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Vol 23 No 1 2016

Tydskrif vir die fisiese en ontwikkelingswetenskappe

Journal for the physical and development sciences

ACTA

Structilia

Acta Structilia2016:23(1)Uitgegee deur die Universiteit van die VrystaatBloemfontein9300

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Acta Structilia2016:23(1)Published by the University of the Free StateBloemfontein9300

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Acta Structilia2016:23(1)Tydskrif vir die fisiese en ontwikkelingswetenskappe

Acta Structilia is ’n Suid-Afrikaanse geakkrediteerde tydskrif, wat publikasie geleenthede bied vir onafhanklik gerefereerde artikels deur plaaslike en buitelandse navorsers op die terreine van die fisiese en ontwikkelingswetenskappe. Elke gekeurde artikel word as sodanig aangedui. Die redaksie oorweeg Afrikaanse of Engelse artikels oor onderwerpe binne studie velde soos: argitektuur, stads- en streekbeplanning, bourekenkunde, konstruksie- en projekbestuur, bou-ekonomie, ingenieurswese, die eiendomsbedryf en die ontwikkelingsveld rondom gemeenskapsbouprojekte. Acta Structilia verskyn twee keer per jaar onder die vaandel van die Universiteit van die Vrystaat. Die tydskrif word gelewer aan die betrokke navorsingsinstansies, Suider-Afrikaanse universiteite met bogemelde navorsings-departemente, Suid-Afrikaanse navorsingsbiblioteke, geselekteerde buitelandse instansies en intekenaars. Menings en kritiek in die tydskrif is dié van die outeur(s). Publikasie daarvan is nie ’n aanvaarding dat die Redaksie of die Universiteit van die Vrystaat verantwoordelikheid daarvoor aanvaar nie.

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Journal for the physical and development sciences

Acta Structilia is a South African accredited journal for independently adjudicated research articles on any topic in the field of the physical and development sciences. Each peer refereed article is indicated as such in the journal. The editorial staff considers articles in English and Afrikaans, written from any responsible point of view on subjects in any applicable field of scholarship, i.e. architecture, urban and regional planning, quantity surveying, construction management and project management, building economy, engineering and property or community development. Acta Structilia is published biannually by the University of the Free State. The journal is forwarded to all relevant research units and universities, Southern African research libraries, selected research institutions and libraries abroad, and to subscribers. Views and opinions expressed in this journal are those of the author(s). Publication thereof does not indicate that the Editorial Staff or the University of the Free State accept responsibility for it.

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Redaksie • Editorial Staff

Redakteur • Editor Emer Prof. JJP Verster Director: VersterBerryVerster QS

Adjunkredakteur • Deputy Editor Prof. K Kajimo-Shakantu Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management (UFS)

Prof. JJ Steÿn Department of Town and Regional Planning (UFS)

Mr HB Pretorius Department of Architecture (UFS)

Assistentredakteurs • Assistant Editors Prof. HJ Marx Project EnSci (UFS)

Mrs AE Beukes Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management (UFS)

Redaksionele medewerkers • Editorial Associates Emer Prof. D Holm Environmental Design and Management (UP)

Dr P Smith Program Director, of the Construction Project Management

in the School of Building at UTS Australia

Redaksionele Raad • Editorial Board

Dr S Ramabodu (Chairperson) (QS-online Quantity Surveyors, Bloemfontein, South Africa)Prof. MJ Maritz (Department of Construction Economics, University of Pretoria, South Africa)Prof. G McLachlan (Department of Architecture, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa) Prof. G Crafford (Department of Quantity Surveying, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa)Prof. JJ Smallwood (Department of Construction Management, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, South Africa)Prof. C Vosloo (Department of Architecture, University of Johannesburg, South Africa)Prof. O Joubert (Affiliated Professor at the University of the Free State, South Africa)Prof. TC Haupt (Director, Pinnacle Research and Development Solutions, Kuilsriver, South Africa)Prof. K London (Property Construction & Project Management, RMIT University, Australia)Prof. J Tookey (Programme leader in MCM, AUT University, New Zealand)Prof. G Ofori (Head of Department of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore)Dr G di Castri (Italian Institute of Chartered Engineers, Milan, Italy)Dr BG Zulch (Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management, University of the Free State, South Africa)Dr FJ Ayodeji (Construction Management and Quantity Surveying, Cape Peninsula University of Technology, South Africa)Mr B van den Heever (Bert van den Heever QS Incorporated, Quantity Surveyors and Project Managers, South Africa)Mr A Kerin (Vice President and ICEC Delegate: Slovenian Project Management Association (ZPM) Slovenia)Mr MA Aladapo (Chief Executive, Murty International Limited, Nigeria)

Acta Structilia Jaargang 23 Volume

Nommer 1 Number Junie 2016 June

Inhoud • Contents

Navorsingsartikels • Research articles

A proposed model for construction project BG Zulch 1 management communication in the South African construction industry

Exploring the influence of instant messaging and TJ Bond-Barnard 36 video conferencing on the quality of L Fletcher project communication H Steyn

Ineffective programme management on the LG Mabona 70 delivery of health infrastructure projects: MW Shakantu A case of the Northern Cape

Oorsigartikel • Review article

The contributions of construction material waste I Saidu 99 to project cost overruns in Abuja, MW Shakantu Nigeria and potential uses

Inligting aan outeurs • Information for authors 114

The South African Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession endorsesActa Structilia

The South African Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession (SACQSP) has simplified the submission and assessment of Continuining Professional Development (CPD) requirements of registered persons. CPD submission now requires disclosure of the number of hours invested meaningfully in activities in two main categories. Category 1 activities are those arranged or presented by or to ‘external’ organisatins such as participation in conferences, congresses, workshops or seminars, presentation of lectures, external examination for academic programmes, publication of articles in journals or magazines, other similar activities. Category 2 activities are less formal ‘internal’ activities such as in-house training or seminars, small group discussions, self-study of journals, magazines, articles on web pages, etc.

To assist registered persons with access to journal articles related to quantity surveying and, more generally, built environment issues, the SACQSP at its meeting in March 2007 adopted a recommendation to endorse the journal, Acta Structilia, which publishes quality, peer-reviewed articles and is accredited by the Department of Education.

Council encourages registered persons to peruse Acta Structilia and similar peer-reviewed journals as one of the alternative options to accumulate CPD credits in Category 2 activities. For a limited period, Council will encourage the circulation of Acta Structilia to registered persons.

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Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) supports Acta Structilia

Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) supports the aims and objectives of Acta Structilia and welcomes the efforts being made to improve our knowledge and understanding of the built environment, particularly in an African context.

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A proposed model for construction project management communication in the South African construction industry

Peer reviewed and revised

AbstractIneffective communication and the poor applica-tion of communication skills in construction project management lead to project outcomes that do not meet project objectives. The lack of a proper communication skills model for project manage-ment may contribute to ineffective project com-mu ni cation. This article reports the results of a study done to identify the most important project management communication skills and applica tions of communication that effective project managers should possess. A literature review on project manage ment communication, project communi-cation skills, applications of project communication and project management and leadership communi-cation was done to develop a quantitative ques-tion naire for testing the importance of project management communication skills and applications of communication as perceived by a total of 97 construction-related professionals employed in construction project management, architecture, construction management, engi neering and quantity surveying. Based on the findings, the communication skills and applications of communication expected from project managers were grouped into core (decision-making, problem-solving, listening, verbal competency, motivation, persuasion, meetings, writing competency, presentation, team-building and development, conflict management) and important skills (negotiation, trust, explaining, questioning, reinforce ment, reflecting, public communication, humour and laughter, self-disclosure) which, together with managerial and leadership communication, form the main basis of the proposed model. The proposed model may assist construction project managers in developing their communication abilities, and through improved communication,

Benita Zulch

Dr B.G. (Benita) Zulch, Senior Lecturer and Programme Director, Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management, University of the Free State, South Africa. Phone: 051 401 3849, email: <[email protected]>

The author declared no conflict of interest for this title and article.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/1023-0564/as23i1.1ISSN: 1023-0564e-ISSN: 2415-0487Acta Structilia 2016 23(1): 1-35© UV/UFS

tel:0514013849

Acta Structilia 2016: 23(1)

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improve their management and leadership abilities, ensuring the successful execution of projects in the South African construction industry.Keywords: Communication skills and leadership model, construction project management, leadership, South African construction industry

AbstrakOneffektiewe kommunikasie en die swak toepassing van kommunikasie-vaardighede in konstruksieprojekbestuur lei tot uitkomste wat nie aan die doelwitte van ‘n projek voldoen nie. Die gebrek aan ‘n behoorlike kommunikasie-vaardigheidsmodel vir projekbestuur kan ook bydra tot oneffektiewe projek-bestuurs kommunikasie. Hierdie artikel doen verslag oor die resultate van ‘n studie wat gedoen is om die belangrikste projekbestuurkommunikasievaardighede en toepassings van kommunikasie waaroor effektiewe projekbestuurders moet beskik, te identifiseer. ‘n Literatuuroorsig oor projekbestuurkommunikasie; projek kommuni-kasievaardighede; toepassings van projekkommunikasie en projekbestuursfunksies en leierskap in projekbestuur is gedoen om ‘n kwantitatiewe vraelys te kon opstel vir die meting van die belangrikheid van projekbestuurkommunikasievaardighede en toepassing van kommunikasie soos waargeneem deur 97 konstruksie-verwante professionele persone. Hierdie professionele persone is werksaam in konstruksie-projekbestuur, argitektuur, konstruksiebestuur, ingenieurswese en bourekenkunde. Gebaseer op die bevindinge van die studie is die kommunikasievaardighede en toepassings van kommunikasie wat verwag word van projekbestuurders ingedeel in die volgende groepe: kern (besluitneming, probleemoplossing, luister, mondelinge vaardighede, motivering, oorreding, vergaderings, geskrewe vaar-dig hede, aanbiedings, spanbou en ontwikkeling, konflikbestuur); belangrike (onderhandeling, vertroue, verduideliking, vrae, versterking, reflektering, openbare kommunikasie, humor en lag, self-bekendmaking); bestuurs- en leier skap-kom munikasievaardighede wat dan ook die belangrikste basis van die voor-gestelde model vorm. Die voorgestelde model kan bou-projekbestuurders help om hul kommunikasievermoëns te ontwikkel, en deur middel van verbeterde kommunikasie, word hul bestuur- en leierskapvermoëns verbeter om te verseker dat suksesvolle projekte in die Suid-Afrikaanse konstruksiebedryf uitgevoer word.Sleutelwoorde: Kommunikasievaardighede en leierskapsmodel, konstruksie-projekbestuur, leierskap, Suid-Afrikaanse konstruksiebedryf

1. IntroductionA literature review identified some models for communication, communication leadership, and leadership (Barrett, 2006: online; Burke, 2010: 49; Hoard, 2003: online; Knipe, Van der Waldt, Van Niekerk, Burger & Nell, 2002: 18; Kotzé, Berry & Verster, 2008: CD; Steyn, 2012: 286-287). Closer investigation showed that a specific model for construction project managers’ communication skills and leadership may not exist. In order to address ineffective communication, it is important to determine the skills and applications of communication needed to communicate effectively, as communication is important for the successful completion of a project (Thomsett, 2010: 198). Skills cannot be applied without effective communication and, as Heldman (2003: 33) states, “the most important skills a project manager possesses are communication skills”.

Zulch • A proposed model for construction project management ...

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A proposed communication skills and leadership model may fill the void for a model that can be used by construction project managers as a possible enhancement tool for improved project communication as well as for improving their general communication skills. A literature study clarified project management communication, project communication skills, applications of communication in projects and project management, and leadership communication. This clarification was important to highlight some elements within these categories that may contribute to the design of the proposed model. In order to determine the elements needed to design the model, a research study was done to rank effective project communication skills and applications of communication for project managers from important to extremely important. Based on the findings, the communication skills and applications of communication expected from project managers were grouped into core and important skills, which, together with management and leadership communication, form the main basis of the proposed model.

2. Project management communicationIt is estimated that project managers and project team members spend approximately 90% of their working time engaged in some form of communication (Burke, 2010: 280). The foundation of any project manager’s success lies in effective communication. PMBoK (in Burke & Barron, 2007: 346) defines effective communication as “ensuring the right person gets the right information at the right time”. To understand the importance of the elements within the proposed model, it is important to determine and define different lines, levels and types of project communication as well as communication media that are considered in project communication.

2.1 Project communication lines

At the start of a project, it is important to determine the lines of communication and the methods of managing information (Fisk & Reynolds, 2010: 36). Smit & Cronje (2002: 372) propose two primary lines of communication, namely formal communication and informal communication.

Formal communication can be categorised as vertical, horizontal, or diagonal and may appear under various forms: spoken, written, direct, indirect, and so on (Alexander, 2015: online; Smit & Cronje, 2002: 372; Tubbs & Moss, 2008: 477-490). Vertical communication is the upward and downward communication flow between different hierarchical levels of the organisation (Alexander, 2015: online).

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Downward communication starts at the top and flows down through to workers to provide information on goals, strategies, and policies (Campbell, 2011: 287; Fielding, 2005: 48-51; Posea, 2012: 201; Smit & Cronje, 2002: 371-372). The main function of upward communication is to supply information to the upper levels about what is happening at the lower levels (Campbell, 2011: 287; Fielding, 2005: 48-51; Smit & Cronje, 2002: 371-372). Horizontal/lateral communication takes place between people at the same level of the hierarchy (Alexander, 2015: online; Posea, 2012: 201). This formal communication does not follow the chain of command (Campbell, 2011: 287; Fielding, 2005: 48-51; Smit & Cronje, 2002: 371-372). Diagonal communication takes place between people at different levels of the hierarchy (Alexander, 2015: online; Campbell, 2011: 287; Fielding, 2005: 48-51; Posea, 2012: 201; Smit & Cronje, 2002: 371-372).

Informal communication uses channels such as the grapevine, rumours (Fielding, 2005: 52; Smit & Cronje, 2002: 373; Tubbs & Moss, 2008: 493), informal social groupings, and phatic communication to try to eliminate uncertainty, curiosity, or anxiety of some people from the project team (Van Staden, Marx & Erasmus-Kritzinger, 2002: 23-24).

2.2 Project communication levels

Le Roux, De Beer, Ferreira, Hübner, Jacobs, Kritzinger, Labuschagne, Stapelberg & Venter (1999: 286-287) and Dow & Taylor (2008: 44-47) suggest that project management communication takes place on internal and external communication levels.

Internal communication is the communication that takes place between project team members (Alexander, 2015: online). It is vital for regulating employee behaviour, innovation, integration, and information sharing (Dainty, Moore & Murray, 2006: 130; Kress, 2005: 30; Saks, 2006: 615).

External communication is communication between project team members and other project stakeholders (Alexander, 2015: online). Generally, this type of communication is prepared before being presented or sent to the receiving party. The focus is on the way in which the organisation manages its communication and conveys a particular image of the organisation to the outside world (Dainty, Moore & Murray, 2006: 130; Le Roux et al., 1999: 286-287).




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2.3 Types of project communication

In an attempt to understand communication in project manage-ment, it is useful to classify the types of communication within which people are involved in an organisation. Baker ([n.d.]: 1-15), Emmitt & Gorse (2003: 45) and Kreps (1989) divide project communication into five types:

• Interpersonal communication: According to Bambacas & Patrickson (2008: 52), “[i]nterpersonal communication explains ‘the means’ by which organisational activities, such as mana-ging, controlling, planning, and leading are deli vered”. Baker ([n.d.]: 5), Jha, 2010: 3-4, Robbins & Hunsaker (2003: 52-53) and Sethi & Seth (2009: 33) state that, although interpersonal communication can include oral, written, and non-verbal forms of communication, the term is by and large related to spoken communication that takes place between two or more individuals in person.

• Group communication: Emmitt & Gorse (2003: 45) and Barker & Angelopulo (2007: 95) define group communication as two or more people who interact with, and influence each other or different work groups communicating to each other.

• Mass communication: Emmitt & Gorse (2003: 45) define mass communication as messages sent through the media (television, radio, newspapers) to large audiences mainly to enhance public understanding and acceptance of projects (Jha, 2010: 4).

• Public communication: Public communication takes place when the project manager addresses a large known audience or the media (McCarthy, 2010: 263). Lectures, speeches and presentations are all forms of public communication. In public communication, feedback from the audience must be part of the communication process (Emmitt & Gorse, 2003: 48). The skill to develop and maintain effective public relations through communication is important for project managers’ relationships with the public and the media (McCarthy, 2010: 263).

• Organisational communication: Goldhaber (1989: 17) defines organisational communication as “the process of crea-ting and exchanging messages within a network of inter-dependent relationships”. These relationships can be internal (effective communications between managers and workers in different parts of an organisation); external (the way in which the organisation manages its communication processes


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with the outside world) as well as formal and informal forms of interaction (Baker, [n.d.]: 5; Dainty, Moore & Murray, 2006: 130-131).

2.4 Methods of project management communication

Two communication methods are the push and the pull communi-cation methods, suggested by Du Plessis, Jooste & Strydom (2001: 341).

Push communication is when information is sent to specific recipients, and users access and retrieve information at their discretion, e.g. letters, memos, reports, emails, faxes, voice mails, blogs, press releases, and so on (Brunt, 2013: 447). It is typically used when the recipients need the information and no immediate response is required (Du Plessis et al., 2001: 341; Nielsen, 2010: online).

Pull communication is used for very large volumes of information and should be used when the communication is informational only. If the recipients do not read it, it will not affect the project. These methods include intranet sites, e-learning, lessons learned database, knowledge repositories, and so on (Brunt, 2013: 447).

2.5 Communication media/mediums

A communication medium is simply ‘how’ a message is sent to the receiver or the method used to communicate (Heldman, 2009). Dainty, Moore & Murray (2006: 64), Gillard & Johansen (2004: 23-29) and Schwalbe (2014: 418) note that, when deciding on the communication mediums, the project manager should consider the purpose of the communication, the receiver, and the type of information being shared, as messages are often more successfully conveyed if a variety of media are used (Torrington & Hall, 1998: 121).

Communication media in organisations have been widely exa-mined in management literature. Dainty, Moore & Murray (2006: 65), Heldman (2009: 201), Posea (2012: 201), Le Roux et al. (1999: 286-287), Dow & Taylor (2008: 44-47) and Yan (2009: 43) classify communications media in the following generic types:

• Speech/verbal: Oral communication between individuals or groups. Can be formal (such as in meetings and focus groups) or informal, and face-to-face or via telecommunications media.

• Non-verbal: Present during some other forms of communi-cation and implying meaning to what is being said. Can be deliberate or non-deliberate (such as dress code, gestures, appearance, or attitudes).


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• Written: Usually official or formal (such as internal announce-ments, reports, decisions, plans, letters to people inside or outside the institution). Written information within project management provides a permanent record of the communication.

• Audiovisual: Graphical or audio-based media designed to convey a message more effectively (such as telephone, videoconferencing, teleconferencing, cellular telephone calls, sms (i.e. texting) and walkie-talkie conversations).

• Electronic: Increasingly popular method using innovations such as electronic mail to communicate rapidly between distributed individuals and groups.

• Visual: Communication takes place by means of presentations, DVDs and videos.

Each of these media/mediums can be expressed formally or informally depending on the circumstances and desire of the individual or group transmitting the message (Dainty, Moore & Murray, 2006: 65).

3. Project communication skillsAccording to Goldsmith & Newton (2011: A165), there are various understandings of the nature of communication skills in the construction discipline. Widdowson (1978: 67) refers to communi-cation skills as the mode in which the communication system is realised. Dainty, Moore & Murray (2006: 5-6) refer to com muni-cation skills specifically as those that project managers need in order to deal with individuals, small groups, large groups, and organisations. Goldsmith & Newton (2011: A165), Alexander (2015: online) and Zulch (2014: 677-680) note that, for the construction project manager, the ability or skill to communicate would include, among others, aspects such as trust and respect, objectivity and fairness, leading by example, motivation, accessibility, transparency, confidence, flexibility, clarity, integrity, competence, focus, and stability. Skulmoski & Hartman (2009: 242-243) and Zulch (2014: 677-680) add collaborate, explaining and questioning, listening, verbal competency, reflecting, meetings, writing competency and presentation skills, self-disclosure and humour, and laughter as part of communication skills for project managers. It is important to clarify these communication skills in order to understand the importance of the elements within the proposed model.


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3.1 Trust and respect

Trust and respect are not a right; they are earned, and come from an experience of honesty, integrity, concern and expertise demonstrated by effective project managers (Andi & Simanjuntak, 2008: 111; Ray 2015: online; Turner & Muller, 2005: 51).

3.2 Objectivity and fairness

According to Alexander (2015: online) and Kliem, Ludin & Robertson (1997: 38), effective project leaders should actively listen to more than one side without bias. When they receive important information that they would rather not hear, they should work with key stakeholders to prioritise the way forward.

