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ISSN 0973-2713

INDIAN

HISTORICALSTUDIES

Published by

PG & Research Department of History

St. Joseph's College (Autonomous)

(A Grade by NAAC and College with Potential for Excellence)Tiruchirappalli - 620 002

Tamil Nadu, India.

________________________________________________________

Half Yearly Vol. X No. 1 October 2013

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Patrons

Rev. Dr. S. John Britto, SJRector, St Joseph's College

Rev. Dr. S. Sebastian, SJSecretary, St Joseph's College

Rev. Dr. F. Andrew, SJPrincipal, St Joseph's College

Chief Editor

Dr. M. Arockiasamy Xavier, SJHead, Department of History, St Joseph's College (Autonomous)

Editorial Board

Dr. N. Rajendran Dr. T. SundararajBharathidasan University, Trichy Former HoD, St. Josephs College, Trichy

Prof. B. S. Chandrababu Dr. S. Chandni BiMadurai Kamaraj University, Madurai Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh

Dr. B. Sobhanan Prof. Syed Ayub AliKerala University, Thiruvananthapuram Kakatya University, Warrangal, AP

Dr. Antony Paul Gnanasekar Dr. C. ThomasArul Anandar College, Karumathur Periyar E.V.R. College, Trichy

Advisory Board

Dr. J. Santosh Kumar Rev. Fr. S. Arul Doss, SJDept. of History, St. Josephs College Dept. of History, St. Josephs College

Dr. J. Biju Joseph Mr. S. ManikandanDept. of History, St. Josephs College Dept. of History, St. Josephs College

Dr. S. Xavier Mr. M. Britto StalinPeriyar E.V.R. College, Trichy Dept. of History, St. Josephs College

PG & Research Department of History

St. Joseph's College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli - 620002

Ph: 0431-4226396, Fax: 0431-4226501E-mail: [email protected],

WEBSITE: WWW.SJCTNI.EDU

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INDIAN

HISTORICAL STUDIES(A Biannual Research Jour nal)

Vol. X, No. 1 ISSN 0973-2713 October 2013

Chief Editor

Dr. M. Arockiasamy Xavier, SJ

Publ ished by

PG & RESEARCH DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

ST. JOSEPH'S COLLEGE (AUTONOMOUS)

(Nationally Accredited with A Grade (3rdCycle) by NAACCollege with Potential for Excellence)

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 002

TAMIL NADU, INDIA

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THIS JOURNAL HAS BEEN FINANCIALLY SUPPORTED BY

THE INDIAN COUNCIL OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH

(ICHR). THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED ARE ENTIRELY OF

THE AUTHOR AND NOT OF THE ICHR.

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Indian Historical Studies

(A Biannual Research Jour nal)__________________________________________________________________

Vol. X, No. 1 ISSN 0973-2713 October 2013__________________________________________________________________

EDITORIAL

Historyis a science no less and no more stated J. B. Bury, the Irish historian, in 1902.

Systematic attempts were made since the time of Nicholas de Condorcet and H.T. Buckleto make history as a science. Having understood the scientific nature of the subject and its

importance they attempted so. Of course one cannot attain the exact objectivity andabsolute veracity in historical researches as in other empirical sciences. Science depends

on observation and experimentation to prove the validity of its premises. History pursuesit by indirect observation viz. through eye witnesses or through others who have heard of

it or by other methods. A scientist verifies his / her conclusions through repeatedexperimentation. A historian comes somewhat closer to it through corroboration ofseveral sources so that he/ she can check the veracity of one reference with another.Historians Barthold Georg Niebuhr and Leopold Von Ranke developed such historicalmethods which analyse the source materials with microscopic criticism. Any professionalhistorian is expected to follow such scientific approach in his / her historical pursuits. For

the very root word Istoria means collection of information obtained as a result of

scientific enquiry.

For scientific enquiry in history one needs primary sources without which a historicalresearch cannot take place. Primary sources are of varied categories. Traditionally

archival sources do play a vital role. Inscriptions, manuscripts, dispatches, travelogues,memoirs, diaries, records, palm leaves, archaeological artefacts, architecture, coins,

sculptures, seals, stamps, paintings, photographs, etc., are considered to be valuableprimary source materials. Till recent times scholars mostly relied on the government

archival sources as the only authentic sources. Again, the plethora of private originalrecords and documents in privates archives and libraries have added value to the research.Researchers now duly acknowledge the value of private (primary) sources. This

phenomenon is mainly due to the recent developments in the historiographical fields!

Among the private documents the Jesuit sources serve as a veritable mine of information

for the construction of the history of late medieval and modern society in Indiaparticularly in Tamil Nadu.Their writings embody copious information about the socio,

cultural and political situation of the country. Historians today affirm that the Jesuitsources are one of the reliable sources to write history as they were recorded objectively.Though the Jesuits objective was mainly professed by religions, society as a whole

attracted their attention, consequently a flood of light is thrown on political, social andeconomic condition of South India, says R. Sathiyanatha Aiyar, a renowned historian.

From the inception of the Order the Jesuits were and are known for their annual letters.One of the secretaries of St. Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Order, Fr. Polancodrew up a set of rules which are to be observed in the manner of writing by those of the

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Society who are scattered outside Rome. Among them three aspects deserve attention,namely, what to write, how to write and with what diligence to write and dispatch toRome. One of the Superior Generals of the Jesuits Fr. Mutio Vitelleschi who was in the

office from 1615 to 1645, wrote to one of his Jesuits in England, You must make aselection out of all the news available, and then communicate to us what you have

ascertained to be more authentic and of great consequence.

The missionaries in India sent to Europe accurate data and information regarding the

fauna, flora, ethnography, religions, customs, traditions and the history of the land wherethey had laboured. St. Francis Xavier (1506- 1552), the first Jesuit missionary of the Eastproved himself as the fore-runner of excellent letter writers from India. He set an eloquentmodel for his successors in India for writing numerous and compendious letters of high

quality and depth to their head quarters in Rome. The letters of Frs. Balthasar da Costa, Em. Martin and Nol de le Bourzes are revealing examples to this. The Jesuits

also played the role of historians while recording events. The annual letters of Fr.Balthasar da Costa from Trichinopoly gives evidence to this effect. ..Without claiming

to pass judgement on the nature or the cause of these happenings, I confine myself to myrole of a historian, and simply relate things which I have seen with my own eyes, says

Da Costa in one of his annual letters in 1643. As asserted by Documenta IndicaVol. I,these missionaries were to relate whatever was worthy of being known and speak aboutsuch thing as the climate, diet, customs, and character of the native peoples of India. The

Jesuit letter writers had naturally to describe the background in which their missionarywork was developing and circumstances mission faced. While engaged in briefingmission work they supplied valuable materials which today serve us sources to trace thehistory of the above period. Thus the Jesuit letters act as contemporary sources standing

in chronological proximity to the events they deal with. They contain in many instances,the reports of eyewitnesses of the events described, and even some of them being

participants in them, and are hence primary sources.However one should corroborate

these sources with other similar sources for obtaining greater objectivity.

The celebrated historian Vincent A. Smith rightly stated that the Jesuits, are highly

educated men trained in accurate observation and scholarly writings. The Jesuits arenoted for their veracity.John Lockman, the protestant editor of the Travels of the Jesuitssays, I believe it will be granted, that no men are better qualified to describe nations and

countries than the Jesuits. The first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, himself ahistorian par excellence, reflects in the same vein in his volume Glimpses of World

History, I cannot however resist giving you some more quotations from the accounts ofthe Portuguese missionaries. Their opinions are of far greater value than those of

countries. These sources are mostly in Portuguese, French, Latin, English and Tamil. One can always refer to such sources in Archivum Romanum Societatis Iesu in Rome,

French Jesuit Archives, Vanves in Paris, Jesuit Archives of Madurai Province atShembaganur, Kodaikanal, Xavier Centre of Historical Research, Goa and in otherplaces. A few researches are now being carried out in Tamil Nadu availing these sources.Surely these valuable Jesuit sources will help historians to construct a comprehensive,

modern and contemporary socio-political history of South India.

