科技论文写作科技论文写作Write Like a Professional

Coherence• Coherence is the logical linking of ideas.

• No two people have an identical understanding of a passage.

• Readers need your help in following your line of thought.

• Sentence, Paragraph, Section

• Paragraph is the thought unit.– An important structural signal.– Deals with one main topic or one aspect of a large topic.

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Topic Sentence• Topic Sentence:– States the topic, the main idea of the paragraph.

• Supporting Sentences:– Extend, develop and support the topic sentence by examples and

supplementary evidence.

• Students nowadays do not receive sufficient help with their writing problems at university. First of all, there are simply too few written assignments. Secondly, the essays that are handed in seldom receive constructive criticism. Thirdly, there is little demand for serious revision.

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Organizational Patterns• Deduction

– From the general to the specific– The topic sentence is at the beginning.

• Induction– From the specific to the general– To start with supporting sentences and proceed to the topic

sentence.

• Mixed– Has a secondary topic sentence at the end of paragraph.– A restatement of the controlling idea of the topic sentence.

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Visual Representation

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Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Topic Sentence

Supporting

Sentence

Supporting

Sentence

Supporting

Sentence

Split Topic Sentence

Exercise[1] Although there had always been protests against racialism, two major

breakthroughs paved the way for what was to be called the Civil Rights

Movement. [2] One was the integration of the armed forces by the order

of President Truman in 1948. [3] African Americans had fought valiantly

in World War II, but always in segregated units. [4] The other

breakthrough was the decision of the U.S. Supreme Court in 1954 that

“separate but equal” schools for the blacks were inherently unequal. [5]

All American schools were ordered to be integrated, and a process was

initiated that is still underway.

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Exercise[1] But what about the risk of permitting euthanasia? [2] Those who

fear that the law can be used for evil purpose do have a point. [3]

Imagine the consequences if decisions were to be made on economic

grounds, by uncaring relatives who are looking forward to a tempting

inheritance? [4] Obviously such risks have to be eliminated and

provisions need to be made to safeguard the patient. [5] One crucial

question is who should have the right to decide when a person should

be given euthanasia? [6] Should this decision be made by one doctor,

by a team of doctors, or by a combination of doctors and relatives?

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Exercise1. In these rural areas 70 percent of the available agricultural land suffers from

dryness and lack of irrigation.

2. As a result, the crops are usually marginal with hardly enough production to feed the farmer's family.

3. The first fact to consider is that over 60 percent of the population live in rural communities.

4. In my country, one of the most urgent problems facing the government today relates to agriculture.

5. And without irrigation, agricultural production is wholly dependent on the uncertain rainfall.

6. To understand the nature of this problem one has to look at some of the facts.

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Information Structure• Given Information

– What the writer assumes that the reader already knows.

• New Information– What the writer want the reader to learn.

• Given Information Before New Information– New information is more important.– The natural place of focus of an English sentence is at its end.

• The winners of the contest were asked to leave their name and address. They would be sent tickets to an concert.

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ExerciseTo repeat, the basic point to make about the information

structure of a sentence is that given information is

normally placed first in the sentence. The reader gets a

framework for the new information by means of the given

information. The writer hangs the new information on the

given information which serves as a peg. The coherence of

the text, by means of the standard information structure,

makes the information flow easier from both perspectives.

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AnswerTo repeat, the basic point to make about the information

structure of a sentence is that given information is normally

placed first in the sentence. The given information thereby

provides the reader with a framework for the new information

placed at the end. Or, to see it from the writer’s perspective, the

given information can be used as a peg on which to hang the

new information. From both perspectives, this standard

information structure makes the processing of the information

flow easier and thus contributes to the coherence of the text.

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Linking Strategies• Readers all read differently:

– Make the local links between sentences explicit.– Help you reader understand your line of thought.– Bottom line: you are not writing for school children.

• The repetition of key words or phrases

– Two main arguments are presented in the first chapter.

The first argument is that the language of texts cannot

be adequately explored by focusing only on …

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Linking Strategies• The use of synonyms for key words

– Allegory is narrative or description that has a second meaning

beneath the surface one. Although the surface story …

• The use of pronouns as substitutes

– Most inexperienced writers find it difficult to write coherently. This

is not surprising in view of the complex processes involved. These

processes deserve …

– The students stared at the text, trying desperately to find the clue

to its interpretation. But the more they tried the more it confused

them.