3.3 Leading by example

Leading by example demonstrates a leader’s commitment to his/her work and provides guidance to subordinates on how effective performance can be achieved (Bandura, 1997). Strong project leaders make every effort to live by the same rules they expect of others, affirming to the team that they, too, walk the talk (Alexander 2015: online).

3.4 Motivation

Motivation includes all the attempts by the project manager to get members to the point where the team strives to do the best in order to achieve the goals (Baguley, 2010: 106; Kliem et al., 1997: 38; Kroon, 1990: 11-12). The project manager is responsible for creating a culture of motivation by using direct communication links with team members, and for ensuring a safe working environment, basic personal comforts, the provision of training, and recognition of achievement (Warren, 1989: 99).

3.5 Accessibility

According to Alexander (2015: online), team members and stake-holders need to know that they can easily access their project leader and communicate freely and without barriers. Highly effective project leaders are never closed off.


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3.6 Transparency

Transparency is the clear and open communication of project information to teams and customers through openness, communi-cation, and accountability (Andersen, 2008: 250; Calero, 2011: online; DePaoli, 2011: 2). Transparency only works under conditions of trust where there are no hidden agendas or reading between the lines (Alexander, 2015: online; Franz & Sarcina, 2009: 88).

3.7 Confidence

According to Vocabulary.com ([n.d.]: online), confidence is “a feeling of trust and firm belief in yourself or others”. Turner & Muller (2005: 50) note self-confidence as a trait of effective project managers, as it allows teams to work toward shared goals. Alexander (2015: online) warns that project leaders who are confident in their knowledge and abilities must not be arrogant, as this tends to make team members uncomfortable and reluctant.

3.8 Flexibility

Alexander (2015: online) states that great project leaders establish themselves as reliable communicators to develop credibility with project sponsors and flex and adapt during change.

3.9 Collaborate

McIntosh, Luecke & Davis (2008: 59) state that collaboration involves getting everybody’s best efforts. This means that project managers may divide projects to the advantage of each team member’s set of skills where everybody is willing to co-operate and share information, ideas and assets in order to help each other (Ray, 2015: online; Sweeney, 2010: online).

3.10 Explaining and questioning

According to Wragg & Brown (2001: 13), “[e]xplaining is the giving of understanding to others”. Explaining means to simplify and provide an understanding of a problem to others (Hargie, 2007: 196). Fritzley & Lee (in Hargie, 2007: 121) describe questioning as a “major form of speech act in interpersonal communication”, while Stenstroem (in Hargie, 2007: 121) reflects that “it is difficult to imagine a conversation without questions and responses”. Explaining and asking questions is a fundamental part of communication and is an important skill for project professionals (Waterman et al., 2001: 477). The project manager has to communicate information that is clear


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and comprehensible to the project team members. To explain and allow team members to ask questions helps them understand the project goals (Dow & Taylor, 2008: 27; Clements & Gido, 2012: 384).

3.11 Listening

The ability to master the art of proper listening is an important skill for the construction project manager (Van Staden et al., 2002: 42). Listening was traditionally viewed as the ability to perceive and process information presented orally (Hargie, 2007: 267). Sweeney (2011: online) and Odusami (2002: 61) state that the ability to listen effectively is a core skill needed to listen to and understand the words and the meaning behind the words, not interrupting or letting the mind wander, by asking questions to ensure understanding and by observing signals such as reinforcement (Bostrom, 1997: 240).

3.12 Verbal competency

According to Laufer, Shapira & Telem (2008: 81), construction project managers are engaged in oral communication for approximately 76% of the time; therefore, effective verbal communication is a skill that a construction manager should possess (Riley, Horman & Messner, 2008: 146).

3.13 Reflecting

Reflecting is closely associated with listening and is an interactive process where the whole message is repeated as it was said (Hargie, 2007: 165; Pace, Peterson & Burnett, 1979: 157). Project managers who have the ability to reflect words and feelings and who can clarify that these words and feelings have been understood correctly help team members direct their thoughts and encourage them to continue speaking (Pace et al., 1979: 167).

3.14 Clarity

To ensure information clarity, the project managers must gear com-munication methods, mediums and styles toward their audience so that all communications on the project are clear and complete (Calero, 2011: online; Alexander 2015: online; Barry, 2010: online). In practice, this means that project managers should have the ability to take something complex and make it simple in order to reach audiences at different levels (Alexander 2015: online).


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3.15 Integrity

According to Barry (2010: online), the actions, and not the words used by project leaders set the modus operandi for the team. Integrity is a demonstration of, and commitment to ethical practices. Based on integrity, good project managers create standards for ethical behaviour that is important in project management.

3.16 Competence

The Businessdictionary ([n.d.]: online) defines competence as “[a] cluster of related abilities, commitments, knowledge, and skills that enable a person (or an organisation) to act effectively in a job or situation”. Simply put, project manager competence means that everybody must believe that a person knows what s/he is doing by demonstrating the ability to challenge, inspire, enable, model, and encourage (Barry, 2010: online).

3.17 Focus and stability

Not all projects go as planned. During these times, project teams rely on the project manager(s) to be rational, remain calm under pressure, and be able to make sound judgement in order to find the right solutions that best support the overall strategic goals of the project (Alexander, 2015: online).

3.18 Meetings, writing competency and presentations

Meetings are the construction project manager’s principal forum to manage the project and communicate with the team members and stakeholders (Burke & Barron, 2007: 349; Harrin, 2015: online). Construction project meetings are important for sharing information and exchanging data; solving problems, brainstorming, generating ideas, options and alternatives; decision-making, selecting a course of action, gaining support and alternatives; planning and execution, to determine the what, who, when, how, where and why; progress, evaluation, monitoring, measuring, reviewing and forecasting, as well as control (Burke & Barron, 2007: 349; Burke, 2007: 213).

Elder (1994: 46, 332) and Kliem et al. (1997: 38) suggest that the project manager familiarise him-/herself with the principles of effective writing processes. Written reports, letters, instructions, and minutes of meetings are essential for the smooth running of projects and may be used as evidence in the event of a dispute (Emmitt & Gorse, 2003: 124).

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Presentations may be delivered to the client to explain the project, to senior management to report progress, or to the board of directors to justify cost or time issues (Steyn, 2008: 321). A powerful presentation with visual aids may create a powerful impact and give the perception of someone who knows the information presented (Burke & Barron, 2007: 279).

3.19 Self-disclosure

Self-disclosure is when people reveal information such as names, person’s attitudes, values, personality, and skills that help people get to know each other (Hargie, 2007: 230; Kasouf, Celuch & Bantham, 2006: 40). The skill of self-disclosure is important in project communication, because a project manager’s self-disclosure fosters trust, as it leads to shared perceptions and concerns among team members (McManus, 2006: 51).

3.20 Humour and laughter

Using humour and laughter to convey a message involves the cognitive, emotional, physiological and social aspects thereof (Hargie, 2007: 294). Fourie (1988: 77) states that a method for the correct use of humour is to establish a humorous mood. Humour and laughter are important factors that give team members a sense of belonging and acceptance, and that foster caring and mutual support (Yalom, Bloch & Crouch in Hargie, 2007: 303). The ability to see the funny side of projects is an important communication skill for project managers, because, if used appropriately, humour can help a manager handle stress and break tension (Gido & Clements, 2012: 331; Harrin, 2015: online).

4. Applications of communicationGoldsmith & Newton (2011: A165), Alexander (2015: online), Chaturvedi & Chaturvedi (2011: 181-193) and Zulch (2014: 677-680) note that it is important for the construction project manager to have the ability to apply communication correctly when needed. This ability would then, among others, include aspects such as decision-making, problem-solving; conflict management; team development and team-building; negotiation; persuasion, and reinforcement.


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4.1 Decision-making

Decision-making is a process to gain collective support and team commitment for a solution (Burke & Barron, 2007: 71; Shockley-Zalabak, 1991: 303; Van der Merwe, 2009: online). Research by Gorse & Emmitt (2007: 1209) states that decision-making is an essential component of a project manager’s set of application skills. In a study by Odusami (2002: 61), decision-making was ranked the most important skill for effective project managers. Patel (2010: online) states that a project manager “has to exercise independent decision making and not be biased toward the employer”.

4.2 Problem-solving

Problem-solving is a process of analysing a problem and identifying a number of possible solutions (Burke & Barron, 2007: 71; Shockley-Zalabak, 1991: 303). Problem-solving involves a combination of problem definition (technical, managerial, or interpersonal) and decision-making (Edum-Fotwe & McCafer, 2000: 114). In a study by Odusami (2002: 61), problem-solving was ranked the fifth most impor-tant skill for effective project managers.

4.3 Conflictmanagement

Conflict is often the result of uncertainty or miscommunication (Morris, 2008: 216; APM Body of Knowledge, 2006: 108). Conflict that is managed brings concerns into the open, raises otherwise suppressed viewpoints, and may clear up misunderstandings and uncertainty (APM Body of Knowledge, 2006: 108; Clearly, 2008: 46). The conflict management methods or options that the construction project manager can apply during communication and specifically with negotiations include confronting, compromising, accommodating (APM Body of Knowledge, 2006: 108; Clearly, 2008: 46-47), forcing, withdrawing (APM Body of Knowledge, 2006: 108), avoiding, collaborating (Clearly, 2008: 46-47; Ellis, 1999: 58-60, 2009: 68-69), compromising, bottom line (Ellis, 1999: 58-60, 2009: 69), shift perspectives, conflict transformation (Morris, 2008: 220-221), integrating, obliging, and dominating (Emmitt & Gorse, 2003: 169-170). Effective conflict management requires seeking a win-win situation, stipulating proactive conflict management strategies, using effective negotiation and communication, as well as appreciating cultural differences among project stakeholders (Verma, 1998: 372).


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4.4 Team-building and team development

According to Pryke & Smyth (2006: 166) and Van der Merwe (2009: online), effective project managers develop and build successful teams by paying attention to team-building and information exchange within the team. The project manager may use the skills of effective communication, leadership and motivation to build successful teams that were created from grouping individuals into teams (Zulch, 2012: 122; Barry, 2010: online).

4.5 Negotiation

Negotiation is a process of bargaining aimed at reaching an agreement with project stakeholders in order to obtain specific resources, subcontractor prices, vendor delivery schedules, generating information, and accomplishing tasks (Clements & Gido, 2012: 312; Edum-Fotwe & McCafer, 2000: 114; Van der Merwe, 2009: online). Burke & Barron (2007: 301, 103) and Harrin (2015: online) state that, to be a successful project manager, negotiation techniques (skills) must be developed and used to achieve the best deals with functional managers, clients and suppliers. Ottosson (2013: 258) states the following: “Make sure to be regarded as an equal and skilful negotiator.”

4.6 Persuasion

Persuasion is the art of guiding, encouraging, convincing, and directing team members towards a form of preferred behaviour, attitude, or belief (Emmitt & Gorse, 2003: 50). The power of persuasion is an important part of the project manager’s leadership style to obtain cooperation between project team members (Burke & Barron, 2007: 275). The ability to change the views of others through motivation and persuasion should be viewed as one of the most fundamental applications of communication (Dillard & Marshall, 2003: 480).

4.7 Reinforcement

Reinforcement is a process of encouraging a pattern of behaviour. It involves a stimulus which, when linked to a response, will most likely lead to that response being repeated (Hargie, 2007: 150). Repetition of positive reinforcement such as praise and encouragement tells team members that they do well and that their inputs are appreciated (DuBrin, 2008: 386; Pace et al., 1979: 156).


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5. Management communication Management is based on the management functions of planning, organising, leading, coordinating, activating, controlling, communi-cation, motivation, delegation, staffing, disciplining, and decision-making (Zulch, 2012: 10-11). For these functions to be effectively managed, managers need effective pro-active communication (Kroon, 1990: 11).

Bell & Martin (2008: 130) define managerial communication as “the downward, horizontal, or upward exchange of information and transmission of meaning through informal or formal channels, enabling managers to achieve their goals”. Managerial communication is thus a function that helps managers communicate with each other as well as with employees within the organisation (Rosenau & Githens, 2005: 13).

Managerial communication is a key skill (Vosough, 2012: 9294) that project managers need in order to interact with individuals and to manage groups effectively (Zulch, 2012: 150). Managerial communication such as the use of expression, letter writing, effective listening, reporting, coaching, mentoring, interaction and negotiation techniques, skills related to creativity such as courage in new thinking and risk-taking (Munter, 1993 in Bell & Martin, 2008: 130) begins with emotional intelligence or interpersonal skills and an understanding of crosscultural differences needed to interact effectively with others as individuals or groups (Barrett, 2006: 187).

6. Leadership communicationLeadership is a vital element of project management competency, of which communication is a vital component (Handy, 1993: 117; Campbell, 2011: 287).

Leadership communication involves the expansion of managerial skills to those abilities needed to lead an organisation and address a broader community (Zulch, 2012: 150). Leadership, as a project communication skill, is considered important and becomes even more complex, because the higher the level of leadership during the production and management of projects, the higher the demand for communication competence (Hackman & Johnson, 2013: 22; Zulch, 2012: 150). It becomes even more important when leaders face both internal and external stakeholders (Barrett, 2013: 192). This means that leaders become the face of the organisation; they should think about how to create a positive image through communication with diverse audiences within and outside the organisation (Barrett, 2011: 16).


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Leadership communication drives results, and enables leaders and followers to work together more efficiently, because they understand the issues and know what has to be done in order to accomplish their goals (Hackman & Johnson, 2013: 11; Clements & Gido, 2012: 304; Steyn, 2012: 269; Belzer, in Stevenson & Starkweather, 2009: 665; Du Plessis, 2009: online; Egeland, 2010: online; Steyn, 2008: 250-251).

According to Hauptfleisch & Siglé (2004: 57), the project manager very specifically requires leadership skills and not only management ability. Campbell (2011: 287) states that “good communication and strong leadership go hand in hand”. Project managers succeed by producing projects on time and within budget as well as by effectively managing the interaction and communication between people and organisations.

In order to understand the difference between management com-munication and leadership communication, it is important not to equate the concepts management and leadership. Leading differs from managing when it comes to creating an agenda, developing a human network for achieving the agenda, and executing the agenda. While the leader sets the goals, the manager sets the objectives to accomplish the goals (Hackman & Johnson, 2013: 33).

7. ResearchThis empirical research project was an opinion study of people employed in construction-related professions. They rated the impor-tant communication skills and applications of communication that construction project managers should possess. The structured survey questionnaire invitations were sent via e-mail. For this investigation, an e-mail distribution method gave the opportunity to access a larger group of potential research participants and the data could be collected across the entire country.

7.1 Sampling method

A combined list of 1,400 members, registered in South Africa, was obtained from official bodies of the Association of South African Quantity Surveying; Association of Construction Project Managers; the South African Association of Consulting Engineers; Master Builders of South Africa, and Institute of Landscape Architects of South Africa. The list was stratified between those members involved in quantity surveying (427), project management (293), engineering (290), building contracting (110), and architects (280). A simple random sampling selecting method resulted in a sample size of


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302 representing quantity surveyors (90), project managers (63), engineers (62), building contractors (26), and architects (61).

7.2 Sample size

The sample size for construction-related professionals was calcu-lated in accordance with the Table recommended by Krejcie & Morgan (1970: 608). The Table gives recommended sample sizes for general research activities, applicable to any defined population. From the Table, the recommended sample size for a population of 1,000 is 278, for 10,000 it is 370, and for 1,000,000 it is 384. This recom-men dation validates the sample size of 302 as efficient for the population of 1,400.

7.3 Data collection

A structured questionnaire was distributed electronically via email to a total randomly selected sample of 307 construction-related professionals in South Africa. Two weeks later, the importance of the research was communicated to the potential respondents via telephone in an attempt to improve the response rate. The project management communication topics used in the questionnaire were extracted from reviews of the literature and resulted in the formulation of a questionnaire divided into two sections, namely respondent’s profile, and the level of importance of communication skills and applications of communication that a project manager should possess. From the categories, the author selected the following elements to be tested and included in the proposed model: Types of project communication (Public and mass communication); Project communication skills (Listening, Verbal competency, Motivation, Meetings, Writing competency, Explaining, Trusting, Presentation, Questioning, Humour and laughter, Self-disclosure); Applications of communication (Decision-making and problem-solving, Conflict management, Team development and team-building, Negotiation, Persuasion, Reinforcement, Reflecting); Leadership com muni cation (Leadership).

To reduce the respondent’s bias, closed-ended questions were preferred (Akintoye & Main, 2007: 601).

7.4 Response rate

Ninety-seven (97) completed questionnaires were returned, resulting in a response rate of 32%. According to Moyo & Crafford (2010: 68), contemporary built-environment survey response rates range between 7% and 40%, in general. It is significant in respect of the


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reliability of the response rate that the majority of the responses received were from project managers. However, the responses from the project managers did not distort the response data.

7.5 Dataanalysisandinterpretationoffindingstowardstheproposed model

A 5-point Likert scale was used to obtain the opinions of the respondents and to analyse the results. Likert-type or frequency scales use fixed choice response formats and are designed to measure attitudes or opinions (Bowling, 1997; Burns & Grove, 1997). These ordinal scales measure levels of agreement/disagreement. For the purpose of analysis and interpretation, the following scale measurement was used regarding mean scores, where 1 is not important (>1.0 and ≤1.8), 2 fairly important (>1.8 and ≤ 2.6), 3 important (>2.6 and ≤ 3.4), 4 very important (>3.4 and ≤ 4.2), and 5 extremely important (>4.2 and ≤ 5.0). The data were captured using the SPSS program, upon which the findings were reviewed against the foregoing literature review.

8. Resultsandfindings

8.1 Respondents’profile

The first part of the questionnaire contained questions on the demographic profile of the respondents who are in the best position to comment on the communication skills and applications of communication that project managers should possess. Table 1 shows the professions of the respondents and Table 2 shows the years of experience in a profession. The majority of the responses (52.6%) were received from project managers and quantity surveyors. Of the respondents, 30% did not complete the question on the years of experience in a profession. The valid cases showed that 42% of the professionals have more than 10 years’ experience in their professions, of whom 13.4% have 25 years or more experience. There is a reasonable proportional distribution in the number of years’ experience of respondents; 42% of the respondents have between zero and five years’ experience; nearly half of the valid respondents have between six and fifteen years’ professional experience.


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Table 1: Respondents’ profile

Profession of respondentsNumber of

respondents in this profession

Percentage (%) of respondent in this

profession

Quantity surveying 25 25.8

Engineering 11 11.4

Architecture 10 10.3

Construction management 5 5.1

Construction project management 10 10.3

Project management 26 26.8

Other 10 10.3

Total 97 100

Table 2: Respondents years of experience in profession

Profession

Years of experience in professionN of valid cases = 68 (70%)

N of incomplete profiles = 29 (30%)Total N = 97 (100%)

Total valid cases

Years not indicated on profile

0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 25+

Quantity surveying

6 (46%)

2 (15%)

1 (13%)

0 (0%)

1 (13%)

3 (23%)

13

Engineering 6 (66%)

1 (11%)

1 (11%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

1 (11%)

9

Architecture 2 (50%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

1 (25%)

1 (25%)

4

Construction management

2 (50%)

2 (50%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

4

Construction project management

0 (0%)

1 (10%)

4 (40%)

1 (10%)

2 (20%)

2 (20%)

10

Project management

10 (45%)

4 (18%)

4 (18%)

2 (9%)

1 (4%)

1 (4%)

22

Other related professions

3 (50%)

1 (16%)

0 (0%)

1 (16%)

0 (0%)

1 (16%)

6

Incomplete profiles

29 (30%)

Total 29 29 11 10 4 5 9 68

Total (%) (30%) (42%) (16%) (14.9%) (5.9%) (7.8%) (13.4%) (70%)


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8.2 Importance levels of communication skills and applications of communication

Based on the scale measurement used regarding mean scores, where 1 is not important (>1.0 and ≤1.8), 2 fairly important (>1.8 and ≤ 2.6), 3 important, (>2.6 and ≤ 3.4), 4 very important (>3.4 and ≤ 4.2), and 5 extremely important (>4.2 and ≤ 5.0), the results in Table 3 show the mean scores for the importance levels of project manager communication skills and applications of communication as perceived by the respondents.

