7

1814 Fraunhofer:

1831 Faraday: ,

1864 Maxwell: (Maxwell Equations)

1879 Stefan:

1879 J.J. Thomson:

1884 Boltzmann: Maxwell

1886

1888 Hertz:

1893 Wien: ,

1895 Balmer: ()

1895 Roentgen: X-

1896 Becquerrel:

Angstrom

Faraday

1900 Planck: ,

1905 Einstein: Planck

1913 Bohr:

1912 Bragg: X-

1924 de Brogile:

1925 Pauli:

1926 Schrodinger:

1927 Heisenberg:

1927 Davisson, Germer:

Bragg, father and son Davisson and GermerHertz

Nobel 1901 Roentgen: X-

1903 Becquerrel, Curie:

1904 Rayleigh:

1906 J.J. Thomson:

1909 Marconi:

1912 Wien:

1913 Onnes:

1914 Laue: X- , Laue

1915 Bragg: X- ,

1918 Planck:

1921 Einstein:

1922 Bohr:

Roentgen, Becquerrel, Onnes

1929 de Brogile:

1932 Heisenberg:

1933 Schroedinger, Dirac:

1935 Chadwick:

1936 Anderson:

1938 Fermi:

1945 Pauli:

1949 Yukawa:

1956 Schkley, Bardeen, Brattain: , FET

1957 C.N. Yang, T.D. Lee:

1972 Bardeen, Cooper, Schriefer:

1976 Richter, C.C. Ting: J

Pauli

Fermi

1.

-

-

-

2 (slit)

: f hf

: hf0 nhf0

1900, Planck:

: (mode)

:

:

(Rayleigh, Jeans)

Plancks idea:

[] f=2.45GHz eV?

Photon (, )

1905 Einstein

-Planck

-

-:

(=0)

-

-

-

-

Einstein: (E=hf)

:

:

[] Na (work function) 2.5eV.

? 200nm

? ?

() 0 .

0 .

Compton Scattering (1923 Compton )

Compton lab. in Wash. U.

:

:

-

- =hf

- =hf/c

-

Compton

-Compton

(duality of Light)

-( ) Maxwell ()

-

- , Compton

-

(, )

Maxwell

2.

1923 de Brogile (matter wave)

[] 100V . de Brogile

?

() . eV

, .

Bragg Father and sonNobel prize 1915

Constructive Interference

Destructive Interference

Rosalind Frankin

(1920-1958)

1920 pioneering biochemist Rosalind Franklin, took 1st XRD photos of DNA

1927 Davisson-Germer

(V=54V):

:

m, v de Brogile .

- .

-

-

Davisson-Germer

Bohr

(1)

Rutherford (1911)

Thompson Rutherford

Rutherford

-

(2)

( )

-

- (line)

Bohr (Postulate, 1913)

(1) ( )

:

(2)

(Planck , ).

:

:

:

:

Bohr

de Brogile

. .

[] ni=10 nf=3

?

() .

.

[] Lyman

.

() Lyman .

.

.

.

.

(1)

100km/hr

1/5

1,000kg

10 kg-30

.

(2) (box )

.

box

(n=1):

100g 50cm

(n=1):

.

3.

Heisenberg

The more precisely the position is determined,

the less precisely the momentum is known

in this instant, and vice versa.

--Heisenberg, uncertainty paper, 1927

[] 1 .

eV?

4. Schrdinger

Schrdinger

(1) 1 : :

;

(2)

de Brogile

.

[] L . Schrdinger

.

V 0

-Bohr Newton

-Schrdinger

-Schrdinger

-

Tunneling Electron Cloud

STM, AFM Tunneling effect

Tunnel Diode

Schrdinger

: ;

: ; (shape of orbital)

: ; (orientation of orbital)

: ; Dirac , , up, down

4

in spherical coordinates

1. Principal Quantum number: n-any positive integer-the larger n, the higher the energy level-max. number of electrons in energy level n is 2n2

2. Azimuthal Quantum number: l-subshell (sublevel) within each principal quantum number

-for any given l, integer in the range of 0 to (n-1)-subshells l =0,1,2,3 are known as the s,p,d subshells

3. Magnetic Quantum number: ml-specifies the particular orbital within a subshell where

an electron is highly likely to be found at a given point in time-all integer from - l to l.

