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教學媒體與教育應用教學媒體與教育應用發展歷史回顧發展歷史回顧

Feb. 24, 2003

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The Field of InstructionalThe Field of InstructionalDesign and TechnologyDesign and Technology

Analysis of learning and performance problem,Analysis of learning and performance problem, Design,Design, Development,Development, Implementation,Implementation, Evaluation, andEvaluation, and Management of instructional or non-instructional Management of instructional or non-instructional

resourcesresources In educational institutes or workplacesIn educational institutes or workplaces

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歷史最悠久的「教學媒體」歷史最悠久的「教學媒體」 TeacherTeacher ChalkboardChalkboard TextbookTextbook 以上通常不被歸類為教學媒體以上通常不被歸類為教學媒體 Instructional (educational) media Instructional (educational) media

often refer to other physical meanoften refer to other physical meanss

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Media Historical TimelineMedia Historical Timeline

1840 Photography1840 Photography 1920 Radio Broadcast1920 Radio Broadcast 1936 Black-White TV1936 Black-White TV 1936 Color Film1936 Color Film 1953 Color TV1953 Color TV 1958 VCR1958 VCR 1989 Macintosh II with digital sound1989 Macintosh II with digital sound 1989 PC with Sound Blaster1989 PC with Sound Blaster … … Internet 1,500MB/sec …Internet 1,500MB/sec … ……

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From Early 1900sFrom Early 1900s

School museumsSchool museums Visual and Audiovisual instructionsVisual and Audiovisual instructions Media use during World War IIMedia use during World War II Instructional televisionInstructional television ComputerComputer InternetInternet

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School MuseumSchool Museum

First in St. Louis, 1905First in St. Louis, 1905 Exhibits, Stereographs (3-D photos)Exhibits, Stereographs (3-D photos) Slides, films, etc.Slides, films, etc. Not intended to supplant teacher or Not intended to supplant teacher or

textbooktextbook Supplementary curriculum materialsSupplementary curriculum materials

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Visuals and AudiovisualsVisuals and Audiovisuals

Motion picture projectorsMotion picture projectors First instructional film in 1910First instructional film in 1910 With advance in radio, sound-recording, With advance in radio, sound-recording,

sound motion picture, visual became sound motion picture, visual became audiovisual (1920s-1930s)audiovisual (1920s-1930s)

Great commercial interests, but lost $50 Great commercial interests, but lost $50 million due to Great Depressionmillion due to Great Depression

Audiovisual continued to evolveAudiovisual continued to evolve Dale (1946): Cone of experienceDale (1946): Cone of experience

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During World War IIDuring World War II

Audiovisual movement slowed downAudiovisual movement slowed down But extensively used in militaryBut extensively used in military 1943-1945: 400 training films, 600 film 1943-1945: 400 training films, 600 film

strips produced for Army Air Forcestrips produced for Army Air Force Little time to collect hard data for Little time to collect hard data for

evaluation, but survey showed effectiveevaluation, but survey showed effective Amazed enemy (Germany)Amazed enemy (Germany)

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Post World War IIPost World War II

Intensive research undertaken to identify Intensive research undertaken to identify principles of learning to facilitate designprinciples of learning to facilitate design

Findings largely ignoredFindings largely ignored Media comparison studies usually showed Media comparison studies usually showed

students learned equally regardless of students learned equally regardless of means of presentationsmeans of presentations

Scholars argued studies should focus on Scholars argued studies should focus on media attributes, examination effects, or media attributes, examination effects, or instructional methodsinstructional methods

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Instructional TelevisionInstructional Television Tremendous growth in 1950sTremendous growth in 1950s Two factors:Two factors:

141 Channels set aside by FCC for public service141 Channels set aside by FCC for public service $170 million sponsored by Ford Foundation$170 million sponsored by Ford Foundation

Interests abated in 1960, perhaps due to Interests abated in 1960, perhaps due to mediocre instructional qualitymediocre instructional quality

Instructional television was not widely adopted Instructional television was not widely adopted by schools. Why?by schools. Why? Teachers’ resistanceTeachers’ resistance Expense and maintenanceExpense and maintenance Not adequate for various conditions for learningNot adequate for various conditions for learning