Table 3: Communication skills and applications of communication of project managers

Communication skills and communication

applications

Response (%) (N=97) Average mean score

Ranking1 Not important…………5 Extremely important

1 2 3 4 5

Leadership 0 1.0 6.2 20.6 69.2 4.5 1

Decision-making and problem-solving

0 1.1 7.2 20.6 68.1 4.5 2

Listening 0 0 15.4 33.0 48.6 4.2 3

Motivation 0 1.0 7.2 43.3 45.5 4.2 3

Verbal competency 0 1.0 17.9 37.5 40.6 4.2 3

Conflict management 0 3.1 15.5 34.0 44.4 4.1 4

Meetings 0 0 15.5 42.2 39.1 4.1 4

Team development and team-building

0 4.1 9.3 45.4 38.2 4.1 4

Writing competency 0 1.0 14.4 46.4 35.2 4.1 4

Negotiation 0 4.1 16.5 36.1 40.3 4.0 5

Explaining 1.1 4.1 8.2 43.3 40.3 4.0 5

Questioning 0 10.7 15.4 43.3 27.6 3.9 6

Trusting 0 3.0 19.6 42.2 32.2 3.9 6

Presentation 0 3.2 23.7 38.2 31.9 3.8 6

Persuasion 0 2.1 26.8 38.2 29.9 3.8 6

Reinforcement 1.0 5.2 18.5 43.5 28.9 3.8 6

Public and mass communication

4.1 7.2 37.2 30.9 17.6 3.4 7

Humour and laughter 5.2 13.4 33.0 37.1 8.3 3.2 8

Reflecting 10.3 8.2 34.0 34.0 10.5 3.1 9


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Communication skills and communication

applications

Response (%) (N=97) Average mean score

Ranking1 Not important…………5 Extremely important

1 2 3 4 5

Self-disclosure 20.6 28.9 21.6 20.6 5.3 2.5 10

Average 3.8

Rated extremely important, the following communication skills and applications of communication were identified as the core communication skills and applications within the proposed model: decision-making and problem-solving (Ms=4.5); listening and verbal competency as well as motivation and persuasion (Ms=4.2); meetings, writing competency and presentation; team-building and team development as well as management of conflict (Ms=4.1).

Rated very important or important, the following communication skills and applications of communication were identified as the important communication skills and applications elements within the proposed model: negotiation and explaining (Ms=4.0); questioning and trusting (Ms=3.9); presentation, persuasion and reinforcement (Ms=3.8); public communication (Ms=3.4); humour and laughter (Ms=3.2); reflecting (Ms=3.1), and self-disclosure (Ms=2.5).

Leadership (Ms=4.5) was rated the highest communication skill and, together with management communication skills, forms the other elements within the proposed model.

9. Proposed model for construction project management communication

With the literature and empirical reviews as foundation, a model is proposed that is viewed as an integrated system with communication as fundamental core, since the research demonstrated that com-muni cation skills and applications of communication support sound management and strong leadership.

9.1 Communication skills and leadership model

Figure 1 illustrates the proposed Communication Skills and Leadership Model for Construction Project Management. The model is viewed as an expanding circle with communication centre to leadership, like a pebble dropped in water. Communication influences all activities related to management and leadership. The effectiveness of communication is again influenced by the level of core


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communi cation skills and applications of communication, indicated in Figure 1 from A to F, from decision-making and problem-solving to conflict management, as well as the important communication skills and applications of communication indicated in Figure 1 from 1 to 6, from negotiation and trust to self-disclosure. The model consists of communication as the foundation with four circles around this core. The first circle constitutes the core communication skills and applications of communication; the second circle, the important communication skills and applications of communication; the third circle, management, and the fourth circle, leadership.

Figure 1: Communication skills and leadership model for construction project management

Source: Author’s own design

Communication is regarded as the foundation and starting point of all activities in the construction project management industry. This core supports the following circles: core communication skills and applications of communication, important communication skills


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and applications of communication, management functions and effective pro-active communication, and leadership styles to be applied, in other words the situation based on sound communication.

9.1.1 Core communication skills and applications of communication

The first circle, A to F, following the communication foundation, is shown as a circle and in a sequence supported by the literature reviewed, but in combinations; this is sensible, since some of the managerial skills are sequential and are closely linked. The core communication skills and applications of communication strengthen and enhance communication and will assist the construction project manager to communicate more effectively. The sequence starts with A, decision-making and problem-solving, as the most important core communication skill and applications of communication skill set. A construction project manager needs to make sound decisions and solve problems as well as communicate them well in order to enhance communication interaction and understanding of management and leadership requirements to the advantage of the project.

Decision-making and problem-solving is followed by the combination of listening and verbal competency (B). The construction project manager cannot execute a project successfully without the skill of verbal competency in the form of discussions, orders, briefings, and instructions. Effective listening forms part of verbal competency and involves not only listening to what is being said, but also having discussions and conversations in order to achieve results.

Third in the sequence is C, motivation and persuasion. The project manager has to motivate team members through communication, and persuade them to achieve the objectives of the project. The project team needs guidance, encouragement, convincing, and direction in order to perform well.

The above is followed by meetings, writing competency and presentation (D). Meetings are used to inform, reach decisions, and discuss aspects concerning the project and are the project manager’s principal forum to manage the project and communicate with the team members and stakeholders. The decisions at meetings are recorded in writing. Written reports, letters, instructions, minutes, specifications, bills of quantities, preambles, preliminaries, certificates and electronic communication are essential for the smooth running of projects and are used as evidence in the event of disputes and conflict. Presentations are also used in conjunction with mostly written


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reports. Written communication serves as evidence for reference purposes during the project.

Fifth in the sequence of the first circle is E, the core application of communication, team-building and team development. This application focuses on developing people as individuals or as groups, as well as the project team, and aims to achieve project goals and objectives.

The sixth and last application of communication skill in the sequence is F, management of conflict. During the management of a project, the construction project manager often needs to address differences and disputes that may affect the project’s objectives and success. Effective application of communication skills may resolve conflict and may lead to an improved project environment.

9.1.2 Important communication skills and applications of communication

The second circle, 1 to 6, shows the important communication skills in sequence and, as with A to F, is supported by the study. This set of skills supports and strengthens the core communication skills and applications of communication. First, negotiation, as an important application of communication, ensures that agreements are reached with stakeholders, to the advantage of the project. Trust between parties during a negotiation process is important in order to ensure continuous activity and performance.

Next in the sequence of the second circle of important communi-cation skills and applications of communication are explaining and questioning. The project manager cannot execute a project without explaining the expectations to the project team members and allowing them to question decisions and explanations; this will support harmony and the team’s understanding of the project objectives.

Allowing team members to repeat the information explained to them indicates understanding and reflects comprehension of the conversation. Thus, repeating the information that was presented is the third important communication skill in the sequence.

Fourth in the sequence is public communication. A project manager sometimes needs to provide information to the stakeholders and public regarding the project in order to ensure support for, and understanding of the project.

Humour and laughter follow public communication. The construction project manager can use humour and laughter effectively to defuse a difficult situation and to create an atmosphere where people are


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at ease to have open discussions about problems, solutions and project issues.

Sixth in the sequence of the second circle of important communication skills is self-disclosure; revealing personal information helps people know each other and enables them to work together effectively.

9.1.3 Management

The third circle represents management. Effective management is based on the management functions of planning, organising, leading, coordinating, activating, controlling, communication, motivation, delegation, staffing, disciplining, and decision-making. The core and important skills A to F and 1 to 6 reinforce management’s structural application as an important skill. Management directs and structures activities through functions, while leadership, the last circle, combines project execution, operations and production by means of communication as fundamental activity.

9.1.4 Leadership

The circle leadership is very important to the construction project manager who needs the skills of corporate and general communi-cation in order to communicate effectively as a leader. Leadership strengthens and integrates communication of construction project management in terms of effectiveness, comprehensibility, team-building and execution. The public views the project leader as the face of the project.

It is proposed that if all areas of communication, from the six core communication skills and applications of communication to the six important communication skills and applications of communication, and effective management and quality leadership are in position to ensure the effective flow of communication, the result will be a project that meets requirements. Communication thus flows from the foundation communication using all communication skills and applications of communication to support leadership, management and project execution.

10. Conclusion and recommendationAppropriate literature gave rise to a range of structured questions that were used to obtain quantitative data from the survey participants. Analysis of the data with literature and the results from the survey determined the elements of a proposed model and showed that the communication skills expected from project


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managers can be grouped into core (decision-making, problem-solving, listening, verbal competency, motivation, persuasion, meetings, writing competency, presentation, team-building and team development, conflict management) and important skills (negotiation, trust, explaining, questioning, reinforcement, reflecting, public communication, humour and laughter, self-disclosure), which together with management and leadership communication form the main basis of the proposed model. The research results showed that communication is fundamental to the development of leadership ability and effective management in order to produce successful projects. The model includes a core set of communications and application skills, which by using in combination with the important management and leadership elements of the model is proposed to assist construction project managers in developing their communication abilities, and through improved communication, improve their management and leadership abilities, ensuring the successful execution of projects.

Implementation and use of the proposed model relies on the willingness of construction project managers relative to understand the importance of such a model. It is, therefore, recommended that the interrelated ‘skills’ and ‘applications’ included in the model are of utmost importance. These include ‘engaging people’, which proffers the encouragement of construction project managers to take ownership in an attempt to introduce and implement this communication skills model to their firms.

This research does not consider the model as a complete means to an end. Further research is needed in order to develop an instrument to measure the level of an individual’s or group’s core and important communication skills and applications of communication to improve their management and leadership capability.

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Exploringtheinfluenceofinstant messaging and video conferencing on the quality of project communication


AbstractGrowth in computer-mediated communication (CMC) technologies such as instant messaging (IM) and video conferencing (VC) has led to a need to explore the utilisation and influence of these tools on the quality of project communication, which must still be established. This article reports the results of a survey conducted among 210 project practitioners using CMC in various industries to determine how, why and what each medium is used for, and how these media influence factors that promote quality communication. Some results showed that the use of both instant messaging and video conferencing in projects is moderate and both improve the quality of communication in virtual teams, however in different ways. Keywords: Project communication, computer-media-ted communication, instant messaging, video confe-ren cing, virtual teams

AbstrakDie groei in rekenaar-bemiddelde kommunikasie-tegnologie soos kitsbood skappe en videokonferensies het gelei tot ŉ behoefte om die benutting en invloed van hierdie tegnologie op die gehalte van projekkommunikasie te verstaan aangesien dit nog nie vasgestel is nie. Hierdie artikel rapporteer die resultate van ‘n opname wat gedoen was onder 210 projekpraktisyns wat CMC’s gebruik in verskeie industrieë om te bepaal hoe, hoekom en waarvoor elke medium gebruik word, en hoe hierdie media die faktore beïnvloed wat kwaliteitkommunikasie bevorder. Sommige resultate toon dat die gebruik van beide hierdie tipe media in projekte matig is en dat kitsboodskappe en videokonferensies albei die gehalte van kommunikasie in virtuele spanne verbeter maar egter op verskillende maniere.Sleutelwoorde: Projekkommunikasie, rekenaar-be-mid delde kommunikasie, kits bood skap, videokon-ferensies, virtuele projekspanne.

Taryn Bond-Barnard, Lizelle Fletcher & Herman Steyn

Dr Taryn J. Bond-Barnard (corresponding author), Senior lecturer, Department of Engineering & Technology Management, Engineering Building II, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa. Phone: 012 420 2829, email: <[email protected]>

Dr Lizelle Fletcher, Statistical Consultant, Department of Statistics, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa. Phone: 012 420 3967, email: <[email protected]>

Prof. Herman Steyn, Professor, Department of Engineering & Technology Management, Engineering Building II, University of Pretoria, Private Bag X20, Hatfield, 0028, South Africa. Phone: 012 420 3647, email: <[email protected]>

The authors declared no conflict of interest for this title and article.

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18820/1023-0564/as23i1.2

ISSN: 1023-0564

e-ISSN: 2415-0487

Acta Structilia 2016 23(1): 36-69

© UV/UFS

Bond-Barnard, Fletcher & Steyn • Exploring the influence of instant ...

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1. IntroductionIn this article, the overall objective is to explore the extent to which new means of communication such as instant messaging (IM) and video conferencing (VC) have been adopted to facilitate communication in projects and to investigate their influence on the factors that determine quality communication in a project. IM and VC are both forms of computer-mediated communication (CMC), which involves sending messages through computer networks such as the Internet (Liang & Walther, 2015: 504). For the purposes of this article, a project is defined as a temporary endeavour to create a unique product or service of a sufficient size and scale that it requires multiple resources in order to achieve its objective (PMI, 2013). Literature regarding the utilisation of IM and VC for project communication is scarce. Moreover, the effect of these CMC media on the main factors that influence the quality of project communication would contribute to the body of knowledge, as quality communication increases the likelihood of project success (Bond-Barnard, Steyn & Fletcher, 2014; Dainty, Moore & Murray, 2006; Hill, 2010; Müller, 2003a, 2003b; Pinto & Pinto, 1990; OGC in Webber, 2008). The art and science of project management has grown significantly over the past 50 years. In addition, the emphasis in project management research has changed from a technical engineering orientation to one that encompasses a broader organisational perspective (Pollack & Adler, 2015: 238).

Hardly any attention has been paid to communication in project management (Dainty et al., 2006; Lehmann, 2009). The lack of communication literature in project management has resulted in communication being cited as a primary cause of project failures on numerous occasions (Dainty et al., 2006; Gilpatrick in Pinto & Pinto, 1990; OGC in Shehu & Akintoye, 2010: 28; Souder, 1981: 70). However, Pollack & Adler (2015: 247) reported relationship management topics, of which information and communication management is an important part, as being either of significance or increasingly significant in a study of emerging trends in project management research (spanning 50 years). Therefore, there is significant interest among researchers and practitioners for research relating to information and communication management in 21st-century projects.

At present, teamwork is increasingly characterised by globally distributed work, as organisations and project teams face the demands of increased competition and improved productivity (Galushkin, 2003; Ruhleder & Jordan, 2001: online). As globally distributed projects strongly rely on communication media such as


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CMC (Earon, 2014: 2; Harrin, 2010a; Stawnicza & Kurbel, 2012), it is important to ensure that project team members are able to use the available media effectively. An informal survey to determine the use of social media in project environments found that 73% of the 246 respondents from 32 countries indicated that social media was a key issue for project managers (Harrin, 2010b). Since communication in virtual teams is still recognized as particularly challenging, and CMC data very limited, further in-depth analysis is required. Limited literature hinders full understanding of CMC and its contribution to communication management, thus highlighting the necessity for further investigation (Galushkin, 2003: 11).

Recent literature has gone some way in assisting project practitioners to better understand project communication and its effects on project trust, collaboration and success (Bond-Barnard et al., 2013; Bond-Barnard et al., 2014; Chiocchio et al., 2011; Daim, Hab, Reutimanc, Hughesd, Pathaka, Bynumd & Bhatlad, 2012: 206; Dietrich, Eskerod, Dalcher & Sandhawalia, 2010; LePine, Piccolo, Jackson, Mathieu & Saulet, 2008: 278). However, more still needs to be done in order to better understand the utilisation and effect of CMC methods such as IM and VC on the quality of communication in projects.

Previous studies identified seven main factors as major determinants of project communication quality (Bond-Barnard et al., 2014: 5-12; Daim et al., 2012; Müller, 2003a; Turner & Müller, 2004: 329-333). These factors include communication channels, communications plan, audience, content, frequency of interaction, technology, and communication type.

A mixed methods research approach is proposed for this study. First, a focus group was used to gain in-depth insight into the topic and to assess the suitability of the proposed survey questions. Secondly, an international survey was conducted to measure the extent to which project practitioners use IM and VC and to investigate how this communication in a project influences the main factors that determine the quality of project communication, as identified from literature. Statistical analysis techniques such as cross-tabulation were used to examine the data in order to understand how, why and what IM and VC are used for in a project and how they influence the factors that contribute to quality project communication.

This knowledge would make a significant contribution to the information and communication management body of knowledge that is central to relationship management research. Barlett & Ghoshal and Ring & Van den Ven in Fulk & DeSanctis (1995: 339) define the latter as the management of relationships in organisations.


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According to Pollack & Adler (2015), relationship management is consistently reported as being either significant or increasingly significant in a study of emerging trends in project management research. Practitioners can use this article to understand how, when and by whom IM and VC are used in a project and to gain insight into the influence of these mediums on the factors that promote quality project communication. The research also discusses the constituents of quality communication, which forms the basis of project trust and collaboration that determines the ultimate outcome of the project (Bond-Barnard et al., 2014; Chiocchio et al., 2011; Dietrich et al., 2010).

2. Literature study

2.1. Computer-mediated communication

Organisations currently face severe competitive and economic pres-sures. As companies reduce extra costs and try to respond more nimbly to customers and competitors, they begin to adopt more network-type organisational structures to tighten inter-organisational linkages and improve management practices (Ehsan, Mirza & Ahmad, 2008; Johnston & Lawrence, 1988; Markus, 1994: 502; Miles & Snow, 1986). To support these network-type structures in the organisation, increasingly more firms, especially those that are large and geographically dispersed, are turning to CMC (Earon, 2014: 2; Ehsan et al., 2008; Markus, 1994: 502). Use of these media for intra-organisational coordination is perceived to increase personal and organisational productivity and efficiency (Earon, 2014: 2; Markus, 1994: 503).

CMC involves sending messages through computer networks such as the Internet (Liang & Walther, 2015: 504). Popular forms of CMC include, among others, email, IM, collaboration tools, social networking, blogs, micro-blogs, wikis, and VC. For the purposes of this article, only IM and VC will be discussed in more detail, as these two mediums are the more popular and well-known CMC tools (Harrin, 2010b; Harrin, 2011).

According to Hu (2003) and Osterman Research (2004), IM has evolved from a teenage fad to a valuable communications tool that is central to everyday business. IM (or chat) is a way of sending short text messages to another person through a computer or smartphone. Examples include WhatsApp, AIM™, Windows Live Messenger, eBuddy©, ICQ®, MXit™, Skype™, Tecent QQ®, Xfire™, Yahoo Messenger™, and gTalk. IM is similar to email, but faster and with shorter messages, as the person on the other side has indicated that he is available to message (Harrin, 2010a). Some of the


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perceived advantages of IM are that one can view another person’s availability; it is very conversational; in most instances, the software is free; spam is not really a problem; one receives instantaneous responses; there is a documentary audit trail, and no communication is received when offline (Bilton, 2012). Some disadvantages include that one must regularly update one’s availability status; it requires discipline to regulate usage; information security may be an issue, and status updates can cause one to micro-manage project situations (Harrin, 2010a).

According to a report by Osterman Research (2004), IM is used in up to 92% of all commercial and non-commercial enterprises in North America. Furthermore, Osterman Research (2004) estimated that, by 2007, approximately 80% of all enterprise email users will also be using IM to communicate. The percentage of enterprises using IM for business applications has more than doubled in less than three years (Osterman Research, 2004). One of the aims of this paper is to determine the utilisation of IM by project practitioners and in project environments, which is expected to differ from the figures provided earlier. The dominant interest in enterprise IM use is for business-to-business communications, not business-to-consumer communications (Osterman Research, 2004). A large percentage of IM users find that their use of the telephone and email is reduced because of their use of IM. A survey by Harrin (2010b) found that 80% of the respondents used IM for business and/or personal use and that it was one of the few tools that everyone had heard of (Harrin, 2011).

On the other hand, VC is defined as hosting a conference among people from remote locations by means of transmitted audio and signals (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2015). VC enables telecommuting individuals or people in different locations to participate in meetings at very short notice while saving time and money. Examples of VC software include Skype™, SightSpeed™, ooVoo, MegaMeeting®, iChat, Vbuzzer, Tokbox®, Eyejot™, Microsoft®, and LiveMeeting. Some of the advantages of VC are that it increases productivity and efficiency and that no travelling is required. Therefore, it is environmentally friendly, convenient and good for building relationships (Earon, 2014: 2; Harrin, 2010a). Some disadvantages are signal latency and that it can cause anxiety (Wolfe, 2007: 119-126); delegates must work harder to interpret the information presented in the conference (Ferran & Watts, 2008), and lack of eye contact and appearance consciousness (Benson-Armer & Hsieh, 1997). VC is growing in popularity: in 2007, Frost & Sullivan in Paul (2008) estimated it to be a $1.1 billion market, which was up by 29% from the previous year. Furthermore, according to TeleSpan


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in Paul (2008), VC sales have risen from 115,000 systems in 2004 to 176,000 in 2007. The majority of the respondents of a survey on social media use in project environments indicated that they use CMC tools for hosting online meetings (Harrin, 2010b).

CMC has become more common in projects due to the importance of informal communication media in facilitating project cooperation and performance (Pinto & Pinto, 1990). In addition, the popularity and progress of information technology worldwide has also contributed to the proliferation of CMC in projects (Guo, D’Ambra, Turner & Zhanget, 2009; Daim et al., 2012). Over the years, both formal and informal communication in projects has progressed from written reports and unplanned face-to-face discussions to meetings using VC and informal project discussions that are facilitated by IM or email. One of the main reasons for this shift to CMC in projects is the increasing use of virtual teams (Remidez & Jones, 2012; Ehsan et al., 2008; Otter & Emmitt, 2007; Daim et al., 2012).

The growth in CMC technologies such as IM and VC is astounding. However, what benefits can an organisation or project gain from using such communication tools?