Dr . M. Arockiasamy Xavier, SJ

Chief Editor

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CONTENTS

1. S. John Britto SJ Ancient Historical Perceptions on Cheras from

Sangam Classical Literature ... 1

2. T. Jayaraman Tamil Ethno-National Historiography 21

3. C. Thomas Tiruvalluvars Concept of State Formation and

its Effects on the Politics of the Sangam Age(Tamil Academy) 37

4. A. Maria Arul Raja SJ Printing Living Orality to Reach Outto the Least: Pioneering Efforts of Henrique

Henriques 49

5. Ichhimuddin Sarkar Bhakti, Humanism and Quest for SocialHarmony 59

6. G. Indirajith Jainism in Kanchipuram 677. Keneth O. Ogot SJ The Pathology of Ethnic Identity and

Democratization of the Kenyan Nation-State 73

8. Babu Paul, SJ Jesuit Contributions to Historiography ofKerala 89

9. T.Selvamuthukumaran The Labour Movement of the CommunistParty of India in the East Tanjore District:

An inquiry into the Agitations led by theTamil Nadu Farmers Association 95

10. Prabha Ravi Shankar Indian Opinion (Tamil Edition) and itsContribution to Indian Agitation in South

Africa 10311. A. Akila

MariathangamBishop Azariahs Contribution to DornakalDiocese 111

12. S. Kamini Indian Forest Administration During the FirstFive Year Plan (1951-56) with Special

Reference to Coimbatore - A Study 119

13. T. S. Lancelet Demographic Strategies of Managing Solid

Waste - A Theoretical Approach 131

14. M. Raziya Parvin Women Empowerment in India - A Focus onGender Budgeting and Women ComponentPlan ... 139

Book Review:

T. Sundararaj Indian Catholic Christians & Nationalismby Dr. Mary John ... 150

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S. John Britto, SJ ~1~

___________________________________________Indian Historical Studies - Vol. 10, No. 1

ANCIENT HISTORICAL PERCEPTIONS ON CHERAS

FROM SANGAM CLASSICAL LITERATURE

___________

Dr. S. John Britto, SJFormer Principal, St. Josephs College (Autonomous),

Tiruchirappalli - 620 002

___________________________________

Introduction

The historic period of Tamil Nadu began from the Sangam age. Sangam age is

the period during which the poets of the third Sangam joined together and did

research on Tamil. This period lasted for 400 years from B.T. 200 to A.T 200.Some considered that it was between B.T. 300 to A.T. 300 (BT - AT wascalculated based on the birth year of Thiruvalluvar i.e.31 B.C. According to the

decision taken by the Tamil scholars that time can be calculated consideringthat Thiruvalluvar was born 31 years before Christ. This was accepted andannounced by the Government of Tamil Nadu.) The Sangam literatures, whatwe got now are Ettuthogaiand Pathupattu. The poem in these literatures waswritten by Kapilar, Paraner, Auvvaiyar, Nakkeerar and hundreds of poets. With

the help of these we can understand the civilization, customs, culture andpolitical of Tamilians.

Tolkappium which was pride to Tamil literature originated before the third

Sangam. Tamil literature would have developed a few thousand years ago. Itwas a pride to Tamil, that Thirukkural, which was hailed by all the religiousoriginated during the Sangam age. The national poet Bharathiyar says,

Valluvan thanai ulakinukae thanthu vanpugaz konda Tamil Nadu. Our mothertongue Tamil which is adaptive to grammatical norms and is called Senthamizh.

Mohenjo-daro and Harappa excavated in the Northern hemisphere wereexamples of town civilization. They examined thousands of things. It wasproved that it had connection with the Southern Tamilians for more than four-

five thousand years ago. This showed that in those days Tamilians were notonly in the south but also in the north.

Chera Dynasty

Chera dynasty, ruling from before the Sangam Age (3 rd century BC to 3rdcentury AD) until the 12

th century AD, is one of the most ancient ruling

dynasties in India. Together with the Cholas and the Pandyas they formed thethree principal warring southern kingdoms in the early centuries of the Common

Era known collectively as Three Crowned Kings. They are also referred to asKeralaputras (sons of Kerala) or Keralas. The Cheras were in continuous

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Ancient Historical Perceptions on Cheras


conflict with neighboring Cholas and Pandyas. Some Chera rules are said to

have defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas and their ally

states. They also made battles with the Kadambas of Banavasi and theYavanas(Romans) on the Indian coast.

During the time of Mauryas in northern India (c. 4thcentury BC to 3

rdcentury

BC) the Cheras (along with the Pandyas and the Cholas) were in a latemegalithic phase on the western coast of ancient Tamil land. The culturalexchange with the northern India and the flourishing trade with the RomanEmpire later contributed to the state formation. The kingdom, at its zenith,

spread over most of the modern day Kerala and Coimbatore, Salem andDharmapuri districts of modern day Tamil Nadu. Some records suggest the

possible annexation of Nagapattanam (southern part) and Thiruvarur districts ofTamil Nadu.

1

The Tamil poetic collection called Sangam literature describes a long line ofChera rulers. It records the names of the kings and the princes, and of the courtpoets who extolled them. Uthiyan Cheralathan, Nedum Cheralathan, Palyani SelKelu Kuttuvan, Narmudi Cheral, Selva Kadumko Valiathan, Chenguttuvan

Cheran, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Illam Cheral Irumporai are some of the rulersreferred in the Sangam poems. Senguttuvan Cheran, the most celebrated and

powerful Chera king is famous for the legends surrounding Kannagi, theheroine of the legendary Tamil epic Silapathikaram.2After second century AD,

the Chera power decayed rapidly with the decline of the lucrative trade with theRomans. The domination of first Chera dynasty lasted till circa fifthcentury AD.

The later Cheras ruled from the ninth century. Little is known about the Cheras

between the two dynasties. The second dynasty, Kulesekharas ruled from a cityon the banks of River Periyar called Mahodayapuram (Kodungallur).3Though

never, regained the old status in the Peninsula, Kulasekharas fought numerouswars with their powerful neighbours and diminished to history in 12

thcentury as

a result of continuous Chola and Rashtrakuta invasions.

The Chera Kingdom owed its importance to the trade with the Romans. The

geographical advantages, like the abundance of black pepper and other spices,the navigability of the rivers connecting the high mountains with the Arabian

Sea and the discovery of favourable trade winds which carried sailing shipsdirectly from the Arabian coast to Chera Kingdom in less than forty days,combined to produce a veritable boom in Cherass foreign trade. Muziris, the

famous sea port with two Roman regiments, was in the Chera kingdom andthroughout the reign of the Cheras, trade continued to bring prosperity to theirkingdom, with spice, ivory, timber, pearls and gems being exported to theMiddle East and to Southern Europe.

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Etymology

The word Chera is derived from Cheral, a corrupted form of classical Tamil

word, Charal, meaning declivity of a mountain.4The Chera Kings were calledChera-alatan (alatan means lord).

5 Cheras are sometimes referred to as

Keralas among historians. The word Kerala is possibly the Canarese

variation of the Tamil word Cherala.6The name Keralafirst ever finds place

in a historical document as Kedalaputho (Keralaputra) in Asokas Edicts (261

BC).7Historians consider Keralaputra(Sanskrit for son of Keralaor son of

Chera) as an alternate name of Cheras.8The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus

Maris Erythraei refers to this Keralaputra as Celobotra. Pliny the Elder, theRoman commander who visited India in the 1

st century AD, also describes

Cheras as Calobotras (Caelobothras). The Greek Ambassador Megasthanes

(4th century BC) as Charmae. He says that the force of the rulers of the

Charmaeis highly depended on their 60 war elephants.9

Literary Sources

The primary literary sources available regarding the early Chera Kings are theanthologies of Sangam literature, created between the years c. 300 BCE to 300CE.10

The earliest extant Sangam literary works, such as Kalithokai, mention amythical and supposedly submerged continent called Kumarikandam, whichwas believed to have been located to the south of the present-day Kanyakumaritens of thousands of years ago, between the then Kumari and Pakhruli Rivers.Pandya kings such as Chenkon, and the Cheras, supposedly ruled this country.Sangam literature further says that they fought and defeated the Nga tribes.

Kalithokai again mentions a war between the combined forces of Villavars andthe Meenavars (perhaps the Cheras and the Pandyas respectively), and theNgas, their arch-enemies, eventually losing the war.

Pathitrupaththu, the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology of Sangam Age,

mentions a number of rulers of the Chera dynasty. Each ruler is praised in tensongs sung by the Court Poet. The rulers (many were heirs-apparent) are

mentioned in the following order11

:

1. (King) Nedum Cheralathan - Kumatturk Kannanar

2. (Prince) Palyane Chel Kezhu Kuttuvan -Palaik Kantamanar

3. (Prince) Narmudi Cheral - Kappiyarruk Kappiyanar

4. (King) Senguttuvan Chera - Paranar5. (Prince) Adu Kottu Pattu Cheralathan - Kakkaipatiniyar Nacellaiyar

6. (King) Selva Kadumko Valiathan - Kapilar

7. (Prince) Perum Cheral Irumporai - Aricil Kilar

8. (King) Ilam Cheral Irumporai - Perunkunrurk Kilar

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The Cheras, the Pandyas and the Cholas are the three ruling dynasties of the

southern region (Bharathavarsha) in the Hindu epic Ramayana.12

Cheras are

possibly mentioned in Aitareya Aranyaka, and Mahabharata, where they takethe sides with the Pandavas in the Kurushetra War.

13 However, historicity of

these enthusiastic claims are challenged as the great war of Mahabharata is

dated as early as 3102 BC, about 3 millenniums before the establishment ofChera dynasty.

Chronology of Cheras

Sangam literature is rich in descriptions about a lot of Chera kings and princes,

along with the poets who extolled them. However, these are not worked intoconnected history and settled chronology so far.

14 A chronological device,

known as Gajabahu synchronism, is used by historians to help date early Tamilhistory.

15 Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, Gajabahu

synchronism has got wide acceptance among modern scholars and is consideredas the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating ancient Tamil literature.

16

The method depends on an event depicted in Silappatikaram, which describesthe visit of Kayavaku, the king of Ilankai (Sri Lanka), in the Chera kingdomduring the reign of the Chera king, Senguttuvan. The Gajabahu methodconsiders this Kayavaku as Gajabahu, who according Mahavamsa, a historical

poem written in Pali language on the kings of Sri Lanka, lived in the latter halfof the second century AD. This, in turn, has been used to fix the periodSenguttuvan, who ruled his kingdom for 55 years (according to the

Pathitruppaththu), in 2nd

century AD.17

Origin

It is possible that the Cheras reigned an independent kingdom in the 4thcentury

BC.18Along with the Pandyas, Cholas and Satyaputras, Cheras (Keralaputras)

in the late megalithic phase are also mentioned in the inscriptions of MauryanEmperor Asoka in third century BC. According Asoka inscriptions, the Cheras

lived on the borders of the Maurya empire. An expression in the ancient Tamilgrammar work, Tolkappiam, suggests that the Cheras were the first to establishthe kingdom compared to Pandyas and Cholas. However, the Chera Kingdompossibly rose to prominence on the fall of Pandya sovereignty.