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Computers: 1950-1995Computers: 1950-1995 Early CAI done in IBM in 1950sEarly CAI done in IBM in 1950s 1960s-1970s PLATO (Programmed Logic for 1960s-1970s PLATO (Programmed Logic for

Automatic-Teaching Operations) in IllinoisAutomatic-Teaching Operations) in Illinois By 1970, little impact found on educationBy 1970, little impact found on education In 1980s, wide spread interest for instructional In 1980s, wide spread interest for instructional

useuse Less expensiveLess expensive More functionsMore functions

By 1983, computers used for instruction in more By 1983, computers used for instruction in more than 40% elementary, 75% secondary schoolsthan 40% elementary, 75% secondary schools

By mid-1990s, still small impact, few innovationsBy mid-1990s, still small impact, few innovations

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Recent DevelopmentRecent Development

Rapid advance in computer & InternetRapid advance in computer & Internet A survey of 750 companies (1999): Training A survey of 750 companies (1999): Training

via technology from less than 6% in 1996 to via technology from less than 6% in 1996 to more than 22% by 2000more than 22% by 2000

Between 94-95 and 97-98 academic years, Between 94-95 and 97-98 academic years, enrollment of distance learning doubledenrollment of distance learning doubled

Recent interest toward performance supportRecent interest toward performance support

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歷史上的今天歷史上的今天 :: 教育科技教育科技 數位學習國家型科技計畫數位學習國家型科技計畫 (eLearnin(eLearnin

g), Taiwang), Taiwan 20022002 起起 , 5, 5 年內投入年內投入 4040 億台幣億台幣 FY1999, FY1999, 擴大內需擴大內需 , 64, 64 億台幣億台幣

Visions 2020, USAVisions 2020, USA Visioning exercise facilitated by Department of ComVisioning exercise facilitated by Department of Com

mercemerce 14 Papers included14 Papers included

Survey of International Investment iSurvey of International Investment in ET R&Dn ET R&D

Published 2002, Funded by the Spencer FoundationPublished 2002, Funded by the Spencer Foundation Around the world: FY1999, US$ 16 billion in educatiAround the world: FY1999, US$ 16 billion in educati

onal technologyonal technology

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QuestionsQuestions問題與聯想問題與聯想

Have schools changed much? Have schools changed much? Practically Practically due to technology.due to technology.

What do we gain? What do we gain? With computers and With computers and networksnetworks..

Are we seeking revolution? Or simply Are we seeking revolution? Or simply technophile? technophile? There must be something.There must be something.

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1945 & 19971945 & 1997in in The Atlantic MonthlyThe Atlantic Monthly

As We May Think, 1945As We May Think, 1945 By Dr. Vannevar Bush (Father of multimedia)By Dr. Vannevar Bush (Father of multimedia) Scientific research for war?Scientific research for war? Inventions have extended man's physical powInventions have extended man's physical pow

ers rather than the powers of his mind. ers rather than the powers of his mind. Computer Delusion, 1997Computer Delusion, 1997

By Todd OppenheimerBy Todd Oppenheimer Questioning investment in computers in schooQuestioning investment in computers in schoo

lsls

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Father of MultimediaFather of MultimediaDr. Vannevar BushDr. Vannevar Bush

“Consider a future device for individual use, which is a sort ofmechanized private file and library. It needs a name, and to coinone at random, ``memex'' will do. A memex is a device in which anindividual stores all his books, records, and communications, andwhich is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory.

As We May Think, The Atlantic Monthly, 1945

It consists of a desk, and while it can presumably be operated from a distance, it is primarily the piece of furniture at which he works. On the top are slanting translucent screens, on which material can be projected for convenient reading. There is a keyboard, and sets of buttons and levers. Otherwise it looks like an ordinary desk.”

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Computer DelusionComputer DelusionTodd OpennheimerTodd Opennheimer

The Atlantic Monthly, 1997

“There is no good evidence that most uses of computers significantly improve teaching and learning, yet school districts are cutting programs --- music, art, physical education --- that enrich children’s lives to make room for this dubious nostrum…”

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What were the visions?What were the visions?