Since 2007, McKinsey & Company has been conducting a yearly survey, with nearly 1,700 responses from executives across industries and regions, per year. These surveys determine what value the companies have gained by adopting various CMCs within their organisations, externally in their relations with customers, and in their dealings with partners and other stakeholders. Their responses suggest why CMCs remain of high interest: in 2009, 69% of the respondents reported that their companies gained measurable business benefits, including more innovative products and services, better access to knowledge, reduced time to market, reduced costs (notably communication costs), increased revenue, and customer satisfaction (McKinsey & Company, 2009: online). In 2010, the measurable benefits from the internal use of CMCs were as follows (McKinsey & Company, 2010: online):

• 77% increase in speed to access knowledge; • 60% reduced communication costs;• 41% increased employee satisfaction;• 40% reduced operating cost; • 29% reduced time to market, and• 18% increased revenue.


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The adoption and utilisation of CMC tools such as IM and VC by organisations provides support for the proposition that CMC is used significantly in organisational projects.1 One can make this deduction, as projects are the vehicle through which an organisation implements its strategy; therefore, projects (in some shape or form) will be found in the vast majority of organisations (Shao & Müller, 2011: 947). Harrin (2011, 2010b) did some preliminary work to quantify the utilisation of CMC in project environments. However, much still needs to be done in order to determine the exact extent to which specific mediums such as IM and VC are being used in projects and what influence they may be having on other aspects of project communication.

2.2 Quality communication in projects

The role of the project management function is to manage the systems that relate to the features of uniqueness, novelty and transience, inherent to the term ‘project’. These systems include scope of work, project organization, quality, cost, and duration of the project. Communication is an essential ingredient of all these managerial requirements and must be viewed as the essential prerequisite to successful project-based management (Dainty et al., 2006). Bond-Barnard et al. (2013) found that a balance of frequent informal and formal communication affects the performance of the project, by influencing the degree of collaboration and the level of trust in the project team, which also guides the project’s performance. Consequently, communication is frequently identified as a major determinant for project success or failure (Müller, 2003a; Hartman in Müller, 2003b).

Communication may be compared to a metaphorical ‘pipeline’ along which information is transferred between individuals or groups (Axley, 1984) through a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviour (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2015). Thus the communication process involves a person or entity sending out a message and another receiving and successfully understanding the message in response (Torrington & Hall, 1998). It stands to reason then that the determinants of communication quality between the message initiator and the correct message receiver(s) in a project are determined by the frequency and accuracy with which a message (with appropriate content) is conveyed, using the most suitable communication medium available, while being aligned with the project communications plan. This definition for quality communication was formulated based on the factors identified in the

1 Not small one-man projects, but projects done by a team in the organisation.


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literature, viz. frequency of interaction, content, type, technology, communication channels, audience, and communications plan (Bond-Barnard et al., 2014; Bond-Barnard et al., 2013; Daim et al., 2012; Müller, 2003a; Turner & Müller, 2004). ‘Culture’ and ‘leadership’ factors, among others, may also influence the quality of communication, but are beyond the scope of this article. The literature relating to each of the factors identified earlier is discussed in more detail below, as the survey questions used to measure whether IM and VC can be used to facilitate quality communication centre on these factors.

2.2.1 Frequency of interaction

Frequency of interaction refers to the number and timings of project team members’ communications with the stakeholders and each other (Turner & Müller, 2004: 328-333). The Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBoK) Guide by the Project Management Institute (PMI) (2013) states that timely communications are a prerequisite for successful project completion. Similarly, Bond-Barnard et al. (2013); Chen, Liang & Lin (2010); Turner & Müller (2004), and Webber (2008) found that frequent informal and formal communication improves the communication quality, trust and collaboration in project relationships. This, in turn, contributes to high project performance. Timely communications are especially important when dealing with project teams from different geographical regions, as the frequency of interaction decreases when the project team is not co-located (Van den Bulte & Moenaert, 1998; Dietrich et al., 2010). The lack of timely communication has been cited as a common factor among failing projects (Dalcher, 2009; Yalegama, Chileshe & Ma, 2016).

2.2.2 Communication content

Communication in a project can only be as good as the content that is being communicated; therefore, quality content results in quality communication (Bond-Barnard et al., 2013; Bond-Barnard et al., 2014). Müller (2001) found that the content of quality project communication falls into one or more of the following categories:

• Status and achievements;• Project changes;• Issues and open items;• Next steps in the project;• Quality and progress measures, and• Project trends.


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Penteado in Carvalho (2008) warns that project communications competencies, which refer to the group’s ability to codify, transmit and decode information, are necessary, but not sufficient prerequisites to the effectiveness of project communication. This means that, if the project team is not able to codify or decode the communication content correctly, the effectiveness or quality of the project communication may be reduced.

2.2.3 Type of communication

Communication type is identified as a major determinant for quality communication in projects (Turner & Müller, 2004: 333). Post et al. (2009) state that participative communication improves the quality of project communication, as it is the strongest indicator of innovation effectiveness and patents produced. They add that participation often leads to a better understanding of potential problems that encompasses the concept of connective thinking. Participative communication can either be informal or formal and both forms can be facilitated both orally and in writing. Turner & Müller (2004: 333) established that a mixture of formal and informal communication best served the communication needs of project participants. Moreover, Torrington & Hall (1998) found that a message is conveyed more successfully if a variety of media such as verbal, non-verbal, written, audio-visual or electronic is used. It has been shown that frequent informal and formal communication improves communication quality, trust and collaboration in project relationships, which is linked to high performance (Bond-Barnard et al., 2013; Chen et al., 2010; Turner & Müller, 2004; Webber, 2008).

2.2.4 Technology utilised

Technology is one of five factors that significantly contribute to the breakdown of communication in a project (Carvalho, 2008; Daim et al., 2012), because technology causes physical communication barriers that arise when information is transmitted (Ferreira in Carvalho, 2008). Conversely, technology can also enable communication by providing a means through which communication is facilitated, if it is used correctly. With the advent of global virtual teams and tendencies towards continuous communication or updates (e.g., Twitter, RSS feeds), technology plays a key role in enabling communication and, for this reason, it determines the quality of communication in 21st-century projects.


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2.2.5 Communication channels

The PMBoK Guide states that one of the two main components of project communication is the knowledge and management of the project’s communication channels (PMI, 2013). Project communication channels are defined as the connections between communicators in a project. The greater the number of project stakeholders/communicators, the greater the number of channels and the more complex the communication issues become (Daim et al., 2012). Since communication channels determine how much communication must take place in a project, it also, to some extent, determines the quality of the project communication.

2.2.6 Audience

The audience/communication recipient(s) plays an important role in determining the quality of project communication (Bond-Barnard et al., 2013; Bond-Barnard et al., 2014; Müller, 2003a). The potential or expected audience determines whether one will be communicating one-to-one or with a group and whether this communication will take place face-to-face (in person) or through voice or text.

2.2.7 Communications plan

The communications plan is crucial for quality communication, because the lack of a plan is a barrier to communication in projects (Carvalho, 2008). The project communications plan is used to determine who needs what information, how it will be collected, and how it will be transmitted. Modern communications planning focuses on organising and documenting the process, types and expectations of information dissemination throughout the project’s life cycle (Lesko & Hollingsworth, 2010).

3. Materials and methodsThe utilisation and application of CMC medium such as IM and VC has grown exponentially over the past few years. People use these mediums to communicate in their personal lives and more frequently also for work purposes. Very little is known about the utilisation of CMC for communication in projects specifically, and for this reason, the study aims to determine how, why and what IM and VC are used for in projects, and how they relate to the factors that promote quality project communication, namely frequency of interaction, communication content, type, access to technology, communication channels, audience, and the existence of a communi cations plan.


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Mixed methods research was found to be suitable for this study (see 3.2). The first part of the study is exploratory in nature; therefore, a focus group was decided upon. The findings from the focus group provided input to the quantitative survey that followed. Statistical techniques such as cross-tables were used to answer both the exploratory and the relational aspects of the research questions proposed below.

3.1 Research questions

In this study, the following seven research questions are investigated:

1. For what purposes are IM and VC used in projects?2. Where these tools are used in projects, whom are they used

to communicate with?3. To what extent are IM and VC included in the communications

plan of the project? 4. How frequently are IM and VC used to communicate with the

project members?5. What project content is communicated using IM and VC?6. To what extent is the use of IM and VC influenced by access to

technology (access to the Internet and/or CMC applications or software)?

7. What effect does IM and VC communication have on the quality (efficiency and effectiveness) of the communication, if the team is geographically dispersed?

3.2 Research methodology

A mixed methods research methodology was used in the study. First, a focus group was used to qualitatively explore the proposed research questions. This was followed by a quantitative study consisting of a questionnaire and statistical analysis. The focus group consisted of six project practitioners from an international consulting engineering company that uses various CMC technologies for project communication and information sharing. The findings from the qualitative study were used to develop the survey questions. The aim of the empirical study was to generalise the findings.

Practitioners, knowledgeable about CMC technologies and working in project environments, formed the unit and level of analysis for the quantitative study. The questionnaire was designed for respondents to indicate whether they made use of IM and/or VC for personal reasons and/or for business, and how these mediums influenced the quality of the communication they had experienced between


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themselves and the other stakeholders of projects in which they had participated. The questions were either categorical or asked the respondents to rate their response, on a 10-point scale, in terms of the extent to which IM and/or VC relate to the factors that promote quality project communication (Bond-Barnard et al., 2014). A sample of the questionnaire is shown in Appendix A.

Data were collected from a total of 270 international respondents working on medium-size projects in various industries, for both government and private institutions. The target population of the survey in this study was project leaders (i.e. project/programme managers), project team members, project stakeholders (e.g., subcontractor, functional manager, regulatory authority, external party) and project sponsors/clients. The survey was conducted by means of an online, self-administered questionnaire using Qualtrics™. The questionnaire was distributed to the members of five different open and closed project management LinkedIn® groups. The questionnaire was sent to 19 project management experts (mainly academics6) who were identified from prominent project communication management literature (Harrin, 2010a; Ehsan et al., 2008; Walther, 1997; El-Saboni, Aouad & Sabouni, 2009; Glücker & Schrott, 2007; Greenberg & Antonucci, 2007; Dube & Marnewick, 2012). The questionnaire was also circulated to all the current students2 and alumni of masters, postgraduate diploma and certificate programmes in the Graduate School of Technology Management at the University of Pretoria. Of the 270 responses received, only 210 were valid and complete.

Bias was addressed by distributing the survey through various means to a wide variety of project practitioners (101 project leaders, 88 project team members, 8 project sponsors, and 13 other project stakeholders) in order to accurately measure the utilisation of IM and VC in projects. Furthermore, all concepts relating to the survey were clearly defined and examples of technologies provided, so that all participants had a clear understanding of the questions being asked. The survey was distributed electronically and snowball sampling was encouraged; therefore, neither the population of the survey nor the response rate could be determined. The reported findings can, for this reason, not be generalised. The valid dataset was analysed using

2 Please note that the survey was sent to academics and students. However, their responses were only included if they had/have experience working in project environments and based on the description of the project environment in which they work/worked, i.e. construction, mining, etc. Their participation in the survey is depicted in Table 1. Pure academics or students with no work experience were not included in the study. Therefore, these two groups of respondents are not depicted separately in Table 1.


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IBM SPSS® Statistics 22, specifically cross-tabulation. All calculations in the Tables and Figures take into consideration individuals who use both IM and VC and, separately, those who use either IM or VC only. This may reflect in the respondent totals in Tables and Figures, as these totals do not always show the sum of the components.

Table 1 shows the profile of the respondents for each of the typical roles in the project in terms of gender, age, field of work, and nature of business entity. Only respondents who are working or who, at some stage, worked in a project environment were included in the study.

Table 1: Summary of respondents’ profile by typical project role (reported as percentage)

Project leader

Project team

member

Project sponsor/

client

Other project

stakeholderTotal

Gender of respondents n=210

Male 35.2 29.5 3.3 5.2 73.3

Female 12.9 12.4 0.5 1.0 26.7

Total 48.1 41.9 3.8 6.2 100

Respondent age n=210

20-29 6.7 11.9 0.5 1.9 21.0

30-39 22.4 21.9 1.0 3.3 48.6

40-49 11.0 5.2 2.4 0.5 19.0

50-59 5.2 2.9 0.5 0.5 9.0

60+ 2.4 0 0 0 2.4

Total 47.6 41.9 4.3 6.2 100

Principal industry n=210

Agriculture 0.5 0 0 0 0.5

Construction 7.6 6.7 0 0 14.3

Finance, insurance, real estate 1.9 0.5 0 0.5 2.9

Government 8.6 5.7 2.4 0.5 17.1

Health care 1.0 0 0 0 1.0

Information technology 3.3 3.3 0 0.5 7.1

Manufacturing 4.3 3.3 0 1.0 8.6

Mining 4.3 5.7 0 0.5 10.5

Services industry3 5.2 4.8 0.5 0 10.5


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Project leader

Project team

member

Project sponsor/

client

Other project

stakeholderTotal

Transportation 2.4 2.9 0 1.4 6.7

Communication or utilities 3.8 1.4 0 1.0 6.2

Non-profit organisations 1.0 0 0 0 1.0

Other 4.3 7.6 1.0 1.0 13.8

Total 48.1 41.9 3.8 6.2 100

Business entity n=210

Sole proprietor 0.5 0 0 0 0.5

Closed corporation 0 1.0 0 0 1.0

Private company 20.5 19.0 1.0 2.9 43.3

Public company 5.7 4.8 0.5 1.0 11.9

State-owned company 10.0 9.5 0.5 1.4 21.4

Personal liability company 1.0 0 0 0 1.0

A not-for-profit business 0.5 0.5 0 0 1.0

Government 9.5 6.2 1.9 1.0 18.6

Other business entity 0.5 1.0 0 0 1.4

Total 48.1 41.9 3.8 6.2 100

Number of stakeholders communicated with in a typical project n=136

1-5 6.6 8.8 0 2.2 17.6

6-20 30.9 20.6 1.5 4.4 57.4

21-50 12.5 5.9 0 0.7 19.1

51-100 1.5 2.2 0 0 3.7

101-500 1.5 0 0 0 1.5

500 and over 0.7 0 0 0 0.7

Total 53.7 37.5 1.5 7.4 100

3 This implies service-related environments, i.e. professional services, hospitality, etc.


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4. Results and discussionThe study aim is twofold. To determine, first, how, why and what IM and VC are used for in projects and, secondly, how these communication media relate to the factors that promote quality project communication. In order to establish how, why and what IM and VC are used for in projects, it was found that only 32% of the respondents use both IM and VC to communicate. A further 43% indicated that they only use IM for communication, whereas 13% stated that they only use VC to communicate. Of the respondents, 12% indicated that they use neither media for communication. They mentioned that the tools they do use for project communication include email, telephone, newsletters, SMS, face-to-face meetings, and teleconferencing. Some of the reasons that the respondents gave for not using IM or VC included:

• People are not familiar with IM communication such as BBM or WhatsApp.

• Some companies do not permit the use of IM.• IM is not perceived to be a mature form of communication.• IM is not perceived to be a professional form of communication.• Some clients do not have the technology available for IM or

VC communication.• The security of the communication is an issue in some projects

and for some companies.• Project sites are often remote, with limited Internet access.• Projects are never urgent and can be attended to by email.• Their companies are always late adopters of new communi-

cation technology.• Their company does not have a standard IM system.• IM and VC communication has never been necessary in

their project.Respondents were asked for what purpose they use IM and/or VC to communicate (see Table 2 and Figure 1), in response to the first research question.


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Table 2: The purpose of CMC communication per project role

The purpose for using the following CMC tools to

communicate (reported as percentage)

Project leaders

Team members

Sponsor/ client

Other stakeholders Total

IM business use n=155 10 8 1 1 20

IM personal use n=155 12 5 1 3 20

IM business & personal use n=155 22 32 3 3 60

VC business use n=94 35 20 0 6 62

VC personal use n=94 4 2 0 0 6

VC business & personal use n=94 14 15 0 3 32

IM & VC business use n=68 6 6 0 3 15

IM and VC personal use n=68 4 1 0 0 6

IM business & VC personal use n=68 0 0 0 0 0

IM personal & VC business use n=68 6 1 0 3 10

IM business & personal use & VC business use n=68 16 10 0 0 26

IM business & personal use & VC personal use n=68 1 1 0 0 3

IM business use & VC business & personal use n=68 0 0 0 0 0

IM personal use & VC business & personal use n=68 1 1 0 1 4

IM & VC business and personal use n=68 15 18 0 3 35


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The purpose of CMC communicatitonPe

rcen

tage

of r

espo

nden

ts

Instant messaging (IM) n=155

Business

70.0%

60.0%

50.0%

40.0%

30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%Personal Both business &

personal

Video conferencing (VC) n=94

Both instant messaging & video conferencing n=68*

Figure 1: Purpose of CMC tool communication

Of those respondents who indicated that they only use IM, 60% use it for business and personal communication, whereas, of the remaining 40%, 20% use IM only for business use and 20% use IM only for personal use. Of the respondents who indicated that they only use VC, 62% use VC for business communication; 32% for business and personal use, and only 6% for personal use. Similarly, of the respondents who use both IM and VC, 35% use IM and VC for business and personal communication; 26% use IM for business and personal use and VC only for business use, and 15% use IM and VC only for business use. These results are interesting, as they contradict the general presumption that CMC tools are used more for personal use than for business (Harrin, 2010a, 2010b, 2011).

The second research question aimed to determine with whom the respondents communicate in the project when they use IM and VC (relates to the communication channels factor). The results in Figure 2 indicate that the majority of the respondents using IM for work communicate mainly with their team members and the project leader. This changes slightly when one examines the use of VC, where VC is mainly used to communicate with stakeholders, thereafter the project sponsor/client, followed by project team members, and finally the project leader. These findings are interesting, as it appears that VC is, in general, used to communicate with large groups of people such as the other project stakeholders and the project team, whereas IM is used more to communicate with individuals such


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as the project leader and members of the project team. The vast majority of CMC communication takes place between the project team members; this is to be expected, as most communication takes place in this instance.

Project role communicated with when using the following CMC tool(s)

Perc

enta

ge o

f res

pond

ents

Instant Messaging90.0%

80.0%

70.0%

60.0%

50.0%

40.0%

30.0%

20.0%

10.0%

0.0%

Video Conferencing

Both instant messaging & video conferencingTotal CMC

Project leader

Team members

Sponsor/client

Other stakeholders

Figure 2: Recipients of CMC communication in projects

The third research question sought to determine whether the use of VC and IM in projects is sanctioned by a communications plan (relates to the communications plan factor). When the respondents were asked whether a communications plan existed for the project, 67% responded affirmatively. Of the respondents, 87% indicated that they do not know if there is a communications plan in place, and 25% responded that there is no communications plan for the project. Of the respondents who answered in the affirmative, 55% stated that the use of CMC or social media tools such as IM and VC is not documented in the said plan. Of the respondents, 35% mentioned that CMC/social media tools are documented in their communications plan for the project; 4% did not know, and 6% indicated that the question is not applicable. These findings show that project practitioners still need to be made aware of CMC/social media tools and to be educated on the use thereof in their projects. This education would go a long way in assisting them to include these tools and mediums in the communications plan for projects because, whether they like it or not, CMC tools are being used in


54

organisations and projects, and it would be better to address the use of these tools rather than to ignore their existence. It is essential that the plan must clearly state how different types of communication mediums, including CMC, are to be used to collect and transmit project information. Moreover, a communications plan is crucial for quality communication, because the lack of a plan is a barrier to communication in a project (Carvalho, 2008).

The fourth research question investigated the frequency with which IM and VC are used to communicate with project members (relates to the frequency of interaction factor). From the results (see Figure 3), it came to light that:

• IM is predominantly used to communicate with the project leader, as indicated by the Likert scale items (always and most of the time) in Figure 3.

• Project practitioners use IM to communicate with other project team members.

• There is no agreement on the frequency with which IM commu-nication is used for communicating with project sponsors/clients. It is, however, used frequently to communicate with other project stakeholders.

Frequency of instant messaging communication with project role over the past month

No.

of r

espo

nden

ts

Always25

20

15

10

5

0

Most of the time

Sometimes

Rarely

Never

Proj

ect l

eade

r

Team

m

embe

rs

Spon

sor/

clie

nt

Oth

er

stak

ehol

ders

Figure 3: Frequency of IM communication with the various project roles


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The frequency of VC communication in projects yielded similar results (see Figure 4) in that:

• Most of the time, VC is used to communicate with the project leader. However, a greater portion of the respondents indicated that they never, rarely or only sometimes use VC to communicate with the project leader.

• The frequency of VC communication with project team members ranges from sometimes (majority) to never and always.

• VC is used most of the time to communicate with project sponsors/clients, whereas it is only sometimes used to communicate with other stakeholders.

• VC is used sometimes or rarely to communicate with other project stakeholders.

