1ivane javaxiSvilis saxelobis

Tbilisis saxelmwifo universiteti

n. lekiSvili, q. giorgaZe

zogadi da araorganuli qimia

(pirveli nawili, fundamenturi principebi da Teoriuli safuZvlebi)

leqciebis kursi

Tbilisi

2012-2013 s.w.

2Sinaarsi1. atomis aRnagoba ...................................................................................................5 1.1. atomis aRnagobis adreuli modelebi.......................................................................61.2. rezerfordis cda. atomis aRnagobis planetaruli modeli............................71.3. Aboris Teoria....................................................................................................................81.4. bor-zomerfeldis Teoriis ZiriTadi naklovanebebi .......................................101.5. atomis agebulebis kvanturi Teoriis elementebi. mikronawilakebis kor-

puskulur-talRuri dualizmi.................................................................................101.6. Sredingeris gantoleba. talRuri funqcia.........................................................131.7. kvanturi ricxvebi ........................................................................................................151.8. Sreebis, garsebisa da orbitalebis Sevsebis wesebi ...........................................201.9. atomebis eleqtronuli konfiguraciebi..............................................................241.10. Aatomis birTvis aRnagoba..........................................................................................311.10.1. atombirTvis muxti da atomuri nomeri. mozlis kanoni...............................311.10.2. atombirTvis aRnagobis protonul-neitronuli Teoria...........................321.10.3. izotopebi, izobarebi da izotonebi..................................................................331.10.4. radioaqtiuroba ......................................................................................................351.10.5. radioaqtiuri daSlis tipebi...............................................................................381.10.6. radioaqtiuri gamosxivebis gazomva-Sefasebis umniSvnelovanesi

meTodebi...........................................................................................................................401.10.7. radioaqtiuri izotopebis gamoyeneba..............................................................401.10.8. atombirTvebis dayofa. birTvuli reaqtorebi. atomuri bombis

moqmedebis principi......................................................................................................411.10.9. radioaqtiuri izotopebis dacileba................................................................421.10.10. birTvuli da TermobirTvuli sinTezebi. wyalbadis bombis moqmedebis

principi............................................................................................................................422.Pperiodulobis kanoni da perioduli sistema.........................................432.1. qimiuriE elementebis perioduli sistemis struqtura....................................442.2. periodulobis kanonisa da perioduli sistemis fizikuri safuZvlebi da

mniSvneloba.....................................................................................................................482.3. qimiuri elementebis TvisebaTa perioduloba....................................................512.3.1. ionizaciis energia.....................................................................................................512.3.2. swrafva eleqtronisadmi.........................................................................................532.3.3. eleqtrouaryofiToba.............................................................................................542.4. atomuri radiusebi.......................................................................................................552.5. ionuri radiusebi .........................................................................................................582.6. meoradi da Sinagani perioduloba...........................................................................593. qimiuri bma. qimiuri bmis buneba......................................................................603.1. kovalenturi bma ...........................................................................................................633.1.1. valenturi bmebis meTodi........................................................................................633.1.2. molekuluri orbitalebis meTodi......................................................................683.1.3. atomuri orbitalebis hibridizacia...................................................................753.1.4. kovalenturi bmis Tvisebebi...................................................................................823.1.5. kontrpolarizaciis efeqti...................................................................................873.1.6. kovalenturi bmis warmoqmnis donorul-aqceptoruli meqanizmi.............893.2. ionuri bma........................................................................................................................903.2.1. ionuri bmis warmoqmnis meqanizmi da energia.....................................................90

33.2.2 ionuri bmis Tvisebebi................................................................................................933.2.3. ionuri kristaluri struqturis sruli energia............................................933.5. wyalbaduri bma ..............................................................................................................943.6. metaluri bma..................................................................................................................973.7. molekulaTSorisi urTierTqmedeba. molekulaTSorisi urTierTqmedebis

Zalebi................................................................................................................................994. qimiuri Termodinamikis sawyisebi................................................................ 1024.1. TermodinamikaSi gamoyenebuli ZiriTadi cnebebi da gansazRvrebebi....... 1034.2. Termodinamikis kanonebi ......................................................................................... 1054.2.1. Termodinamikis I kanoni......................................................................................... 1054.2.2. entropia da Termodinamikis II kanoni ............................................................... 1064.2.3. entropia da Termodinamikuri albaToba........................................................ 1084.2.4. jibsisa da helmholcis energiebi. procesis TavisTavad mimdinareobis

kriteriumebi ............................................................................................................... 1095. Termoqimiis safuZvlebi.................................................................................... 1105.1. Termoqimiis kanonebi. Termoqimiis pirveli kanoni......................................... 1125.2. Termoqimiis meore kanoni........................................................................................ 1136. Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebi............................................................................. 1156.1. Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebis klasifikacia....................................................... 1206.2. Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebis gantolebebis Sedgena...................................... 1216.3. aris, temperaturis, koncentraciis da katalizatoris gavlena Jangva-

aRdgeniTi reaqciebis mimdinareobaze................................................................. 1266.3.1. reaqciis aris gavlena............................................................................................ 1266.3.2. temperaturis gavlena........................................................................................... 1276.3.3. koncentraciis gavlena......................................................................................... 1276.3.5. katalizatoris gavlena........................................................................................ 1286.3.5. Jangva-aRdgeniTi reaqciebis mimarTuleba. Jangva-aRdgeniTi

potencialebi............................................................................................................... 1287. nivTierebaTa agregatuli da fazuri mdgomareoba........................................... 1327.1. nivTierebaTa agregatuli mdgomareobis ZiriTadi tipebi .......................... 1327.2. nivTierebis plazmuri mdgomareoba.................................................................... 1357.3. kristalebi. kristaluri struqturis tipebi ................................................. 1358. dispersiuli sistemebi. xsnarebi.................................................................. 1398.1. xsnarebi. xsnarTa tipebi.nivTierebaTa gaxsnis kanonzomierebebi.

gamxsnelebi. wyali unikaluri gamxsneli. nivTierebaTa xsnadoba, xsnadobis raodenobrivi daxasiaTeba................................................................... 139

8.1.1. gaxsnis procesis ZiriTadi Teoriebi da kanonzomierebebi.................... 1408.1.2. gaxsnis procesis Termodinamika........................................................................ 1418.1.3. hidratebi da kristalhidratebi....................................................................... 1428.1.4. xsnadoba. xsnadobis raodenobrivi daxasiaTeba............................................ 1438.1.5. xsnadobis damokidebuleba nivTierebaTa bunebaze, temperaturasa da

wnevaze............................................................................................................................ 1458.2. airadi nivTierebebis xsnadoba. henris kanoni. daltonis kanoni............... 1478.3. xsnadobis namravli ................................................................................................... 1488.4. xsnaris Sedgenilobis raodenobrivi gamosaxvis xerxebi.............................. 1508.5. xsnarebis koligatiuri Tvisebebi........................................................................ 1528.5.1. osmosi da osmosuri wneva..................................................................................... 152

48.5.2. xsnaris orTqlis wneva........................................................................................... 1558.5.3. xsnaris duRilis da gayinvis temperaturebi. ebulioskopia da krioskopia.. 1578.6. koloiduri xsnarebi................................................................................................. 1589. eleqtrolituri disociaciis Teoria. disociaciis meqanizmi.

Fdisociaciis Teoriis ZiriTadi debulebebi. disociaciis xarisxi da disociaciis mudmiva, ostvaldis ganzavebis kanoni. aqtivobis koeficienti .............................................................................................................. 161

9.1. eleqtrolituri disociaciis meqanizmi da ionTa hidratacia .................. 1619.2. disociaciis xarisxi.................................................................................................. 1649.3. disociaciis mudmiva................................................................................................. 1659.4. Teoriebi fuZeebisa da mJavebis Sesaxeb .............................................................. 16610. eleqtroqimiis sawyisebi. eleqtroduli potencialebi.

standartul potencialTa rigi. marilTa wyalxsnarebis da nalRobebis eleqtrolizi. eleqtrolizis kanonebi. denis qimuri wyaroebi. .................................................................................................... 168

10.1. standartuli eleqtroduli potencialebis rigi ...................................... 16810.2. eleqtrolizi ........................................................................................................... 17310.2.1. raodenobiTi Tanafardobani eleqtrolizis dros.................................. 17810.3. energiis qimiuri wyaroebi. galvanuri elementi, akumulatori,

akumulatoris muSaobis principi......................................................................... 17911. qimiuri kinetika.................................................................................................... 18211.1. qimiuri reaqciis siCqare. reagentebis koncentraciis gavlena reaqciis

siCqareze....................................................................................................................... 18211.2. reaqciis siCqaris mudmiva..................................................................................... 18611.3. reaqciis molekuluroba da reaqciis rigi...................................................... 18711.4. reaqciis meqanizmis gavlena .................................................................................. 18911.5. temperaturis gavlena qimiuri reaqciis siCqareze. vant-hofis wesi.

aqtivaciis Teoriis sabazo koncefciebi. Aaqtivaciis energia....................... 19311.6. warmodgenebi paralelur, mimdevrobiT da SeuRlebul reaqciebze ...... 19711.7. qimiuri reaqciebis inicirebis Tanamedrove fizikuri meTodebi............ 19811.8. Tavisufali radikalebi. Tavisufalradikaluri reaqciebi.

Tavisufalradikaluri jaWvuri reaqciebis tipebi da mimdinareobis specifika....................................................................................................................... 201

12. katalizi....................................................................................................................20413. qimiur reaqciaTa Seqcevadoba. qimiuri wonasworoba..........................14. kompleqsnaerTebi. zogadi daxasiaTeba, klasifikacia,

nomenklatura, mdgradoba, qimiuri bmis buneba, gamoyeneba .... 214gamoyenebuli literatura ..................................................................................239

51. atomis aRnagoba

warmodgenebi atomebis SesaZlo arsebobis Sesaxeb jer, kidevCvens welTaRricxvamde VI saukuneSi gaCnda (demokrite, levkipo-si), magram, miuxedavad amisa, XX saukunis dasawyisamde mecnierTamniSvnelovani nawili atoms nivTierebis dayofis zRvrad miiCnev-da (`atomi~ ganuyofeli). daaxloebiT 2500 weli gaxda saWiroatomis rTuli aRnagobis dasadgenad. mxolod XIX saukunis bo-los iqna dagrovili eqsperimentuli faqtebi, romlebic atomisrTul aRnagobas amtkicebda, maT Soris gansakuTrebiT mniSvne-lovani iyo kaToduri sxivebis, eleqtrolizisa da radioaqtiu-robis aRmoCena.

pirveli ori movlena daedo safuZvlad eleqtronis aRmoCe-nas, romelmac arsebiTi roli Seasrula ara marto atomis rTuliaRnagobis Sesaxeb warmodgenebis formirebaSi, aramed saerTod,xeli Seuwyo teqnikuri progresis naxtomisebur ganviTarebas.

eleqtronis aRmoCena uSualod ukavSirdeba airebsa da siTxe-ebSi denis gatarebisas mimdinare procesebis Seswavlas. am Tval-sazrisiT gansakuTrebiT mniSvnelovani iyo gaiSviaTebul airebSidenis gavlis Sedegebi (uiliam kruqsi, 1879 w.). dadgenil iqna, rom gaiSviaTebulairian minis milSi (kruqsis mili) moTavsebulieleqtrodebis maRali Zabvis wyarosTan (~ 1500 v) SeerTebisas, ka-Todidan anodisaken vrceldeba gamosxiveba, romelsac kaTodurisxivebi uwodes. es gamosxiveba ar iyo damokidebuli airisa da im metalis bunebaze, romlisganac kaTodi mzaddeboda. am gamosxi-vebis viwro konis eleqtruli kondensatoris firfitebs Sorisgatarebisas SeamCnies misi gadaxra dadebiTad damuxtuli firfi-tisaken, rac kaToduri velis Semadgeneli nawilakebis uaryofiTmuxtze miuTiTebda. kaToduri sxivebi gadaixreboda agreTve mag-nituri velis moqmedebiTac.

ingliselma fizikosma, jozef jon tomsonma daamtkica, rom kaToduri sxivebi aris umciresi uaryofiTi muxtis mqone TvaliTuxilavi nawilakebis nakadi. am nawilakebs eleqtronebi uwodes(1891 weli).