19

Rulers

In early Tamil literature the Chera rulers are referred to as Cheral, Kuttuvan,

Irumporai, Kollipurai or Athan. Chera rulers were also called Kothai orMakothai. The nobility among the Cheras were called Cheraman in general.The Chera, Chola and Pandya were the three ancient Tamil rulers of southernIndia, called Tamilakam

20. The Cheras ruled western Malabar Coast, the

Cholas ruled in the eastern Coramantal Coast and the Pandyas in the south-

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central peninsula. There were also numerous small vassal kingdoms and city-

states called Vels.

The Cheras ruled over major part of modern Kerala, and Coimbatore and Salemdistricts of modern Tamil Nadu.

21 Tamil was the language of entire region;

Malayalam, the language of Kerala developed in a later stage only.22

Theircapital was at Vanchi (also known as Vanchimutur).

23 The location of the

historical city Vanchi is generally considered near the ancient port city ofMuziris in Kerala.

24However, Karur in Tamil Nadu is also pointed out as the

location of the capital city of Cheras.25Another view suggests that the reign of

Cheras from multiple capitals.

The monarchs of the Chera dynasty were involved in regular marriage withother groups or tribes and conflict with the Cholas and Pandyas for hundreds ofyears. In ancient Tamil writings, it was mentioned that the Chera monarchs

were Kuttuvan, Cheral, Kollipurai, Irumporai, or Athan. The kings were knownin names like Makothai or Kothai. The upper class among the Cheras wereknown as Cheramanas a whole.

Vanavaramban and Irumporai Families

King Uthiyan Cheralathan, his sons and grandsons were members of onedivision of the Chera Regal family known as the Vanavaramban line. Prince

Antuvan Cheral and the sons and grandsons of Prince Antuvan Cheral weremembers of another division which was known as the Irumporai line.

Antuvan Cheral, the famous Chera prince, is the father of the monarch SelvaKadungo. On certain occasions, Antuvan Cheral is recognized with the younger

brother of King Uthiyan Cheralathan, Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan. This wasmentioned in Purananuru by Madamisyar.

There was a city named Karur which served as the administrative centre ofPrince Antuvan Cheral. Ay Antiran, the Ay monarch was a senior person who

belonged to the same period of Prince Cheral. It was believed that the Ay kingspossibly had more strength in comparison to the Cheras at the period of AyAntirans regime. Prince Cheral and three other rulers of the same descent areconsidered as people belonging to the same period as Nedum Cheralathan and

his sons. There was a remarkable event in the chronicles of the Chera Dynasty.King Nedum Cheralathan and King Selva Kadumko Valiathan tied knots with

two sisters.

Other Reigning FamiliesOther than the two above mentioned families, there were some other Cherarulers and the names of these monarchs were mentioned in the Sangam

literature. All of them were not members of the principal descent of the CheraEmpire. Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai is one of the major namesamong these monarchs. In all likelihood, Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral

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Irumporai was the son and heir of King Illam Cheral Irumporai. He was also the

idol of the cast off 10th decennary. Another Chera monarch, Kanaikkal

Irumporai, has been mentioned in the Sangam verses. Perum Kadungo, whowas also known as Palai Paitiya, was a monarch of this dynasty who reignedfrom the Vanchi city. In the Sangam literature, Kothai Marpan with Tondi as its

capital has been cited.

Perumchottu Utiyan Cheralatan was overpowered by King Karikalan, thefamous Chola monarch. Cheralatan committed suicide following the loss at theconflict of Venni. It is noteworthy that Cheraman Perumal, the last recognized

monarch of the Chera dynasty, switched to the religion of Islam. He was alsoresponsible for constructing the oldest Islamic shrine in the country. By 8 th

century AD, this dynasty gradually disappeared from history.

The early Cheras reigned over Kongu Nadu, Kerala, Dharmapuri and Salem.

They possibly annexed the southern part of Thiruvarur and Nagapattinamdistricts following the wedding of the 2

ndmonarch of the first Chera Empire

with the regal clan of the Cholas.

Earlier, Vanchi Muthur served as their capital and it was situated in theKanthallur-Kizhanthur area in the district of Idukki, Kerala. However, theyshifted their governing centre to Karur Vanchi or Karur in 2ndcentury AD. The2

ndChera Empire reigned from the fringes of Muziris, lying on the riverbanks of

Periyar.

List of Chera Monarchs

Given below is a list of the Chera monarchs. They can be divided into three line

of descent and they are the Vanavaramban line, the Irumporai line, and thesecond Chera monarchs.

Vanavaramban Line

Nedum Cheralathan

Uthiyan Cheralathan

Narmudi Cheral

Palyani SelKelu Kuttuvan

Adu KottuPattu Cheralathan

VelKelu Kuttuvan

Irumporai Line Selva Kadumko Valiathan

Antuvan Cheral

Illam Cheral Irumporai

Perum Cheral Irumporai

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King Uthiyan Cheralathan (2nd

century BC)

The first of the known rulers of the Chera kingdom was Vanavaramban

Perumchottu Uthiyan Cheralathan. He had his capital at a place calledKuzhumur in Kuttanad. He expanded the kingdom northward and eastwardfrom their original home in Kuttanad. Uthiyan Cheralathan was a contemporary

of the Chola ruler Karikala Chola. Mamulanar credits him with havingconducted a feast in honour of his ancestors. In a battle at Venni, Uthiyan

Cheralathan was wounded on the back by Karikala Chola (Pattinappalai).Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by starvation

26. His

queen was Veliyan Nallini.

The Sangam work, Purananuru has a reference to Uthiyan Cheralathan, which is

widely misinterpreted as he feeding the two rival armies of the Mahabharatawar. The event, however, is possibly related to the Chera war with the

Satavahanas, and hence the period of Uthiyan Cheralathan could be assigned inthe 2ndcentury BC.

King Nedum Cheralathan

Uthiyan Cheralathan was succeeded by his son Imayavaramban Kudakko

Nedum Cheralathan. He ruled for 58 years as a Crown Prince first and as anabsolute king later. Nedum Cheralathan probably consolidated the Cherakingdom, and literature and art developed highly during his period. NedumCheralathan is praised in the Second Ten of Pathitrupaththu composed by hiscourt poet Kannanar. Nedum Cheralathan, famous for his hospitality, evengifted a part of Umbarkkattu (Anamalai) to Kannanar.

The title Kudakko(King of Kudanad) proves that the Cheras had by this timebrought Kudanad under their sway. During the reign of Nedum Cheralathan fivejunior princes helped him in the military expansions and conquests. They wereAntuvan Cheral, Palayanai Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, Selva Kadumko Valiatan,Narmudi Cheral and Vel Kelu Kuttuvan. The greatest enemies of Nedum

Cheralathan were Kadambas of Banvasi. He also won another victory over theYavanason the coast. The chief of the Yavanas was captured and paraded in

public with hands pinioned to his back and head poured over with ghee. Later,this Yavana was released on ransom. Mamulanar refers to a sea coast townshipcalled Mantaiand the exhibition ornaments and diamonds captured by NedumCheralathan there.

Nedum Cheralathan was killed in a battle with a Chola ruler. But, the Chola

ruler was also killed in the battle by a spear thrown at him by NedumCheralathan. Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan is claimed to have evenconquered Bharatavarsha up to the Himalayas and to have inscribed his royalemblem on the face of the mountains. Cheralathan cut the mango tree which

symbolised Surrabadhman exhibiting his valour (Pathir 11: 16) NUil

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KGKj also Murughu: 59-60. Kadamba tree of the enemies was also felled,(Pathir 11: 12-16).

The same is referred to in (Aham 127: 3-4) nruyhj Knuho flgWJOther references are (Pathir 12: 1-3). He destroyed the wooden gates made

fiza ku(Pathir 15: 1-5; 16: 1-7) of the mighty citadels of the enemies. He

crossed the seas and conquered the enemies by destroying their Kadamba trees(Pathir 17: 4-5; 20: 2-5; Aham 127: 3-4; 347: 4-6 Silapathi 28: 81). He was

generous to the poor and the artists (Pathir 12: 9-14; 15: 35-40) Owing to hisrighteous ruling his kingdom was very fertile (Pathir 13: 25-28). His braverywas exceptional as proved in the defeat in seven other kings and convertingtheir crown and to golden garland in (Pathir 14: 11-12; 16: 16-17)

Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan

Puzhiyarkon Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan, a brother of Nedum Cheralathan,spent 25 years as Crown Prince and never became a king. He helped his brotherin the conquests of northern Malabar. At least a part of northern Malabar came

under the Chera rule in this period as is proven by the title Puzhiyarkon. Helater led the army and conquered Kongunad Pathir 22: 15) (Palyani Sel Kelu

Kuttuvan is also called Karuvureriya Olavalko Perum Cheral Irumporai,Kongunad had earlier conquered by Ay Antiran with capital at Vanchi on thebanks of Periyar).