Frequency of video conferencing communication with project role over the past month

No.

of r

espo

nden

ts

Always25

20

15

10

5

0

Most of the time

Sometimes

Rarely

Never

Proj

ect l

eade

r

Team

m

embe

rs

Spon

sor/

clie

nt

Oth

er

stak

ehol

ders

Figure 4: Frequency of VC communication with the various project roles

The respondents were also asked if they use IM and VC to communicate one-to-one, or if they use these mediums to communicate with a group (relates to the audience factor). The results indicate that the majority of the respondents use IM to communicate one-to-one. The respondents were split over whether they would use the medium to communicate with a group of people. The results for VC indicate the opposite, in that the respondents use VC to communicate with


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a group of people to a greater extent, whereas they use VC to communicate one-to-one to a lesser extent.

The fifth research question investigated the contents of IM and VC communication that occurs in projects (relates to the communication contents factor). Müller (2001) found that the content of quality project communication falls into one of the six categories listed in Figure 5.

Content of CMC tool project communication

No. of respondents

Instant Messaging

Other topic(s)

Trends in the project

Quality, cost and progress measures

Next steps in the project

Project changes/amendments

Technical aspects

Status and achievement updates

Issues/risks and open items

Video Conferencing

0 20 40 60

Figure 5: Content of CMC communication in projects

The results of the survey showed that the majority of the IM project content consists of issues/risks and open items, status and achievement updates, project changes/amendments, and technical aspects. It appears that IM content generally consists of urgent questions regarding project activities that might have gone wrong or turned out differently than expected; hence risks, project changes and technical aspects. It appears that IM is also used for communicating project successes and updates as they happen. Some of the other IM content mentioned by the respondents was the communication of quick project information, task allocations, incomplete project handover details, and issues relating to expired warranties. Likewise, the results for VC, presented in Figure 5, indicate that the majority of VC content in projects is characterised by technical aspects, followed by issues/risks and open items, and status and achievement updates. The dissimilarity between IM and VC is that it appears that VC is used more often to obtain input (possibly from outside the project) regarding complicated technical aspects in the project. The reason for this may be that VC is a much richer medium than IM, as more information such as detailed explanations, body language and


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voice inflections can be communicated. In-depth discussions can also take place more easily using VC rather than IM. The respondents mentioned that they also use VC to communicate project close-out issues, project timelines, and for crisis management.

The survey participants were asked if they perceived the content of their IM and VC communication to be of a formal (regimented, deliberate, and impersonal) or more informal (spontaneous, casual, familiar) nature (see Figure 6) (relates to the type of commu ni cation factor).

The degree of formality of instant messaging and video conferencing content

No.

of r

espo

nden

ts

Extent to which the content of instant messaging communication is formal in nature

Extent to which the content of video conferencing communication is formal in nature

Extent from 1 (very informal) to 10 (very formal)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 6: Extent of project CMC content formality

Of the respondents, 57% perceived the content of their IM communication to be more informal, whereas 66% of the respondents perceived their VC communication to be more formal. This finding challenges existing literature, as written communication such as letters and emails are conventionally perceived to be more formal than verbal communication such as face-to-face or telephonic conversations (Turner & Müller, 2004). In this instance, the written or typed instant messages are perceived to be a more informal form of communication than the verbal and visual communication of VC.


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The sixth research question investigated whether the use of IM and VC is determined by a person’s access to technology (see Figure 7) (relates to the technology utilised factor).

Howaccesstotechnologyinfluencesaperson’suseofIMand VC

No.

of r

espo

nden

ts

Extent to which the use of instant messaging is affected by the person’s access to the appropriate technology

Extent to which the use of video conferencing is affected by the person’s access to the appropriate technology

Extent from 1 (to an extremely small extent) to 10 (to an extremely large extent)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Figure 7: How access to technology determines a person’s use of CMC tools

Of the respondents, 69% were of the opinion that access to IM technology such as the Internet, a computer and/or IM software does affect one’s use of IM as a communication medium. Similarly, 74% of the respondents are of opinion that access to VC technology such as the Internet, a webcam, a computer and/or VC software affect one’s use of VC as a communication tool. These findings correspond with Ferreira in Carvalho (2008), in that technology can cause physical communication barriers to information transmission. It is also important to note that technology can significantly contribute to the breakdown of communication in a project if all aspects of its use are not taken into consideration when writing the communications plan (Carvalho, 2008; Daim et al., 2012).

The seventh research question investigated whether IM and VC communication has an effect on the quality of communication if the team is geographically dispersed. As part of this question, the survey participants were also asked to what extent IM and VC communication leads to more appropriate (increased amount) project communication (see Figure 8 for results).


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CMC tools lead to more appropriate project communication

Extent to which instant messaging communication leads to more appropriate project communication

Extent to which video conferencing communication leads to more appropriate project communication

Extent from 1 (to an extremely small extent) to 10 (to an extremely large extent)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

No.

of r

espo

nden

ts

Figure 8: The extent to which CMC tools lead to more project communication

Of the respondents, 62% stated that IM communication, to various degrees, leads to an increased amount of project communication. Likewise, 62% of the respondents also perceived VC communication to lead to an increased amount of project communication. This finding is very positive for project communication, as frequent communication between project team members is beneficial, because timely communication in projects results in the completion of projects and project success (Dalcher, 2009; PMI, 2013).

An additional question was also posed to the survey participants to determine whether IM or VC communication in projects increases or decreases the quality/effectiveness of the communication if the team is geographically dispersed (see Figures 9 and 10).


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Instantmessaging’sinfluenceonthequalityofcommunicationifthe project team is geographically dispersed

Increase

Decrease

Don’t know

6,10%4,6%

53,84%

Figure 9: Influence of IM on the quality of communication in geographically dispersed projects

Videoconferencing’sinfluenceonthequalityofcommunicationif the project team is geographically dispersed

Increase

Decrease

Don’t know

6,9%

2,3%

60,88%

Figure 10: Influence of VC on the quality of communication in geographically dispersed projects

It was established that 84% of the respondents found IM and 88% found VC to increase the quality of the communication if the team


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was geographically dispersed. These findings show that the use of IM and VC encourages timely communication in projects that would counteract the decrease in frequency of interaction that occurs when project teams are not co-located such as in the case of virtual teams (Van den Bulte & Moenaert, 1998; Dietrich et al., 2010).

5. ConclusionsThe popularity of, and growth in the use of CMC and the increasing importance of projects and project management contribute to the relevance of this study. Limited literature on the utilisation of IM and VC for project communication and their influence on the perceived quality of project communication served as the motivation for this study. This study also forms part of a larger goal to better understand communication quality in projects at present, as this increases the likelihood of project success (Bond-Barnard et al., 2014; Bond-Barnard et al., 2013; Dainty et al., 2006; Hill, 2010; Müller, 2003a, 2003b; Pinto & Pinto, 1990; Office of Government Commerce (OGC) in Webber, 2008). This article set out to determine how, why and what IM and VC are used for in projects, and how these communication media relate to the factors that promote quality project communication.

In response to the first objective of the study, the results indicate that the prevalence of IM and VC use in projects is moderate. This shows that the use of these CMC mediums in projects is substantially less than the utilisation of IM and VC in North American organisations, as reported by Osterman Research (2004), Frost & Sullivan and TeleSpan in Paul (2008). The study also found that IM tends to be used in equal measure for business and personal communication, whereas VC is primarily used for business communication. This was an interesting finding, as the authors’ perception prior to conducting the research and the findings of Harrin (2011, 2010a, 2010b) were that both these mediums are used more for personal communication than for business. This contradicts Harrin (2011, 2010a, 2010b) who states that these tools are used more for personal use than for business.

The second objective of the study was to determine how IM and VC relate to the factors that promote quality project communication, namely frequency of interaction, communication content, type, technology, communication channels, audience, and communi-cations plan. Data relating to the frequency of interaction indicated that both mediums lead to an increased amount of communication in the project and that this subsequently increases the quality or effectiveness of the communication where the project team is geographically dispersed. These findings show that the use of IM


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and VC encourages timely communication in projects, which would counteract the decrease in frequency of interaction that occurs when project teams are not co-located such as in the case of virtual teams (Van den Bulte & Moenaert, 1998; Dietrich et al., 2010). Furthermore, it would be expected that the likelihood of project success should increase (Dalcher, 2009; PMI, 2013).

The results for the audience and communication channels factors for the two mediums indicated that IM is mostly used to communicate one-to-one with the project leader, team members and stakeholders, whereas VC is mostly used to communicate with groups in the project such as team members, stakeholders and representatives of the client.

The study found a difference between the content of IM and VC communication. IM content was characterised by quick discussions regarding day-to-day issues and providing status updates as well as quick responses to technical questions on the project, whereas VC content was characterised by in-depth discussions of technical issues as well as by discussions regarding issues/risks, open items, and status updates.

The study investigated the respondents’ perception of the formality of the two mediums (as it relates to the communication type). It was found that IM is perceived to be a more informal way of communicating as opposed to VC which is perceived to be somewhat more formal. This finding contradicts Turner and Müller’s (2004) findings, as written communication such as letters and emails are conventionally perceived to be more formal than verbal communication such as face-to-face or telephonic conversations.

The study found that appropriate technology determined, to a large extent, the respondent’s use of IM and VC tools. This corresponds with Ferreira in Carvalho (2008), in that technology can cause physical communication barriers to information transmission. It is also important to note that technology can significantly contribute to the breakdown of communication in a project if all aspects of its use are not taken into consideration when writing the communications plan (Carvalho, 2008; Daim et al., 2012).

The study found that a communications plan was in place for 67% of the projects with which the respondents were involved. However, the majority of the respondents mentioned that these communications plans do not cover the use of CMC tools. This finding indicates that project practitioners should familiarise themselves with the use of CMC/social media tools in projects, so that these tools are addressed


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in the project communications plan. This is crucial, as the lack of a plan is a barrier to communication in a project (Carvalho, 2008).

In conclusion, the study found that IM and VC are being used to a moderate extent to communicate in projects and that both can have a positive effect on the quality of project communication, as they, in many instances, address the factors that predict communication quality in projects. The study contributes to the information and communication management body of knowledge, which is central to relationship management research. This was done by exploring and quantifying new means of communication such as IM and VC in projects and their influence on the quality of project communication. The applications for using both mediums to facilitate quality communication in projects were also discussed. The research was limited by a small sample size and responses are not stated for each respondent group surveyed. Further research regarding the impact of other forms of CMC on project communication, using a large sample size, is encouraged. Moreover, research on how and when to use different types of CMC during the various stages or phases of a project would also be interesting.

Appendix A: Sample of questionnaire questions

Question no.

Factor investigated Question Scale

Q11 CMC general

Which of the following computer-mediated communication (CMC) tools do you use to communicate with others? (Please select all that apply) (multi-choice, multiple answer)

Instant messaging, Video conferencing, neither (please state why)

Q12, Q39, Q52

CMC general

For what purpose do you use the following CMC tool(s) to communicate? (Please select all that apply) (side by side, multiple answer)

IM Business use IM personal use VC Business use VC personal use

Q28_1 AudienceTo what extent do you use IM to communicate one-to-one? (matrix table, single answer)

Extent on a scale of 1 (to an extremely small extent) to 10 (to an extremely large extent)


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Question no.

Factor investigated Question Scale

Q28_3 AudienceTo what extent do you use VC to communicate one-to-one? (matrix table, single answer)


Q33_1Frequency of interaction

To what extent does IM communication lead to more appropriate (increased amount) project communication? (matrix table, Likert)


Q33_2Frequency of interaction

To what extent does VC communication lead to more appropriate (increased amount) project communication? (matrix table, Likert)


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Ineffective programme management on the delivery of health infrastructure projects: A case of the Northern Cape


AbstractProgramme management remains a challenging management practice in the Northern Cape Department of Health (NCDoH), particularly when a health facility project has to integrate the components of construction management and operations management in order to attain the benefits of strategic importance. The Northern Cape Department of Health consists of various administrative programmes that are supposed to work together in order to attain the benefits of strategic importance. The inability to integrate construction management and operations management is attributed to poor programme management coordination within the Northern Cape Department of Health. This article reports the findings of a case study which determined how programme management coordination among the administrative programmes in the Provincial Office of the NCDoH, Z. F. Mqcawu District Office and the hospital that underwent revitalisation could be improved during the construction of a health-care facility. Data was obtained through interviews with personnel in the three sectors (provincial office of the NCDoH, district office of the Department of Health, and the hospital that underwent revitalisation) directly involved in the delivery of the infrastructure component of the project and preparations operationalisation of the health facility after completion and handover. The results of the study revealed the inability by the NCDoH to integrate both construction management and operations management, due the poor programme management coordination when a health facility project serves as a means for the delivery of health services after handover. Furthermore, the research revealed, among others, functional silos, lack of skills and knowledge for the identification of the critical success factors relevant for integration of

Lesetja Mabona & Winston Shakantu

Dr Lesetja Godley Mabona, Senior Manager, Health Facilities Management, Department of Health, Northern Cape, Kimberley, South Africa. Phone: +27 53-5302117, email: <[email protected]>

Prof. Winston Shakantu, Department of Construction Management, Faculty of Engineering, the Built Environment, and Information Technology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Phone: +27 41-5043295, email: [email protected]


ISSN: 1023-0564

e-ISSN: 2415-0487


© UV/UFS

Mabona & Shakantu • Ineffective programme management on ...

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construction and operations management as the contributing factors to poor programme management. Keywords: Programme management, critical success factors, functional silos, construction management, operations management, benefits management.

Abstrak‘n Allomvattende en integrerende betuursprogram bly ‘n uitdaging in die Noord-Kaapse Departement van Gesondheid, veral wanneer ‘n gesondheidsfasiliteitsprojek die komponente van konstruksie- en operasionele bestuur moet integreer om die voordele van strategiese belang te bereik. Die Noord-Kaapse Departement van Gesondheid bestaan uit verskeie administratiewe programme wat veronderstel is om saam te werk om die voordele van strategiese benadering te bereik. Die onvermoë om konstruksie- en operasionele bestuur te integreer, het tot gevolg dat daar gebrekkige programbestuurkoördinasie binne die Noord-Kaapse Departement van Gesondheid is. Die doel van hierdie aritkel is om die resultate weer te gee van ŉ studie wat bepaal het hoe die koördinering tussen die administratiewe program in die provinsiale kantoor van die Noord-Kaapse Departement van Gesondheid, Z. F. Mqcawu distrikskantoor van die Departement van Gesondheid en die hospitaal wat vernuwe moes word, verbeter kan word tydens die oprigting van ‘n gesondheidsfasiliteit. Data is verkry deur onderhoude te voer met die personeel in die drie sektore (provinsiale kantoor van die Noord-Kaapse Departement van Gesondheid, distrikskantoor van die Departement van Gesondheid en die hospitaal) wat betrokke was by die lewering van die infrastruktuur van die projek en die operasionalisering van die gesondheidsfasiliteit ná voltooiing en oorhandiging. Die resultate van die studie toon die onvermoë van die Noord-Kaapse Departement van Gesondheid om konstruksie- en operasionele bestuur te intergreer as gevolg van die swak programbestuurskoördinasie tydens die stadium wanneer gesondheidsdienste by sodanige gesondheidsfasiliteit verskaf moet word nadat dit oorhandig is. Verder het die navorsing aan die lig gebring, onder andere, dat funksionele silo’s, ‘n gebrek aan vaardighede en kennis om kritiese suksesgebreke relevant tot die integrasie van konstruksie- en operasionele bestuur te identifiseer, bydra tot swak programbestuur. Sleutelwoorde: Programbestuur, kritiese suksesfaktore, funksionele silo’s, konstruksie-bestuur, operasionele bestuur, voordele-bestuur

1. IntroductionIntegration of construction management and operations manage-ment remains a challenge during the implementation of a health care facility project in the Northern Cape Department of Health. The inability to integrate the two concepts compromises the Department of Health to attain the programme management benefits aimed through the implementation of the Hospital Revitalisation Programme (HRP). The National Department of Health established the Hospital Revitalisation Programme (HRP) in 2003 to rationalise hospital health facilities, health technology, organisational development, and quality assurance in health services. The HRP serves as a response


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to the policy directives of the Reconstruction and Development Programme. According to the RDP, the “key to this link is an infrastructural programme that will provide access to modern and effective services like health, water and education” (South Africa, 1994: 10). The rationalisation of health-care facilities through the HRP developed five components that can be allocated in two categories, i.e. construction management and operations management. The HRP’s programme management approach aligns its components to the delivery objectives of the administrative programmes in the Department of Health. The inability to integrate the delivery objectives of the administrative programmes with the components of the HRP negatively affects the success of the programme.

The integration of infrastructure and services as required by the RDP cannot be achieved if an institution does not have an effec-tive programme management plan. The attempts to integrate infrastructure and services in the Northern Cape Department of Health (NCDoH) do not yield the benefits. The components of the HRP are implemented separately from the delivery objectives of the other administrative programmes in the NCDoH. In order to attain an integrated and cross-functional approach, the HRP developed a Project Implementation Manual that outlines the implementation processes. The inability to align the delivery objectives of the administrative programmes in the NCDoH with the components of the HRP also delays the implementation of the project. With poor programme management coordination the department develops functional silos that are unable to synchronise the integrative metho dological approaches from construction management and operations management and their critical success factors relevant in programme management. The functional silos are the different functional structures in an organisation that focuses primarily on their immediate delivery objectives rather than contributing to the objectives of the entire organisation (Parker & Byrne, 2000: 503). The functional silos build up internal competition and make administrative programmes lose focus on the entire organisational context and strategic objectives (Miller, Wroblewski & Villafuerte, 2014: 10). The research, therefore, contends that there is sub-optimal programme management coordination in the NCDoH. The aim of this research is to determine how programme management coordination among the administrative programmes in the Provincial Office of the NCDoH, Z. F. Mqcawu District Office and the hospital that underwent revitalisation could be improved during the construction of a health-care facility.


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The following section presents a contextual background of the NCDoH, with special focus on the outsourcing of construction management, purpose of administrative programmes (in particular, Programme 8 [see Table 1]), the reporting and purposes of the administrative programmes on the organisational structure at executive management level, and the programme management structure of the HRP.

1.1 Contextual background on the NCDoH and HRP

The construction of health-care facilities in the Northern Cape is outsourced to the Department of Public Works and the Independent Development Trust. The delivery objectives of these institutions include, among others, provision of infrastructure. The construction of Dr Harry Surtie Hospital in the town of Upington was executed by the provincial Department of Public Works. The latter obtains its mandate from the National Department of Public Works whose objectives include the provision and management of infrastructure needs of the user departments, as outlined in the Department of Public Works Strategic Plan: 2012-2016 (South Africa, 2012). Despite the fact that the Department of Health provides funding for the construction of health facilities upon completion and handover, the buildings as immovable asset is transferred back to the Department of Public Works as the custodian of government immovable assets. This makes the Department of Health a user within the health-care facilities. The Government Immovable Asset Management Act (2007) describes a user as a national or provincial department that uses an immovable asset in support of its service delivery objectives. The delivery objectives of the NCDoH include the provision of quality health-care services, as outlined in the Annual Performance Plan, 2010/11-2012/13 (South Africa, 2010a). In order to attain the NCDoH delivery objectives, seven administrative programmes have been established. Table 1 presents the purpose of each programme which relates to the strategic objective of the Department.

Table 1: Administrative programmes in the NCDoH

Administrative programme Purpose

Programme 1: Administration

To conduct the strategic management and the overall administration of the NCDoH

Programme 2: District Health Services

To render primary health-care services and district hospital services


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Administrative programme Purpose

Programme 3: Emergency Medical Services

To render emergency medical services

Programme 4: Regional Hospital Services

To deliver hospital services that are accessible, appropriate, effective and provide a specialised service

Programme 5: Tertiary Hospital Services

To deliver tertiary specialist services that are accessible, appropriate, effective and provide a platform for training

Programme 6: Health Science & Training

To render training and development opportunities for actual and potential employees

Programme 7: Health-Care Support Services

To render support services required by the department to realise its aims

Programme 8: Health Facilities Management

To render professional and technical services in respect of buildings and related structures, and to construct new facilities as well as to upgrade, rehabilitate and maintain existing facilities

Programme 8 is responsible for rendering professional and technical services in respect of buildings and related structures, and to construct new facilities. This includes ensuring compliance with the South African National Standards 10400 for the application of the National Building Regulations, Infrastructure Unit Systems Support (IUSS) guidelines and the Infrastructure Delivery Management System (IDMS) for the planning, design and construction of health-care facilities by the implementing agent. Provision of programme scope according to the components of the HRP remains the responsibility of all other administrative programmes of the NCDoH as the primary users of the buildings after completion and handover. The outsourcing of the construction of the health-care facilities emanates from insufficient personnel capacity in the NCDoH, taking into account the mandate of this Department.