1897 wels j. tomsonis mier dadgenil iqna eleqtronis muxtisTanafardoba mis masasTan (e/m), ramac cota mogvianebiT (robertendrus milikeni, 1909 w.) SesaZlebeli gaxada eleqtronis muxtis(qe = 1.610

-19 k) da masis gansazRvra (me = 9.1110-31 kg).

am mimarTulebiT mniSvnelovani mecnieruli miRweva iyo, ag-reTve, dadebiTad da uaryofiTad damuxtuli nawilakebis kati-onebisa da anionebis arsebobis dadgenis SesaZlebloba, romle-bic Sesabamisad dadebiTad da uaryofiTad damuxtuli atomebiaRmoCndnen. amasTan, ionis minimaluri muxti eleqtronis muxtistoli aRmoCnda. CaTvales, rom es aris eleqtruli muxtis umci-resi raodenoba da igi muxtis fardobiT erTeulad miiCnies.

siTxeebSi eleqtruli denis gatarebisas mimdinare procese-bis Seswavlam kidev ufro ganamtkica azri imis Sesaxeb, rom eleq-

6troni atomis Semadgeneli nawilia. amis dadastureba rTuli ar aRmoCnda (Tumca udavod genialuri aRmoCena iyo). magaliTis sa-xiT SeiZleba movitanoT marilmJavas 1M molurMxsnarSi denis ga-tarebis procesebis Seswavlis Sedegebi. kerZod, aRniSnul xsnar-Si 96500k eleqtrobis gavlisas kaTodze gamoiyo wyalbad-atome-bis 1 moli (0.5 moli martivi nivTiereba), xolo anodze qlorisatomebis 1 moli (0.5 moli martivi nivTiereba). aqedan gamomdina-re, mecnierebma daadgines, rom wyalbadis TiToeuli ioni (katio-ni) ikavSirebs 96500k : 6.021023 = 1.610-19k muxts (ix. zemoT milike-nis aRmoCena). Ees aRmoCenebi umniSvnelovanesi daskvnis winapiro-ba gaxda atomSi uaryofiTi nawilakebia eleqtronis saxiT, ato-mi ki eleqtroneitraluri nawilakia, e.i. is dadebiTad damuxtulnawilakebsac unda Seicavdes. Yyovelive es SemdgomSi eqsperimen-tuladac dadasturda. am eqsperimentebis Catarebis winapirobasradiaqtiurobis movlena warmoadgenda, romelic am periodSi uk-ve aRmoCenili da Seswavlili iyo.

1.1. atomis aRnagobis adreuli modelebi

atomis agebulebis ramdenime modeli me-20 saukunis dasawyis-Sive damuSavda (J. pereni, f. lenardi. v. tomsoni, j. tomsoni, h. na-gaoka). frangi perenisa da iaponeli nagaokas mixedviT, atomebiSeicavs dadebiTad damuxtul birTvs, romlis garSemo moZraobseleqtronebi. perenis mixedviT, orbitebze eleqtronebis moZra-obis siCqare Seesabameba ZiriTadi speqtruli xazebis sixSires.nagaokas modelSi eleqtronebi warmoqmnis planeta saturnis ana-logiur rgolebs. amrigad, varaudi atomis planetaruli agebu-lebis Sesaxeb gamoiTqva rezerfordamde gacilebiT adre. magrammainc, rezerfordis prioriteti am sakiTxSi eWvgareSea, radganmisi modeli, gansxvavebiT perenisa da nagaokas modelebisagan,emyareboda mtkiced dadgenili eqsperimentuli faqtebis ana-lizs. am drois modelebidan yvelaze meti popularoba xvda jontomsonis statikur models. jon tomsonis mixedviT atomi dade-biTad damuxtuli sferoa, am sferos erT sibrtyeSi Tavsdebaeleqtronebi, romlebic imyofeba rxeviT moZraobaSi. roca eleq-tronebi bevria, isini lagdeba calkeuli garsebis (Sreebis) sa-xiT. j. tomsoni Seecada atomis agebuleba daekavSirebina qimiuriTvisebebis periodulobasTan. atomSi eleqtronuli garsebissxvadasxva konfiguraciis ganxilvis safuZvelze tomsonma ga-moTvala, rom am konfiguraciebis mdgradoba icvleba periodu-lad eleqtronebis ricxvis zrdasTan erTad.

analogiuri modeli ufro adre wamoayena ingliselma viliamtomsonmac. am modelis mixedviT dadebiTad damuxtul sferoSieleqtronebi dajgufebulia garkveuli mdgradi konfiguracie-bis saxiT.

71.2. rezerfordis cdaatomis aRnagobis planetaruli modeli

arsebuli mosazrebebis Sesamowmeblad da atomis aRnagobisufro zusti monacemebis misaRebad cdebis seria Caatara ernestrezerfordma da misma mowafeebma (h. geigeri da v. marsdeni, 1909 w.). isini akvirdebodnen nawilakebis gabnevas metalis Txel fir-fitaSi gatarebisas (-nawilakebi gamoityorcneba radioaqtiurinivTierebis daSlisas, misi masa aris 4 m.a.e. da muxti +2, siCqare20000 km/wm). gamoyenebuli iyo specialuri xelsawyo, e.w. spinta-riskopi (`spintaris~ berZnulad naperwkals niSnavs, `skopeo~-vxedav). es xelsawyo Seqmna kruqsma 1903 wels. spintariskopi Sed-geba ekranisagan, romelic dafarulia fluorescenciis anu sinaT-lis STanTqmiT gamowveuli xanmokle (~10-10 wm) naTebis unaris mqo-ne nivTierebiT, kerZod, TuTiis sulfidiT. -nawilakis ekranTanSexebisas adgili aqvs wertilovan naTebas, romelic kargad Seim-Cneva mikroskopSi da misi ekranTan Sexebis adgils xiluls xdis.

-nawilakebis wyaros aTavsebdnen tyviis WurWelSi, romelicam nawilakebis STanTqmis unariT xasiaTdeba. WurWels hqondaxvreli, saidanac vrceldeboda nawilakebi, e.i. WurWlidan gamo-dioda nawilakebis gansazRvruli mimarTulebis nakadi. tyviisWurWelsa da ekrans Soris moTavsebuli iyo oqros minimalurisisqis firfita (oqro yvela metalze plastikuria da misgan yve-laze Txeli firfitis damzadeba SeiZleba). dakvirvebam MaCvena,rom nawilakebis udidesi nawili am firfitaSi gadioda mimar-Tulebis Seucvlelad (Tumca firfitis sisqe aseul aTasobiTatomis diametris toli iyo), mcire nawili ganicdida gadaxrassxvadasxva kuTxiT, xolo iSviaTad saSualod yoveli 8000 na-wilakidan erTi ukan `airekleboda~.

eqsperimentis Sedegebze dayrdnobiT rezerfordma Semdegidaskvna gaakeTa: dadebiTi muxtis mqone nawilakebis mimarTule-bis mniSvnelovani cvlileba da, miT umetes, ukan dabruneba mxo-lod dadebiTad damuxtul nawilaks SeuZlia, romelsac atomSiunda ekavos mcire moculoba, radgan aseTi gzis gamrudeba -na-wilakebis mxolod mcire nawilma ganicada. rac ufro axlos mox-vdeba -nawilaki atomis Semadgenel dadebiT nawilakTan da rac ufro maRalia am dadebiTi nawilakis muxti, miT ufro didia ga-daxris kuTxe, xolo sawinaaRmdego mimarTulebiT gavrceleba -nawilakis dadebiT nawilakTan uSualo Sejaxebis Sedegia. aseTiSemTxvevebis simcire imaze mianiSnebs, rom atomSi dadebiT nawi-laks ukavia Zalian mcire moculoba, magram atomis masa TiTqmismTlianad masSia Tavmoyrili, e.i. atomSi aris dadebiTi muxtis ma-tarebeli, didi masis da mcire moculobis nawilaki, romelsacatomguli uwodes. sxvadasxva elementis atombirTvTan moqmede-bisas -nawilakebis gavrcelebis gza sxvadasxva kuTxiT icvleba.rezerfordma -nawilakebis gabnevis kuTxeebis gazomviT gaianga-

8riSa zogierTi elementis atomgulis muxtis sidide, magaliTad, Cu, Ag, Pt. napovni sidideebi Sesabamisad aris 29.3, 46.3 da 77.4, romlebic TiTqmis emTxveva am elementebis rigiT nomrebs.

Catarebuli cdebis safuZvelze rezerfordma Seqmna atomisaRnagobis planetaruli modeli. atomi Sedgeba dadebiTad da-muxtuli birTvisa da mis garSemo moZravi eleqtronebisagan, msgavsad mzis garSemo moZravi planetebisa. rezerfordis mode-li emyareboda eqsperimentul mtkicebas, rasac yvela misi wina-morbedis modeli moklebuli iyo. amdenad, is warmoadgenda mniS-vnelovan movlenas atomis aRnagobis Secnobis mimarTulebiT. am modelis ZiriTadma principma, rom atomSi aris dadebiTad damux-tuli birTvi da mis garSemo moZravi eleqtronebi, dros gauZloda damtkicebulia eqsperimentiT. magram, amave dros, es modelimniSvnelovan winaaRmdegobebs Seicavs. kerZod, rezerfordis Te-orias ar SeuZlia axsnas atomis metad mniSvnelovani Tviseba mi-si mdgradoba. eleqtroni, romelic brunavs birTvis garSemo,eleqtromagnituri Teoriis Tanaxmad, energias unda asxivebdes,amis Sedegad, ki dairRveva wonasworoba eleqtronis moZraobiTgamowveul centridanul Zalasa da birTvsa da eleqtrons Sorisarsebul centriskenuli mizidulobis Zalas Soris. wonaswo-robis aRsadgenad eleqtronma unda gadainacvlos birTvisaken.amgvarad, eleqtroni, romelic ganuwyvetliv gamoasxivebs ener-gias, wonasworobis aRdgenis mizniT, TandaTanobiT miuaxlovde-ba birTvs da amowuravs ra Tavis energias, bolos unda daeces mas, ra SemTxvevaSic atomi Sewyvets arsebobas. yovelive es ki ewina-aRmdegeba atomis realur Tvisebas, rom is warmoadgens mdgrad sistemas da Zalze didi energiis moqmedebis gareSe, SeuZlia da-uSlelad arseboba Zalian didi xnis ganmavlobaSi.

garda amisa, rezerfordis Teorias ar SeuZlia axsnas atomu-ri speqtrebis xazovani xasiaTi. am Teoriis mixedviT atomurispeqtrebi unda iyos uwyveti, ramdenadac birTvis garSemo moZra-vi eleqtroni TandaTan uaxlovdeba ra birTvs, ganuwyvetliv un-da icvlides moZraobis siCqares, ris gamoc, mis mier gamosxivebu-li talRis sixSire, romelic ganisazRvreba eleqtronis brunvissiCqariT, agreTve unda icvlebodes ganuwyvetliv. gamomdinareaqedan, atomebis gamosxivebis speqtri unda yofiliyo uwyveti,romelic sinamdviles ar Seesabameba.

1.3.B boris Teoria

rogorc zemoT aRvniSneT, mecnierebis mier atomis aRnagobisramdenime modeli iqna mowodebuli, romelTa Soris yvelazemniSvnelovania rezerfordis planetaruli modeli, ramdenadacis zust eqsperimentul monacemebs efuZneboda. amave dros, es modeli mniSvnelovan winaaRmdegobebs moicavda, romelTa axsnaSeZlo danielma mecnierma nils borma. 1913 wels man SeimuSava Te-oria, romelSic erTmaneTs daukavSira atomis birTvuli modeli

9da maqs plankis sinaTlis kvanturi Teoria. am ukanasknelis Ta-naxmad, sxeulis mier sinaTlis energiis STanTqma an gamosxivebaxdeba ara uwyvetad, aramed wyvetilad diskretulad, calkeuliulufebis kvantebis saxiT. borma, romelic emyareboda gamosxi-vebis diskretul xasiaTs, CaTvala, rom eleqtronis energiaatomSi icvleba ara uwyvetad, aramed diskretulad. amdenad,atomSi SesaZlebelia eleqtronis mxolod garkveuli mdgomareo-bebi, an sxva sityvebiT atomSi eleqtronis energetikuli mdgo-mareobebi dakvantulia. Tavisi Teoriis ZiriTadi debulebebiborma Camoayaliba postulatebis saxiT, romlebic SemdegSimdgomareobs:

1. eleqtroni birTvis garSemo brunavs ara nebismier, aramedmkacrad gansazRvrul, e.w. stacionarul wriul orbitebze.

2. stacionarul orbitaze moZraobisas eleqtroni ar asxi-vebs da ar STanTqavs energias.

3. eleqtronis mier energiis gamosxiveba an STanTqma xdebanaxtomiseburad, erTi stacionaruli orbitidan meoreze gadas-vlisas. birTvTan axlos mdebare orbitidan, ufro dacilebulorbitaze gadasvla xorcieldeba energiis STanTqmis Sedegad da piriqiT dacilebuli orbitidan birTvTan ufro axlos mdebareorbitaze gadasvla dakavSirebulia energiis gamosxivebasTan.eleqtromagnituri gamosxivebis kvantis energia tolia sawyis da saboloo mdgomareobebSi atomis energiebis sxvaobebisa. E = hv-dan:

E = E2 E1 = h2 h1Bborma stacionaruli orbitis mdgradobis da eleqtronis

stacionarul orbitaze sruli energiis gamoTvlis pirobebis gaTvaliswinebiT gamoiyvana stacionaruli orbitis radiusis, masze eleqtronis moZraobis siCqarisa da energiis gamoTvlis formulebi:

r = 2 2

2

nkme

; v = 2ke

n; E =

2 4

2 2

mk e2n

,

sadac m eleqtronis masaa, n orbitis nomeri, h plankis mudmiva.

rogorc Semdeg dadasturda, energiis es mniSvneloba karg SesabamisobaSi modis wyalbadis atomisaTvis Sredingeris ganto-lebis amoxsnis gziT miRebul gamosaxulebasTan (ix. qvemoT, 1.37).

boris postulatebi mkveTrad ewinaaRmdegeboda klasikuri fizikis warmodgenebs, magram misma Teoriam maSinve hpova didi aRiareba. boris gamoTvlebi wyalbadis atomisaTvis brwyinvaled daemTxva eqsperimentis Sedegebs. ufro metic, Tavisi Teoriis safuZvelze iwinaswarmetyvela wyalbadis ucnobi speqtruli seriebis arseboba, rac momavalSi marTlacdadasturda.

magram boris Teoriis triumfi mainc sruli ar iyo. male gamoirkva, rom igi zustad xsnis mxolod wyalbadis atomis agebulebas. ufro rTuli atomebisaTvis Teoria iZleoda mxolod Tvisebrivad miaxloebiT suraTs.