In the later years of his life, Palyani retired from military life and spent time in

arts, letters, gifts and helping Brahmins. He conquered Poozhi country and itschieftain called ayirai (Pathir 21: 21-23; 21: 28-29). As he conquered the

enemies by destroying their fortress he cut down the guardian known asKanaiya maram and Thula maram (Pathir 22: 21). He vanquished the fortahappa (Pathir 22: 26; Narr 14: 3,4; Silipathi 28: 144). He encourage the temple

priests in their worship and service to Gods (Pathir 23: 6-8). mWtifgl

ghgd gfK (Thol puram 20). He also annexed to his kingdom Umbur

Kadu as mentioned in pathigam. He worshipped also Kotravai which protectedhim. Towards the end of the rains which lasted for 25 years he renounced theworld and became an ascetic.

Narmudi Cheral

KalangaikkaniNarmudi Cheral (son of Nedum Cheralthan; never became theking, was a Crown Prince under his father for 25 years) is praised in the 4thset,

written by Kappiyanar. He, famous for his generosity over the defeated, won aseries of victories of the enemies. After an attack by Nannan of Ezhimalai onPunnadu (in Kodagu), the Chera army under Narmudi Cheral marched againstthe Mushika forces. In following battle of Pazhi, Narmudi Cheral was defeated.

However in the battle of Vakai-perum-turai Narmudi Cheral defeated and killedNannan, annexing Puzhinad. (Pathir 73: 11; 90: 27).

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On account of this victory he was honored by the title a nfh(Pathir 21:23; 84: 6) He well known for his forbearance even to his enemies (Pathir 32:

16-17). His victory over Nannan his considered significant (Pathir 38: 4; 40: 14-15). It is also said that he use to refer to the Unnam tree (Pathir 40: 17) whichwith dense foliage would indicate his victory over enemies. When the tree is

leafless it would indicate his possible defeat in the battle. He reigned for 25years.

King Selva Kadumko Valiathan

Son of Anthuvan Cheral and the hero of the 7th set of poems composed by

Kapilar, Selva Kadumko ruled Chera kingdom for 25 years. His residence wasat the city of Tondi. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheralathan.Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas.

He is sometimes identified the Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the

Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur. He is compared to Pari, one of the sevengenerous Kings. His consort is as beauteous as Kollipavai. Pari defied thecustomary interpretation of the fertility of Uunnam tree.27

King Vel Kelu Kuttuvan (Senguttuvan)

Vel Kelu Kuttuvan, son of Nedum Cheralathan, ascended the Chera throne after

the death of his father. Vel Kelu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendaryKadal Pirakottya Senguttuvan Chera - the most illustrious ruler of the earlyCheras of the Sangam Age. This warrior king is said to have ruled for 55 years,from 170-166 AD,

28 defeating many chieftains. Under his reign, the Chera

kingdom extended from Kollimalai in the east to Tondi and Mantai in the

western coast. The queen of Senguttuvan was Ilango Venmal (the daughter of aVelir chief). The son of Senguttuvan Chera was Kuttuvan Cheral. It is not clear

whether Prince Kuttuvan Chera ascended the throne or not. During SenguttuvanCheras reign, Perum Cheral Irumporai, Ilam Cheral and Adu Kottu PattuCheralathan helped him in his expansions as Crown Princes or Junior Princes.

In his early years of rule, Senguttuvan successfully intervened in a civil war in

the Chola Kingdom. The civil war was among the Chola princes and the Cherasstood on the side of their relative Killi. The rivals of Prince Killi were defeated

in a battle at Neriyavil, Uraiyur and he established firmly on the Chola throne.

The land and naval expedition against the Kadambas was also successful. TheKadambas had the support of the Yavanas, they were routed in the Battle of

Idumbil and Valyur. The Fort Kodukur in which the Kadamba army took shelterwas stormed and the Kadambas was beaten. In the following naval expeditionthe Yavana supported Kadamba army was crushed. He is said to have defeatedthe Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan.

Ilango Adigal (probably the brother of Senguttuvan Chera) wrote the legendaryTamil epic Silapthikaram sitting at a Jain monastery at Kunavayilkottam

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(Trikkanamathilakam) near Vanchi. Silapathikaram describes Senguttuvan

Cheras decision to propitiate a temple (Virakkallu) for the goddess Pattini

(Kannagi) at Vanchi. According the Silappadikaram, an astrologer appearedin the court of King Nedum Cheralathan and predicted that Ilango, theyounger son of the king, would become the ruler. The prediction displeases

Prince Senguttuvan. In order to respect the sentiments of his elderbrother, Ilango abdicated all his claims to the throne and took to the life of aJain ascetic.

Senguttuvan Chera was perhaps a contemporary of King Gajabahu of Sri

Lanka. King Gajabahu, according to the Sangam poems, visited the Cheracountry during the Pattini festival at Vanchi.29He is mentioned in the context of

King Gajabahus rule in Sri Lanka, which can be dated to either the first or lastquarter of the 2

nd century AD, depending on whether he was the earlier or the

later Gajabahu. His Kingdom extended from Mount Himalayas to the CapeComorin.30He shared the treasures of his conquered with soldiers, the poor, the

artisans and poets.31

He defeated the chieftain Pazhian to support his friendlyKing Arugai by destroying the guardian tree Vembu (Pathir44: 10-15).

Adu Kott Pattu Cheralathan

Adu Kott Pattu Cheralathan was a Crown Prince for a long 38 years. Trade and

commerce flourished in the Chera kingdom during his rule. He is said to havegifted some villages to Brahmins in Kuttanad.

32 It means that though his

country did not have poverty he sent his chariot to countries elsewhere to bring

the poor to feed them in his Kingdom. He was known for celebrating his victoryover enemies.33His victory dance was referred to as Thunangai.34From the land

of Thandakaranya he brought the mountain sheep to the sea port calledThondi.35

Perum Cheral Irumporai

Tagadur Erinta Perum Cheral Irumporai (son of Selva Kadumko, Crown

Prince under Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He defeated the combined armies of thePandyas, Cholas and that of the chief of Tagadur.

36He destroyed the famous

city of Tagadur which was ruled by a powerful ruler Adigaman Ezhni. Hisbattle of Tagadur is referred to by Sangam poets.

37

He is praised poets to have long life undiminished fame just like Kotravai ofAyirai hill.38He is also called as the lord of Puzhinad and Kollimalaand the

lord of Puhar. Puhar was in fact the Chola capital. Perum Cheral Irumporai also

annexed the territories of a minor chief called Kaluval. He reigned for17 years.39 His richness of this Kingdom his bravery, generous gifts to hispeople were prizedby all. His countrys wealth and prosperity are by the ever

flowing river Kaveri. He has in his possession a fleet of mighty elephants whichare comparable to the herd of cows of the Kongu Kingdom.

40

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King Illam Cheral Irumporai

Illam Cheral Irumporai (son of Perum Cheral Irumporai, probably succeeded

Vel Kelu Kuttuvan). He also defeated the Pandyas and the Cholas and broughtimmense wealth to his capital at a city called Vanchi.

41 He is said to have

distributed these treasures among the Pana poets. He fought against Mallar and

other kings.42

He is praised by Sangam poets to have one day as a one monthand a month to become a year and the year one yuga/epoch and that becoming a

deluge. Let the life of the king be ever on the rise.43

King Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai

King Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai preserved the territorial integrityof the Chera Kingdom under his rule. But, by the time of Mantaran Cheral thedecline of the kingdom had began. The Chera ruled from Kollimalai in the east

to Tondi and Mantai in the western coast. He defeated his enemies in a battle aplace called Vilamkil. The famous Pandya ruler Nedum Chezhian capturedMantaran Cheral as a prisoner. But, the Chera was managed to escape andregain the lost kingdom.

Kanaikkal Irumporai

Kanaikkal Irumporai said to have defeated a local chief called Muvan. The

Chera then brutally pulled out the teeth of his prisoner and planted them on thegates of the city of Tondi. The later Kanaikkal Irumporai was captured by theChola ruler Sengannan (Kalavali by Poygayar) and he later committed suicideby starvation.

Government and Society

Monarchy was the most important political institution of the Chera kingdom.

There was a high degree of pomp and pageantry associated with the person ofthe king. The King wore a gold crown studded with precious stones. The kingwas an autocrat, but his powers limited by a counsel of ministers and scholars.

The King held daily durbar to hear the problems of the common men and toredress them on spot.The Royal Queen had a very important and privileged

status and she took her seat by the side of the king in all religious ceremonies.Another important institution was the manram which functioned in each

village of the Chera kingdom. Its meeting were usually held by the villageelders under a banyan tree and they helped in the local settlement disputes. Themanrams were the venues for the village festivals as well.

Succession

In the course of the imperial expansion of the Cheras the members of the royal

family set up residence at several places of the kingdom (at Vanchi, Karur andTondi). They followed the collateral system of succession according to whichthe eldest member of the family, wherever he lived, ascended the throne. Junior

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princes and heir-apparents (crown princes) helped the ruling king in the

administration.