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Linking Strategies

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Categories Connective Words

Addition and, also, moreover, in addition, furthermore, besides

Contrast but, however, in contrast, on the one/other hand, while, actually, the former/latter, nevertheless

Similarity such, similarly, the same, equally

Exemplification for example, for instance, in other words

Chronologyfirst, second, then, afterwards, thereafter, meanwhile, at the same time, next, later, finally, at last ultimately

Causality so, consequently, therefore, thus, accordingly, although, because of, hence, as a result, since

Attitude of course, naturally, obviously, (un)fortunately, literally, certainly, admittedly

Summary to summarize, to sum up, in conclusion, in brief

Paragraph Development

• Exemplification or Illustration– Start with a topic sentence– Use examples to explain or support the idea.

• Argumentation– Start with a statement or proposition.– Followed by sentences of supporting materials.

• Comparison and Contrast– Examine two or more phenomena.– Show their similarities and dissimilarities.

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Paragraph Development

• Division or Analysis– Discuss a subject in relation to its own parts.

• Causal Analysis– Answer the why aspect of something.

• Process Analysis– Answer the how aspect of something.– With a phenomenon going on in time (chronology).

• Definition– Establish the exact meaning of concepts, words or terms.

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Transitions• How to keep the coherence between paragraphs?

• The use of transitional words and phrases.– similarly, on the other hand, also, for instance

• The use of connective words in combination with words summarizing, or referring back to, something in the preceding paragraph.

– In the previous sections we have discussed coherence within the paragraph as a thought unit. Our focus in this section ...

– This is another major challenge for relatively inexperienced writers.

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Transitions• The repetition of key words and phrases, with or without

connective words.

• Warning: too much of a good thing is still too much.

• Example 1– It is thus appropriate to suggest that …– It is equally appropriate, though, to suggest that …

• Example 2– exploration vs. analysis

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Beyond Paragraphs• Controlling Idea

– Thesis Statement (of the whole essay)– Topic Sentence (of a paragraph)

• Supporting Idea– Support the controlling idea to which it is subordinated.

• Tips:– State the controlling idea early and explicitly in the paper.– Help your reader get a perspective on or a pre-understanding.– Help your reader find out the relevance of other ideas.

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Language and Style• Now, we move to smaller units of a text.

• This is called “editing”.– Is the flow of text interrupted?– Does it create a sloppy impression?

• Look for:– Incorrect, ambiguous and misspelled words– Faulty grammar and punctuation

• Clear, Concise, Correct

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Language and Style• Write Complete Sentences.

– Each sentence should make sense on its own.– They passed the exam.– When they passed their exam.– A very common mistake in long sentences!

• Subordination– Put important fact in the main clause.– The natural emphasis of a sentence is on its last part.– Supported by Tom, he finished his work successfully.– He finished his work successfully and Tom supported him. – Both are correct but which one is better?

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Language and Style• Avoid ‘Dangling’ Modifiers

– Make sure that they are not attached to the wrong subject.

• Which one is correct?– After writing the essay, the books were returned.– After writing the essay, I returned the books.– The books wrote the essay?

• Which one is correct?– To succeed with the experiment, the specimens had to be fresh.– To succeed with the experiment, we needed fresh specimens. – The specimens succeeded?

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Language and Style• Avoid Long Strings of Clauses– Clauses can be linked by and, but and or.

• Compare this one:– Young people drink too much alcohol these days and it is expensive

for the tax-payers, but there seems to be very little the authorities are doing, or want to do about this problem and therefore the media should arouse public opinion.

• To this one:– Young people drink too much alcohol these days, which is expensive

for the tax-payers. Since the authorities are doing very little about it, it is up to the media to arouse public opinion.

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Language and Style• Vary the Length of your Sentences

– Too Many Long Sentences• Heavy Reading

– Too Many Short Sentences: • Boring, Fragmented

• Good academic writers are those who can write clearly and simply about difficult subjects.

• Check the rhythm and flow of your sentences by reading them aloud.

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Language and Style• Avoid Faulty Parallelism– Clauses require the same grammatical construction.

– The students learnt a lot from writing several drafts and then to read their final version aloud to the rest of the class.

– The students learnt a lot from writing several drafts and then reading their final version aloud to the rest of the class.

• Replace Nouns with Active Verbs– Nouns strung together can make the sentence overloaded.

– Student paper assessment by peer groups and final draft evaluation by the teacher were done before Sunday.

– The peer groups assessed the student papers and the teacher evaluated the final drafts before Sunday.