1916 wels, germanelma arnold zomerfeldma dauSva, rom eleqtronebi moZraobs ara mxolod wriul, aramed elifsur orbitebzec. aseTi

10

srulyofis miuxedavad bor-zomerfeldis Teoria mainc uZluri aRmoCnda mTeli rigi sakiTxebis garkvevaSi.

1.4. bor-zomerfeldis Teoriis ZiriTadi naklovanebebi

bor-zomerfeldis Teorias, misi udidesi mniSvnelobis miu-xedavad gaaCnia mTeli rigi arsebiTi naklovanebebi, romelTa So-ris gansakuTrebiT aRsaniSnavia Semdegi:

1. am TeoriaSi klasikuri fizikis, kerZod, nawilakebis moZ-raobis kanonebi, meqanikurad aris Serwymuli dakvantvis weseb-Tan, e.i. igi aris hibridi~ SeuTavsebeli debulebebisa.

2. wyalbad-atomis umartives SemTxvevaSic ki, am TeoriisfarglebSi SesaZlebelia mxolod ganisazRvros gamosxivebis six-Sire an speqtruli xazis Sesabamisi talRis sigrZe; rac SeexebamaT intensiurobas, misi gamoTvla, Sesabamisi modelis fargleb-Si, ver xerxdeba.

3. bor-zomerfeldis Teorias ar ZaluZs mravaleleqtronia-ni atomebis struqturis aRwera, kerZod, ukve heliumis SemTxve-vaSi igi awydeba gadaulaxav winaaRmdegobas.

4. es Teoria ver xsnis wyalbadis atomis gamosxivebis (emisi-uri) speqtris zewminda struqturas (zeemanis anomalur efeqts, romlis Tanaxmad magnitur velSi adgili aqvs speqtruli xazebisdaxleCas~ anu zewminda struqturis gamovlenas);

5. bor-zomerfeldis Teoriis farglebSi SeuZlebelia qimi-uri bmis bunebis raodenobrivi axsna. magaliTad, H2

+ (molekulu-ri ionis) bmis gaxleCis energia am Teoriis mixedviT uaryofiTiamaSin, rodesac am bmis gaxleCis energia +255 kj/molis tolia.

miuxedavad am Teoriebis progresuli xasiaTisa, maT ver SeZ-les srulyofilad daexasiaTebinaT atomis aRnagoba.

bor-zomerfeldis Teoria aris imis damadasturebeli, rom bunebis kanonebis (romlebic samarTliania makrosamyarosaTvis)meqanikuri gadatana mikrosamyaroSi marTebuli ar aris. mikrona-wilakebi: atomebi, eleqtronebi, fotonebi ar eqvemdebarebianmakrosxeulebisaTvis arsebul kanonebs; amitom dRis wesrigSidadga axali, ufro srulyofili Teoriis Seqmnis aucilebloba.es Teoria aRmoCnda kvanturi anu talRuri meqanika.

1.5. atomis agebulebis kvanturi Teoriis elementebi.mikronawilakebis korpuskulur-talRuri dualizmi

boris Teoriisagan gansxvavebiT, kvanturi meqanika uaryofseleqtronebis moZraobas fiqsirebul orbitebze. is eleqtrone-bis moZraobas aniWebs albaTur (statistikur) xasiaTs. amavedros kvanturi meqanika gamodis im mosazrebidan, rom eleqtronsaxasiaTebs rogorc nawilakis, ise talRuri buneba (talRis Tvise-

11

bebi aiwereba talRuri funqciiT sinusoidiT). am movlenas kor-puskulur-talRuri dualizmi (orbunebovneba) ewodeba. pirveladaseTi orbunebovneba dadginda sinaTlisaTvis. sinaTlis talRurbunebaze miuTiTebda difraqciisa da interferenciis movlenebi;korpuskulurze ki fotoefeqtis (magaliTad, metalebis miereleqtronebis gamosxiveba maTi ganaTebisas) movlena (georg herci).

fotoefeqti ewodeba metalebisa da naxevargamtarebis miereleqtronebis gamosxivebas maTi ganaTebisas, dasxivebisas. sinaT-lis talRuri Teoriis Tanaxmad, gamotyorcnili eleqtronebisenergia E proporciuli unda iyos ganaTebulobisa. Mmagram cda aCve-nebs, rom E ar aris damokidebuli ganaTebulobaze. aRmoCnda, rom eleqtronebis maqsimaluri energia Emaqs. Seesabameba ainStainis ka-nons fotoefeqtisaTvis:

Emaqs = h-A , (1.22)sadac A aris metalidan eleqtronis gamosvlis muSaoba.

es gantoleba miiReba, Tu davuSvebT, rom fotoni aris nawi-laki, romelic flobs h energias da romelsac igi gadascemseleqtronebs metalSi.

amgvarad, fotoefeqti sruliad gansazRvrulad miuTiTebsgamosxivebis korpuskulur bunebaze, xolo interferencia da difraqcia aseve gansazRvrulad miuTiTebs sinaTlis talRurbunebaze. aqedan gamomdinareobs daskvna, rom fotonebis moZrao-ba xasiaTdeba gansakuTrebuli kanonebiT, romlebSic Serwymuliarogorc korpuskuluri, ise talRuri maxasiaTeblebi.

kvanturma Teoriam gaaerTiana da axsna sinaTlis orbunebovne-ba. am Teoriis mixedviT sinaTlis gamosxiveba xdeba eleqtromagni-turi talRebis saxiT, magram ara uwyvetad, aramed wyvetilad, cal-keuli ulufebis, anu kvantebis saxiT, romlis energia (E) gamosxive-bis sixSirezea () damokidebuli: E = h (maqs plankis gantoleba). al-bert ainStainma daamtkica, rom eleqtromagnitur gamosxivebas aqvs rogorc talRis, ise nawilakis (korpuskulis) Tvisebebi.

eleqtromagnituri gamosxivebis nawilaks ewodeba fotoni,romlis talRuri Tvisebebi aiwereba gantolebiT:

= cxolo korpuskuluri maqs plankis gantolebiT:

E = halbert ainStainis cnobili (E = mc2) gantolebis da maqs plan-

kis zemoT motanili gantolebis SepirispirebiT viRebT:

h = mc2Tu gaviTvaliswinebT, rom = c/, maSin:

hc/ = mc2, saidanac: = h/mc (1.23)

12

toloba (3.23) miRebulia im varaudiT, rom fotons axasiaTebsrogorc korpuskuluri, ise talRuri Tvisebebi. am gantolebaSiCadebulia sinaTlis orbunebovneba.

frangma mecnierma lui de broilma gaakeTa genialuri aRmoCe-na, rodesac dauSva, rom korpuskulur-talRuri buneba aqvs nebis-mier mikronawilaks da kerZod, eleqtronsac. Tu mis moZraobasganvixilavT rogorc talRur process, misTvis gamoiyvaneba gan-toleba, sadac erTmaneTTan dakavSirebulia eleqtronis, zoga-dad nawilakis masa (korpuskuluri Tviseba) da talRis sigrZe (-talRuri Tviseba):

= h/meve , (1.24)sadac me eleqtronis masaa, talRis sigrZe, ve moZraobis siC-qare.

talRebs, romelic Seesabameba moZrav mikronawilakebs, de broilis talRebi uwodes.

de broilis varaudi SemdgomSi dadasturda. 1927 wels ameri-kelma fizikosebma klinton jozefD devisonma da lester hal-bert jermerma aRmoaCines eleqtronebis difraqcia, rac eleq-tronebis talRur bunebaze miuTiTebda. SemdegSi dadginda, rom sxva nawilakebsac (magaliTad, neitronebi, wyalbadis molekule-bi, heliumis atomebi da a.S.) axasiaTebs difraqcia, romlebicsxvadasxva struqturuli gamokvlevebisaTvis gamoiyeneba. amgva-rad, mikroobieqtebis ormagi korpuskulur-talRuri bunebawarmoadgens saimedod dadgenil faqts.

Tu gamoviTvliT sxvadasxva obieqtisaTvis -s mniSvnlobas, ma-Sin aRmoCndeba, rom makroobieqtebisaTvis es mniSvnelobebi usas-rulod mcirea. Aase, magaliTad, 1 g masis nawilakisaTvis, romelicmoZraobs 1 sm/wm siCqariT, = 6.610-27 sm. makroobieqtebis talRuriTvisebebi araferSi ar mJRavndeba. Tu talRis sigrZe mniSvnelov-nad mcirea atomis zomaze (~10-8), maSin SeuZlebelia avagoT dif-raqciuli meseri an sxva romelime xelsawyo, romelic aRmoaCensnawilakis talRur bunebas. sxva saqmea mikronawilakebi. magaliT-ad, 1 v potencialiT aCqarebuli eleqtronisaTvis, roca = 5.92107 sm/wm, = 1,2310-7 sm.

eleqtronebis (an sxva mikronawilakebis) nakadis difraqciul me-serSi gavlis Sedegad am nakadis intensivoba erTi mimarTulebiT iz-rdeba, xolo meore mimarTulebiT mcirdeba, rogorc es damaxasiaTe-belia talRebisaTvis, romelTa talRis sigrZe Seesabameba de broi-lis gantolebas. eleqtronebis nakadis intensivoba gansazRvravs ek-ranis sxvadasxva ubanze eleqtronebis moxvedris albaTobas.

amgvarad, sivrceSi mikronawilakebis moZraobis xasiaTi, yof-nis albaTobis ganawileba aRiwereba kanonzomierebiT, romlebicanalogiuria talRuri moZraobis kanonzomierebisa. amaSi vlin-deba mikronawilakebis ormagi korpuskulur-talRuri buneba,anu maTi korpuskulur-talRuri dualizmi, rac kvanturi meqani-kis erT-erT ZiriTad debulebas warmoadgens.

13

kvanturi meqanikis meore ZiriTadi debulebaa e.w. ganuzRvre-lobis principi (verner karl haizenbergi, 1927 w).

es principi SemdegSi mdgomareobs. SeuZlebelia erTdro-ulad zustad ganisazRvros mikronawilakis moZraobis siCqare(impulsi) da adgilmdebareoba (koordinati). rac ufro zustadganisazRvreba mikronawilakis koordinati (x), miT ufro ganuzR-vreli xdeba misi impulsi da piriqiT, rac ufro zustad ariscnobili impulsi, miT ufro ganuzRvrelia koordinati. ganuzR-vrelobis Tanafardobas aqvs Semdegi saxe:

x an xV /m, (1.25)sadac x aris nawilakis mdebareobis koordinatis ganuzRvrelo-ba, Px da V impulsisa da siCqaris mdgenlebis (x koordinatismimarTulebiT) ganuzRvreloba, m mikronawilakis masa.

ramdenadac sidide , romelic Sedis ganuzRvrelobis Tanafar-dobaSi, Zalian mcirea, m ki didi, makroobieqtebisaTvis koordinate-bisa da impulsebis mniSvnelobebis ganuzRvreloba srulad umniSvne-loa, maT mier ganpirobebuli efeqtebi verc erTi xelsawyoTi ver ga-movlindeba. makroobieqtebis moZraobis aRwerisas saWiroa ganvixi-loT maTi zusti traeqtoria da visargebloT klasikuri meqanikiT.

1.6. Sredingeris gantoleba. talRuri funqcia

1925-1926 wlebSi haizenbergma da Sredingerma SeimuSaves axa-li meqanika, romelic aRwerda mikronawilakebis moZraobas. mik-roobieqtebis meqanikam miiRo saxelwodeba: `kvanturi meqanika~.niutonis kanonebze damyarebul meqanikas, romelic aRwers mak-rosxeulebis moZraobas, uwodeben klasikur meqanikas.

bor-zomerfeldis Teoriisagan gansxvavebiT kvanturi meqani-ka ar warmoadgens klasikuri meqanikis kanonebis dakvantvis we-sebTan xelovnur SeerTebas. es aris mwyobri Teoria, damyarebu-li cnebebis sistemaze, romelic ar Seicavs winaaRmdegobebs. yve-la Sedegi, miRebuli kvanturi meqanikis safuZvelze, srul Sesa-bamisobaSia eqsperimentTan.

mikronawilakebis moZraoba kvantur meqanikaSi aiwereba Sredin-geris gantolebiT, romelic asrulebs igive rols, rasac klasikurmeqanikaSi niutonis kanonebi. rogorc niutonis kanonebi, ise es gan-toleba, SeuZlebelia gamoviyvanoT romelime sxva fundamenturi de-bulebebidan. is miRebul iqna Sredingeris mier klasikuri meqanikisada optikis kanonzomierebebs Soris analogiis analizis safuZvelze.