King Uthiyan Cheralathan and his sons grandsons belonged to one branch of theChera royal family called Vanavaramban line. Prince Antuvan Cheral and his

sons grandsons belonged to another branch called Irumporai line. The princeAntuvan Cheral mentioned below is the father of King Selva Kadungo. He issome times identified with Palyani Sel Kelu Kuttuvan (younger brother of KingUthiyan Cheralathan) as is evidenced by Madamisyar in Purananuru. AntuvanCheral had his seat at a city called Karur. The Ay ruler Ay Antiran was an elder

contemporary of Antuvan Cheral. The Ays were probably more powerful thanthe Cheras during the time of Ay Antiran. Antuvan Cheral and three others in

his line are regarded as contemporaries of Nedum Cheralathan and his sons. It isimportant to note that King Selva Kadumko Valiathan and King NedumCheralathan married two sisters.

Apart from these two clans, are also some other Chera rulers who figure inSangam works. These rulers did not belonged to the main Chera line. One of themost important of them is Yanaikatchai Mantaran Cheral Irumporai. Probably,

he is the son and successor of King Illam Cheral Irumporai and the hero of thelast 10thdecade. Another Chera ruler Kanaikkal Irumporai is also referred in the

Sangam poems. Palai PaitiyaPerum Kadungo was a Chera ruler based on thecity of Vanchi. Kothai Marpan with capital at Tondi also figure in the Sangam

literature.

Ezhimalai Konkanam Nannan (approx. 3rdcentury BC, sometimes approx 1st-

5th century AD) was a south Indian ruler of the Mushika Kingdom and was a

suspected contemporary of Mauryan emperor Bindusara, in the Sangam period.

Ezhimalai Nannan, a celebrated hero in the Sangam literature, is famous for hismilitary expansions and battles against their powerful neighbors, the Chera

kingdom.

Under Nannan, an able military commander also, Mushika kingdomtransformed into a force in South India, and stretched into Wynad and GudalurDistricts in the foothills of the Western Ghats, and the northern parts of present

day Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu. Eager to expand his kingdom, Nannanwaged war against the Cheras, and successfully defeated the Chera commanders

at the Battle of Pazhi.

It is believed that Nannan buried an immense treasure of coins in the foothills of

Ezhimalai. Sangam literature gives us a vivid picture of the life of people atEzhimalai. Paranar, the court poet of Nannan, describes the victory of Pazhi in

his works. The victories of Nannan over the Cheras and other neighbouringchieftains are alluded to in the Agananuru, Nattinai and other works.

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But the Chera king, Narmudi Cheral, defeated him at the Battle of Vakaipperum

Turai and consequently the Mushika kingdom passed into the hands of the

Cheras.44

Kolathiris of Kolathunad traces their ancestry back to the ancient Mushika

kingdom of the Tamil Sangam Age. After king Nannan of Mushika dynasty waskilled in the Battle of Vakaipperum Turai against the Cheras, the history of thedynasty is obscure. However, it is generally agreed among the scholars thatKolathris are the descendants of king Nannan, and later literary works pointtowards kings such as Vikramaraman, Jayamani, Valabhan and Srikandan from

Mushika dynasty. Kolathunad was the northernmost province of the Later Cherakingdom and had considerable autonomy during 12thcentury.

Dominions

Provinces and ports

The traditional Chera Kingdom was generally divided into five divisions on the

basis of topography.

1. Puzhinadu- former Ezhil Malai kingdom (the sandy land)

2. Kudanadu (the western land)

3. Karkainadu (the impregnable rocky land, east of Kudanad)

4. Kuddanadu/Kuttanadu (the land of lakes)

5. Velnadu

The main ports in the Chera Kingdom were: Tondi on the banks of Makkali

river, south of the Lueke Island, Bramagara, Kalaikkarias, Muziris on the banksof Chulli / Pseudostomos river, Podoperoura, Semne, Koreoura/Kothora, and

Bakarei at the mouth of river Baris. In land cities between Tondi and Muziriswere, Naroulla, Kouba, and Paloura. In land cities between Pseudostomos and

Baris were, Pasage, Mastanour, Kourellour, Pounnata, Aloe, Karoura,Arembour Bideris/Videris, Pantipolis, Adarima Koreour.

Military

The Cheras had a well-equipped army which consisted of infantry, cavalry,elephants and chariots. There was also an efficient navy. The Chera soldiers

made offering to the War Goddess Kottavai before any military operation. Itwas tradition that the Chera rulers emerged victorious in a battle to wear the

anklets made out of the crowns of the defeated rulers.

Foreign trade

Chera trade with the foreign countries around Mediterranean can be traced backto the pre-Christian era. They were in contact with the Satavahanas, Greeks andArabs. In the 1

stcentury of Common era, Romans conquered the Egypt and that

helped them to establish a monopoly in the Arabian sea trade. Many

documentary and archaeological evidences of legendary port of Chera empire,

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Muziris, correspond to this period; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea portrays the

trade in the kingdom of Cerobothras (Cheraputras) in detail. Muziris was the

most important port in the Malabar Coast, which according to the Periplus,abounded with large ships of Romans, Arabs and Greeks. Bulk of spices, ivory,timber, pearls and gems were exported from the Chera ports to Mesopotamia,

Egypt, Greece, Rome, Phoenicia and Arabia.45

The Romans brought vastamounts of gold in exchange of pepper.

46Hoards of Greek, Roman and Arabic

coins unearthed from Kollam, Kottayam, Eyyal, and Kodungallur corroboratethese ancient trade relations.47 Chera coins were also excavated from various

locations in Kerala and Tamil Nadu, such as Pattanam (probably the location ofMuziris), Karur, Namakkal, Erode and Coimbatore.

Roman ships reached the Chera kingdom through two ways. First through theports of northwest India from Indus to the Tamil lands and the second directlyfrom the Gulf of Aden to southern India. Most of the Chera ports had begun aslarge fishing villages where territorial product could be collected and

exchanged. Then these villages became more urbanized and commercial as aresponse to growing trade contacts.

48

The Chera trading stations of Naura and Tyndis began as busy fishing villages,but later the presence of large number of pirates posed a major threat to the

Roman ships and Roman merchants had to resort to more southerly ports ofMuziris and Nelcynda. Roman ships did not sail further east during this period.

Consequently, the Chera ports became more significant for Romans. Hundredof Romans possibly spent months in the Chera kingdom awaiting favorableconditions for returning to Europe while some Roman officials were entitled tostay throughout the year to make arrangements on behalf of sailors arrived

seasonally.

These Roman agents conducted trade dealings with the locals and Peutinger

Table marks the presence of a Roman Temple (of Augustus) in the Malabarcoast for the use of these visitors. According to Periplus, special consignmentsof grain were sent to places like Muziris. This was probably to support theresident Romans who needed something to supplement the local diet of rice.Black Pepper is known as Kariin Tamil literature.

It was not possible to deep-hulled ships to reach Muziris (the port was situated

upriver). The Romans were forced to wait at the edge of the lagoon while theircargoes were transferred upstream on smaller crafts. Muziris was a largesettlement owed its prosperity to shipping from the Roman empire and northern

India. Black pepper from the inland hills was brought to Muziris by localproducers and stacked in warehouses to await the arrival of Roman merchants.By the time of Plinys writing Muziris too was full of pirates. Chera-Pandyawar during this time further exacerbated the conditions and diverted Romantrade away, causing the decline of both the kingdom and its dynasty.

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Coinage

A number of coins belonging to Chera rulers have been discovered from both

Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Silver coins with the portrait of a Chera king andlegend Makkotaiwritten in Tamil-Brahmi script have been found near Karur.There are also coins with legend Kuttuvan Kotaiand Kollipuraialong with

the Chera symbols of bow and arrow.

Life during Chera Dynasty

The people ruled by the Chera Empire were not split into groups and socio-economic classes. The Varna system did not materialize distinctly.

There was no place for withdrawnness and social restrictedness. Groups ofpeople like the Kuruva, Pana, Veta and Paraya were respected by the monarchs.

These communities imparted knowledge and benefited from social

independence and egalitarianism. A number of renowned bards of the Sangamera were Panas. During the Chera dynasty, women were given a superiorposition in the society. They went to school and did not hide their faces.

Auvvaiyar (circa 500 AD) was the most famous bard during this era. Childwedding was unheard of and there was no restriction on widow marriage.

Society and religion

The Chera population was not divided into castes and communities. The Varnasystem had not taken a clear shape. Social exclusiveness and un-approachabilitywere unknown. Communities such as the Pana, Kuruva, Paraya and Veta wereheld in high esteem by the rulers. These people educated and enjoyed socialfreedom and equality. Many great poets of the Sangam age were Panas. Women

enjoyed a high status in the Chera realms. They educated and never coveredtheir faces. Auvvaiyar was the most outstanding poet of her age. Child marriagewas unknown and widow marriage was permitted.

Most of the Chera population followed native Dravidian practices. The worshipof departed heroes was a common practice in the Chera kingdom along with

tree worship and other kinds of ancestor worships. The war goddess Kottravaiwas propitiated with complex sacrifices. The Cheras probably worshipped this

mother goddess. Kottavai was later on assimilated into the present day form ofgoddess Devi.49There is no evidence of snake worship in the Chera realms andtill 7

th century AD there is no proof of Ganesh worship either. Perhaps the

Brahmins came to the Chera Kingdom in the 3rd

century BC following the Jains

and Budhhists.It was only in the 8thcentury AD, the Aryanisation of the Chera country reached

its climax. A small percentage of the population followed Jainism, Buddhismand Brahminism. These three philosophies came from northern India to theChera kingdom. A small Jewish and Christian population also lived in the Cheraterritories.