先來想像一下、、、先來想像一下、、、

Classroom as theater (Slides,16mClassroom as theater (Slides,16mm)m)

Teaching machine (TV)Teaching machine (TV) Interactive and Fun (Multimedia)Interactive and Fun (Multimedia) Individualized with no boundary (HIndividualized with no boundary (H

ypermedia)ypermedia) ……

02:10

Canon 電子紙

1919

Classroom as TheatreClassroom as Theatre

Thomas Edison, 1922

“… the motion picture is destined to revolutionize our education system and … in a few years it will supplant largely, if not entirely, the use of textbooks.”

2020

Teaching MachineTeaching Machine

Sydney Pressey, 1926

“… teaching machines are unique among instructional aids, in that the student not merely passively listen, watches, or reads but actively responds. And as he does so he finds out whether his response is correct or not. And a record may be kept which aids in improving the materials.”

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Television as Teaching MachineTelevision as Teaching Machine

Edward R. Murrow, 1958

“This instrument can teach, it can illuminate; yes, it can even inspire. But it can do so only to the extent that humans are determined to use it to those ends. Otherwise, it is merely lights and wires in a box..”

When two vowels go walking.01:30

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Teaching MachineTeaching Machine

B. F. Skinner, 1961

“A frame of textual material appearing in the square opening is incomplete: in place of certain letters or figures there are holes. Letters or figures can be made to appear in these holes by moving slides... When the material has been completed, the student checks his response… if they are correct, moves a new frame of material into place…“

“… with the help of teaching machines and programmed instruction, students could learn twice as much in the same time and with same effort as in a standard classroom.“

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Seymour PapertSeymour Papert

The Gears of My Childhood, 1980

“What an individual can lean, and how he learns it, depends on what models he has available…

… The computer is the Proteus of machines. Its essence is its universality, its power to stimulate. Because it can take on a thousand forms and can serve a thousand functions, it can appeal to a thousand tastes.”

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School’s OutSchool’s Out

Lewis Perelman, 1992

“Because the pervasive and potent impact of HL (hyper-learning) technology, we now are experiencing the turbulent advent of an economic and social transformation more profound than the industrial revolution… In the wake of the HL revolution, the technology called ‘school’ and the social institution commonly thought of as ‘education’ will be as obsolete and ultimately extinct as the dinosaurs.”

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高互動教室高互動教室「按按按」的硬體設計採用師生慣用的紅外線遙控裝置，經由與後端教材題庫的結合，教師可輕易運用於教學活動中，所有學生學習歷程的資料都會在學生每按一次遙控器按鍵後，傳回後端的學習資料庫中，配合恰當的資料統計與分析過程，老師及家長可精確了解到學生的學習情況。

01:05

中央大學 , 2000

Compare with Compare with teaching machine (Pressey, 1926)(Pressey, 1926)

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No Significant DifferenceNo Significant Difference

Compiled by Thomas L. Russell, 1999

Foreword by Richard E. ClForeword by Richard E. Clark ark

355 research reports, sum355 research reports, summaries and papersmaries and papers

Technology and Distance/Technology and Distance/Self learningSelf learning

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Richard E. ClarkRichard E. Clark

“The best current evidence is that media are mere vehicles that deliver instruction but do not influence student achievement any more than the truck that delivers our groceries causes changes in our nutrition.”

Media Will Never Influence Learning, 1983; 1994

“… the choice of vehicle might influence the cost or extent of distributing instruction.”

“… it was not the medium which influenced learning but instead certain attributes of media that can be modeled by learners and can shape the development of unique ‘cognitive process’.”

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台灣的發展台灣的發展 1976 1976 淡江大學 大一英文淡江大學 大一英文 CAICAI 1986 1986 台北西松國中 英文台北西松國中 英文 CAICAI 實驗教學實驗教學 1990 TANET1990 TANET 1998 1998 擴大內需方案擴大內需方案 2000 2000 亞卓市亞卓市 EduCitiesEduCities 2002 eLearning2002 eLearning ……

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科技決定論？科技決定論？Technological DeterminismTechnological Determinism

Is this the model you envision?Is this the model you envision?