Sredingeris gantoleba warmoadgens diferencialur ganto-lebas kerZo warmoebulebSi. erTi nawilakis stacionaruli mdgo-mareobisaTvis mas aqvs Semdegi saxe:

2 2 2 2

2 2 2 2

8 m(E U) 0

x y z h

(1.26),

14

sadac aris cvladi sidide, U potenciuri energia, E sruli energia, x, y, z koordinatebi.

xSirad am gantolebas weren kompaqturi formiT:

H= E (1.27)H simboloTi, romelsac ewodeba hamiltonis operatori an hamiltonia-

ni, aRniSnaven yvela maTematikur moqmedebas, romelsac awarmoeben marcxenanawilSi sidideze.

cvlad sidides ewodeba talRuri funqcia. mis kvadrats 2-saqvs gansazRvruli fizikuri azri: namravli 2dV tolia mocu-lobis dV elementSi gansaxilveli nawilakis yofnis albaTobisa.2 sidides ewodeba albaTobis simkvrive, xolo Tu saubaria eleq-tronze, eleqtronuli simkvrive.

talRuri funqciis fizikuri arsis Sesabamisad, is unda iyos dasrulebuli, uwyveti da calsaxa, aseve unda gadaiqces nuladsivrcis im adgilebSi, sadac nawilaks ar SeuZlia yofna. magaliT-ad, atomSi eleqtronis moZraobis ganxilvisas unda gaxdes nu-lis toli birTvidan usasrulod did manZilze.

Sredingeris gantolebidan pouloben sistemis srul E energi-as da (da 2) funqciis damokidebulebas koordinatebisagan, e.i.eleqtronuli simkvrivis ganawilebas atomebisa da molekulebi-saTvis. Sredingeris gantolebis amoxsnas yovelTvis mivyavarTenergiis dasaSvebi mniSvnelobebis wyebamde. amgvarad, Teoriuladgamoiyvaneba cdidan cnobili energiis dakvantva. aRsaniSnavia,rom es Sedegi miiReba gantolebidan, romelic TviTon ar Seicavsromelime ricxvebis wyebas. vipoviT ra E-sa da (x,y,z)-s, SeiZlebagamoviTvaloT gansaxilveli sistemis nebismieri eqsperimentu-lad gansazRvruli maxasiaTebeli.

Sredingeris gantolebis zusti analizuri amoxsna SesaZle-belia mxolod erTeleqtroniani sistemebisaTvis. ufro rTul amocanebSi iyeneben miaxloebiT meTodebs, romlebiTac sargeb-lobs kvanturi qimia.

kvanturi meqanikis cnebebis sistema mkveTrad gansxvavdebaklasikuri meqanikis cnebebisagan. kvanturi meqanika ganixilavsnawilakebis yofnis albaTobas da arafers ambobs nawilakebistraeqtoriaze, mis koordinatebze da siCqareze drois ama Tu im momentSi. am cnebas (traeqtoria) kvantur meqanikaSi ar aqvs azri.magram masSi inarCuneben TavianT mniSvnelobebs masis, energiisada nawilakis impulsis momentis cnebebi. Tumca unda gvaxsovdes,rom warmodgena moZraobaze kvantur meqanikaSi mkveTrad gan-sxvavdeba klasikurisagan, sadac nawilakebis moZraobis daxasia-Tebisas zemoaRniSnul kategoriebs gverds ver avuvliT. kvanturmeqanikaSi xSirad gamoTqmis, `eleqtronis moZraoba~ (atomSi, mo-lekulaSi da a.S.), nacvlad iyeneben termins `eleqtronis mdgoma-reoba~.

15

1.7. kvanturi ricxvebi

wyalbadis atoms aqvs yvelaze martivi aRnagoba. masSi aris mxolod erTi eleqtroni, romelic moZraobs birTvis velSi. aseTi sistemisaTvis potenciuri energiis funqcias, romelic Sedis Sredingeris gantolebaSi, aqvs Semdegi saxe:

U = r

e2 (1.28),

sadac r aris manZili birTvsa da eleqtrons Soris. mocemul SemTxvevaSi Sredingeris gantolebis amoxsnisas sargebloben

koordinatebis polaruli sistemiT, romlis centri emTxveva atomis birTvs (nax. 1.3).

naxazi 1.3. koordinatTa polaruli sistema. Riaferis isari warmoadgens radius-veqtoris proeqcias xy sibrtyeze.

Tu koordinatebis marTkuTxa (dekartis*) sistemaSi nawilakis mdebare-oba aiwereba x, y, z koordinatebiT, polarul sistemaSi is ganisazRvreba rradius-veqtoriT (manZiliT nawilaksa da koordinatTa sistemis centrs So-ris) (ganedis kuTxiT) da (grZedis kuTxiT) kuTxeebiT. sworkuTxovani ko-ordinatebi polarulTan dakavSirebulia Semdegi TanafardobebiT:

x = rsincos;y = rsinsin;

z = rcos.talRuri funqciis amonaxsns sami funqciis namravlis saxe aqvs.

yoveli funqcia Seicavs mxolod erT cvlads:

(r, , ) = R(r)()() (1.29)gamosaxulebas R(r) ewodeba talRuri funqciis radialuri nawili,

namravli ()() ki Seadgens mis kuTxur nawils.Sredingeris gantolebis amoxsnaSi Cndeba sami sidide, ro--

melTac SeuZliaT miiRon mxolod mTelricxva mniSvnelobebi sami kvanturi ricxvi. isini aRiniSneba asoebiT n, da m. es sidi-deebi Sedian talRuri funqciis rogorc radialuri, ise kuTxu-ri mdgenlebis gamosaxulebaSi.

16

ufro zogadi saxiT Sredingeris gantolebis amoxsnis Sedegi wyalbadisatomisaTvis SeiZleba gamoisaxos qvemoT motanili funqciebis saxiT:

R(r) = f1(n,) (1.30),() = f2(,m) (1.31),() = f3(m) (1.32).

kvantur ricxvebs n, da m SeuZliaT miiRon Semdegi mniSvne-lobebi:

n = 1, 2, 3, (1.33), = 0, 1, 2, , (n1) (1.34),m = 0, 1, 2, , (1.35).

kvanturi ricxvebi n, da m axasiaTeben eleqtronis mdgoma-reobas ara marto wyalbadis atomSi, aramed nebismier sxva atomSi.

bor-zomerfeldis Teoriisagan gansxvavebiT, romlis mixed-viT eleqtroni moZraobs gansazRvrul orbitebze, kvanturi me-qanika gviCvenebs, rom eleqtrons SeuZlia imyofebodes atomisnebismier wertilSi, magram misi yofnis albaToba moculobissxvadasxva ubanSi ar aris erTnairi.

atomSi eleqtronis moZraobaze Tanamedrove warmodgenebs Seesabameba cneba eleqtronuli Rrublis Sesaxeb (nax. 1.4), rom-lis simkvrive moculobis sxvadasxva wertilSi ganisazRvreba si-didiT 2. eleqtronuli Rrubeli aris sivrcis nawili, sadaceleqtronis mdebareobis albaToba maRalia. eleqtronul Rru-bels grafikulad gamosaxavs polaruli diagrama (ix. qvemoT),romelic sxvadasxva mdgomareobaTa erTobliobaa. eleqtronuliRrublis Sesabamisi monakveTebis simkvrive proporciulia iq eleqtronis mdebareobis albaTobisa.

amJamad gamoTqmis, `orbita~, nacvlad sargebloben terminiT`orbitali~, romelic mocemuli kvanturi ricxvebis pirobebSi,iZleva garkveul sivrceSi eleqtronis yofnis (mdebareobis) al-baTobis ganawilebas. talRur funqcias, romelic axasiaTebs or-bitals, xSirad simoklisaTvis uwodeben agreTve orbitals. sa-sazRvro zedapiris forma da zoma miRebulia CaiTvalos Sesaba-misi orbitalis formad da zomad. orbitali moicavs Sesabamisieleqtronuli Rrublis 90%-s.

atomSi eleqtronebis mdgomareobis daxasiaTebis Casaweradsargebloben Semdegi aRniSvnebiT: kvanturi ricxvi n aRiniSnebacifrebiT, xolo -s aRniSnaven laTinuri anbanis patara asoebiTSemdegi cxrilis (cxrili 1.1) Sesabamisad:

cxrili 1.1

-is mniSvneloba 0 1 2 3 4 5aRniSvna s p d f g h

pirveli oTxi aso emTxveva atomis speqtruli seriebis aRniS-vnebs. [s sharp (mkveTri), p principal (mTavari), d diffuse (difuzu-ri), f fundamental (fundamenturi)]. am seriebis warmoSoba ganpi-

17

robebulia eleqtronebis gadasvlebiT, romlebic Seesabamebiankvanturi ricxvis -is gansazRvrul mniSvnelobebs.

naxazi 1.4. atomebSi eleqtronebis sxvadasxva mdgomareobebis eleqtronuli Rrublebis formebi (polaruli diagramebi 2).

arsebobs talRuri funqciebis grafikuli warmosaxvis sxva-dasxva xerxi. eleqtronuli Rrublis formas mniSvnelovan wiladgansazRvravs talRuri funqciis kuTxuri mdgeneli ()(). misigamosaxvisaTvis xSirad sargebloben polaruli diagramebiT. Tu koordinatTa sistemis centridan (atomis birTvi) yvela SesaZle-beli kuTxiT avagebT usasrulod bevr monakveTs, romlebic gani-sazRvreba ()()-is mniSvnelobebiT, maSin am monakveTebis bo-lo wertilebi warmoqmnian gansazRvrul zedapirs, romelic axa-siaTebs orbitalis formas. polaruli diagrama aris am zedapi-ris gamosaxuleba. xSirad iyeneben polarul diagramebs, romle-bic warmoadgenen ara TviT ()() sidides, aramed mis kvadrats.nax. 3.4-ze warmodgenilia 2 polaruli diagramebi, romlebicgviCveneben eleqtronuli Rrublis formas eleqtronis zogier-Ti mdgomareobisaTvis.

kvantur ricxvebs aqvT Zalian didi mniSvneloba qimiuri ele-mentebis Tvisebebisa da qimiuri bmis bunebis gasagebad. kvanturiricxvebi n, da m gansazRvraven eleqtronuli Rrublis geomet-

18

riul Taviseburebebs. isini, agreTve, dakavSirebulia eleqtro-nis moZraobis fizikur maxasiaTeblebTan.

Tu viciT atomSi eleqtronuli simkvrivis ganawileba, SeiZlebagamoviTvaloT birTvidan eleqtronis saSualo manZili rsaS., rome-lic axasiaTebs orbitalis zomas. rsaS. sidide ganisazRvreba n-isa da -is mniSvnelobebiT. wyalbadis atomsa da wyalbadis msgavs ionebSi(He+, Li2+, ) eleqtronisaTvis rsaS. gamoisaxeba TanafardobiT:

rsaS. = Z

na 20 1+2

11 2n

)1+(, (1.36)

sadac Z aris birTvis muxti, a0 boris pirveli orbitis radiusi (r1), [e.i. rsaS. = f (n

2, Z, )].atomis kvantur mdgomareobas umciresi energiis mniSvnelo-

biT E1, ewodeba ZiriTadi mdgomareoba, xolo Ei > E1 energetikulmdgomareobebs aRgznebuli mdgomareobebi; atomi ZiriTadmdgomareobaSi imyofeba ganusazRvrel dros, xolo aRgznebulSi Zalze mcire xans (10-8-10-10 wm). atomi aRgznebul mdgomareobaSigadadis energiis STanTqmiT. aRgznebuli mdgomareobidan Ziri-Tad mdgomareobaSi dabrunebisas atomi energias gamoasxivebs.

