as well as ‘health-media mess’ losing the real man undoubt-edly contribute to the theatrical acting on the stage of the sense of fulfi lment. Every-day heath media fi ght about the physical experiences contributing to the confusion concerning the health signs/symbols and thought. Th e multitude of acted plays through the ‘masks’ of the poets and health clowns, thinkers and leaders of health, saints and sinners of health, points at the necessity of standing at the doorstep of the dressing room. Only here, in the full light, without spotlights, extras, choreography, can one understand the rules of the endless acting. Th e imitation of the health-media culture each day sets free everyone who desires it from the illness of their own inside by the skin and body retouch, with simultaneous ‘resetting’ healthy and moral ‘dilemmas’ (by Z.Kwieciński) (here you will buy the thing you are thinking about). Honest game in ‘the media supermarket’ about the value of health, will be carried on only when the sense of health responsibility of all players will be based on ‘the real intellectual opposition’ – the dialogue based on critical refl ection. Th e refl ection which can protect the youth against experiencing the characteristic solitude in ‘the crowd of the health commercials,’ against the superfi ciality of the interpretation and the fragmentation of the ways of reasoning in the ‘health’ value area.

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