Prioritisation of health-care facilities for construction is the joint responsibility of the administrative programmes of the NCDoH. The Service Transformation Plan (STP) of the NCDoH is used for the selection of the new health facility required in a particular district. The purpose of the STP in the NCDoH is to plan an optimal health service delivery package for the needed resources to achieve a sustainable service, as outlined in the Service Transformation Plan, version 3c (South Africa, 2009b). Hence, the HRP Project Implementation Manual requires that, through the STP, the Department of Health should select the most appropriate revitalisation project. The responsibility to develop a required management plan for all the


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components of the HRP remains the joint responsibility of all the administrative programmes. The implementation of the components of the HRP require an integrative approach from the administrative programmes in the NCDoH, despite the fact that accountability in the organisational structure is in a vertical format, with no visible cross-functional reporting. This vertical accountability does not oblige the administrative programmes to ensure the successful delivery of a health-care facility project. Hence, some of the components of the HRP that share the same delivery objectives with the administrative programmes in the NCDoH remain neglected and lag behind during the implementation of the programme. Figure 1 shows the levels of authority in the NCDoH at executive management level. Programme managers on this structure report to the Head of Department who reports to the Member of the Executive Council. The directorates that exist below the administrative programme execute its objectives as stated in the purpose of that particular administrative programme. This organisational structure does not have a provision for administrative programmes to establish a cross-functional reporting among each other. Neither the strategic plan nor the annual performance plan of the NCDoH makes reference to shared objectives among the administrative programmes, irrespective of the intervention that the new strategic objective brings.

Member of Excecutive Council

Head of Department

Programme Manager:

Programme 1

Programme Manager:

Programme 2

Programme Manager:

Programme 3

Programme Manager:

Programme 4

Programme Manager:

Programme 5

Programme Manager:

Programme 6

Programme Manager:

Programme 7

Programme Manager:

Programme 8

Figure 1: Executive management structure in the NCDoH

The HRP was developed on a programme management metho-dology and finds its relevance to the objectives of the administrative programmes of the NCDoH. The components of the HRP are infrastructure management, organisational development, quality assurance, health technology, monitoring, and evaluation. These


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components are meant to be managed together in order to achieve the objective of the HRP. The implementation of the components of the hospital revitalisation programme in a health facility project enhances the strategic benefits from core delivery objectives of each administrative programme in a department through a programme management approach.

Health Facility Project

Infrastructure Component

Quality Assurance

Component

Monitoring &

Evaluation Component

Organisational Development Component

Health Technology Component

Figure 2: Components of the HRP

These components are implemented as projects, although they are meant to be managed together in order to achieve the objectives of HRP. The programme management approach enables the “process of managing multiple interdependent projects that lead towards an improvement in an organisation’s performance” (Mittal, 2009: 1). Pinto & Kharbanda (1995: 73-74) point out that “projects serve as the conduit for implementing top management’s plans, or goals, for the organization”. The coordination of multiple projects through programme management enables the achievement of the benefits of strategic objectives. According to the Standard for Program Management (2013), components within a program are related through a common outcome or delivery of a collective set of benefits. The components of the HRP focus on achieving benefits of strategic objectives in the most appropriate revitalisation project, as outlined in the Hospital Revitalisation: Project Implementation Manual, 2010-2011 (South Africa, 2010b: 27). The HRP is based on the principles of programme management, which confine it to the delivery of the “benefits and capabilities that an organisation can use to meet and enhance strategic objectives” (Sanghera, 2007: 93). In order for HRP to ensure that its intended goals are attained, it developed a Project Implementation Manual (PIM), which is revised annually by


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the Project Management Forum. The HRP remains relevant to deliver the objectives of strategic importance in government, based on its programme management methodology. Morris & Pinto (2004: 266) contend that there are two characteristics that make programme management the most suitable methodology to ensure successful implementation of strategies, namely “the fact that it is a cyclic process, which enables regular assessment of benefits”, and “the emphasis on the interdependencies of projects, which ensures strategic alignment and delivery of strategic benefits”.

The research problem states that there is poor programme management coordination among the administrative programmes in the provincial office of the NCDoH, Z. F. Mqcawu District office, and Dr Harry Surtie Hospital during the construction of the Dr Harry Surtie Hospital. The construction of this hospital required that all the components of the HRP be implemented so that the NCDoH can attain programme benefits. The implementation of all the components of the HRP requires an integrated approach at all levels of administration and the administrative programmes in the NCDoH. The delivery of health-care facilities, in particular the hospitals, is based on the programme management methodology of the HRP.

In the following section, relevant literature relating to the research problem is explored in order to explain concepts in both construction management and operations management that are relevant to the programme management methodology. These concepts, i.e. integrated management, systems approach, benefits management and realisation, critical success factors, and continuous improvement, may not have been combined in order to discuss their interrelatedness in the construction of a health-care facility. Hence, there is the challenge to deliver a successful programme in the NCDoH.

2. Literature reviewIn this section, the researchers present the concepts that form the core discussion on the research problem. In order to understand the importance of programme management, the researchers explain what it is and its importance in an institution in attaining the benefits of strategic objectives. The systems approach in the programme management methodology is also explored wherein the concept of integrated management for construction management processes and operations management processes become relevant. Programme management is defined as the centralised coordinated management of a specific programme to achieve its strategic goals, objectives and benefits (Sanghera,


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2008: 3). A component of programme management, i.e. benefits management and realisation, finds its relevance for the attainment of the benefits of an organisation’s strategic objectives through the programme management methodology. Hence, the need to identify and synchronise the critical success factors from both construction management and operations management during the development of a programme management plan. Continuous improvement becomes important during the development of a programme management plan, as its absence might make the organisation loose the ability to support the long-term strategy and delivery mandate. The Infrastructure Delivery Management System (IDMS) of 2010 emanates from systems approach and finds its relevance in the perspective of construction management for the delivery of health-care facilities (South Africa, 2010c). The IDMS is limited to construction management processes, i.e. from planning to maintenance of the buildings.

2.1 Programme management

Programme management “is concerned with optimising project benefits in symbiotic fashion and with integrating project elements at the programme level” (Cloete, Wisssink & De Coning, 2006: 218-220). According to the Standard for Programme Management (2013), programme management harmonizes its projects and programme components and controls interdependencies in order to realise special benefits. This statement is supported by Levin & Green (2013: 486) who claim that “programmes take account of the benefit realisation as they are designed to last as long” as the benefits are satisfactorily realised. Williams & Parr (2004: 31) suggest that the enabling factor in programme management is its ability to carry out multiple elements that can be managed separately, “but sequencing of implementation and management of critical dependencies that require a level of management coordination over and above that at the individual project level”.

Levin & Green (2013: 39) state that “programmes are established to achieve benefits that may not be realised if their components were managed individually”. Hence, a programme serves as a means to achieve multi-level benefits that cannot be achieved if a single project is deployed. There is a difference between an administrative programme and a project-related programme. An administrative programme in the NCDoH consists of various directorates and units under the leadership of a functional manager. A project-focused programme consists of various components that are intended to achieve a common strategic or business goal. The coordinated


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management processes of programme management require the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to meet the programme requirements and to obtain benefits and control not available by managing projects individually (Standard for Programme Management, 2013). Since programme management exists at strategy-formulation level, its coordination involves decision management, governance, stakeholder management, and benefits management (Thiry, 2010: 59). Therefore, programme management serves as “an implementation tool that delivers organisational benefits resulting from aligned corporate strategies, business-unit, and operational strategies. It facilitates coordinated and integrated management of cross-functional portfolios of projects and normal operations that bring about strategic transformation, innovative continuous improvement and customer service excellence in organisations, with the aim of achieving benefits of strategic importance” (Steyn & Schmikl, 2008: 4). Programme management “success is measured by the degree to which the program satisfies the needs and benefits for which it was undertaken” (PMBoK Guide, 2008: 9).

2.2 Construction management

The South African Council for the Project and Construction Manage-ment Professions (SACPCMP) (South Africa, 2000) defines construction management as “the management of the physical construction process within the built environment and includes the co-ordination, administration, and management of resources”. Similarly, Dykstra (2011: 376) explains that construction management involves the processes of coordinating, monitoring, evaluating, and controlling of construction activities. These set out the construction management parameters. In addition, construction management embraces “activities from conception to physical realisation of a project” (Gahlot & Bhir, 2002: 1). In the Department of Health, the processes that lead to the physical realisation commence from the identification of a need incorporated as a strategic objective. The fact that provision of health-care services has to take place in a constructed structure requires the Health Facilities Management Programme to engage the end users in the development of requirements. The infrastructure component of the programme management plan incorporates the construction management processes in order to execute its objectives. As mentioned earlier, the construction management processes include the “effective planning, organising, application, coordination, monitoring, control, and reporting of the core business processes” (Harris, McCaffer & Edum-Fotwe, 2013: 1).


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The successful delivery of the infrastructure component of the health-care facility does not signify the complete delivery or programme closure. The implementation of a health-care facility at project or component level aligns the processes of planning, organising, application, coordination, monitoring, control, and reporting found in construction management.

The project conceptualisation stage in construction management involves the end users and the design team. This stage requires immense stakeholder and communication management. The approach to building construction in the NCDoH follows the appointment of an implementing agent. The latter appoints a team of professional service providers to design and produce a bill of quantities for procurement purposes for the building infrastructure component. The programme manager responsible for HFM appoints a project manager who is responsible for construction management processes. It is the responsibility of the programme manager from the NCDoH to ensure that there is proper coordination of the construction requirements with the programme manager from the implementing agent.

According to Gahlot & Bhir (2002: 3), coordination in construction management involves integrating the work of various departments and sections. This requires proper integration of all project-related activities and disciplines such as architect, mechanical, electrical, civil and structural engineering together with quantity surveying. The implementation of the disciplines involves the construction project manager, the contractor, subcontractors and professionals in each discipline. Therefore, construction management enables the integration of project activities into the main project. Coordination in construction management is not only about the work produced from other disciplines for the built industry, but also about ensuring that the needs of the end user are incorporated and that, upon completion of the construction work, the buildings shall increase efficient delivery of the health-care services. In order for construction management to be coordinated with other components, a systems thinking approach needs to be applied. The IDMS has been established to address the systems thinking for the built environment, but there is still a gap to find the synergy with the operations management processes. The implementation of the infrastructure management components experiences variations to scope as a result of inadequate and late engagement of subject matter experts and incomplete requirements during the compilation of a requirements plan.


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2.3 Operations management

The factors that relate to operations management in this research are categorised as outlined in the PMBoK Guide (2013) under enterprise environmental factors and organisational process assets such as organisational culture, stakeholder management, and performance management. According to Stevenson (2009), operations management involves management of systems or processes that create goods and provide services. The inputs in operations management are human resources, processes and information, whereas the outputs are in the form of goods and services (Reid & Sanders, 2010: 3). Operations management in the delivery of a health-care facility project enables planning, organising, coordinating, and controlling of the resources required to produce the goods and services. The evaluation of the implementation of the factors relating to operations management is linked to the programme implementation period.

2.4 Integrated management

The integration of construction management components and operations management components during the implementation of a health-care facility should still take into account programme management methodology. In order to achieve an integrated approach, this requires a “collaborative process, which emphasises constructive relationships” at programme management level (Thiry, 2010: 66). In an administration-focused organisation, programme management concentrates on activity monitoring, while in an integration-focused organisation, a project is a means to attain business strategy. In an integration-focused institution, the primary goal of programme management is “integration and synchronization of workflow, outcomes and deliverables of multiple projects to create an integrated solution” (Martinelli, Waddell & Rahsculte, 2014: 13). This makes coordination in programme management an essential aspect. Programme management acknowledges that components operate as a system. Grady (2007: 7) explains a system as “a collection of things that interact to achieve a specific purpose”. Integration also “means completeness and closure, bringing components of the whole together in an operating system” (Barkely, 2006: 3). A system creates interdependence between various components; therefore, the greater the interdependence, the greater the need for cooperation (Castellano, Roehm & Hughe, 1995: 25). A “true integration ties all components of the organization into one coherent system where all activities, whether implemented together or individually, are focused on achievement of overall


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goals and are ultimately the guiding mission of the organization” (Pardy & Andrews, 2010: 13). Integrated management approach cannot be achieved without cross-functional management. Integration is achieved through shared norms and values within an organisation (Burke, 2014: 58). The establishment of a cross-functional approach is determined by the culture existing in the organisation. A cross-functional management helps the organisation to “improve both the factual basis of the strategic planning process and the chances of successful implementation of the final plan” (Jackson & Jones, 1996: 12). Therefore, an organisation cannot succeed if it seeks to maintain what may be regarded as “functional silos” within its operations.

The building infrastructure is a main product in construction management in a health facility project. “Integration is essentially the major function of program management, running several projects simultaneously and using all the support systems of the organisation” (Barkely, 2006: 13).

In order to respond to the aim of the research, construction ma nage -ment and operations management were studied in detail, although in relation to other components that relate to programme management. Steyn & Schmikl (2008: 4) explain that programme management “coordinate[s] and integrate[s] management of cross-functional portfolios of projects and normal operations that bring about strategic transformation, innovative continuous improvement and customer service excellence in organisations, with the aim of achieving benefits of strategic importance”. In the delivery of a health-care facility, three variables, namely critical success factors, continuous improvement, and construction management, have an ability to make an organisation succeed or fail in attaining a successful programme. These variables should be taken into account by an organisation, in this case the NCDoH, when a project requires the contribution of other programmes for the successful delivery of a health-care facility project. An institution’s inability to find a logical relationship on the three variables disables administrative programmes from determining success in the delivery of health-care facilities project and leaves an organisation defining complete building infrastructure as the successful programme management while excluding all other components that are supposed to be implemented to finality. The Project Implementation Manual (PIM) states that, “in order to manage the integration process at provincial level, a Provincial Steering Committee must be formed for the overall coordination of provincial projects” (South Africa, 2009a: 22). The exit by the hospital revitalisation programme from a health-care facility


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assumes that all the operational systems will continue through an integrated management system in order to deliver an improved quality and sustainable health service. Pardy & Andrews (2010: 4) argue that “an effectively implemented integrated management system aligns policy with strategic and management system objectives and provides the framework upon which to translate these objectives into functional and personal targets”.

2.5 Systems approach

The Infrastructure Delivery Management System (IDMS) was intro-duced to provide a model for the delivery of public service infra-structure projects through management companions that include portfolios, projects and operations management that takes into account construction management processes (CIDB, 2012: 6). The Construction Industry Development Board (CIDB), upon which the IDMS (2010: 8) was established, mentions that government infrastructure delivery departments lost efficiency in integrating resources under portfolios and programmes of coordinated projects. Despite the systems approach of the IDMS through its management companions, the challenges of delivering a successful programme by the NCDoH still remains. The systems approach consists of three elements, namely inputs, processes, and outputs (Gardiner, 2005: 23). These elements collaborate to achieve the main goal of an institution. Cloete, Wisssink & De Coning (2006: 218-220) explain that the “institutionalization of a programme and project management approach in government in order to ensure integrated service delivery, has also proven problematic because of the lack of appropriate systems”. The systems approach “defines the relationships between the various parts of the organisation with each other and with the outside environment, and establishes how these relationships work and lastly, it establishes the purpose of these relationships” (March, 2009: 25). The importance of systems approach in programme management helps create interdependence between various components; therefore, the greater the interdependence, the greater the need for cooperation, communication, and leadership (Castellano, Roehm & Hughes, 1995: 25). The “subsystems such as corporate mission, strategic objectives, organizational functions, organizational structure, critical processes, and the programme exist to effectively and efficiently convert the business inputs into the desired outputs” (Milosevic, Martinelli & Waddell, 2007: 57).


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2.6 Benefitsmanagementandrealisation

The Standard for Programme Management (2013) indicates that programme benefits may be realised incrementally throughout the duration of the programme, because they are a result of the executed organisational goals and objectives. The benefits “are the tangible business improvements that support the strategic objectives measured at operational level” (Thiry, 2004: 77). The benefits of strategic objectives are realised when the programme becomes aware of the advantage gained as a result of engaging in a particular programme. In order to realise the benefits of strategic objectives, the institution has to clean up any barriers that may arise as a result of a poorly coordinated programme management approach. In this way, an institution develops new capabilities of realising operational benefits. Benefits management is inextricably linked to critical success factors (CSFs), because the benefits management phase, i.e. benefit identification, in particular, requires the identification of the CSFs for a programme. Benefit realisation is defined as the process of realising actual outcomes by breaking down strategic objectives via programme components or projects, then monitoring the outputs to confirm that the intended benefits have, in fact, been achieved (Bradley, 2006: 20). The benefits realisation approach enables an organisation to understand and address the human aspects of the project, including resistance to change, training needs, and new ways of working. This requires the development of a benefits realisation plan that outlines the “details of the expected benefits to be realised and how these benefits will be achieved” (Thiry, 2010: 110).

2.7 Critical success factors

In order to realise the benefits of strategic objectives, the CSFs in both operations management and construction management should be identified. Some of the factors are common, while others vary according to management requirements. According to Mendoza, Perez and Griman (2006: 56), the CSFs represent a set of a “limited number of areas in which the results, if satisfactory, will guarantee successful competitive behaviour for organisational objectives”. The simplicity with the identification of the CSFs is that they can be “expressed as a qualitative statement” and only quantified for assessment purposes in a form of key performance indicators (Thiry, 2010: 113). The quantification of the CFSs requires the involvement of all the stakeholders from other related programmes. The research, therefore, tends to raise a question: What methodology can be implemented to enhance process integration among the health


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administrative programmes? This question contributes to responding to the following research question: How could coordination among the administrative programmes in the provincial office of the NCDoH, district office of the Department of Health and the hospital that undergoes revitalisation during the implementation of a health facility project be improved? Dobbins (2001: 48) mentions that “developing a process by which managers could identify their CSF… teaches managers how to think in terms of CSF” during the management of the project on site. The identification of critical success factors becomes irrelevant if there are no programme objectives. The benefits of programme management come from a “co-ordinated change management, governing the mutual dependencies between projects and activities, and a central focus on realizing the benefits” (Hedeman & Van Heemst, 2010: 16).

2.8 Continuous improvement

An organisation operating on a programme management approach needs to continuously improve and “without such improvement, the program management discipline will gradually deteriorate, losing the ability to support the business strategy of the organization” (Milosevic, Martinelli & Waddell, 2007: 455). Although continuous improvement puts more focus on commitment by senior management in an organisation, better results are achieved when an organisation gets commitment of all staff members within it. According to Turnbeaugh (2010: 42), the “management commitment aspect centers around a continuous improvement methodology of plan, do, check, act; a methodology that has transcended the use of TQM and has been integrated into other improvement-oriented procedures as well”. This methodology emanates from the Edward Deming philosophy on continuous improvement. Continuous improvement cannot take place if an organisation lacks commitment by programme managers. In order for an organisation to effectively conduct continuous improvement processes, there should be a “culture in which individuals and groups take responsibility for continuous improvement based on common understanding of organisation’s goals and priorities” (Sahu, 2007: iii).

3. Research methodologyIn order to choose a relevant research method for this research, an inductive reasoning was applied. Collis & Hussey (2009: 8) note that the theory in inductive reasoning “is developed from the observation of empirical reality”. Inductive reasoning is based on two premises,


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i.e. the case and the characteristics of the case. Both these premises enable the researcher to develop conclusions through generalisation and to develop new thoughts. The “case study method allows investigations to focus on a case and retain a real-world perspective” (Yin, 2014: 4). A positivist and interpretivist approach was followed to examine the research subjects’ understanding of the phenomena and their motivations (Porta & Keating, 2008: 13). This made the research relevant for the selection of the case study method due to its descriptive, inductive and heuristic approach (Somekh & Lewin, 2012: 54). Furthermore, due to the fact that the research problem focuses on a social reality, the case study method is able to ask the question as to what is going on with the phenomena to be able to generate intensive investigations for the development of subjective data (Burns, 2000: 460). As a result, a qualitative research method was applied and helped the researchers study the attitudes and behaviours of the research subjects within their natural settings (Babbie & Mouton, 2010: 270). Furthermore, the qualitative research is more concerned with the “greater depth with a relatively small number of participants in order to enhance the quality of the response through interpretative methods, unstructured and semi-structured interviews” (Garner, Wagner & Kawulich, 2009: 63).

This enables the researchers to evaluate the operational relations at programme management level in the NCDoH on construction management and operations management. Based on the research problem, i.e. sub-optimal programme management coordination within the NCDoH, this has prompted the researchers to apply the case study method in order to identify and investigate three components of the case. The case for the research study is the NCDoH. There are three components of the case, i.e. the Provincial Office made up of various administrative programmes, the Z. F. Mqcawu Health District Office and the Dr Harry Surtie revitalised hospital. The research subjects in these components are salient to the enquiry.

3.1 Sampling method

The research sample focused on the three levels of administration in the NCDoH, i.e the administrative programmes in the provincial office of the NCDoH, the health district office of the Department of Health at Z. F. Mcqawu, and Dr Surtie Hospital. The purposive or judgemental sampling method was utilised. Project commissioning team, project management team, end user staff in a health-care facility were sampled. The choice of this sampling method was influenced by the aim of the research and the line of enquiry pursued by the research study, the investigative question and literature reviewed.