1.36 gantolebidan Cans, rom rsaS. sidide daaxloebiT n2-is pro-

porciulia. amdenad, SeiZleba iTqvas, rom kvanturi ricxvi n gan-sazRvravs eleqtronis orbitalis zomas.

wyalbadis atomSi eleqtronis energia damokidebulia mxolod nricxvze. Sredingeris gantolebis amoxsna gvaZlevs Tanafardobas:

E = 2 4

2 2

mk e2n

(1.37)

rogorc Cans, miiReba iseTive gamosaxuleba, rogorc borisTeoriaSi, magram ukanasknelisagan gansxvavebiT kvanturi meqani-ka midis am Sedegamde Sredingeris gantolebis amoxsnis gziT da ara TviTneburi daSvebiT, rom eleqtronebi moZraoben gansazR-vrul wyeba orbitebze, romlebic mTeli ricxvebis rigis meSveo-biT gamoiangariSeba.

imis gamo, rom n gansazRvravs wyalbadis atomSi eleqtronisZiriTad maxasiaTebels mis energias, am sididem miiRo mTavarikvanturi ricxvis saxelwodeba. kvantur ricxvs -s uwodeben or-bitalurs. is gansazRvravs eleqtronis impulsis orbitalur mo-ments M-s:

M = )1+( MY (1.38)impulsis momenti warmoadgens veqtors. misi mimarTuleba ga-

nisazRvreba kvanturi ricxviT m-iT, e.i. m axasiaTebs orbita-lis ganlagebas (orientacias) sivrceSi. veqtoris mimarTulebaSeiZleba gansazRvros proeqciis sididem romelime RerZze,magaliTad, z RerZze. SeiZleba moinaxos impulsis orbitaluri

19

momentis proeqcia mxolod erT RerZze, sxva proeqciebis monaxvadauSvebelia ganuzRvrelobis TanafardobiT. Tu Cven gvecodine-ba sami proeqcia (x, y, da z RerZebze), maSin cnobili iqnebodaeleqtronis moZraobis traeqtoria. eleqtronis impulsis orbi-taluri momentis proeqcia ganisazRvreba TanafardobiT:

Mz = m (1.39)kvantur ricxvs m ewodeba magnituri, radganac maszea damoki-

debuli eleqtronis orbitaluri magnituri momentis proeqcia.kvanturi ricxvebi n, da m, romlebic miiReba wyalbadis

atomisaTvis Sredingeris gantolebis amoxsniT, srulad ver axa-siaTeben eleqtronis moZraobas atomebSi. speqtrebis SeswavlamaCvena, rom am maxasiaTeblebs unda davumatoT kidev erTi. ro-gorc cda aCvenebs, eleqtrons aqvs fundamenturi Tviseba (iseTi-ve rogorc masa, muxti da sxv.), romelsac spini ewodeba (diraki).eleqtrons aqvs RerZi da moZraobis mimarTuleba. spini mJRav-ndeba eleqtronis impulsis sakuTari momentisa da masTan dakav-Sirebuli magnituri momentis arsebobaSi. gamartivebulad spiniSeiZleba warmovidginoT rogorc sakuTari RerZis garSemo eleq-tronis brunva. rogorc eqsperimentulma gamokvlevebma aCvena,eleqtronis impulsis sakuTari momentis proeqciam SeiZleba mii-

Ros mxolod ori mniSvneloba + 2

1da

2

1. niSnebi `plusi~ da `mi-

nusi~ Seesabameba eleqtronis brunvis sxvadasxva mimarTulebas.amitom atomis aRnagobis TeoriaSi Semotanilia kidev spinurikvanturi ricxvi ms, romelsac SeiZleba hqondes mxolod ori

mniSvneloba +2

1da

2

1, e.i. rogorc danarCeni kvanturi ricxvebi,

gansxvavdebian erTiT.oTxi kvanturi ricxvi n, , m da ms mTlianad axasiaTeben atomSi

eleqtronis moZraobas. araviTari sxva kvanturi ricxvebisagan da-moukidebeli maxasiaTeblebi am moZraobas ar SeiZleba hqondes.

ramdenadac wyalbadis atomSi eleqtronis energia ganisazR-vreba sididiT n da ar aris damokidebuli danarCen kvantur ricx-vebze, cxadia, SeiZleba iyos erTnairi energiis eleqtronis sxva-dasxva mdgomareoba. es mdgomareobebi warmoadgenen gadagvare-buls. gadagvareba qreba atomSi eleqtronze gare eleqtruli an magnituri velis zemoqmedebiT. eleqtroni n-is erTi da igive,magram m-isa da ms-is sxvadasxva mniSvnelobis mdgomareobebSisxvadasxvagvarad moqmedebs gare velTan, ris Sedegad eleqtro-nis energiebi am mdgomareobebSi xdeba araerTnairi. amiT aixsnebaspeqtruli xazebis gaxleCa gamosxivebis wyaros eleqtrul an magnitur velSi moTavsebisas (Starkisa da zeemanis efeqtebi).

wyalbadis atomze naTqvami srulad gamoiyeneba sxva analogi-uri erTeleqtroniani sistemebisaTvis ionebisaTvis He+, Li2+ daa.S. eleqtronis energia am SemTxvevaSi gamoisaxeba TanafardobiT:

20

E = 2

122

242

n

Zemk

(1.40).

rogorc wyalbadis atomSi, ise mravaleleqtronian atomebSiyoveli eleqtronis mdgomareoba ganisazRvreba oTxi kvanturi ri-cxvis n, , m da ms mniSvnelobebiT. am ricxvebs SeuZliaT miiRon ise-Tive mniSvnelobebi, rac damaxasiaTebelia wyalbadis atomisaTvis.

mravaleleqtronian atomebSi eleqtroni moZraobs ara mxolodbirTvis velSi, aramed sxva eleqtronebis velSic. am faqtoris gav-lenas mivyavarT iqamde, rom energia eleqtronebisa, romlebsacaqvT erTnairi n, magram sxvadasxva , xdeba sxvadasxva. amgvarad, mra-valeleqtronian atomebSi eleqtronebis energia ganisazRvrebaori kvanturi ricxvis n-isa da -is mniSvnelobebiT. amasTan energiaizrdeba rogorc n-is, aseve -is gazrdasTan erTad. energiis damoki-debuleba -isagan xdeba miT ufro SesamCnevi n-isagan damokidebu-lebasTan SedarebiT, rac ufro met eleqtrons Seicavs atomi. atomSi eleqtronTa erTobliobas, romelTac aqvT n-is erT-nairi mniSvneloba da romelic gansazRvravs birTvisagan eleq-tronis saSualo manZils, ewodeba eleqtronuli Sre (done).eleqtronuli Sreebi aRiniSneba laTinuri anbanis didi asoebiTqvemoT motanili cxrilis (cxrili 1.2) Sesabamisad:

cxrili 1.2

n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7Sris aRniSvna K L M N O P Q

eleqtronebi n-isa da -is erTnair mdgomareobebSi Seadgeneneleqtronul garss (qvedone). arCeven s-garss, p-garss da a.S.eleqtronebze, romelTac aqvT erTnairi n, da m, amboben, rom isini ikaveben gansazRvrul orbitals. erT orbitalze SeiZlebaimyofebodes ori eleqtroni sawinaaRmdego spinebiT. garszeeleqtronebis maqsimaluri ricxvi tolia 2(2+1), Sreze ki 2n2.

1.8. Sreebis, garsebisa da orbitalebis Sevsebis wesebi

orbitali pirobiTad aRiniSneba ujrediT (kvadratiT), ro-melsac ewodeba kvanturi ujredi:

eleqtroni aRiniSneba isriT, romelsac SeiZleba hqondes mi-

marTuleba qvemodan zemoT (pirobiTad ms = +2

1) an zemodan qve-

21

moT (pirobiTad ms = 2

1). orbitali SeiZleba iyos Tavisufali

an dasaxlebuli erTi an ori eleqtroniT. rogorc ukve aRiniSna,Sreebi (doneebi) Sedgeba garsebisagan (qvedoneebisgan), xolo es ukanasknelni orbitalebisagan. pirvel anu K Sres (n = 1) aqvs erTi garsi s-garsi ( = 0), romelsac, Tavis mxriv, aqvs mxoloderTi orbitali (m = 0). meore anu L Sres (n = 2) aqvs ori garsi s-garsi ( = 0) da p-garsi ( = 1), romelsac, Tavis mxriv, aqvs sami or-bitali (m = 1,0,+1). mesame anu M Sres (n = 3) aqvs sami garsi s-garsi ( = 0), p-garsi ( = 1) da d-garsi ( = 2), romelsac, Tavismxriv, aqvs xuTi orbitali (m = 2,1,0,+1,+2). meoTxe (n = 4), mexuTe(n = 5), meeqvse (n = 6) da meSvide (n = 7) Sreebs aqvT oTx-oTxi garsi s-garsi ( = 0), p-garsi ( = 1), d-garsi ( = 2) da f-garsi ( = 3), ro-melsac, Tavis mxriv, aqvs Svidi orbitali (m = 3,2,1,0,+1,+2,+3).amJamad cnobili qimiuri elementebisaTvis merve da ufro maRa-li donis Sreebis (n 8), agreTve g- da sxva garsebis ( 4) arsebo-ba normalur (aRugznebel) mdgomareobaSi saWiroebas ar warmo-adgens. mocemuli elementis atomSi eleqtronuli Sreebis rao-denoba im periodis nomris tolia, romelSic es elementi aris moTavsebuli. eleqtronuli garsi aRiniSneba arabuli cifriTada laTinuri anbanis patara asoTi. magaliTad, Canaweri 1s niSnavspirveli Sris s-garss, 2p meore Sris p-garss da a.S. eleqtronebisraodenoba garsze aRiniSneba zeda marjvena kuTxeSi arabulicifriT. magaliTad, 3d7, rac imas niSnavs, rom mesame Sris d-garszeimyofeba Svidi eleqtroni.

eleqtronebiT Sreebis, garsebis da orbitalebis Sevseba eq-vemdebareba Semdeg wesebs:

umciresi energiis principi `eleqtroni Tavisufal orbi-talebs Soris pirvelyovlisa imas daikavebs, romlis energia uf-ro naklebia~.

orbitalebis energia ganisazRvreba kleCkovskis 2 wesiT:I. orbitalebis energia izrdeba mTavari da Tanauri

(orbitaluri) kvanturi ricxvebis jamis (n + ) zrdasTan erTad.II. mTavari da Tanauri kvanturi ricxvebis jamis (n + ) erTnai-

ri mniSvnelobis SemTxvevaSi im orbitalis energia aris naklebi,romlis mTavari kvanturi ricxvic naklebia.

am wesebis gaTvaliswinebiT miRebulia orbitalebis energiiszrdis Semdegi Tanmimdevroba:

1s

22

3p, n = 3, = 1, n + = 4;3d, n = 3, = 2, n + = 5;4s, n = 4, = 0, n + = 4;4p, n = 4, = 1, n + = 5;

4d, n = 4, = 2, n + = 6 da a.S.kleCkovskis pirveli wesis sailustraciod ganvixiloT me-19

eleqtronis (kaliumis atomSi) mier qvedonis Sevsebis SemTxveva.me-18 eleqtroni amTavrebs mesame Sris p-garsis Sevsebas. amasTanvakanturi rCeba amave Sris d-garsis xuTive orbitali da mTlianadmeoTxe Sre (kaliumi aris meoTxe periodis elementi). SevadaroTn + jami 3d-, 4s-, 4p-, 4d- da 4f-garsebisaTvis (cxrili 1.3):

cxrili 1.3

n

n +

3d 32 5

4s 404

4p4 15

4f 43 7

4

23

ricxvi (n, , m) ukve erTnairi aqvs, meoTxe kvanturi ricxvi ms (an ubralod, s) unda hqondes gansxvavebuli (sapirispiro). gamomdi-nare aqedan, mesame eleqtronis spini ukve arsebulTagan romeli-mes daemTxveva. e.i. erT orbitalze maqsimum SeiZleba imyofebo-des ori eleqtroni sapirispiro spiniT.

Ppaulisprincipi ganvixiloT 2s-garsis magaliTze. am Sem-Txveva-Si SesaZlebelia eleqtronebis ganlagebis oTxi varianti:

I.

pirveli (marcxena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = +

2

1

meore (marjvena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = +2

1.

II.

pirveli (marcxena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = 2

1

meore (marjvena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = 2

1.

III.

pirveli (marcxena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = +2

1

meore (marjvena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = 2

1.

IV.

pirveli (marcxena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = 2

1

meore (marjvena) eleqtronisaTvis n = 2, = 0, m = 0, ms = +2

1.

rogorc vxedavT, I da II variantebSi orive eleqtrons oTxivekvanturi ricxvi erTnairi aqvs, amitom aseTi ganlageba akrZalu-lia. rac Seexeba III da IV variantebs, erTi kvanturi ricxvi (ms)gansxvavebuli aqvT, amitom orive ganlageba dasaSvebia.

erTnairi energiis orbitalebze (gadagvarebul orbitaleb-ze) eleqtronebis ganawileba eqvemdebareba hundis wess.

hundis wesi: eleqtronuli garsebis Sevseba xdeba imgvarad,rom jamuri spinis absoluturi mniSvneloba iyos maqsimaluri.

24

es wesi ganvixiloT 2p-garsis magaliTze. ori eleqtronis Sem-TxvevaSi SesaZlebelia minimum eqvsi varianti:

I. |(+2

1) + (

2

1)| = 0

II. |(2

1) + (+

2

1)| = 0

III. |(+2

1) + (

2

1)| = 0

IV. |(2

1) + (+

2

1)| = 0

V. |(+2

1) + (+

2

1)| = 1

VI. |(2

1) + (

2

1)| = 1

rogorc vxedavT, jamuri spinis maqsimaluri mniSvneloba miiRe-ba mexuTe da meeqvse variantebSi, amitom Sesabamisi garsisaTvis,rodesac masze ganixileba ori eleqtronis yofna, SesaZlebeliamxolod mexuTe an meeqvse variantebi.

gansakuTrebuli mdgradobiT xasiaTdeba garsi, romelic Sev-sebulia mTlianad an naxevrad. es wesi ZiriTadad vrceldeba pir-veli jgufis B qvejgufis elementebisaTvis (Cu, Ag, Au), romelTaukanasknelis wina da ukanaskneli Sreebis eleqtronuli formulaaris ara (n-1)d9ns2, aramed (n-1)d10ns1 da meeqvse jgufis B qvejgufiselementebisaTvis Cr da Mo, romelTa ukanaskneliswina da ukanas-kneli Sreebis eleqtronuli formula aris ara (n-1)d4ns2, aramed (n-1)d5ns1, sadac n aris mTavari kvanturi ricxvi. aq adgili aqvs erTieleqtronis `Cavardnas~ (`gadaxtomas~) maRali donis Sris s-garsi-dan winamdebare Sris d-garsze, sadac eleqtronebis raodenoba er-TiT naklebia srul (10) an zustad naxevar (5) tevadobaze. zogierTSemTxvevaSi SesaZlebelia agreTve ori eleqtronis `Cavardna~ (ix. qvemoT, paladiumi (Pd). eleqtronebis `Cavardnas~ sxva elemente-bis SemTxvevaSi momdevno paragrafSi ganvixilavT.