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Decline of Early Cheras

Kalabhras controlled large parts of southern India in the 5th and 6

thcenturies

AD. The fourth and fifth centuries witnessed the decline and fall of the WesternRoman Empire. Also in the post-Sangam, the Chera kingdom was invaded by anumber of northern powers. A Kadamba record of the 5thcentury at the Edakkal

cave in Wayanad bears testimony to the Kadamba presence in the deep south.Chera Kingdom seems to have affected by the Kadamba upheaval in the 5 thand

6thcenturies AD. According to Buddhist works, Kalabhra ruler Achuta Vikkanta

kept the Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers in his confinement and established

control over large portion of southern India. The Kalabhras were defeatedaround the 6

thcentury with the revival of Pallava and Pandya power.

The Chalukyas of Badami must have conducted temporary conquests ofMalabar. An inscription of King Pulikesin I claims that he conquered the Chera

ruler. A number of other inscriptions mentions their victories over the kings ofChera kingdom and Ezhil Malai rulers. King Pulikesin II (610-642) is also said

to have conquered Chera, Pandya and Chola kingdoms. Soon the three rulersmade an alliance and marched against the Chalukyas. But the Chalukyas

defeated the confederation. King Vinayaditya also subjugated Chera king, andmade him pay tribute to the Chalukyas. King Vikramaditya is also said to havedefeated the Cheras. King Simhavishnu and Mahendra Varman are first Pallavarulers to claim sovereignty over the Chera kingdom. Narasimha Varman and thePandya ruler Sendan (654-670) also won victories over the Cheras. KingNandivarman-II of the Pallavas allied with the Cheras in fight against thePandyas under Varaguna-I. Rashtrakutas also claim control over Cheras. King

Dantidurga and Govinda-III is said to have defeated the Cheras.

The Ay Kingdom, situated south of the Chera kingdom, functioned for long asan effective buffer state between a declining Chera kingdom and an emergingPandya Kingdom. Later, the Pandyas conquered the Ays and made it a tributary

state. As late as 788 AD, the Pandyas under King Maranjadayan or JatilavarmanParantaka invaded the Ay kingdom and took the port city of Vizhinjam. But, the

Ays does not seem to have submitted the Pandyas and fought against them foralmost a century.

Second Chera Kingdom (Medieval Cheras)

The Chera power re-emerged into light c. 9thcentury AD under King Alwar

Kulasekhara Varman, who succeeded his father Thidaviradhan in 800 AD. By

this time the Chera capital was at Tiruvanchikkulam (Mahodayapuram) nearpresent day Kodungallur. He established the Second Chera Kingdomfrom thenew capital at Mahodayapuram. But his sovereignty was constrained by the

pre-existing power of the Aryan-Brahmin settlements across his kingdom andthe hereditary chieftains called Naduvazhis. The Second Cheras allied with theCholas against the Pallavas, and with Pandyas against the Cholas between 8th-

10th century AD. By the last centuries of their rule, Kulasekharas became an

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active ally of the Pandyas and Lambakannas of Sri Lanka, against the raising

Later Chola power. In 805 AD, Rashtrakutas conquered the Later Cheras and

during a brief period between 855 and 865 AD Rashtrakutas continually ruledover them.

Endnotes

1. Menon, A Sreedhara,A Survey Of Kerala History,Kerala, India, 1967.

2. India - Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Britannica.com. Retrieved 2012-08-29.

3. Ancient name, Chully ref:Aham. 149.

4. Menon, A Sreedhara op. cit.

5. Sivaraja Pillai, The Chronology of the Early Tamils - Based on the SynchronisticTables of Their Kings, Chieftains and Poets Appearing in the Sangam Literature.

6. Vincent A. Smith , The Early History of India,. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN

978-81-7156-618-1. Retrieved 29 September 2012.

7. Keay, John.India: A history. India: Grove Press, 2001, ISBN 0802137970.

8. A. Sreedhara Menon. Political History of Modern Kerala. D C Books, 1987.p. 13. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 1 August 2012. Also Cf. DurgaPrasad Dikshit (1980). Political History of the Chlukyas of Badami. AbhinavPublications. pp. 130-. GGKEY:PW8B49QWQ4H. Retrieved 28 September2012. Also Cf. Bharati Ray.Different Types of History. Pearson Education India,2009. pp. 37. ISBN 978-81-317-1818-6. Retrieved 28 September 2012.

9. Robert Caldwell. A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian

Family of Languages. Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1998. p. 92.

10. Kamil Veith Zvelebil, Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature, p.12Also Cf. K.A. Nilakanta Sastri,A History of South India, OUP, 1955. p. 105.

11. Subodh Kapoor. The Indian Encyclopaedia. Cosmo Publications, 2002. p. 1449.ISBN 978-81-7755-257-7. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

12. The Ramayana and Mahabharata: Book VII: In the Nilgiri Mountains. Sacred-texts.com. Retrieved 2011-03-16. Also Cf. V.Jayaram (2007-01-09). TheRamayana Kishkindha. Hinduwebsite.com. Retrieved 2011-03-16.

13. Britannica Article on Dravidian. Ccat.sas.upenn.edu. 2004-01-09. Retrieved

2011-03-16. Mahabharata: The Great War and World History. Bvashram.org.Retrieved 2011-03-16.

14. Barbara A. West. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. InfobasePublishing, 2009. p. 781. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7. Retrieved 4 October 2012.

15. V. Kanakasabhai. The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years Ago. Asian EducationalServices, 1997. ISBN 81-206-0150-5.

16. Zvelebil, Kamil (1973). The smile of Murugan: On Tamil literature of southIndia. Brill Academic Publishers. pp. 37-39. ISBN 90-04-03591-5. The opinionthat the Gajabahu Synchronism is an expression of genuine historical tradition is

accepted by most scholars todayAlso Cf. Pillai, Vaiyapuri (1956). History ofTamil Language and Literature; Beginning to 1000 AD. Madras, India: New

Century Book House. pp. 22. We may be reasonably certain that chronologicalconclusion reached above is historically sound

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17. Kamil Zvelebil. Tamil Literature. BRILL, 1975, p. 45. ISBN 978-90-04-04190-5.

Retrieved 4 October 2012.

18. Subodh Kapoor. The Indian Encyclopaedia. Cosmo Publications, 2002, p. 1449.ISBN 978-81-7755-257-7. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

19. Ibid., p. 1448.

20. J. Allan, T. Wolseley Haig, H. H. Dodwell. The Cambridge Shorter History ofIndia. Cambridge University Press, 1934, p. 179.

21. Angelina Vimala (1 September 2007). History And Civics6. Pearson EducationIndia. pp. 107. ISBN 978-81-317-0336-6. Retrieved 6 October 2012.

22. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987).Political History of Modern Kerala. D C Books. pp.22. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

23. Angelina Vimala. History and Civics6. Pearson Education India, 2007, p. 107.ISBN 978-81-317-0336-6. Retrieved 6 October 2012.

24. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987). Political History of Modern Kerala. op. cit.,p. 22.Also Cf.Miguel Serrano (1 January 1974).The Serpent of Paradise: The Story of an Indian Pilgrimage. Routledge and

Kegan Paul. pp. 76-. ISBN 978-0-7100-7784-4. Retrieved 6 October 2012.

25. K. Krishna Reddy. Indian History. Tata McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 1-. ISBN978-0-07-132923-1. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

26. A. Sreedhara Menon (1987).Political History of Modern Kerala. D C Books. pp.

22. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5. Retrieved 5 October 2012.

27. Pathir 61: 5-7. Also Cf. Xtjd bfh aDil tiughit ad fwbjho cf(Puram251: 1)

klt bka brD flt gh iftikna (Puram106: 4-5)

He is known for obedient and honoring the service rendered by the temple

priests.iwRf bgUk br wjeh kiw Kt nuJif banu (Puram6: 19-20)

28. Kamil Zvelebil. Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature. BRILL,1992, p. 111. ISBN 978-90-04-09365-2. Retrieved 4 October 2012.

29. See Mahavamsa - http://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/. Since Senguttuvan (KadalPirakottiya Vel Kezhu

Kuttuvan) was a contemporary of Gajabahu I of Sri Lanka he was perhaps theChera King during second century AD

30. Pathir43:6-7 Ma Jta ngir kaPathir 11: 23-24bjd Fk bahlhil

31. giftU fj Mik (Puram375: 35)ma btyh bk bfhL

ca btyh nkhghJ (Madurai Kanchi145-146)

efy fbwhL ezhnu tJ iw bfhLJtzd t bkhJ (Aham121:1-2)

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32. Flt nfhnt bfho nj mzthuh MD uty ntonj jJ, MtF M gj eFeir rh th bkh ir rh njhw

(Pathir55: 9-12)

33. ty gL Kur Jitg th caJyF z bghy bfho ciPa... J cF nghfsJ ML nfhnt

(Pathir56: 4-8)

34. Jzif Moa ty gL nfhkh(Pathir57: 4)

35. jlhuaj nfhgl tUilia bjho jJw nghFLt, bjoiu gubwho

(Aham60)

36. bfh TwJ T ir gnt jhid mfkhndhLU bgU ntjiu cl iy btW

(Pathir8: 5-7)

37. btngh Mlt kw J fhF g W, jf^

ngv kw wH nehF at(Pathir78: 8-10)

jf^ buJ behj bja,mUw byhir bgU nruU bghiwia M

(Pathikam 9-10)

38. kil vbfhsh mRtU ku fl miu iy, nfL ythf, bgUk fnH

(Pathir79: 16-19)

39. FWg ahz Fuit maU fh koa nr td fhm brt a bk kiwfiH J vGjU kiH jt beL nfhL bfh bghUe!

(Pathir23: 11-13)

40. nr gu Ku

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~20~



43. eh f mida Mf fahL Xuiza Mf ahnl C mida Mf Cbts tu Mf vd cfhF e, ahnd

(Pathir90: 51-55)

44. Balarama Digest, Malayala Manorama Group, India, March 24, 2007.

45. Hermann Kulke.A History of India. Psychology Press, 2004, p. 105. ISBN 978-0-415-32920-0. Retrieved 1 October 2012.

46. http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2007012800201800.

htm&date=2007/01/28/&prd=th&

47. History of Ancient Kerala. Government of India. Retrieved October 06, 2012.

48. Raoul McLaughlin, Rome and the Distant East: Trade Routes to the AncientLands of Arabia, India and China. Continuum International Publishing Group,06-Jul-2010

49. Indian Anthropologist: Journal of the Indian Anthropological Association byIndian Anthropological Association. p. 104.