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Purposive sampling “enables diversity and ensures that units of analysis are selected as they hold a characteristic that is salient to the research study” (Ritchie, Lewis, Nicholls & Ormston, 2014: 143). Purposive sampling helped “access knowledgeable people, i.e. those who have in-depth knowledge about particular issues” (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007: 115).

3.2. Sampling size

Through purposive sampling, the research targeted the “most visible leaders”, i.e. the managers in the three units of analysis. The application of this purposive sampling included a snowball sampling approach whereby the people who were approached at the initial stage of data collection assisted the researchers to identify other managers relevant to the research study (Babbie & Mouton, 2010: 167). As a result of the purposive sampling method, data was collected from end user staff members in the three sectors of the NCDoH, project commissioning team and project management team. The data was collected from forty-five (45) respondents up to the stage where the level of saturation of the data was reached by the researcher (Maree, 2007: 82). Ritchie & Lewis (2003: 80) explain that the saturation in purposive sampling occurs when data collection does not yield any other new or relevant data. Thirty (30) managers responded to the interview from the provincial office, five (5) managers are from the Z. F. Mqcawu, and ten (10) managers are from Dr Harry Surtie Hospital.

3.3 Data collection

An interview guide was used to collect empirical data. The interviews were held with individuals in the Provincial Office of the Department of Health, the District Office of the Department of Health of Z. F. Mqcawu, and Dr Harry Surtie Hospital. The semi-structured interview guide assisted the researchers to maintain consistency and the logical flow of the questions. Nine (9) questions based on the objective of this research were generated. The interview guide was structured as follows:

Question Intent

Questions 1-2 and 8-9

Test the respondents on the application programme management methodology

Question 3-4 Focus on the programme performance management

Question 5-7 Address the respondents on cross-functional approach


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Probing questions were asked during discussion with the interviewees in order to obtain further information. An average of forty (40) minutes was spent in conducting each interview. Prior to utilising the research instrument, it was discussed with four people at different units in the NCDoH to determine whether interpretation of concepts would be obtained.

3.4 The research instrument

In order for the researchers to obtain respondents’ perceptions with regard to the application of programme management methodology in the NCDoH, qualitative research questions were generated. The questions in the research instrument enabled the researchers to obtain substantial information on the research problem. The research instrument enabled the collection of data based on the perception of people in the three levels of administration in the NCDoH, i.e., Provincial Office, District Office of the Department of Health and a hospital with regard to programme management coordination on the delivery of a health-care facility project. The interview guide was meant to obtain qualitative data from the respondents for the research objective. The use of an interview guide enabled the researchers to be consistent with the questions posed to the respondents.

3.5 Response rate

All forty-five (45) respondents identified through a snowball approach in purposive sampling method responded to all the questions presented for discussion.

3.6 Data analysis

The application of the inductive analysis of data in qualitative research enabled the researchers to extensively condense raw data into brief and summary format, and to “establish clear links between the research objectives and the summary findings derived from raw data” (Dey, 2005: 55). The data analysis is categorised according to responses from the sectors (programmes in the provincial office, district office of the Department of Health, and the revitalised Dr Harry Surtie Hospital.

3.7 Limitation

The limitation to this research study was the uneasiness of some of the employees from Dr Harry Surtie Hospital and Z. F. Mqcawu District Office to provide information about the relationship between


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the two levels of administration with the provincial office of the NCDoH. Although this limitation existed in certain cases during the interviews, it had minimal impact as the respondents’ uncertainties were addressed by the inclusion of a confidentiality clause in the interview guide.

4. Findings from the case studyThe findings from the case study are based on the responses obtained during the interview sessions with the research subjects outlined in the interview guide.

4.1 Programme performance management

There are disparities of opinions from the three sectors or levels of administration on whether the objectives of the various administrative programmes and the objectives of the hospital revitalisation programme are aligned.

4.1.1 Responsesfromtheprovincialoffice

Of the respondents, 20% agreed that there is an alignment between the objectives of the various administrative programmes and the objectives of the hospital revitalisation programme; 80% of the respondents disagreed with the above statement for the following reasons.

A decision concerning the prioritisation of a health-care facility is taken at the Provincial Offices of the Department of Health and does not take the inputs from the District Office of the Department of Health, i.e. Z. F. Mcqawu in this case.

The implementation of the hospital revitalisation programme does not take into account the Service Transformation Plan (STP) as the long-term plan of the NCDoH in terms of the health facilities’ list of priorities. The choice as to which health-care facility should be constructed is made out of the STP. Any prioritisation that does not consider the priority list as recorded in the STP causes misalignment in terms of other services such as human resources plan, which ultimately affect budget allocation in the Department. A respondent mentions that “there is either no proper communication among (District Office of the Department of Health, revitalised hospital and administrative programmes in NCDoH) or absence or lack of co-ordination between their project managers”. Furthermore, it was reported that there is “lack of commitment from programme managers and lack of knowledge” for aligning the existing delivery


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objectives of the administrative programmes when a new strategic objective has been incorporated.

4.1.2 ResponsesfromtheDistrictOfficeoftheDepartmentofHealth

Of the respondents, 40% agreed that the District Office of the Department of Health, revitalised hospital and administrative programmes in NCDoH properly align with the objectives of the hospital revitalisation programme. The respondents mentioned that, once a health-care facility project has been prioritised, the District Office of the Department of Health is obliged to align with the objectives of the hospital revitalisation programme, as it must assist in ensuring the success of the project.

Only 60% of the respondents explained that this does not necessarily mean that there is no alignment with the objectives of the hospital revitalisation programme, although they found themselves participating in certain stages of the prioritised health-care facility project. In this instance, the respondents participated in the project commissioning meetings for the delivery of a health-care facility project, but without knowing how that particular activity fits into the objectives of the District Office of the Department of Health.

4.1.3 Responses from Dr Harry Surtie Hospital

The respondents from Dr Harry Surtie Hospital pointed out that they have hardly any knowledge about the objectives of the hospital revitalisation programme, but that they participate in the project-commissioning meeting to ensure successful delivery of the project, as they are the direct beneficiaries after completion. It was further explained that the staff members from the old hospital do not have much of a role to play at the beginning of the project, but that they get more involved during the preparations to move into the new premises, as they have to be ready to provide health services. Further, the respondents from Dr Harry Surtie Hospital view the alignment as ineffective, because the joint decisions arising from the alignment are not implemented.

4.2 Programme management practice in the NCDoH

The research on this input wanted to determine whether all other administrative programmes should incorporate and report on the new strategic objective of the construction of a new health-care facility on components that relate to their normal delivery objectives. It was found that some of the administrative programmes do not consider the new strategic objective, i.e. construction of a new


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health-care facility, in their Annual Performance Plans and continue with the implementation of their normal programme objectives; hence, there is insufficient reporting relating to the objective.

At least 40% of the respondents suggested that reporting should be the responsibility of one administrative programme, i.e. Health Facilities Management. The reason for a single point of accountability is that it would help maintain consistency in reporting. This opinion leaves other administrative programmes without responsibility over the prioritised health-care facility project. Of the respondents, 40% mentioned that the administrative programmes that have core responsibilities on certain project parameters are omitted without taking part and that the project is denied an opportunity to engage experts to advise as to whether the project is still focused on attaining the intended goal/s.

Of the respondents, 60% agreed that there is a need for other administrative programmes to be involved in the reporting of progress on the delivery of a health-care facility project, thus enabling all the administrative programmes to monitor their performance against the set objectives. Furthermore, the administrative programmes would be able to determine whether factors that go into operations management and construction management are being addressed and what progress is being made in each. This becomes an added advantage, as administrative programmes would also be able to determine what lags behind in terms of project activities so that rescue measures can be established, if necessary. A joint reporting informs all the stakeholders about progress made and enables preparation of the operationalisation of the facility once the building project is completed. It was also indicated that the administrative programmes that have core responsibility of the components that build up the delivery of a health-care facility project such as organisational development and quality assurance should report on them. A joint reporting by the administrative programmes at strategy development level in the NCDoH would enable continuous development. A respondent indicated that joint reporting “eliminates silo approach, and enables monitoring of commitment at programme management level”. Furthermore, reporting by other administrative programmes in the NCDoH “maximises project success”, as it puts all administrative programmes on par with project progress and activities to be performed at each stage.


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4.3 A cross-functional approach in the NCDoH

A total of 33% of the respondents in the three sectors indicated that there is a cross-functional approach at programme management level. At least 44% of the respondents mentioned that there is a cross-functional approach at the project-commissioning meetings, as they are the ones used by the Health Facilities Management programme to ensure that all the administrative programmes from the Provincial Office of the Department of Health collaborate for the delivery of a health-care facility project. Only 22% of the respondents explained that they have not experienced any cross-functional action at programme management level within the Department. The respondents reported that they have noted that “the department is working in a silo approach” wherein the administrative programmes operate on individual objectives that have no link to each other.

5. ConclusionThe results of this study show that an institution’s inability to consider critical success factors and the existence of functional silos during the construction of a health-care facility has a negative effect on the attainment of the benefits of strategic objectives.

The research revealed that the administrative programmes in the NCDoH perceive construction management and operations management as separate entities during the construction of a health-care facility; hence, the inability to attain a cross-functional approach at programme management level. The administrative programmes do not perceive the construction of a health-care facility as part of the integrated objectives of the NCDoH intended to attain a strategic goal. This enables the development of functional silos within the NCDoH. With the existence of functional silos, the NCDoH would not be able to link an infrastructural programme to provide access to modern and effective health services, as pronounced by the Reconstruction and Development Programmes (South Africa, 1994: 10).

The impact of poor programme management coordination leaves the NCDoH with the challenge of how to describe a successful programme, as the complete building infrastructure alone cannot provide all the required health services as initially intended. This would also defeat the aim of programme management, which is the “coordinated management of a portfolio of projects that assist an organisation to achieve benefits that are of strategic importance” (Gardiner, 2005: 11).


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Construction management and operations management separately consist of core elements that relate to the delivery objectives of the administrative programmes of the NCDoH. However, it requires senior management commitment at both strategy development and strategy implementation to integrate, synchronise and create common objectives that attain the programme management benefits. The strategy development stage requires that “portfolio management frameworks consider[s] the dynamism that occur[s] through portfolio balancing; dependent upon a rational, mechanistic and linear process to determine the organisation’s strategy and priorities, which in turn allows the balancing function to take place” (Linger & Owen, 2012: 106). At the strategy implementation stage, the NDoH proposes that the “provincial strategic plans must include comprehensive hospital plans, which provide a framework in which business cases are subsequently developed” (South Africa, 2005).

Findings from the research show that the NCDoH has not yet established collaborative elements, in particular, critical success factors, that integrate construction management and operations management in the construction of health-care facilities. This affects the attainment of programme benefits, as the benefits management process requires the identification of the CSFs. This happens as a result of sub-optimal programme management coordination on the implementation of the components of the HRP.

6. RecommendationsThe functional managers in the NCDoH should be afforded an opportunity to participate in the development of a programme charter so that they can also be at liberty to avail resources when project/component charters are developed and implemented.

Executive management in the NCDoH should consider the develop-ment of a policy framework on stakeholder management that addresses cross-functional interaction between administrative programmes and other sectors.

The executive management should consider that the CSFs are an integral part of the strategic planning of an institution and need to be included.

Executive management should make it compulsory to administrative programmes to develop a benefit management plan that integrates the objectives of the HRP.


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Oorsigartikels • Review articles

The contributions of construction material waste to project cost overruns in Abuja, Nigeria


AbstractMaterial wastage on construction sites can contribute to cost overruns. Research to provide evidence of the extent of material wastages’ contribution to cost overruns on construction sites is based mostly on surveys. Thus, the actual contribution is not yet ascertained. The purpose of this article is to report the results of an objectively investigated study on the contributions of material waste to project-cost overrun. The methodological approach adopted for the study is the quantitative technique that is rooted in the positivist paradigm. The investigation included ongoing building construction projects within Abuja, Nigeria, from which a sample of 31 public and private projects was purposefully selected (project value of ₦1.6 billion Naira and above). The data for this research were sourced from the field investigation (measurement of the volume of material waste) and data from the archival records (drawings, bills of quantities, project-progress reports, and specifications) on material waste and cost overruns. The collected data were analysed using the Pearson moment correlation and the descriptive method. The research results revealed a statistically significant relationship between material waste and cost overrun. This implies that any increase in the volume of material waste would lead to a corresponding increase in the amount of cost overrun. The results showed that the significant percentage contribution of material waste to project-cost overrun ranges from 1.96% to 8.01%, with an average contribution of 4.0% to project-cost overruns. It is recommended that construction professionals be well informed of the consequences of material waste contributions to project-cost overrun at an early stage, in order to enable the professionals to evaluate the extent to which these consequences could be minimised.Keywords: Cost overrun, construction waste, con-struc tion industry, material waste, Nigeria

Ibrahim Saidu & Winston Shakantu

Dr Ibrahim Saidu, Department of Construction Management, Faculty of Engineering, the Built Environment, and Information Technology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Eastern Cape, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Phone: +27810916224, +2348037796321, emails: <[email protected]>, <[email protected]>, <[email protected]>

Prof. Winston (M.W.) Shakantu, Department of Construction Management, Faculty of Engineering, the Built Environment, and Information Technology, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Eastern Cape, Port Elizabeth, South Africa. Phone: +27785147492, email: <[email protected]>

The authors declared no conflict of interest for this title and article.


ISSN: 1023-0564

e-ISSN: 2415-0487


© UV/UFS


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AbstrakMateriaalvermorsing op konstruksieterreine kan bydra tot die oorskryding van boukostes. Navorsingsresultate oor die omvang van materiaalvermorsing ten opsigte van koste-drempeloorskryding op konstruksieterreine is gebaseer meestal op opnames. Die werklike omvang is dus nog nie vasgestel nie. Die doel van hierdie artikel is om die resultate van ‘n objektiewe ondersoek wat gedoen is oor wat die bydraes van afvalmateriaal van ‘n projek is op die projekkoste-drempeloorskryding weer te gee. Die metodologiese benadering vir die studie was die kwantitatiewe tegniek wat gewortel is in die positivistiese paradigma. Die ondersoek het deurlopende bou-projekte binne Abuja, Nigerië, ingesluit waaruit ‘n steekproef van 31 openbare en private projekte doelbewus gekies is met ‘n projekwaarde van 1600000000 ₦ Naira en hoër. Die data vir hierdie navorsing is verkry van die veldondersoek (meting van die volume afvalmateriaal) en data uit die argiefrekords (tekeninge, bou-bestekke, projek-vorderingsverslae en spesifikasies) op afvalmateriaal en koste-drempeloorskryding. Die data-analise is gedoen met behulp van die Pearson oomblik korrelasie en die beskrywende metode. Die navorsingsresultate het ‘n beduidende statistiese verband tussen afvalmateriaal en koste-drempeloorskryding getoon. Dit impliseer dat ‘n toename in die volume afvalmateriaal sou lei tot ‘n ooreenstemmende toename in die koste-oorskrydingsbedrag. Die navorsing toon dat die beduidende persentasie bydrae van afvalmateriaal tot projekkoste-oorskryding wissel van 1.96% tot 8.01%, met ‘n gemiddelde bydrae van 4.0% tot die projekkoste-oorskryding. Dit word aanbeveel dat professionele konstruksiewerkers goed ingelig moet word oor die gevolge van afvalmateriaal se bydraes tot projekkoste-oorskryding in ‘n vroeë stadium van die projek. Sodoende kan professionele konstruksiewerkers die mate waartoe die gevolge van oorskryding geminimaliseer kan word, evalueer.

1. IntroductionThe construction industry contributes to the socio-economic growth of any nation by improving the quality of life and providing the infrastructure, such as roads, hospitals, schools, and other basic facilities. Hence, it is imperative that construction projects are completed within the scheduled period of time, within the budgeted cost, and meet the anticipated quality. However, being a complex industry, it is faced with the severe problems of cost overruns, time overruns, and construction waste (Abdul-Rahman, Memon & Abd-Karim, 2013: 268; Dania, Kehinde & Bala, 2007: 122; Tam, 2008: 1073). The majority of this waste has not been well managed, thus causing substantial health and environmental problems (Imam, Mohammed, Wilson & Cheesman, 2008: 469), and affecting the performance of many projects in Nigeria (Adewuyi & Otali, 2013: 746; Ameh & Itodo, 2013: 748; Oladiran, 2009: 1).

Studies from different parts of the world have shown that material waste from the construction industry represents a relatively large percentage of the production costs. Consequently, the poor management of materials and waste leads to an increase in the total cost of building projects (Ameh & Itodo, 2013: 745).

Saidu & Shakantu • The contributions of construction material waste ...

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Material wastage has become a serious problem, and requires urgent attention in the Nigerian construction industry. This constraint negatively affects the delivery of many projects (Adewuyi & Otali, 2013: 746). Ping, Omran & Pakir (2009: 258) observed that extra construction materials are usually purchased, due to the material wastage during the construction process. Adewuyi & Otali (2013: 746) argue that the quantity of material waste generated on some construction sites exceeds, to some extent, the 5% allowance made to take care of material wastage in the course of preparing an estimate for a project. Accordingly, Ameh & Itodo (2013: 748) noted that, for every 100 houses built, there is sufficient waste material to build another 10 houses in Nigeria.

Osmani (2011: 209) established that 10% of the materials delivered to sites in the United Kingdom (UK) construction industry end up as waste that may not be accounted for.

Consequently, cost overrun is a common issue in both the developed and the developing nations, which makes it difficult for many projects to be completed within budget. The majority of the developing countries experience overruns exceeding 100% of the initial budget (Memon, Abdul-Rahman, Zainun & Abd-Karim, 2013: 180). Allahaim & Liu (2012: 2) reported that cost overruns were found across twenty (20) nations and five (5) continents. Cost overrun affects 90% of completed projects (Abdul-Rahman, Memon & Abd-Karim, 2013: 268).

The argument in the construction industry on how to reduce or totally remove cost overrun from a project has been ongoing among the built environment professionals, project owners, and the users for the past seventy years (Apolot, Alinaitwe & Tindiwensi, 2011: 305; Allahaim & Liu, 2012: 1). However, there is neither a substantial improvement, nor any significant solution to mitigate its detrimental effects (Allahaim & Liu, 2012: 1).

To link cost overrun to material waste, cost overrun should be introduced/clarified. Studies from different countries have revealed that cost overruns represent a large percentage of the production costs of construction projects. For instance, 33.3% of the construction project owners in the UK are faced with the problem of cost overruns (Abdul-Rahman, Memon & Abd-Karim, 2013: 268; Olawale & Sun, 2010: 511). The Big Dig Central Artery/Tunnel project in Boston could not be completed within its budgeted cost; it had an overrun of 500%. The Wembley stadium in the UK had a 50% cost overrun, and the Scottish parliament project, which had a time overrun of more than three years also experienced a cost overrun of 900% (Love, Edwards & Irani, 2011: 7).


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Moreover, Ameh & Itodo (2013: 748) reported that, in the UK, material waste accounts for an additional 15% to construction project cost overruns and for approximately 11% of construction cost overruns in Hong Kong. Similarly, a study done in The Netherlands revealed a cost overrun of between 20% and 30% as a result of construction-material wastage. The methodologies adopted to achieve these relationships are based on surveys.

Therefore, research evidence has shown that previous studies from different parts of Nigeria have centred on waste-management practices and sought the perceptions of construction professionals on the contributions of material waste to cost overruns which are based on surveys and considered a subjective assessment. Nonetheless, these studies have failed to objectively (quantitatively and empirically) address the contributions of material waste to project cost overruns, because of wrong perceptions and calls for actual data such as on-site observation and records.

Ameh & Itodo (2013: 745) recommended a further study on the actual and objective measurement of materials wastage and associated cost overruns in the Nigerian construction industry. This recommendation led to the development of the problem posed in this study. The percentage of additional cost contributed by material wastage to construction-cost overruns in the Nigerian construction industry is hardly understood. On this basis, this article reports the findings of an investigation into the actual contributions of construction material waste to project cost overruns in Abuja, Nigeria.

2. Literature review

2.1 The concept of waste in the construction industry

Construction waste is a global challenge facing both construction practitioners and researchers. It can have a significant impact on time, cost, quality and sustainability, as well as on the success of projects (Nagapan, Abdul-Rahman, Asmi, Memon & Latif, 2012: 22). It is the difference between purchase and actual use (Al-Hajj & Hamani, 2011: 2). Nagapan et al. (2012: 22) contend that waste is any surplus or unwanted material persistently causing environmental issues and global warming. Consequently, waste has been described as any constituent generated, as a result of construction work, and abandoned, irrespective of whether it has been processed, or stocked up before being abandoned (Yuan, Lu & Hao, 2013: 484; Hassan, Ahzahar, Fauzi & Eman, 2012: 176). Therefore, Ma (2011: 137) concludes that waste is anti-sustainability that paves the way towards sustainability.