Alternative perspectives?Alternative perspectives? Hard Sphere vs. Soft SphereHard Sphere vs. Soft Sphere Hot Media vs. Cold MediaHot Media vs. Cold Media

The End of EducationThe End of Education (Postman, 1995) (Postman, 1995)

06:30

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非關教育非關教育 ,, 很久以前的願景…很久以前的願景…Scientific American, 1889

“… the improvement in city condition by general adoption of the motor car can hardly overestimated. Street clean, dustless, and odorless, with light rubber-tired vehicles moving swiftly and noiselessly over smooth expanse, would eliminate a great part of the nervousness, distraction, and strain of modern metropolitan life.”

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Started with A QuestionStarted with A Question

What happens to students and teachers

when they have access to technology

whenever they need it?

1995, The Apple Classroom of Tomorrow (ACOT) Project

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What Research Has to Say?What Research Has to Say?

John Cradler (1996)John Cradler (1996) 1990-1994 Summary1990-1994 Summary

Thomas C. Reeves (1998)Thomas C. Reeves (1998) Learning “from” and “with” technologyLearning “from” and “with” technology

John Schacter (1999)John Schacter (1999) Analysis of 5 large studies (meta-analysis), adAnalysis of 5 large studies (meta-analysis), ad

ditionally 2 smaller studies using newer technditionally 2 smaller studies using newer technologiesologies

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John Cradler, 1996John Cradler, 1996 Student OutcomesStudent Outcomes

Effectiveness of technology tends vary as Effectiveness of technology tends vary as a function a function of curriculum content and instructional strategyof curriculum content and instructional strategy delivered by technologydelivered by technology

Educator outcomesEducator outcomes Benefits of technology for teaching is Benefits of technology for teaching is generally generally

positivepositive with a shift from the with a shift from the more traditional directive more traditional directive to a more student-centeredto a more student-centered approach approach

Development factorsDevelopment factors Particular Particular featuresfeatures of technology-based resources are of technology-based resources are

criticalcritical for effective application; e.g., instant feedback, for effective application; e.g., instant feedback, correctness of responses, individualized problem correctness of responses, individualized problem solving, built-in assessmentsolving, built-in assessment

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Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning “from” media and technologyLearning “from” media and technology

TelevisionTelevision No conclusive evidence, TV stultifies mindNo conclusive evidence, TV stultifies mind TV viewing not displaces academic activitiesTV viewing not displaces academic activities Positive effectiveness Instructional TV, Positive effectiveness Instructional TV,

especially while production aided by real especially while production aided by real teachersteachers

No difference between live teacher and video No difference between live teacher and video presentationpresentation

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Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning “from” media and technologyLearning “from” media and technology

Computer-based InstructionComputer-based Instruction Positive effectiveness in general as Positive effectiveness in general as

tutor: Motivation and Standardized tutor: Motivation and Standardized achievement testachievement test

Less time to complete a given lessonLess time to complete a given lesson No significant impact of intelligent No significant impact of intelligent

tutoring due to technical difficultiestutoring due to technical difficulties

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Thomas C. Reeves, 1998Thomas C. Reeves, 1998 Learning “with” media and technologyLearning “with” media and technology

Great effectiveness within Great effectiveness within constructivist learning environmentconstructivist learning environment

Representing knowledge support Representing knowledge support deep reflective thinkingdeep reflective thinking

Mindfulness and engagementMindfulness and engagement Learning to learn, and wishing to Learning to learn, and wishing to

innovateinnovate

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John Schacter, 1999John Schacter, 1999

Positive Findings: (Kulik ,1994)Positive Findings: (Kulik ,1994) Students who use computer-based instruction Students who use computer-based instruction

scored at scored at the 64th percentilethe 64th percentile on tests of achie on tests of achievement, students in the control conditions scovement, students in the control conditions scored at red at the 50ththe 50th..

Students Students learn more in less timelearn more in less time using CAI. using CAI. More More positive attitudespositive attitudes..

Negative Findings: (Kulik ,1994)Negative Findings: (Kulik ,1994) Computers did Computers did notnot have positive effects in have positive effects in eveeve

ry study areasry study areas..

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John Schacter, 1999John Schacter, 1999 Positive Findings: (Sivin-Kachala ,1998)Positive Findings: (Sivin-Kachala ,1998)

Students in technology rich environments experienceStudents in technology rich environments experienced d positive effects on achievementpositive effects on achievement in all major subject in all major subject areas.areas.