_____

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T. Jayaraman ~21~


TAMIL ETHNO-NATIONAL HISTORIOGRAPHY___________

Dr. T. JayaramanHoD & Associate Professor (Retd)

AVC College (Autonomous), Mannampandal, Mayiladuthurai

___________________________________

Historiography is the history of historical writing. Now, it is a branch ofknowledge as any other science or art. Though intellectual populace of Indiansub-continent had made excellent contributions to ideas, philosophy, literature,

grammar, science and the manifestation of arts, they lacked in historical writing.When historical writing began in modern India, it was influenced by colonial

interests and Indian nationalistic aspirations. In the twentieth century, the

identity politics of the ethnic nations also contributed to historical writing. Theethnic nations, identified by their languages in the Indian sub-continent,attempted historical writing as a part of their efforts to trace and preserve theirnational identity. This kind of historical writing in ethno-national perspectiveshall be called ethno-national historiography.

Defining Ethno-National Historiography

The terms ethnicity and ethnic group derived from the Greek word ethnosgenerally translated as nation. In the 19

th century, the meaning for the term

ethnic emerged to express the notion of a people or a nation. The termnationality depending on context may either be used synonymously withethnicity or synonymously with citizenship (in a sovereign state).1

In 1950, the UNESCO statement, the Race Question, signed by some of theinternationally renowned scholars of the time (including Ashley Montagu,Claude Levi- Strauss, Julian Huxley, etc.), suggested that:

National, religious, geographic, linguistic and cultural groups do notnecessarily coincide with racial groups; and the cultural traits of such

groups have no demonstrated genetic connection with racial traits.Because serious errors of this kind are habitually committed when theterm race is used in popular parlance, it would be better whenspeaking of human races to drop the term race altogetherand speakof ethnic groups.2

Ethnic-nations are defined by shared heritage, which usually includes a

common language, a common faith and a common ethnic ancestry. Tamils area nation as it conforms with the definitions of nation.

3Hence, Tamils may be

identified as an ethnic-nation of long historical existence and a rich culturalheritage.

Unlike several European nations where the consciousness of nationhood is ofrecent origin after the French Revolution of 1789, Tamils had long been

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Tamil Ethno-National Historiography


cherishing their separate identity through the ages. So, it may be identified as an

ethnic-nation in modern political parlance.

India is a multi-ethnic or multi-national state, where several nations exist. Thesenations or nationalities are more concerned about preserving their identity. The

ethno-national diversities in India have already been recongnised and analysedby researchers. An analysis of the Indian situation made by A.M. Diakov, whowrote The Nationalist Problem in India Today(1966), underscores this point. He says:

By virtue of the fact that India has for two hundred years been a

colony of England in the eyes of the outside world, India appears assomething unified and its entire population as one people...Thepresence in India of a powerful national liberating movement, in whichall the peoples living in India participate in this or that degree still

further strengthens this illusion of a national unity of the entire Indianpeople. It is more or less broadly known that in India there is a numberof castes, but few know that in India there is a number of largepeoples, each of which is no less numerous than the English, theFrench, or the Italians; that these people are distinguished by their

individual culture, language, literature, have their own mores andcustoms, their national character, have passed a long road of historical

development. The colonial position of India which made its peoplesslaves of English imperialism has depersonalized it in the eyes of theoutside world.

4

These peoples have a long history and their history must be written in the ethno-national perspective. It is more appropriate to designate the historiography of

these ethnic groups and nationalities as ethno-national historiography.

Ethno-National History all over the World

Every nationality, which has a nation-state or even without it, attempts to keep a

national history of its own. The late-comers to the nation-state model, such asthose arising in the Near East and South Eastern Europe out of the dissolution

of the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires as well as those arising out ofthe former USSR, have got their ethno-national history. All these nationalities

were constituents of empires till recently. But, their national history does notstart abruptly after their formation of a nation-state. This consciousness and theawareness found in all these nationalities have made them maintain a history of

their own.

The eighteenth and the nineteenth century saw the resurgence ofnational ideologies. In Germany, historians and humanists, such asJohann Gottfried Herder and Johann Gottlieb Fichte, identified a

linguistic and cultural identity of the German nation, which becamethe basis of a political movement to unite the fragmented states of theGerman nation.

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A significant historiographical outcome of this movement of German

nationalism was the formation of a Society for Older German

Historical Knowledge, which sponsored the editing of massivecollection of documents of German history, the MonumentaGermaniae Historica (MGH). The sponsors of the MGH defined

German history very broadly; they edited documents concerning allterritories where German-speaking people had once lived or ruled.Thus, documents from Italy to France to the Baltic were grist for themill of theMGHs editors.5

The German example was followed by several ethnics in Europe.

The Colonial and Nationalist Historiography in India

The process of modern historiography of India began with the British colonial

administrators and the Indian nationalists. Both these two historiographies had

their own political agenda. The colonial historiography attempted to write thehistory of India so as to help in legitimising the European rule over India. TheUtilitarian school of historiography believed that the Indian society lacked

rationality and individualism and so the European intervention was needed tomake the stagnant Indian society progressive. This school created the concept of

Oriental Despotism and anarchy and required the rule of the British for thewelfare of the Indian people. So, it may be understood that the colonialhistoriography had a political agenda of legitimising the alien rule in India.

The nationalist school of historiography emerged at the end of the 19thcentury,

as a part of anti-colonial movement. A strand of this historiography attempted toestablish the superiority of the past over the present and the golden era of the

Hindu civilization. This resulted in religious nationalism. As a reaction, Muslimhistoriography developed. But, both the imperialist and the Indian nationalisthistorians had their political agenda. When the former wanted to justify thealien rule over India, the latter wanted to nourish Indian nationalism andnational unity. Indian nationalism was essentially Hindu nationalism showing

affinity to Aryan race and aspiration for the revival of Sanskrit.

Historiography committed to Indian Nationalism

Historiography takes into account the ideological, philosophical, economic andsocial forces that operate in a political society. As a result, historiography of

new types emerged. In India, different schools of thought, revolutionary,rationalist, nationalist and Marxist, have contributed to historiography. But,

there is a tendency and an advocacy to write the histories of the peoples havingindependent cultures and identity, to suit or fit within the Indian nationalisticframework. Such a tendency continues till date. These nationalist historianscall the traditional homeland of the nationalities in India as regions and every

nationality as a group. K. M. Panikkar, a historian of South India, says in 1966,Every region in India has contributed to the evolution of the Indian people,every group added to our common heritage.6

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M.G.S. Narayanan, former Chairman of ICHR, accepts the fact of a lopsided

development in South Indian History and opines:

The spade work done by the European scholars in the nineteenthcentury was followed by native scholars. To their lot fell the tedious

and difficult task of sifting truth from legend, setting straight thechronological tangle, reconstructing the dynastic history and placingthe whole thing in Indian historical perspective.7

M. G. S. Narayanan defines that South India is the region south of the Deccanand says in his work Reinterpretation in South Indian History (1977),

Geographically and linguistically, and therefore, to a large extent inpolitical, social and cultural terms also, this region had its ownpeculiar, if not separate development. As such it deserves to be treated

as a sub-unit of historical study within the field of Indian History.8

R. Champakalaxmi, a renowned historian, says:

The danger, however, lies in the pendulum swinging to the other

extreme, in which regional histories are given a disproportionatelylarge share of importance arising out of regional and linguisticchauvinism, leading to distortions in history i.e., isolated studieswhereas the general trends in Indian historical writing and comparative

research in non-Indian contexts, which have relevance to the study oflocal, regional and national histories, are completely ignored.

9

Thus, the writing with a commitment to Indian nationalism denies legitimacy tothe independent history of linguistic nationalities. Regional chauvinism is aconvenient word to belittle a work, when that work does not conform to the

stereotype set by the Indian nationalist historians.