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Many scholars view construction waste as any human activity that consumes resources, but creates no value, such as mistakes that require rectification, waiting time/waste of time, cost, unwanted production/overproduction, management of work programmes, and poor constructions (Ma, 2011: 127-134; Nagapan et al., 2012: 22; Nagapan, Abdul-Rahman & Asmi, 2012: 2253; Chikezirim & Mwanaumo, 2013: 500).

2.2 The concept of cost overrun in the construction industry

Cost overrun has plagued construction for decades (Edward, 2009: 3). It is referred to as “cost increase” or “budget overrun”, and it involves unanticipated costs incurred in excess of the budgeted amounts (Shanmugapriya & Subramanian, 2013: 735). It is defined as a percentage difference between the final completion cost and the contract-bid cost (Shanmugapriy & Subramanian, 2013: 735; Shrestha, Burns & Shields, 2013: 2). Cost overrun has also been referred to as the percentage of actual or final costs above the estimated or tender cost of a project (Ubani, Okorocha & Emeribe, 2011: 74; Jenpanistub, 2011: 19). Nega (2008: 48) defines cost overrun as an occurrence, in which the delivery of contracted goods/services is claimed to require more financial resources than originally agreed upon between a project sponsor and a contractor.

2.3 Material waste and construction cost overrun

Construction waste is generally classified into two main classes, namely the physical waste and the non-physical waste (Nagapan, Abdul-Rahman & Asmi, 2012: 2-3).

Physical construction waste is the waste from construction, renovation activities, including civil and building construction, demolition activities, and roadworks. However, it is also referred to directly as solid waste: the inert waste that comprises mainly sand, bricks, blocks, steel, concrete debris, tiles, bamboo, plastics, glass, wood, paper, and other organic materials (Nagapan, Abdul-Rahman & Asmi, 2012: 2-3). This type of waste consists of a complete loss of materials, due to the fact that they are irreparably damaged or simply lost. The wastage is usually removed from the site to landfills (Nagapan, Abdul-Rahman & Asmi, 2012: 2-3).

Non-physical waste normally occurs during the construction process. While waste from materials is a physical waste, cost overrun and time overrun are non-physical waste. Therefore, cost overrun is a waste of resources. Ma (2011: 118) defines waste as being associated not


104

only with wastage of materials, but also with other activities such as repair, waiting time, and delays.

Since construction waste entails both physical and non-physical waste, there is a relationship between material waste originating from physical waste and cost overruns originating from non-physical waste.

3. Research methodologyThis research used the quantitative method that is rooted in the positivist research paradigm. It is quantitative, because the data were generated from the numeric measurement of the volume of on-site material waste and the amount of project cost overruns.

The study covers ‘ongoing’ building construction projects in Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria, from which a sample of 31 projects was selected. The sample comprises both public and private projects, with a value of 1.6 billion Naira/R100 million and above, using purposive sampling techniques. The rationale for the selection is that building construction projects of this value and above are likely to generate large quantities of material waste and huge amounts of cost overruns, when compared with projects of less value. In addition, it is possible to have more experts (experienced professionals) than in smaller-sized/lower-valued projects.

Abuja was selected as a geographical case study area, because it is one of the metropolitan cities in Nigeria with the highest population of professionals within the built environment and has many ongoing construction projects.

This study focused mainly on the primary data, which included the field investigation and data from the archival records (drawings, bills of quantities, project progress reports, and specifications) on material waste and cost overruns in the Nigerian construction industry. These data were generated from ‘ongoing’ and non-completed projects.

3.1 Archival records

The volume of materials used for each building project was generated from the measured quantities of each material from the priced/unpriced bills of quantities (BOQ) prepared for the project. The measurement unit of each material, as contained in the BOQ (linear, square and cubic metre, number, kilogram, tonne, and so on), was converted to a common standard unit (volume/cubic metre). The converted volumes were summed up to achieve the total volume of materials for a building.


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Where access to BOQ is denied, the building volume was generated by taking direct measurements of the quantities from drawings, and by making the necessary adjustment (for openings, plastering, finishes, and so on), in accordance with the rules of the Standard Method of Measurement (SMM) for building works, in order to determine the net building volume.

The data on Estimated Cost (EC), Estimated Time (ET), Cost Now (CN), and Time Now (TN), the Percentage of the Work Completed (% of WC), the Estimated Cost of the Work Completed (ECWC), and the Actual Cost of Work Completed (ACWC) for different projects were all collected from the records of projects compiled by the quantity surveyor for individual projects.

The collected values of “ACWC” were deducted/subtracted from the values of “ECWC” to determine the project’s cost overruns.

3.2 Field investigations

Data on the volume of on-site material waste was generated by physical on-site measurements with the aid of measuring instruments such as tape and measurement rule. Where the generated on-site material waste had already been disposed of and removed from the site, a request was made to allow the researcher to access the total volume (material waste) disposed of/removed from the project’s on-site records.

The collected data (waste volume) was used to determine the contributions of material waste to the generated amount of cost overruns.

3.3 Data analyses

Both descriptive and inferential analyses of the data were employed in this study. The descriptive tool included percentage distributions and the result is presented in Table 2.

The Pearson moment-correlation (Inferential) analysis available from the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was performed to determine the contribution of material waste to the project’s cost overrun. The volume of material waste was represented by the independent variable (x), and the amount of cost overrun was represented by the dependent variable (Y), as material waste can cause cost overruns.


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The Pearson moment-correlation is represented mathematically as:

n(∑xy)-(∑x)(∑y)r =

[n∑x2-(∑x)2][n∑y2-(∑y)2] ;

Where r = Pearson moment-correlation coefficient; x = Values in the first data set; y = Values in the second data set, and n = Total number of values.

The approximate conversion rates used as at the period of data collection were:

Nigerian Naira to US dollar === ₦200=1USD;

Nigerian Naira to South African Rand === ₦16=R1.

The average project completion for the entire building-construction projects visited was 52.4%, as the constructions were ongoing at the time of data collection. This kind of research is easier with ongoing projects, because material waste is mostly removed from a project site as soon as the project is completed, making it difficult to measure the acutal material waste.

4. Results and discussion

4.1 The contributions of material waste to project-cost overruns

Table 1 shows the result of the correlation analysis between a 52.4% average volume of on-site material waste recorded on-site (independent variable “x”) and the calculated amount of cost overrun (dependent variable “y”).

It was observed from the analysis that the probability value (0.0027) was less than the 0.05 (5%) significance level, and the hypothesis was tested at the 95% confidence level. The R-square value (52.82%) shows a strong relationship between the variables.

Therefore, it is inferred that the relationship was statistically significant.

The result implies that any increase in material waste on the construction site would result in a corresponding increase in the amount of cost overrun for a project.

Table 1: Results of the Pearson moment-correlation analysis between the volume of material wasted (52.4% average project completion) and the cost overruns


107

S/n

VariablesType of analysis

Observation

X Y R square Probability value

Strength of relationship Remarks

7Volume

of material wasted

Cost overrun

Pearson Moment

correlation 52.82% 0.0027 Strong Statistically

significant

Consequently, since it has been statistically established that material waste contributes significantly to project-cost overruns, Table 2 further explains the percentage contribution of material waste to project-cost overruns in a descriptive format.

The project values ranged from a minimum of ₦1.635 billion to a maximum of ₦63 billion, and the percentage of work completed also ranged from a minimum of 4% to a maximum of 100%.

Table 2 indicates that contributions of material waste ranged from a minimum of ₦31,220,528.06 (1.96%) to a maximum of ₦39,933,360.29 (8.01%), with an average contribution of approximately 4% to the project-cost overrun.

Furthermore, this percentage (4%) differs from the 5% normally allowed for materials, in order to take care of waste in the process of compiling a bill of quantities.

This result corroborates the findings of the studies conducted in the UK, Hong Kong, The Netherlands, and Nigeria, namely that wastage of construction materials contributes to additional project costs by reasonable percentages (Ameh & Itodo, 2013: 748). The result also supports the findings of Ping, Omran & Pakir (2009: 262).

The result implies that the average contribution of material waste to project-cost overruns is 4%. This result (4% contribution) does not support the following findings:

Memon (2013: 10) concluded that construction waste accounts for approximately 30%-35% of a project’s construction cost; construction materials waste on site account for approximately 9% by weight of the procured materials. The reason for the variation between the findings of this research and those of Memon (2013: 10) is that the findings reported by Memon (2013: 10) are, to a large extent, based on surveys and perceptions may be wrong. Another factor may be differences in geographical locations and methods of construction.

In addition, the study negates the findings reported by Ameh & Itodo (2013: 748) that, in the UK, material waste accounts for an additional cost of 15% to construction project-cost overruns; accounts for


108

approximately 11% to construction cost overruns in Hong Kong, and accounts for 20%-30% in The Netherlands. This is probably because the methodology adopted for most of these studies was a survey research design, which relies on the professionals’ perceptions of material wastage and cost overrun during construction operation, which is considered a subjective assessment. For instance, the respondents are required to tick a questionnaire with the following options: from 10%-15%, 15%-20%, 20%-30%, and so forth, from which conclusions were drawn.

Furthermore, the contributions of material waste to cost overrun (cf. Table 2) were determined by dividing the “material waste volume” by the “volume of material used for the project” multiplied by the amount of cost overrun. It is given as:

Volume of material waste recordedContribution = x cost overrun

Volume of material used for project

contribution of waste to cost overrunPercentage contribution = x 100

cost overrun

Source: Researcher’s own construct, 2015


109

Tabl

e 2:

A

vera

ge c

ontri

butio

ns o

f mat

eria

l was

te to

pro

ject

-cos

t ove

rruns

S/n

Estim

ated

cos

t of

proj

ects

(EC

) (₦

)%

of w

ork

com

plet

edVo

lum

e of

m

ater

ials

used

for

build

ing

(m3 )

Volu

me

of

mat

eria

l was

te

reco

rded

on

each

pr

ojec

tC

ost o

verru

n (₦

)C

ontri

butio

n of

m

ater

ial w

aste

to

cos

t ove

rrun

in (₦

)

% c

ontri

butio

n of

mat

eria

l w

aste

to c

ost

over

run

13,

200,

000,

000.

0017

%1,

517.

2565

.24

256,

000,

000.

0011

,007

,704

.73

4.30

%2

14,0

00,0

00,0

00.0

047

%16

,686

.60

634.

091,

960,

000,

000.

0074

,479

,906

.03

3.80

%3

1,65

0,00

0,00

0.00

59%

3,02

4.84

124.

0218

1,50

0,00

0.00

7,44

1,59

3.61

4.10

%4

6,00

0,00

0,00

0.00

35%

3,75

9.38

155.

4930

0,00

0,00

0.00

12,4

08,1

63.0

54.

14%

55,

880,

000,

000.

0043

%3,

092.

2919

6.23

1,08

1,00

0,00

0.00

68,5

97,9

09.6

46.

35%

61,

800,

000,

000.

0063

%12

,022

.09

963.

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110

Table 2 shows that about 15 out of the 31 projects were 50% completed and that only 7 were 90-100% completed. These findings are reliable, because the average completion is above 50%. As stated earlier, this kind of research is easier with ongoing projects. The author could not wait until a project was completed, as this would constrain the on-site measurement of material waste.

5. Conclusion and recommendationThe empirical findings from the study established that a relationship exists between material waste and cost overruns. This implies that an increase in material wastage on site leads to a corresponding increase in cost overruns, regardless of the percentage allowed for material waste in the process of the bill preparation.

It is also concluded from the empirical analysis that the significant percentage contribution of material waste to project cost overrun ranges from 1.96% to 8.01%, with an average contribution of 4.00% to project-cost overruns.

Therefore, the average percentage contribution of material waste to cost overrun for a project is 4.00%, which is different from the percentage allowed for material waste in the process of preparation of a bill of quantities.

The study recommends that construction professionals should be well informed of the consequences of material waste contributions to project cost overrun at the early stage of a project, in order to enable the professionals to evaluate the extent to which these consequences could be minimised.

References listAbdul-Rahman, I., Memon, A.H. & Abd-Karim, A.T. 2013. Significant factors causing cost overruns in large construction projects in Malaysia. Journal of Applied Sciences, 13(2), pp. 286-293. http://dx.doi.org/10.3923/jas.2013.286.293

Adewuyi, T.O. & Otali, M. 2013. Evaluation of causes of construction material waste: Case of River State, Nigeria. Ethiopian Journal of Environmental Studies and Management, 6(6), pp. 746-753. http://dx.doi.org/10.4314/ejesm.v6i6.5S

Al-Hajj, A. & Hamani, K. 2011. Material waste in the UAE construction industry: Main causes and minimisation practices. Architectural Engineering and Design Management (Heriot-Watt University Gate way), 7(4), pp. 221-235.


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Allahaim, F.S. & Liu, L. 2012. Cost overrun causes the framework in infrastructure projects: Toward a typology. In: Lui, L. (Ed). Proceedings of the 37th Annual Conference of Australasian Universities Building Educators Association (AUBEA), Sydney, Australia, 4-6 July, University of Technology, Sydney, University of New South Wales (UNSW), Sydney, pp. 1-15.

Ameh, J.O. & Itodo, E.D. 2013. Professionals’ views of material wastage on construction sites. Organization, Technology and Management in Construction. An International Journal, 5(1), pp. 747-757.

Apolot, R., Alinaitwe, H. & Tindiwensi, D. 2011. An investigation into the causes of delay and cost overrun in Uganda’s public sector construction projects. In: Mwakali, J. & Alinaitwe, H. (Eds). Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advances in Engineering and Technology, 31 January-1 February, Entebbe Uganda. Uganda: Macmillan Uganda (Publishers) Ltd., pp. 305-311.

Chikezirim, O. & Mwanaumo, E. 2013. Evaluation of waste-management strategies adopted in Tshwane building industry. Journal of Construction Project Management and Innovation, 3(1), pp. 498-510.

Dania, A.A., Kehinde, J.O. & Bala, K. 2007. A study of construction material waste. In: Egbu, C.O. & Tong, M.K.L (Eds). Proceedings of the 3rd Scottish Conference for Postgraduate Researchers of the Built & Natural Environment (PRoBE) 20-22 November, Glasgow, United Kingdom. Glasgow: Glasgow Caledonian University, pp. 121-129.

Edward, C. 2009. Downsizing the federal government: Government cost overruns. Washington D.C.: CATO Institute.

Hassan, S.H., Ahzahar, N., Fauzi, M.A. & Eman, J. 2012. Waste management issues in the northern region of Malysia. In: Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 42, pp. 175-181. Publising the Proceedings of: Abbas, M.Y., Bajunid, A.F.I. & Azhari, N.F. (Eds). ASEAN Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies (AcE-Bs), Riverside Majestic Hotel, 7-8 July 2010, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia.

Imam, A., Mohammed, B., Wilson, D.C. & Cheeseman, C.R. 2008. Country report: Solid waste management in Abuja, Nigeria. Waste Management 28(2), pp. 468-472. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.01.006

Love, P., Edwards, D. & Irani, Z. 2011. Moving beyond optimism bias and strategic misrepresentation: An explanation for social infrastructure project cost overruns. IEEE Transaction on Engineering Management, 59(4), pp. 560-571. http://dx.doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2011.2163628


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Ma, U. 2011. No waste: Managing sustainability in construction. Surrey, Farnham: Gower Publishing Limited.

Memon, A.H., Abdul-Rahman, I., Zainun, N.Y. & Abd-Karim, A.T. 2013. Web-based risk assessment technique for time and cost overrun (WRATTCO) – A framework. In: Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences 129, pp. 178-185. Publising the proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Innovation, Management and Technology Research, 22-23 September, Malaysia.

Nagapan, S., Abdul-Rahman, I. & Asmi, A. 2012. Factors contributing to physical and non-physical waste generation in construction industry. International Journal of Advances in Applied Sciences (IJAAS), 1(1), pp. 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.11591/ijaas.v1i1.476

Nagapan, S., Abdul-Rahman, I., Asmi, A., Memon, A.H. & Latif, I. 2012. Issues on construction waste: The need for sustainable waste management. In: 2012 IEEE Colloquium on Humanities, Science and Engineering (CHUSER), 3-4 December, Kota Kinabalu, Sobah, Malaysia. New York: IEEE explore, pp. 325-330.

Nega, F. 2008. Causes and effects of cost overrun on public building construction projects in Ethopia. Unpublished thesis (MSc). Ethopia, Addis Ababa University: School of Graduate Studies.

Oladiran, O.J. 2009. Causes and minimization techniques of materials waste in Nigerian construction process. In: Birgonul, M.T., Azhar, S., Ahmed, S.M., Dikmen, I. & Budayan, C. (Eds). Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Construction in the 21st Century (Collaboration and Integration in Engineering, Management and Technology), 20-22 May, Istanbul, Turkey. Miami, Florida: CITC-V, pp. 1686-1692.

Olawale, Y.A. & Sun, M. 2010. Cost and time control of construction projects: Inhibiting factors and mitigating measures in practice. Construction Management and Economics, 28(5), pp. 509-526. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01446191003674519

Osmani, M. 2011. Construction waste. In: Letcher, T.M. & Vallero. D. (Eds). Waste: A handbook for management. San Diego, California: Academic Press, an imprint of Elsevier, pp. 207-218. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-381475-3.10015-4

Ping,T.S., Omran, A. & Pakir, A.H.K. 2009. Material wastage in Malaysian construction industry. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Economics and Administration (ICEA-FAA 2009), 14-15 November, Faculty of Business and Administration, University


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of Bucharest, Romania. University of Bucharest, Romania: Cartea Publishing house, pp. 257-264.

Shanmugapriya, S. & Subramanian, K. 2013. Investigation of significant factors affecting time and cost overrun in Indian construction projects. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering, 3(10), pp. 734-740.

Shrestha, P.P., Burns, L.A. & Shields, D.R. 2013. Magnitude of construction cost and schedule overruns in public work projects. Journal of Construction Engineering, 2013, pp. 1-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2013/935978

Tam, V.W.Y. 2008. On the effectiveness in implementing a waste-management-plan method in construction. Waste Management, 28(6), pp. 1072-1080. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2007.04.007

Ubani, E.C., Okorocha, K.A. & Emeribe, S.C. 2011. Analysis of factors influencing time and cost overrun on construction projects in South Eastern Nigeria. International Journal of Management Sciences and Business Research, 2(2), pp. 73-84.

Yuan, H., Lu, W. & Hao, J.J. 2013. The evolution of construction waste sorting on-site. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 20(2013), pp. 483-490. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.12.012

114

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ACTA STRUCTILIA

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Referente en konsultante • Referees and consultants

Emer Prof. Dries Hauptfleisch (CEO: Group of Companies, Johannesburg, South Africa

Emer Prof. Rob Pearl (Consultant for the quantity surveying profession, Durban, South Africa)

Prof. Low Sui Pheng (Department of Building, National University of Singapore, Hong Kong)

Prof. George Ofori (Department of Building, School of Design and Environment, National University of Singapore, Singapore)

Prof. Fidelis Emuze (Department of Built Environment, Central University of Technology, Free State, South Africa)

Prof. Pieter Blignaut (Department of Computer Science and Informatics, University of the Free State, South Africa) UFS

Prof. Theo Haupt (Director: Pinnacle Research and Development Solutions, Penhill, South Africa)

Dr Taryn Barnard (Graduate School of Technology Management, University of Pretoria, South Africa)

Dr Kofi Agyekum (Department of Building Technology, College of Art and Built Environment, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana)

Dr Spencer Lazarus (Consultant: Facilities Management and project management, Port Elizabeth, South Africa)

Dr Innocent Musonda (Department of the Quantity Surveying and Construction Management, University of Johannesburg, South Africa)

Dr Benita Zulch (Programme Director: Department of Quantity Surveying and Construction Management, University of the Free State, South Africa)

Dr Werner van Antwerpen (Growthpoint Properties, Sandton, South Africa)

Dr Prashant Das (Real Estate Finance, Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne, Lausanne, Suisse, Switzerland)

Dr Gerhard Brümmer (Executive - AECOM Engineering Company, PCC Central, Africa)

Mr Mark Massyn (Construction Economics and Management, University of Cape Town, South Africa)

Inhoud • Contents

Navorsingsartikels • Research articlesA proposed model for construction project BG Zulch 1 management communication in the South African construction industry

Exploring the influence of instant messaging and TJ Bond-Barnard 36 video conferencing on the quality of L Fletcher project communication H Steyn

Ineffective programme management on the LG Mabona 70 delivery of health infrastructure projects: MW Shakantu A case of the Northern Cape

Oorsigartikel • Review articleThe contributions of construction material waste I Saidu 99 to project cost overruns in Abuja, MW Shakantu Nigeria and potential uses

Inligting aan outeurs • Information for authors 114

Acta Structilia 2016:23 (1) ISSN 1023-0564 e-ISSN 2415-0487

Acta Structilia is endorsed by the South African Council for the Quantity Surveying Profession (SACQSP) for promoting research and Continuing Professional Development (CPD).

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