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Language and Style• Avoid Wordy Phrases

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Instead of Try

make calculations calculate

analogous to like

for the purpose of for

due to the fact that because, since, as

in the proximity of near

at the present time now

Language and Style• Avoid Obscure Words

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Instead of Try

commence begin, start

prioritize rank, rate

procure buy

terminate end, stop

utilize use

fracture break

Language and Style• Avoid Sexist Language

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Instead of Try

mankind people, humanity

chairman chair, chairperson

Mrs., Miss Ms.

salesman salesperson

he he/she

Notes on Grammar• Subjects and verbs must always agree.

• Subject in the plural, verb in the plural– All the novels on the reading list treats feminist issues.– All the novels on the reading list treat feminist issues.

• Subject in the singular, verb in the singular– Each of the candidates recite one poem and sing one song.– Each of the candidates recites one poem and sings one song.

• Note– Either the full report or individual drafts have to be submitted.

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Notes on Grammar• Use the present tense for an action that takes place

regularly or always.– Erik and Francis drive to work every day, except on

Wednesdays.

– At the School of Engineering, classes are held between 9am and 6pm.

• Use the progressive form for an action that is taking place or is in progression.

– Francis is driving to work right now, so don’t phone her.

– Erik was having a shower when he heard the alarm.

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Notes on Grammar

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Instead of Use

much more people … many more people …

SVM method the SVM method

the number of birds are … the number of birds is …

I don’t know if I can come. I don’t know whether I can come.

can not cannot

the reason … is because the reason … is that

although …, but …. although …,

it’s performance … its performance …

Notes on Grammar• Compare … to …/Compare … with …/Compare with

– She compares Tom to her father.– Let’s compare trains with airplanes.– His car does not compare with mine.

• Data is/are …

• An Algorithm/The Algorithm/My Algorithm/Algorithms

• A set of samples is/are …

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Punctuation• Punctuation is an aid to coherence.

– To indicate either separation of, or links between, (individual elements within) clauses and sentences.

• Different punctuation marks can result in potentially significant differences of meaning（句读之不知，惑之不解） .

– 人多病少发财– 下雨天留客天留客不留

• Note– Two sentences must not be joined by a comma only.– Use coordinating conjunctions.

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The Full Stop• Marks the end of a sentence that is not a question or

exclamation.

• Used for abbreviations– Titles and Reference Terms

• Mr., Ms., Mrs., Dr., Prof.• p. (for “page”), pp. (for “pages”), ch. (for “chapter”)

– Latin Terms• e.g. (exempli gratia : for example)• etc. (et cetera : and so forth)• i.e. (id est : that is)• vs. (versus : against)• et al. (et alii : and others)

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The Comma• Main Clauses

– Christina and Peter had decided to go to Greece on vacation, and they needed some extra money.

• After a short introductory subordinate clause or phrase– While he ate, the dog was barking at the door.– How about removing the comma?

• Coordinate Adjectives– This is an intelligent, sensitive teacher.– Many expensive advanced text books are on the market.

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The Comma• Items in a Series

– My favourite fruits include cherry, strawberry and coconut.

• Non-Restrictive Modifiers– The first method, called deduction, is to put the topic sentence

in or near the beginning of the paragraph.

• Parenthetical Expressions– As we all know, it is all too easy to get lazy.– The main emphasis of the chapter, however, is unclear.– Data Mining, a very effective technique, has been around for

more than two decades.

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The Semicolon• It looks like a combination of a full stop and a comma.

• Weak Full Stop– The next larger unit in a text, paragraph, is signaled by indentation

or an empty line; a group of paragraphs may in turn be organized into still larger units, into sections.

• Strong Comma– We exemplify how you can see the paragraph as a logical thought

unit; how you can use the concept of the topic sentence to help structure this though unit; and how you can develop your ideas into coherent paragraphs.

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The Colon• To introduce an amplification, elaboration or

explanation or what precedes the colon:– Each paragraph should be relevant in one way or another

to your main point: after all, they are supposed to contain the supporting ideas for your main point.

– This passage is well worth reading: it offers a view of language that we find helpful and constructive.

• To introduce a series of examples:– Sentences can be better understood with the help of

various punctuation symbols: the comma, the semicolon and the period.

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Punctuation ExerciseAt first this diagram may suggest that there is a basic

opposition between the left and right hand blocks the

left hand side is for the claim and the right hand side

against a closer look reveals however that taken as a

whole the right hand block with the counterarguments

and the refutation is in fact also in support of the claim

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Take Home Message• Don’t panic!

– Academic writing is a skill that can be taught and learnt.

• Be structural!– The key is to build the logical linking and flow of ideas.

• Be serious!– If you have any doubt, make it clear as early as possible.

• Do it yourself!– Hands-on experiences are essential and irreplaceable.

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