Defining the Tamil Ethno-national Historiography

It is not a special genre of historiography. It is only a perspective-based namegiven to plethora of historical writings that appeared right from the 1920s. Wemay assign two reasons for labelling those works as Tamil ethno-nationalhistoriography. First of all, they are not written in the Indian nationalistic

perspective. Instead of treating Tamil Nadu as a region in India, it considers itas the traditional homeland of a people, Tamils, who are a primordial entity,

with a unique culture, a primary classical language and a history running intoremote past. Instead of treating as a component of Indian culture and Indianpeople, and keeping at the periphery of Indian historiography, Tamil Nadu is

centered in research and treated as an entity in entirety, with all the borrowingsand lendings to other cultures. Hence, all the historical works in this perspectivecentering on Tamil, Tamils and Tamil Nadu can be labeled as Tamil-ethnonational historiography.

Tamil ethno-national historiography focuses on the ethnic domains of Tamilsociety, Tamil culture, Tamil language, Tamil political life, both ancient and

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T. Jayaraman ~25~


modern, and their politics of identity. It aims at reconstructing the Tam ils

history by examining the aspects of Tamil ethno-national importance, which has

been so far misunderstood, misconceived and misinterpreted. It is not in anyway in conflict with scientific history.

Early attempts in the South

The South Indian History was neglected before 1947. The renowned historianR. G. Bhandarkar wrote a good historical work, Early History of Deccan in1884, in which Tamil country was ignored. The early attempts of the SouthIndian historians only threw light on the raw materials for future research.

The first prominent South Indian Historian, S. Krishnaswamy Iyengar (1871-1953) wrote The Beginning of South Indian History(1918), South India and her

Mohammadan Invaders(1921), Contributions of South India to Indian Culture,Manimekalai in its Historical Setting (1928) and the Evolution of HinduAdministrative Institutions of South India. S. K. Iyengar and his lineage did thespade work for the construction of South Indian History.

There was no historical writing in Tamil Nadu before the 18th century. The

tradition of historiography of Tamil Nadu begins from Robert Orme (b.1728),

the official historiographer of the British East India Company. After the Anglo-Mysore War of 1799, Lord Wellesley constituted three separate surveys of the

Mysore territories under Colin Mackenzie, Francis Buchanan and BenjaminHeyen. They made significant contributions to build a knowledge base about

South India. The ingredients for the future claim of the Tamils for anindependent indigenous identity were supplied by the early writings of theEuropeans.

Whyte Ellis, the Collector of Madras (1810), founder and senior member of the

Board of Superintendence of the College of Fort St. George, became a reputedTamil scholar, found out the manuscripts of the Jesuit scholar Beschis works

and had them published. In 1816, Ellis contributed A Note to the Introductionto Campbells A Grammar of Teloogoo Language (1816), and he had statedthat the South Indian Languages are of one family and different from the Indo-European family of languages. This was the first notable contribution to the

future Tamil ethno-national conceptual construct.

Bishop Robert Caldwell (1819-1891), in his celebrated work Comparative

Grammar of the Dravidian or South Indian Family of Languages(1856), madeit clear that the Dravidian language family is different from other families.

Robert Caldwell spoke of the high antiquity of the literary cultivation of Tamil,the Dravidian languages as being independent of Sanskrit, the political andsocial relations of the primitive Dravidians to the Aryans, the Pre-Aryan

inhabitants of Northern India and about how the Dravidians becameSudras.10

This work supplied the seeds for the Tamil revivalism and DravidianMovement. When history-writing was attempted, there emerged the ethno-

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national historiography of the Tamils. It was initially known as Dravidian

historiography. The word Dravidian was recognised only as the name of a

family of languages and Dravidianism did not take roots in other South Indianstates except Tamil Nadu. It took the shape of Tamil ethno-nationalhistoriography.

P. Sundaram Pillai was the first to point out that the South had been neglectedin historical writing. He said; The scientific historian of India ought to beginhis study with the basin of Krishna, of the Kaveri and of the Vaigai than withthe Gangetic plain as has been now long, too long the fashion.11 Following

him, V. A. Smith pointed out in his Early History of India (1912) that it wastime to pay due regard to the non-Aryan element in writing history.

The Tamil ethno-national historical writings came into being in four phasessuccessively.

The First Phase

In the First Phase, the English education and the spirit of Tamil revivalism

combined and inspired the South Indian historians to contribute to Tamilhistoriography.

The first work on Tamils history was The Tamils Eighteen Hundred Years

Ago published in 1904 by V. Kanakasabai Pillai. It ascribed a Mongolianorigin to the Tamils and so it was unacceptable to many historians. But it wasthe first historical work on the social life of the Sangam Tamils. The

significance of the work is that it identified the first century AD as the Sangamage. His work cannot be considered as a trend setting one.

Following Robert Caldwell, philological researches were undertaken by manyTamil scholars. An early philologist, Makaral Karthikeya Mudaliar wroteMozhi Nool (Philology) in 1913. Of the three parts of the work, Exordium,Grammar and Derivation, the first part contains his arguments in favour of the

hoary antiquity of the Tamil language and its priority to Sanskrit.12

M.S.Purnalingam Pillai has given the Introduction to this work and in this,Purnalingam Pillai calls the author a precedent-breaker and originalresearcher.Makaral Karthikeya Mudaliar exhibits ethno-national fervour in the

Payiraviyal of this work. He explains how Tamil philological study wouldequip one with the necessary tool to do research on other languages. He argues

that Tamil is very ancient and Sanskrit is comparatively a recent one.

Makaral Karthikeya Mudaliars study based on philological findings appearedin 1913. It was he that spoke for the first time that Tamils were indigenous toTamilagam and they migrated to other parts only from Tamilagam. He also

called Tamil language a naturally born language. His work anticipated theworks of P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar, Sesha Iyengar and V. R. Ramachandra

Dikshitar, whose works were based on archaeological findings. MakaralKarthikeya Mudaliar may be considered the trend-setter and it will not be

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wrong to consider that the historians who immediately succeeded him

elaborately did it in historical writing.

The early historians established two facts

1. They denied a foreign origin to the Tamils, while others considered theTamils as immigrants and contended that the Tamils spread to North and

North-West only from Tamilagam.

2. The Iron Age began in South India much earlier to the coming of theAryans.

These theses were important contributions to the Tamil ethno-nationalhistoriography.

P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar is considered a trend-setter, for he had the spirit ofscientific temper and exhibited it in his historical writings. He was a nationalist,

but he held the view that the Tamils were indigenous to the land and the Tamilshad spread over entire India. He viewed that people speaking dialects allied to

Tamil once inhabited the whole of India and not these people must necessarilyhave come into India from outside the country.

13On the basis of artefacts and

relics discovered in South India, he contended that there was a regular evolutionof culture from the lowest paleolithic age to the latest age of metals and it mightbe taken as fairly certain that the Tamils were indigenous to South India.14He

ridiculed the theory of the Tamils foreign origin, stating that some writersconduct the ancient Dravidians with the self-confidence of a Cooks guidethrough the North-Western or North-eastern mountain passes of India and dropthem with a readymade foreign culture on the banks of the Kaveri or Vaigai.15

He denied the view of V. Kanakasabai, who, in his work The Tamils Eighteen

Hundred Years Ago(1904), had attributed a Mongolian origin to the Tamils. Heargued that he could prove that the Iron Age began in Tamil country when theTamil had not come into any kind of contact with Sanskrit, the linguistic vehicleof Vedic culture.

16

T. R. Sesha Iyengar made his contributions in a similar line. He viewed:

Among most writers on this subject, it has beenthe fashion to give to the Indo-Aryans the credit for all that was best in Ancient Indian culture... 17

He viewed that the Indian civilization resulted from the mixture of Dravidianand Aryan. He endorsed the theory that the Dravidians were living in SouthIndia from the remotest antiquity.

18 It is quite possible that Dravidian tradersmight have carried their culture from South India to the Mediterranean area. 19

He criticised Chatterji who says The Dravidians look like being aMediterranean people coming out of Crete and passing through Asia Minor and

Mesopotamia... Then they came into Sindh, when they spread into the interiorof India.Sesha Iyengar raised the question: Why should this have been so?Could not an exactly reverse process have taken place?

20

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V. R. Ramachandra Dikshitar is the third one contributing to the ethno-national

paradigm. He stressed that South India must have pre-paleolithic people who

were the aborigines and sons of the soil.21

E.Maclean had viewed that theethnic and other affinities between South India and the Mediterranean basinmust be due to the fact that Southern India was once the passage ground by

which the ancient progenitors of northern and Mediterranean nations proceededto the difficult parts of the globe and this view gets endorsed by RamachandraDikshitar.

22 He made bold assertions on the basis of the then available

archaeological and linguistic evidences.

M. S. Purnalingam Pillai was different from the other three, because theideological basis of his works was clearly Tamil ethno-nationalism. He did not

share the Indian outlook as others did. He said: The Tamils or Tamilar were thesons of Tamilagam itself. They were indigenous. When one deluge after anotherovercame Tamilaham and when the Tamils dispersed in differentdirections to save their lives... the Tamil emigrants passed over the jungles and

sandy deserts and found their homes in Mesopotamia, Palestine, Egypt and inEuropean countries...

23

Second Phase

In the second phase, a new host of historians started contributing to Tamil

historiography in the 1940s. These historians extensively used literary andepigraphical sources. Some historians used copious inscriptions as primarysources in their study and evolved some theoretical framework

Another class of historians used the epigraphical and literary sources tostrengthen their ideological framework of Tamil history. Na. Si. Kanthaiya

Pillai, Mayilai Seeni Venkatasamy and Ka. Appadurai belong to this school.The historical works of these scholars were purely ethno-national in theircontent and ideological framewor

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