1.9. atomebis eleqtronuli konfiguraciebi

paulis principis, umciresi energiis principisa da hundis we-sis gacnobis Semdeg ganvixiloT qimiuri elementebis eleqtro-

25

n = 1

s

n = 1

s

n = 1

s

n = 2p

n = 1

s

n = 2p

nuli konfiguraciebi. eleqtronuli konfiguracia SeiZleba ga-movsaxoT eleqtronuli formuliT, grafikuli xerxiT (e.w. kvan-turi ujredebis saSualebiT eleqtronul-grafikuli formu-la), atomuri orbitalebis CvenebiT. atomis eleqtronuli for-mula gviCvenebs eleqtronebis ganawilebas qvedoneebze (garseb-ze), magaliTad, He: 1s22s2; eleqtronul-grafikul formulaSi uj-redebSi naCvenebia spinebi.

ufro xSirad gamoiyeneba I da II xerxi. ganvixiloT qimiurielementebis konfiguraciebi, gamosaxuli orive xerxiT.

wyalbadis atomi. wyalbadis atomSi erTi eleqtronia. umci-resi energiis principis Tanaxmad es erTi eleqtroni wyalbadisaraaRgznebul atomSi moTavsebuli iqneba 1s qvedoneze. amrigad,wyalbadis atomis eleqtronuli formulaa 1s1. s-eleqtroni war-moqmnis sferosebr Rrubels. atomuri orbitali (ao) sqematuradSegviZlia gamovsaxoT ujrediT (kvanturi ujredi), romelSicmovaTavsebT isars, rac pirobiTad eleqtrons gamosaxavs, isrismimarTuleba ki am eleqtronis spinis mimarTulebas. maSin wyal-badis eleqtronuli konfiguracia, gamosaxuli orive (I da II) xer-xiT, ase warmodgeba:

1H 1s1

paulis principis Tanaxmad erT orbitalze SeiZleba moTav-sdes antiparaleluri spinis mqone ori eleqtroni. amitom wyalbadis Semdgomi elementis heliumis eleqtronuli konfi-guracia iqneba:

2He 1s2

heliumis atomSi mTavrdeba pirveli (K) energetikuli donisSevseba. es aris pirveli `Caketili~ (Sevsebuli) garsi.

liTiumi meore periodis elementia. misi sami eleqtronidanori (antiparaleluri spinebis mqone) moTavsdeba 1s orbitalze(heliumis analogiurad), xolo mesame umciresi energiis princi-pis Sesabamisad daikavebs 2s orbitals.

3Li 1s22s1

[He] 2s1

momdevno elementis beriliumis atomSi meoTxe eleqtroni (sawinaaRmdego spinis mqone) paulis principis Tanaxmad dai-kavebs imave 2s-orbitals:

4Be 1s22s2

[He] 2s2

26

n = 1

s

n = 2 p

n = 1

s

n = 2 p

n = 1

s

n = 2 p

n = 1

s

n = 2 p

n = 1

s

n = 2 p

sn = 3

n = 1

s

n = 2 p

Semdegi elementidan boridan umciresi energiis principis Tanaxmad iwyeba 2p qvedonis Sevseba:

5B 1s22s22p1

[He] 2s22p1

perioduli sistemis meeqvse elementis naxSirbadis atomSi meeqvse eleqtroni ar gauwyvildeba 2px-eleqtrons da hundis wesis Tanaxmad moTavsdeba Tavisufal 2py-orbitalze:

6C 1s22s22p2

[He] 2s22p2

analogiurad, hundis wesis Tanaxmad, azotis atomSi meSvide eleqtroni daikavebs Tavisufal 2pz-orbitals:

7N 1s22s22p3

[He] 2s22p3

Jangbadidan iwyeba 2p orbitalebis gawyvileba:

8O 1s22s22p4

[He] 2s22p4

9F 1s22s22p5

[He] 2s22p5

10Ne 1s22s22p6

[He] 2s22p6

rogorc vxedavT, keTilSobili airis, neonis atomSi mTavrde-ba meore (L) energetikuli donis Sevseba.

natriumiT iwyeba axali, mesame periodi da amdenad, mesame (M) energetikuli donis Sevseba. mesame (M) energetikuli done, ro-gorc viciT, Sedgeba sami qvedonisagan, romlebsac SeesabamebaerTi s, sami p da xuTi d orbitali. am sami qvedonidan mesame peri-

27

sn = 3

sn = 3 p

sn = 3 p

sn = 3 p

sn = 3 p

sn = 3 p

sn = 3 p

d

n = 4

sn = 3 p

sn = 3

odis elementebSi Seivseba mxolod 3s da 3p qvedone. mesame perio-dis yvela elementSi pirvel da meore energetikul doneebzeeleqtronebis ganawileba iseTivea, rogorc neonSi. amis safuZ-velze qvemoT mocemul gamartivebul (mocemulia mxolod garegarsis eleqtronebis ganawileba) grafikul formulebSi naCvene-bia mxolod M energetikuli donis Sevseba:

11Na [Ne] 3s1

12Mg [Ne] 3s2

13Al [Ne] 3s23p1

14Si [Ne] 3s23p2

15P [Ne] 3s

23p3

16S [Ne] 3s23p4

17Cl [Ne] 3s

23p5

18Ar [Ne] 3s23p6

rogorc vxedavT, keTilSobili airis argonis atomi iRebsrvaeleqtronian Sres.

meoTxe periodi iwyeba kaliumiT. zemoT Camoyalibebuli war-modgenebis Tanaxmad, am periodis elementebSi Seivseba 4s-, 3d- da 4p-qvedoneebi.

19K [Ar] 4s1

28

sn = 3 p

d

n = 4

sn = 3 p

d

n = 4

sn = 3 p

d

n = 4

sn = 3 p

d

n = 4

sn = 3 p

d

n = 4

20Ca [Ar] 4s2

energetikuli qvedoneebis SefardebiTi energiebidan gamom-dinare da umciresi energiis principis safuZvelze skandiumisa da mis momdevno elementebSi Seivseba 3d qvedone. Sevseba gan-xorcieldeba hundis wesis mixedviT:

21Sc [Ar] 4s23d1

22Ti [Ar] 4s23d2

23V [Ar] 4s23d3

vanadiumis momdevno elementia qromi. qromis SemTxveva ewinaaR-mdegeba zogad kanonzomierebas nacvlad [Ar] 4s23d4 gvaqvs [Ar] 4s13d5. aq erTi eleqtroni 4s qvedonidan gadadis 3d qvedoneze (4s 3d):

24Cr [Ar] 4s13d5

qromis SemTxvevaSi xorcieldeba e.w. s d gadasvla, romelic zogadad SegviZlia ase gamovsaxoT: nsa(n-1)dbnsa-1(n-1)ab+1 sadac nmTavari kvanturi ricxvia, a da b eleqtronebis ricxvi

29

am tipis gardaqmnas ganicdis agreTve spilenZi, molibdeni, vercxli, oqro da sxva. gansakuTrebiT unda aRiniSnos 46Pd paladiumi, romelSic 5s qvedonidan 4d qvedoneze gadadis erTbaSad ori eleqtroni (nacvlad 4d85s2 gvaqvs 4d10). amitom paladiumi erTaderTi elementia, romlis gare Sreze rvaze meti (kerZod Tvrameti) eleqtronia da romelSic energetikuli doneebis raodenoba 4 , naklebia periodis nomerze 5-ze.

garda s d gadasvlisa, gvxvdeba f d gadasvlac, romelic zogadad ase gamoisaxeba:

(n 2)fans2 (n 2)fa-1(n 1)d1ns2,sadac n mTavari kvanturi ricxvia, a eleqtronebis ricxvi.

aq ganxilul gadasvlebs moeZebneba axsna. kerZod, qromis,spilenZisa da oqros SemTxvevaSi irkveva, rom iseTi eleqtronu-li konfiguraciebi, roca qvedoneebi Sevsebulia mTlianad an zustad sanaxevrod, xasiaTdeba gazrdili energetikuli mdgra-dobiT. s d gadasvlis Sedegad qromSi miiReba zustad sanaxev-rod Sevsebuli d qvedone (xuTive d-orbitalze moTavsebulia Ti-To eleqtroni), xolo spilenZsa da oqroSi mTlianad Sevsebulid qvedone (ix. `eleqtronis Cavardna~). qromis momdevno elemen-tSi manganumSi gawyvildeba 4s-orbitali:

n=4

n=3

sp

d25Mn [Ar]4s

23d5

rkinis atomSi iwyeba d-orbitalebze eleqtronebis gawyvileba:

26Fe [Ar]4s23d6

n=3

n=4

n=4

n=3

sp

d27Co [Ar]4s

23d7

30

n=4

n=3

sp

d28Ni [Ar]4s

23d8

momdevno elementSi spilenZis atomSi qromis atomis analogiurad xdeba eleqtronis gadasvla 4s-dan 3d-ze, ris Sedegadac miiReba mTlianad Sevsebuli 3d qvedone:

n=4

n=3

sp

d29Cu [Ar]4s

13d10

TuTiaSi gawyvildeba 4s-orbitali:

galiumidan iwyeba 4p qvedonis Sevseba, romelic ganxorciel-deba hundis wesis safuZvelze:

31Ga[Ar]4s23d104p1

n=4

n=3

sp

d

32Ge [Ar]4s23d104p2

n=4

n=3

sp

d

.....................................

35Br [Ar]4s23d104p5

n=4

n=3

sp

d

n=4

n=3

sp

30Zn [Ar]4s23d10

31

36Kr [Ar]4s23d104p6

n=4

n=3

sp

d

analogiurad Seivseba energetikuli qvedoneebi momdevno periodis elementebSi. Sevseba ganxorcieldeba Semdegi Tanmim-devrobiT.

mexuTe periodi: 5s, 4d, 5pmeeqvse periodi: 6s, 4f, 5d, 6pmeSvide periodi: 7s, 5f, 6dgarsebis Sevsebisas xdeba zemoT aRniSnuli sd da fd

gadasvlebi.

1.10.A atomis birTvis aRnagoba

mecnierebis Semdgomma ganviTarebam cxadyo, rom aramartoatomia rTuli, aramed misi birTvic, romelic Sedgeba uamravi na-wilakisagan nuklonebisagan. nuklonebs Soris pirvelad aRmo-Cenil nawilaks protoni ewodeba (`protos~ berZnulad pirvels

niSnavs). is aRiniSneba 11p -iT (an ubralod, H+), sadac qveda indeqsimis dadebiT muxts aRniSnavs, zeda ki m.a.e.-iT gamosaxul mis masas.m = 1.00728 m.a.e. (cxrili 1.5).

atomSi protonebis ricxvi periodul sistemaSi elementisrigobrivi nomris tolia. bunebaSi arsebul atomebSi protonebisricxvi ar aRemateba 92-s.

1.10.1. atombirTvis muxti da atomuri nomeri. mozlis kanoni

atomis Siga eleqtronebis aRgznebiT aRiZvreba mokletalRi-ani gamosxiveba, romelsac rentgenis gamosxiveba Seesabameba ( =10-10 sm) (rentgenma es gamosxiveba aRmoaCina kaToduri sxivebisminis milis kedelTan Sejaxebis procesis Seswavlisas).

rac ufro rTuli aRnagobisaa atomi da metia misi birTvismuxtis mniSvneloba, miT meti iqneba Siga eleqtronebis eleqtro-nul doneebs Soris sxvaoba da ufro meti iqneba gamosxivebis sixSire e.i. ufro mcire iqneba gamosxivebuli talRis sigrZe ()(gamosxiveba iqneba ufro mokletalRiani).

1913 wels, ingliseli fizikosi henri mozli ikvlevda e.w. `ka-Todur milSi~ sxvadasxva metalis (elementis) mier gamosxivebu-li (rentgenuli gamosxivebis, rentgenis sxivebis) talRis sigrZi-dan kvadratuli fesvis damokidebulebas eleqtrodad gamoyene-buli elementis (metalis) rigobriv nomerze periodul sistemaSi(nax. 1.5).

32

am gamokvlevebis safuZvelze mozlim daadgina, rom erTielementidan rigiT Semdgomze gadasvlisas muxtis mniSvnelobakanonzomierad (1 erTeuliT) icvleboda. man elementis rigobrivnomers periodul sistemaSi uwoda atomuri nomeri da aRniSna Z-iT. mozlim SeZlo daedgina, rom atomuri nomeri atombirTvSiprotonebis ricxvis (e.i. atombirTvis muxtis) tolia.

mozlim gamoiyvana gamosxivebis sixSiris elementis atomur (rigobriv) nomerze (atombirTvis muxtze) damokidebulebis formula:

= A2(Zb)2 (1.43),saidanac:

= A(Zb) (1.44)

1

naxazi 1.5.

mozlis kanoni saSualebas iZleva eqsperimentulad ganisazR-vros elementebis rigobrivi nomrebi, rac ingliselma mecnierma jeimz Cedvikma gazomvebiT ganaxorciela.