4. Spin Quantum number: ms-any electron can only one of two values for the spin quantum number

Quantum Numbers

Energy Level (State)

Quantum state: (n, l, ml, ms)compare: an energy state of hydrogen atom is determined

by a quantum number n

Pauli exclusion principle: two electrons can not occupy the same state

Orbital

A subshell where an electron is highly likely to be found at a given point in time

nlx n: energy level; principal quantum number

l: sublevel; azimuthal quantum numberx : number of electrons filled (ml, ms)

Example; 2p4 : There are 4 electrons in the second (p) sublevel

of the second principal energy level (n=2)

s-Orbital

Two electron are needed to fill any s-orbital

p-Orbital

Six electron are needed to fill any p-orbital

d-Orbital

Ten electron are needed to fill any d-orbital

Filling orbitals

1 : H (1s1, alkali , H+ ),

He (1s2 , , )

2: Li (1s2 2s1, alkali )

Be (1s2 2s2, alkaline earth metal , Be+2 )

6(Z=5 10) 2p .

Z=9 F 2p 5

(F- , Halogen , alkali )

Ne 2p 2s2 2p6

3 : Z=11 Z=18 8 2 3s 3p

Z=11 Na alkali , Z=17 Cl halogen . Ar 3s2 3p6

4: 4s, 3d, 4p .

4s 3d .

Z=19 (K), Z=20 (Ca) 4s 2 .

Z=21 Z=30 3d .

4s2 . .

Z=31(Ga) 4p

Z=36(Kr) 4p . 4s2 4p6

5: 4 . 5s, 4d, 5p . Xe : 5s2 5p6

6: 6s, 4f, 5d .

Z=55(Cs), Z=56(Ba) 6s .

4f, 5d, 6s 6s 5d 4f .

. Lanthanide

4f 5d (Z=92, Hf Z=80, Hg) .

Z=85(Tl) Z=85(At) 6p Z=86 (Rn, 6s2 6p6 ).

7: 7s, 5f, 6d . 5f Z=89(Ac) Z=103(Lr)

. Actinide

He

NeArKr

Xe

Rn

H

LiNa

K

,

[MeV]

Leptons

electron, e 0.511 1/2 -1 1887

muon, m 105.66 1/2 -1 1939

tau, t 1,784.2 1/2 -1 1975

electron's neutrino, ne 0 1/2 0 1956

muon's neutrino, nm 0 1/2 0 1961

tau's neutrino, nt 0 1/2 0 2000

Hadron

Meson

pion,

po 134.96 0 0 1951

p+ 139.57 0 +1 1946

p - 139.57 0 -1 1946

kaon, K

K+ 493.8 0 +1 1949

K- 493.8 0 -1 1949

Ko 493.8 0 0 1951

rho, r

r+ 776 1 +1 1961

r- 776 1 -1 1961

ro 776 1 0 1961

eta, h 548.8 0 0 1961

Baryon

nucleonproton, p 938.26 1/2 +1 1919

neutron, n 939.55 1/2 0 1932

sigma

S+ 1,189.4 1/2 +1 1953

So 1,192.5 1/2 0 1957

S- 1,197.4 1/2 -1 1953

Xi, XXo 1,315 1/2 0 1959

X- 1,321.3 1/2 -1 1953

omega, W- 1,673 3/2 -1 1964

lambda, Lo 1,115.6 1/2 0 1951

quark

meson

po

p+

p-

K+

K-

h

baryon

p

n

Lo

S+

S0

S-

(range)

Force mediator ( )

[GeV]

(strong interaction)1 ~1 fm gluon 0 0 1

(weak interaction)10-9 ~0.001 fm

W+, W-,

Zo

80.4,

91.21, 0 1

(electromagnetic)1/137 Long ( ) photon 0 0 1

(gravitational) 10-38 Long ( ) graviton 0 0 2

[GeV]

Quarks

up quark, u 1/2 2/3 0.005 1968

charm quark, c 1/2 2/3 1.4 1974

top quark, t 1/2 2/3 174 1995

down quark, d 1/2 -1/3 0.009 1968

strange quark, s 1/2 -1/3 0.17 1968

bottom quark, b 1/2 -1/3 4.4 1979

[MeV]

Leptons

electron 1/2 -1 0.511

muon 1/2 -1 105.66

tau 1/2 -1 1984.2

electron's neutrino 1/2 0 0?

muon's neutrino 1/2 0

[GeV]

Force

mediator

Graviton 2 0 0 (not yet detected)