Students in technology rich environments showed Students in technology rich environments showed incrincreased achievementeased achievement in in preschool through higher educpreschool through higher educationation for both for both regular and special needsregular and special needs children. children.

Students’ Students’ attitudesattitudes toward learning and toward learning and self-conceptself-concept i improved.mproved.

Inconclusive Findings: (Sivin-Kachala ,1998)Inconclusive Findings: (Sivin-Kachala ,1998) Levels of effectiveness of educational technology is Levels of effectiveness of educational technology is inin

fluenced by specific student population, software desifluenced by specific student population, software design, educators’ role, and levels of access to technologgn, educators’ role, and levels of access to technologyy..

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John Schacter, 1999John Schacter, 1999

Positive Findings: (ACOT ,1994)Positive Findings: (ACOT ,1994) The ACOT experience appeared to result in The ACOT experience appeared to result in new new

learning experiencelearning experience requiring requiring higher levelhigher level reasoning reasoning and problem solving (not conclusive)and problem solving (not conclusive)

Positive impact on Positive impact on students’ attitudesstudents’ attitudes, and changing , and changing teaching practicesteaching practices; more cooperative group and less ; more cooperative group and less stand-up lecturing.stand-up lecturing.

Negative Findings: (ACOT ,1994)Negative Findings: (ACOT ,1994) ACOT students ACOT students performed no betterperformed no better than comparison than comparison

group or national norms on standardized tests group or national norms on standardized tests (vocabulary, math concepts, reading…)(vocabulary, math concepts, reading…)

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Emperor’s New Clothes? Emperor’s New Clothes? Jamie McKenzie, 1995Jamie McKenzie, 1995

Too often, lower order task and basic Too often, lower order task and basic skills examinedskills examined

Too little work on measuring gains in Too little work on measuring gains in higher order skillshigher order skills

Biased research; flawed methodologyBiased research; flawed methodology Little evidence that growth in skills Little evidence that growth in skills

persists beyond initial “gadget stage”persists beyond initial “gadget stage”

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Lack of Actual Evaluation ReportLack of Actual Evaluation ReportJamie McKenzie, 1995Jamie McKenzie, 1995

1980 – 81980 – 8 1981 – 161981 – 16 1982 – 101982 – 10 1983 – 291983 – 29 1984 – 251984 – 25 1985 – 221985 – 22 1986 – 321986 – 32 1987 – 271987 – 27

1988 – 271988 – 27 1989 – 271989 – 27 1990 – 291990 – 29 1991 – 361991 – 36 1992 – 131992 – 13 1993 – 91993 – 9 1994 – 111994 – 11 1995 – 2 1995 – 2 (incomplete year)(incomplete year)

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From Behaviorism to ConstructivismFrom Behaviorism to Constructivism

理論理論 傳播理論傳播理論 建構主義建構主義 情境學習理論情境學習理論

實務實務 老師做什麼？老師做什麼？ 學生做什麼？學生做什麼？ 科技用來做什麼？科技用來做什麼？

ROIROI 評質評質 :: 用什麼來肯定所有的假設？用什麼來肯定所有的假設？

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Evaluation ofEvaluation ofReturn on Investment Return on Investment

(ROI)(ROI) ROI = Benefits / Costs

Kirkpatrick's Four Levels of Evaluation (1959; 1994)

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Technology Impact on TrainingTechnology Impact on Training

Hall, 1995 (summary of 8 studies)Hall, 1995 (summary of 8 studies) CBT in business reducedCBT in business reduced training time 40-80 training time 40-80

percentpercent compared with traditional text-based compared with traditional text-based CBT reduced CBT reduced training costs 40-85 percenttraining costs 40-85 percent

compared with traditional trainingcompared with traditional training Roberts, 1991Roberts, 1991

IBM IBM cutcut its annual training budget (over its annual training budget (over 1 1 billionbillion) by ) by 30 million30 million by using CBT by using CBT

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ERIC Digest: How People LearnERIC Digest: How People LearnMarcy P. Driscoll,Marcy P. Driscoll, Oct. 2002Oct. 2002

Learning occurs in context.Learning occurs in context. Learning is active.Learning is active. Learning is social.Learning is social. Learning is reflective.Learning is reflective.

Howard Gardner 00:32