1.10.2. atombirTvis aRnagobis protonul-neitronuli Teoria

neitronis aRmoCenamde birTvis Sedgeniloba aiwerebodaprotonul-eleqtronuli modeliT. amis mixedviT birTvi Seicavsimden protons, ramdenic Seesabameba A-s. A aris atomis masuriricxvi da daaxloebiT gamoxatavs atomur masas. radganac bir-Tvis dadebiTi muxti tolia rigobrivi nomrisa, Tvlidnen, rom birTvi unda Seicavdes (AZ) raodenobis eleqtronebs, e.i. bir-TvSi aris proton-eleqtronis wyvilebi. 1925 wels rezerfordmagamoTqva varaudi, rom es wyvili SeiZleba ise mWidrod iyos Se-kavSirebuli, rom is SeiZleba CaiTvalos erT neitralur nawila-kad da uwoda mas neitroni (`neuter~ laTinurad niSnavs: `arc is, arc sxva~). daiwyes am nawilakis `Zebna~.

1932 wels Cedvikma aRmoaCina neitroni. es aris elementaruli

nawilaki, romelic aRiniSneba 10 n-iT da romlis fardobiTi masa

mn = 1.00867 m.a.e.-s da ar aqvs muxti. neitronebis raodenoba bir-TvSi aRiniSneba N-iT.

33

amJamad birTvis Sedgeniloba aiwereba protonul-neitronu-li TeoriiT, romlis avtorebi arian ivanenko, gaponi da haizen-bergi. birTvi ZiriTadad Sedgeba protonebisa da neitronebis-gan. maTi raodenobebis jams ewodeba masuri ricxvi da is tolia:

A = Z + N , (1.45)saidanac N = A Z (1.46)

atombirTvSi SeiZleba mimdinareobdes protonebis (1p) da neitronebis (0n) urTierTgardaqmnis reaqciebi:

1p 0n + e+ + (neitrino) da 0n 1p + e- + (antineitrino). (neitrino da antineitrino gansxvavdebian mxolod spinebiT, e+-sewodeba pozitroni. misi masa eleqtronis masis tolia, muxti fardobiT erTeulebSi +1-ia).

cxrili 1.5.atomis Semadgeneli nawilakebis maxasiaTeblebi

saxelwodeba simbolomasa muxti

m.a.e. kgfardobiTerTeulebSi

k

protoni p 1.007277 1.67310-27 +1 1.610-19neitroni n 1.008665 1.67510-27 0 0

eleqtroni e 0.000548 9.110-31 -1 -1.610-19

1.10.3. izotopebi, izobarebi da izotonebi

cnobilia birTvebis sami jgufi, romlebic gansxvavdebianbirTvis sami maxasiaTeblis (Z, N, A) sxvadasxva kombinaciiT:

1. Z = const, N const, A const. aseT birTvebs izotopebi ewodeba(izos erTi da igive, topos adgili). izotopebi warmoadgenenmocemuli qimiuri elementis atomTa saxesxvaobas, romelTacaqvT birTvSi protonebis erTnairi raodenoba da aqedan gamomdi-nare birTvis dadebiTi muxtis erTi da igive mniSvneloba, magramneitronebis sxvadasxva raodenoba, rac iwvevs masuri ricxvebisgansxvavebas. elementi wyalbadi bunebaSi arsebobs ori izotopis

saxiT: proTiumisa (berZ. protos pirveli) H11 (99,984 %) da deite-

riumis (berZ. deuteros - meore) H21 (0,016 %). am ukanasknels aqvs spe-cialuri aRniSvna D. cnobilia wyalbadis xelovnuri gziT miRe-

buli, radioaqtiuri izotopi triTiumi (berZ. Tritos mesame) H31 (T).bunebaSi is umniSvnelo raodenobiT aris gavrcelebuli, warmoiq-mneba kosmosuri sxivebis azotTan urTierTqmedebis Sedegad.

heliumis izotopebia: 3 4 5 6 82 2 2 2 2He, He, He, He He. da

Jangbadis bunebrivi izotopebia: O,O,O 18817

816

8 .

34

izotopiis movleniT aris ganpirobebuli is, rom arc erTi elementis fardobiTi atomuri masa ar aris mTeli ricxvi. es uka-naskneli warmoadgens elementis izotopebis masuri ricxvebis sa-Sualos maTi procentuli Semcvelobis gaTvaliswinebiT. magali-Tad, bunebrivi qlori Sedgeba ori izotopisagan: Cl3517 -isa (~75 %)

da Cl3717 -sagan (~25 %). aqedan gamomdinare qloris saSualo fardobiTi atomuri masa aris:

Ar(Cl) = 100

2537+7535 35,45sainteresoa kaliumis SemTxveva, sadac bunebriv izotopur

narevSi Warbobs msubuqi izotopi. argonis SemTxvevaSi WarbobsmZime izotopi.

izotopebis dayofa pirvelad ganaxorciela ingliselma fi-zikosma frensis uiliam astonma.

2. Z const, N const, A = const. aseT birTvebs izobarebi ewodeba(izos erTi da igive, baros wona). izobarebi warmoadgens sxva-dasxva qimiuri elementis atomTa saxesxvaobas, romelTac aqvT birTvSi protonebis sxvadasxvanairi raodenoba da aqedan gamom-dinare, birTvis dadebiTi muxtis sxvadasxva mniSvneloba da neit-ronebis sxvadasxva raodenoba, magram masuri ricxvebis erTnairimniSvneloba, magaliTad:

.C,B,Be 106105

104

izobarebi erTmaneTisagan TvisebebiT mkveTrad gansxvavdeba.

3. Z const, N = const, A const. aseT birTvebs izotonebi ewode-ba. magaliTad:

.B,Be,Li,He 8574

63

52

yvela es birTvi Seicavs sam neitrons.

calkeuli nuklonebisagan birTvis warmoqmnisas adgili aqvs saerTo masis Semcirebas, romelsac masis defeqti ewodeba. zoga-di saxiT is SeiZleba Semdegnairad Caiweros:

m = (Zmp + Nmn) Ar magaliTad, 4He-is erTi birTvis warmoqmnisas protonebisa da

neitronebisagan masis Semcireba Seadgens: m = (21.00728 + 21.00867) 4.0026 = 0.03 m.a.e.erTi moli atomebis SemTxvevaSi masis defeqti Seadgens m =

0.03 g = 310-5 kg-s. ainStainis kanonis Tanaxmad, am dros gamoyofi-li energiis mniSvneloba tolia:

E = 310-5 kg (2.998 108wm

m)2 = 2.7 1012 j.

am sididis energias erTi saaTis ganmavlobaSi, evropis erT-erTi didi hidroeleqtrosadguri dneprhesi (ukraina)gamoimuSavebs.

35

energiis sidides, romelic gamoiyofa protonebisa da neit-ronebisagan mocemuli birTvis warmoqmnisas, ewodeba birTvis bmis energia da axasiaTebs mis mdgradobas: rac ufro metia gamoyofili energiis sidide, miT ufro mdgradia birTvi. amasTan ufro mdgradia da gavrcelebulia birTvebi protonebisa da neitronebis luwi ricxviT. mdgradobis mixedviT birTvebi SeiZleba ganvalagoT Semdeg rigSi:

(Np) (Nn) (Np) (Nn) (Np) (Nn) luwi _ kentikenti _ luwi > kenti _ kentiluwi _ luwi >

cnobilia bolo jgufis mxolod oTxi mdgradi birTvi:

.N,B,Li,H 14710

563

21

gansakuTrebuli mdgradobiT gamoirCeva birTvebi, romlebic Seicaven 2, 8, 20, 50, 82 da 126 protons an neitrons. magaliTad,

.Pb,Sn,Ca,O,He 2088212050

4020

168

42 am ricxvebs ewodebaT magiuri (jados-nuri) ricxvebi, xolo birTvebs magiuri (jadosnuri) birTvebi.pirvel sam birTvs, romlebic Seicaven jadosnuri ricxvebis tol rogorc protonebis, aseve neitronebis raodenobas, ewodeba orgzis magiuri (jadosnuri) birTvebi.

birTvis SemadgenlobaSi myof yvela nawilaks Soris moqme-debs ori saxis Zala: dadebiTad damuxtuli protonebis urTier-Tganzidvis eleqtrostatikuri Zalebi da mizidvis Zalebi, ro-melTac birTvuli Zalebi ewodeba (es Zalebi moqmedebs 10-15 m man-Zilze). urTierTmoqmed nawilakebs Soris manZilis gazrdisasbirTvuli Zalebi ufro mkveTrad mcirdeba, vidre eleqtrosta-tikuri urTierTqmedebis Zalebi. amitom maTi moqmedeba SesamCne-vad vlindeba mxolod Zalian axlos ganlagebul nawilakebs So-ris. magram atomis birTvis Semadgenel nawilakebs Soris usasru-lod mcire manZilebze mizidvisas birTvuli Zalebi aRematebaganzidvis Zalebs, romlebic gamowveulia erTniSniani muxtebisyofniT, rac ganapirobebs birTvebis mdgradobas.

1.10.4. radioaqtiuroba

qimiuri reaqciebis dros icvleba atomTa eleqtronuli kon-figuraciebi, birTvi ki ucvleli rCeba, cnobilia procesebi, ro-desac gardaqmnas ganicdian atombirTvebi. maT birTvuli reaqci-ebi ewodeba. birTvuli reaqciebis dros erTi elementis aram-dgradi izotopidan sxva elementis izotopi miiReba. cnobiliabunebrivi da xelovnuri birTvuli reaqciebi.

radioaqtiuroba ewodeba erTi qimiuri elementis aramdgra-di izotopis meore qimiuri elementis izotopad TavisTavad gar-daqmnis process, romelsac Tan axlavs elementaruli nawilake-bis an birTvebis gamoyofa. radioaqtiurobas, romelsac amJRav-

36

nebs elementis bunebrivi izotopi, ewodeba bunebrivi radioaq-tiuroba.

radioaqtiurobis movlena aRmoCenili iqna frangi mecnierisantuan anri bekerelis mier 1896 wels. bekereli swavlobda flu-orescenciis unaris mqone nivTierebaTa gamosxivebis bunebas. mas ainteresebdaT, xom ar iyo es gamosxiveba rentgenis sxivebis msgavsi.am mizniT man fluorescenciis unaris mqone bevri nivTiereba Seis-wavla, maT Soris uranis Semcveli preparatic da daamtkica, rom am naerTs TvaliT uxilavi gamosxivebis unari hqonda (yovelgvari ze-moqmedebis gareSe). am movlenas, warmoSobiT poloneli mecnieris maria sklodovska-kiuris da misi meuRlis, frangi pier kiuris wina-dadebiT, radioaqtiuroba uwodes (laTinurad `radius~ sxivi, `aq-tivus~ moqmedi), gamosxivebas ki radioaqtiuri.

anri bekerelis aRmoCenam Tavdapirvelad mecnierTa mxolodviwro wris yuradReba miiqcia, maT Soris iyvnen maria sklodov-ska-kiuri da pier kiuri. maT, inglisel rezerfordTan da frede-rik sodisTan erTad, gansakuTrebuli damsaxureba miuZRviT ra-dioaqtiurobis movlenis SeswavlaSi.

1897 wels germanelma mecnierma Smidtma daadgina, rom radio-aqtiuroba mTeli rigi qimiuri elementebis unaria da uranis na-erTebis garda, Toriumsac axasiaTebs. amave periodSi maria da pi-er kiurebis mier aRmoCenil iqna ori axali radioaqtiuri ele-menti, romelsac poloniumi da radiumi uwodes.

poloniumisa da radiumis aRmoCenam safuZveli Cauyara ra-dioaqtiurobis dargSi farTo mecnierul kvleva-Ziebas. mokledroSi gairkva radioaqtiurobis arsi, aRmoaCines axali radioaq-tiuri elementebi, Camoyalibda radioaqtiuri daSlis Teoria.radioaqtiurobis movlenis Seswavla mWidrod daukavSirda ato-mis agebulebis problemas da saerTod ganapiroba mecnieruli da teqnikuri donis arsebiTi amaRleba.

radioaqtiuri gamosxiveba araerTgvarovania. eleqtrul da magnitur velSi radioaqtiuri sxivebi iSleba sam Semadgenel na-wilad: , da sxivebad (nax. 1.6). da sxivebi aRmoaCina rezer-fordma, gamosxiveba frangma vilarma.

rogorc atomis aRnagobis SesavalSi aRvniSneT, -sxivebi da-debiTad damuxtuli nawilakebis nakadia, romelTa muxtia +2, xo-lo masa 4 m.a.e. cxadia, rom -nawilaki Sedgeba ori protonisa da ori neitronisagan da amdenad igi aris heliumis atombirTvi (or-jer ionizebuli heliumis atomi). -nawilakebi moZraobs daaxlo-ebiT 20000 km/wm siCqariT, haerSi iZens or eleqtrons da heliu-mis atomebad gardaiqmneba.

37

naxazi 1.6. radioaqtiuri gamosxivebis dayofa eleqtrul velSi

-sxivebi kaToduri sxivebis analogiuria, e.i. -sxivebi eleq-tronebis nakadia. -sxivebis siCqarea 290000 km/wm.

-sxivebi ar ixreba arc magnitur da arc eleqtrul velSi da amrigad, eleqtroneitraluria. -sxivebi eleqtromagnituritalRebia. -sxivebis talRis sigrZe mniSvnelovnad ufro nakle-bia, vidre rentgenis sxivebisa.