Photon 1 0 0

Gluon 1 0 0

W+ 1 +1 80

W- 1 -1 80

Zo 1 0 91

Higgs 0 0 125

http://www.google.co.kr/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjHpvHw9pjcAhWFlJQKHRuyCukQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=http://www.mulhak.com/%D8%A5%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80-8-%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B2%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1/&psig=AOvVaw3THbkvOAiVXsdvJ-ke6CiS&ust=1531463129964904http://www.google.co.kr/url?sa=i&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=images&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjHpvHw9pjcAhWFlJQKHRuyCukQjRx6BAgBEAU&url=http://www.mulhak.com/%D8%A5%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%80-8-%D8%B3%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%B2%D8%A9-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1/&psig=AOvVaw3THbkvOAiVXsdvJ-ke6CiS&ust=1531463129964904

Rutherford (1911)

30fm

- 4- 2( 2) 1( 1) 2 4

-1931 Chadwick -

Chadwick

: meson(pion) . 1947 pion

XZ

AMass Number: A=Z+N

A40 : N>Z

Stable Nuclei

:

Ex)

Becquerel

:

a

b

g

: 1850: 280:

Curie

: -

:

: u ; 12 1/12

Ex)

Half Life

t

. 1,600 . .

(a) . (b) t=0 31018

t=0 . (c) 2,000 ?

(a)

(b)

(c)

K-Ar , U-Pb , 14

. 40Ar 40K 11 . 40K

12.5 40K 40Ar .

.

() 40K No. 40K

40Ar 40K 40Ar

40K. No

14C/12C=1.3 x 10-12

t =5730 years

Decay rate: R0=lN0=181 decays/min

t=0.693/l

Number of 14C in 1mole of carbon in air

N0=1.3 x 10-12 NA

14C-dating

Ratio of 14C to 12C in air

Half-life of 14C

R(t)=R0 e-lt

Example

Measured decay rate of 1 mole carbon sample

from ancient bone=30 decays/min

t= -1/l ln R/R0

t=14,856 years

Radionuclide generation

(1) Cyclotron

201Tl, 123I, 67Ga, 111In, 18F, 15O, 57Co

Bombarding particles: p, d (2H), 3H, 3He

Typical decay: b+, electron capture

127I (p, 5n) 123Xe 123I

124Xe (p, 2n) 123Gs 123Xe 123I109Ag (a, 2n) 111In111Cd (p, n) 111In56Fe (d, n) 57Co203Tl (p, 3n) 201Pb 201Tl

electron capture or b+

electron capture or b+

electron capture

electron capture

2 hrs

1sec 2 hrs

9.4 hrs

. Dee . Dee +/- Dee .

(2) Nuclear Reactor (fission)

99Mo, 123I, 133Xe

bombarding particle: n

typical decay: b-

134Sn235U + nthermal + 3nfast + g + ~200MeV

99Mo

235U + nthermal99Mo + 134Sn + 3n

(3) Nuclear Reactor (neutron capture)

32P, 51Cr, 125I, 89Sr, 153Sm

typical decay: b-

31P (n, g) 32P (14.3 days)50Cr (n, g) 51Cr (27.8 days)

124Xe (n, g) 125Xe 125I

electron capture or b+

17 hrs

(4) Radionuclide generator

99Tcm, 81Krm, 68Ga, 82Rb

typical decay: several modes

Technetium (SPECT 85% )

(Saline solution) Tc Mo

Geiger Counter (Metallic Gas Discharge Tube)

- - -

Scintillation Counter

Scintillator :

Radiation Dose-Units of Radioactivity

RBE: The Relative Biological Effectiveness

rem: Radiation Equivalent Man

rem=RBE x rad

[] 8.

5mCi .

4mCi . .

[] 10 100mCi . 5 45

?

Radiation RBE

g-ray, x-ray, b-particles 1.0

Fast neutrons and protons 10

Slow neutrons 4~5

a-particles 10~20

RBE (Relative Biological Effectiveness)

g rays on the patient per second: 1% of radiation

= 6.8 x 1012 [1/sec]

Half-layer value of a 1 MeV g rays in tissue = 10cm

Thus, half of radiation is absorbed by the patient body

g rays absorbed by the body =3.4 x 1012 [1/sec]

The energy absorbed per kg per second

3.4 x 1012 1/sec 1.25 MeV(average energy of g rays )/60kg=1.1 x 10-2 J/kg sec =1.1 rad/sec

30 sec exposure: 33rad (whole body dose)

Ch7-Modern-1Ch7-Modern-2