心理 102 林恬安

Introduction 理論基礎 假設 Methods Results Discussion 總結

during silent reading of text where no auditory stimulation or visual stimulation other than text is present.

Direct speech ex. 陳律初說：「喔！我好餓！！！」 Indirect speech ex. 陳律初說他很餓！

direct speech demonstration is generally assumed to be more vivid and perceptually engaging than an indirect speech description. (Tannen,1986, 1989)

Are more likely to employ direct rather than indirect speech when instructed to be entertaining to a listener.

(Wade & Clark, 1993)

direct speech may be more likely to activate “audible speech”-like representations than indirect speech.

readers may be more likely to mentally simulate the reported speakerʼs voice during silent reading of direct rather than indirect speech.

Auditory cortex 聽覺皮質區 Bottom-up 有真正聲音 ex. human voices Top-down 沒有真正聲音 ex. nonverbal, verbal auditory

imagery, visual speech perception (lip reading).

Spitsyna, Warren, Scott, Turkheimer, and Wise (2006) showed that neural pathways for silent reading and speech perception converge in the STS regions of the auditory cortex, suggesting the possibility that silent reading might recruit some auditory processing.

auditory cortex should display enhanced “top–down” activation as soon as readers come across a direct speech statement (as opposed to a meaning-equivalent indirect speech statement) in written text.

26 位受試者→ 16 位受試者 native English speakers with normal

vision and hearing, no learning or reading

disabilities, and no history of neurological or psychiatric disorders.

90 個 short storieswww.psy.gla.ac.uk/∼christop/

JOCN_2011/Stimuli.pdf.

List 1List 145 direct speech

45 indirect speech

8 位受試者

List 2List 245 direct speech

45 indirect speech

8 位受試者每位受試者看到的故事

順序是隨機的

2 個 敘述句

Direct or indirect speech sentence

( 字數相同 )

Comprehension questions

speech(e.g., spoken vowels) nonspeech (e.g., laughing andCoughing)

(e.g., telephone ringing and dog barking)

goggles(NordicNeuroLab, Bergen, Norway) for visual presentationand eye tracking

MRI-compatible,electrostatic headphones

Task Task 11

Task Task 11

E-prime

Yes!

No!

List 1List 1

45 direct speech

45 indirect speech

8 位受試者

Task Task 22

close their eyes while listening to twenty 8-sec blocks of vocal and twenty 8-sec blocks of nonvocal auditory stimuli presented in an efficiency optimized, pseudorandom order along with 20 blocks without stimulation acting as a baseline

fMRI data from the anatomical and voice localizer scanning sessions were used to determine the voice-selective areas in the auditory cortex of each participant.

Minor differences in the numbers of words are controlled for, it appears that direct and indirect speech statements were virtually identical in terms of processing difficulty.

direct speech condition was associated with a greater BOLD signal in voice-selective areas of the right auditory cortex than the indirect speech condition. （ both conditions were more active against the baseline. ）

auditory cortex—occipital lobes, superior parietal lobules, and precuneus

Two main clusters of enhanced activity for direct as opposed to indirect speech were located in voice-selective areas along posterior and middle parts of the right STS.

The clearly right-lateralized brain activation pattern found in our study also suggests that voice-related representations are spontaneously activated during silent reading of direct as opposed to indirect speech.

perceptual simulationperceptual simulation argue that mental representations of

language are grounded in perceptual experiences and actions and that perceptual simulation is an automatic and integral part of language comprehension.

Accumulated experiences with direct versus indirect speech usageusage form the basis for voice simulation during silent reading.

從 fMRI 可得知 direct speech 較 indirect speech 更讓讀者覺得有更鮮明的感受是因為在腦部也活化了處理多種感知的腦區（例如視覺） ，其中牽扯了讀者可能依過去的經驗來模擬陳述者說話時的語氣。