-sxivebi xasiaTdeba Zalian didi SeRwevadobiT (1000-jer me-ti, vidre -nawilakebisa da 100-jer meti, vidre -sxivebisa). isiniTavisuflad aRweven ramdenime milimetri sisqis metalis firfi-taSi. -sxivebis SeRwevadoba naklebia. kidev ufro naklebi SeRwe-vadoba aqvs -sxivebs.

radioaqtiurobis movlena aixsneba atomuri daSlis TeoriiT,romelic rezerfordma da sodim SeimuSaves (1903 weli). am TeoriisTanaxmad radioaqtiuri elementis atomebi TavisTavad iSleba. daS-lisas warmoqmnili atomebi, Tavis mxriv, aseve radioaqtiuria. ami-tom isinic iSleba. aseTi daSla grZeldeba manamde, vidre ar miiRebastabiluri atomebi (amJamad ewodeba stabiluri izotopebi).

radioaqtiuri gamosxivebis intensivoba droTa ganmavlobaSiTandaTan mcirdeba. dros, romlis ganmavlobaSic radioaqtiurielementis gamosxivebis intensivoba Semcirdeba orjer, anu sxva sityvebiT daiSleba atomebis sawyisi raodenobis naxevari, ewo-deba naxevardaSlis dro (periodi, ). radioaqtiuri daSlis pro-cess eqsponenturi xasiaTi aqvs da gamoisaxeba gantolebiT:

N = N0e-k , (1.47)

sadac N0 aris radioaqtiuri elementis (nivTierebis) atomTa sawyi-si ricxvi; N amave atomebis ricxvi drois Semdeg; k radioaqtiu-ri daSlis siCqaris konstanta; formalurad, roca = , N = 0.

radioaqtiuri izotopis daSlis siCqare damokidebulia mxo-lod izotopis bunebaze (Tu romelia) da drois mocemul momen-tSi mis raodenobaze, e.i. is proporciulia jer kidev dauSleliatomebis ricxvisa.

38

naxevardaSlis drois (periodis) mniSvneloba sxvadasxva radi-oaqtiuri izotopisaTvis icvleba Zalian farTo farglebSi, ase magaliTad, 232Th-is = 1,39 . 1010 w., 226Ra-is 1617 w., 210Po-is = 138.401 dRe.

iseve, rogorc naxevardaSlis siCqare, naxevardaSlis dro gani-sazRvreba elementis atomis birTvis Sinagani TvisebebiT da ar aris damokidebuli araviTar garegan zemoqmedebaze (temperatura, wneva,radioaqtiuri elementis qimiuri mdgomareoba). naxevardaSlis dro radioaqtiurobis maxasiaTebeli mniSvnelovani parametria.

1.10.5. radioaqtiuri daSlis tipebi

radioaqtiuri daSlis ZiriTadi tipebia: -daSla, -daSla, eleq-tronis `mitaceba~ (`CaWera~) da birTvis spontanuri gayofa. pirveli sami saxe emorCileba sodisa da faiansis gadanacvlebis wess.

1. -daSla. rogorc viciT, -nawilakebi warmoadgens heliumis ionebis (He2+) nakads. am dros adgili aqvs periodul sistemaSi gadanacvlebas ori ujrediT marcxniv. magaliTad:

He+Rn=Ra 4222286

22688 (1.48)

zemoaRniSnuli reaqcia mokle formiT SeiZleba ase Caiweros:

.Rn),(Ra 222_226

2. -daSla. cnobilia -daSlis ori saxesxvaoba: - da+

-daSla.

-daSlis zogadi sqema Semdegia:n p + e .

am dros xdeba periodul sistemaSi gadanacvleba erTi adgi-liT marjvniv. magaliTad:

.e+Th =Ac 2289022889

Semoklebuli formiT:

.Th)e,(Ac 228_228

+-daSlis zogadi sqemaa:p n + e

e nawilaks pozitroni ewodeba. misi masa eleqtronis masis tolia, muxti ki +1.60210-19 kulonisa. am dros xdeba periodul sistemaSi gadanacvleba erTi adgiliT marcxniv. magaliTad:

.e+Ti=V+

4822

4823

Semoklebuli formiT: .Ti)e,(V 48+

_48

3. eleqtronis `mitaceba~ (`K-mitaceba~). birTvTan axlos, K Sreze myisierad myofma eleqtronma SeiZleba imoqmedos protonTan neitronis warmoqmniT:

39

p + e n.am dros xdeba gadanacvleba erTi adgiliT marcxniv.

magaliTad:

.Ti=e+V 48224823

Semoklebuli formiT:

.Ti),e(V 48_48

4. spontanuri gayofa. gadanacvlebis zogadi wesebi ar arsebobs.bunebaSi ganuwyvetliv mimdinareobs radioaqtiuri gardaq-

mnebi, romelic bolos da bolos mTavrdeba romelime stabiluriizotopis warmoqmniT. radioaqtiuri gardaqmnebis sqemebSi isriszemoT miTiTebulia gardaqmnis saxe, xolo qvemoT naxevardaSlisperiodi. cnobilia mimdevrobiTi gardaqmnebis oTxi rigi. erT-erTi maTgania uranis rigi, romelic mTavrdeba tyviis mdgradiizotopiT:

U23892 Pb20682

cnobilia agreTve Ac-s, Th-s da sxva rigebi.xelovnurad ganxorcielebuli birTvuli reaqciebis gziT

SesaZlebelia axali elementebis an izotopebis miReba. ganvixi-loT istoriuli TvalsazrisiT saintereso zogierTi maTgani.N

pirveli xelovnuri birTvuli reaqcia ganaxorciela 1919 wels rezerfordma, romelmac azotis izotopis, 14N-is -nawila-kebiT dabombviT miiRo Jangbadis izotopi 17O:

He+N 42147 p+O178 .

Semoklebuli formiT: O14N (, p) 17O

1937 wels Mo9842 -is deiteriumiT dabombviT miiRes pirveli xe-lovnuri elementi, romelsac, rogorc atombirTvuli teqnolo-giis pirmSos, teqneciumi ewoda:

HMo984221 n+Tc9943

Semoklebuli formiT: O98Mo (D, n) 99Tc1964 wels ruseTSi, q. dubnaSi miRebul iqna 104-e elementi,

romelsac kurCatoviumi ewoda (cnobili rusi mecnieris i.v. kur-Catovis pativsacemad. aRiniSneboda Ku-Ti), magram SemdgomSi mas IUPAC-is (International Union Pure and Applied Chemistry) kongresis ga-dawyvetilebiT ewoda rezerfordiumi:

Ne+Pu 2210242

94 4n+Rf260104

unda aRiniSnos, rom transuranuli elementebis umravlesobamiRebulia amerikeli mecnierebis mier gamoCenili qimikosis da fizikosis glen Teodor siborgis xelmZRvanelobiT.

yvela birTvuli reaqcia klasificirdeba, rogorc mZime birT-vebis gayofis (daSlis) da msubuqi birTvebidan TermobirTvulisinTezis reaqcia. pirveli birTvuli reaqcia, Catarebuli energi-

40

is misaRebad, iyo U23592 -is gayofis (daSlis) reaqcia. erTi grami am izotopis gayofis dros gamoyofili energia tolia ori tona qva-naxSiris wvis Sedegad gamoyofili energiisa. garda uranis am izo-

topisa, birTvuli daSlis reaqciebSi iyeneben U23392 -sa da Pu23994 -s.

birTvuli daSlis reaqciebi energiis mSvidobiani mizniT miRebisgarda gamoiyeneba atomur bombebSi (ix. qvemoT).

TermobirTvuli sinTezis reaqciis magaliTia mzeze ganuwy-vetliv mimdinare procesi:

H+H 3121

n+He42 .am reaqciis gansaxorcieleblad saWiroa milion gradusze me-

ti temperatura. gamoyofili energia xuTjer metia, vidre 235U-is daSlis dros gamoyofili energia, magram procesi jerjerobiTumarTavia. amitom mSvidobiani mizniT misi gamoyeneba ver xerx-deba. ZiriTadad gamoyenebulia wyalbadis bombebSi (ix. qvemoT). U

qimiis im dargs romelic swavlobs radioaqtiur elementebs,maT gardaqmnebs da Tvisebebs, radioqimia ewodeba.

1.10.6. radioaqtiuri gamosxivebisgazomva-Sefasebis umniSvnelovanesi meTodebi

1. vilsonis kamera, sadac SesaZlebelia (calkeuli) maioni-zirebeli gamosxivebis kvalis fotografireba.

2. geiger-miuleris meTodi misi daxmarebiT SesaZlebelia daiTvalos radioaqtiuri daSlis dros gamosxivebul nawilakTa ricxvi maT mier gamowveuli eleqtronuli impulsis mixedviT.

3. fotoqaRaldis (fotografiuli firis) meTodi. fotografiuli firis gaSaveba xdeba radioaqtiuri gamosxi-

vebis fotografiul fenaze urTierTqmedebis gamo. gamuqebis in-tensiurobiT isazRvreba dasxivebis doza.

1.10.7. radioaqtiuri izotopebis gamoyeneba

radioaqtiuri izotopebis gamoyenebis ZiriTadi sferoebia:

I. simsivnuri daavadebis winaaRmdeg, avadmyofobis ganviTar-ebis garkveul etapze, gamosxivebis axali wyaro, magaliTad, 60Co.

II. qirurgiuli instrumentebis sterilizacia.III. miwisqveSa wylis da navTobis gaJonvis kontroli mcire si-

cocxlisunariani radioaqtiuri izotopebiT; gaJonvis SemTxve-vaSi, radiaciuli foni SeiZleba gamovlindes im zedapirze, sadac gaJonva moxda.

IV. Zravebis cveTis xarisxis da sapoxi zeTebis xarisxis kon-troli (dguSis rgolebi mzaddeba radioaqtiuri masalisagan da cveTis Semdeg zeTTan Sexebisas, zeTis radioaqtiuri foni izr-deba, ris identifikacia Zneli ar aris).

V. arqeologiuri nimuSebis, mcenareTa da cxovelTa naSTebis asakis dadgena.

41

146 C

naxSirbadis radioaqtiur izotopebs Soris praqtikulad mniSvnelovania (birTvis tipi, masis mixedviT 4n+2). misi naxev-ardaSlis periodi 5720 welia, amis gamo, misi arsebobis xangrZli-voba didia. is xasiaTdeba advilad gasazomi susti energiis ga-mosxivebiT (0,16 M ev.) da mudmivad warmoiqmneba bunebaSi haeris azotze kosmosuri sxivebis neitronebis moqmedebiT:

CN 146147

)p,n( atmosferoSi warmoqmnisTanave izotopi Seereva 14C naxSirba-

dis stabilur izotopebs, romlebic Sedis atmosferos CO2-is Se-madgenlobaSi. ukanaskneli, rogorc cnobilia gamoiyeneba foto-sinTezis reaqciis Sedegad organuli nivTierebis misaRebad.Tumca mas Semdeg rac organuli nivTiereba warmoiqmneba, masSi 14Cizotopis wili TandaTan klebulobs misi radioaqtiuri daSlisgamo. rTul organul nivTierebaSi (an araorganulSi) 14C -is Sem-dgomi moxvedra atmosferul CO2-Tan mimocvlis reaqciis saSua-lebiT aRar xdeba. aseTi mimocvlis siCqare heterogenul siste-mebSi Zalian mcirea. amitom naxSirbadis stabiluri izotopis da ama Tu im organul naerTSi (wiaRiseul naxSirSi, uZvelesi qalaqe-bis xis nakeTobebSi da a.S.) 14C-is izotopis masuri wilis fardobasaSualebas iZleva SevafasoT ra zomiT (raodenobiT) moxda 14C-is radiodaSla da Sesabamisad, ramdeni saukunis win moxda fotosin-Tezi. organuli nivTierebis asakis gansazRvris es meTodi atarebsradionaxSirbaduli meTodis saxels. igi Seucvlelia da farTodgamoiyeneba arqeologiaSi, geologiaSi da sxva mecnierebebSi.

VI. niSandebuli atomebis meTodi am dros sagangebod Seyva-nili radioaqtiuri izotopis meSveobiT akontroleben reaqciis meqanizms an zogierTi elementis (magaliTad, I2) moZraobas organizmSi. radgan 131I-is naxevardaSlis dro mxolod 8 dRea, ra-dioaqtiuroba swrafad mcirdeba Zalian dabal donemde.

VII. analizuri qimia `izotopuri ganzavebis meTodi~

1.10.8. atombirTvebis dayofa.birTvuli reaqtorebi.

atomuri bombis moqmedebis principi

atombirTvuli gaxleCis reaqcia pirvelad Seiswavles 1939 wels (mani). dadginda, rom, im SemTxvevaSi, rodesac 235U-is masa raime mniSvnelobaze (kritikuli masa) naklebia, neitronebi gamo-ityorcneba nimuSebidan. xolo rodesac 235U-is masa sakmaod di-dia, warmoqmnili neitronebi ejaxeba 235U-is sxva atomebs, ris Se-degad xdeba maTi dayofa. neitronebis uranis atomebTan Seja-xebis albaToba aRemateba maTi nimuSebidan gamotyorcnis al-baTobas. Pradganac TiToeuli birTvis dayofis dros neitronis 2 nawilaki warmoiqmneba, maTi koncentracia swrafad izrdeba daaRiZvreba jaWvuri reaqcia:

42

n + 234U . n + 235U n + 234U .urTierTqmedebis yvela aqtis dros warmoqmnili TiToeuli

atomis masa erTi m.a.e.-iT naklebi iqneba 235U-is masaze. am princip-z