advanced topics in search theory 3: concurrent search

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Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

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Page 1: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Advanced Topics in Search Theory

3: Concurrent Search

Page 2: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Theme Paper

• The Economics of Information – George Stigler, 1961

Page 3: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

שונות מחירים

מדוע מוכרים שונים קובעים מחירים שונים •לאותו מוצר הומוגני?

שונות המחירים כמדד לחוסר המידע בשוק •

כאשר יש שונות גדולה במחירים, כדאי לדגום •מספר מוכרים

Page 4: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

דוגמה

המוכרים מתחלקים )באופן שווה( בין כאלה • עבור המוצר וכאלה המבקשים 2$המבקשים

3$

מהי התפלגות המחיר המינימלי אם דוגמים •מספר מוכרים?

0.75*2+0.25*30.875*2+0.125*3

Page 5: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Distribution of the Minimum Price

N

xy

N

NN

dyyfxF

xxxPxF

)(111

,,min 1

11 NNN xFxNf

dx

xdFxf

fN)x(fN)x(

Page 6: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

תוחלת מינימום המחיר

uniform distributionדוגמה – •

y

NN

NNN

dyyyfxE

xFxNfdx

xdFxf 11

1

0

1

1

1

1

1111

1

y

N

y

NN

NN

NNN

dyyyNdyyyfxE

xNxf

xxFxF

xxF

xfP=1

0 1

f(x)

0 1

F(x)

1

1

Page 7: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

תוחלת מינימום המחיר (המשך)

• You can easily check this with Excel…• Can you guess what is EN(x) for the maximum of a

sample?

1

0

11y

N

y

NN dyyyNdyyyfxE

1

1

1

1011

1,1

1,

1

0

11

0

1

0

1

N

N

ydyyyyxE

yNdvdu

yvyu

N

y

NNN

N

N

Page 8: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

התועלת שבדגימה נוספת

(Robert Solowיורד בקצב קטן )הוכחה על-ידי •

?

1

1

1

1

dN

xdE

xFxyNfdyyyfxE

xFxNfdx

xdFxf

N

y

N

y

NN

NNN

Page 9: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

עלות החיפוש

בד"כ פרופורציונאלית למספר המוכרים •שנדגום

כמות החיפוש האופטימלית תתקבל על-ידי •השוואת הרווח השולי מחיפוש נוסף ועלות

החיפוש

N

cost of search

marginal benefit

Page 10: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Sequential Search

• Expected benefit when using sequential search with reservation value:

• And when searching for minimal price:

V (x)

c yf (y)dyyx

1 F(x)

)(

)(

)( 0

xF

dyyyfc

xV

x

y

)())(1()()(0

xVxFdyyyfcxVx

y

V (x) c yf (y)dyyx

F(x)V (x)

Page 11: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Sequential Search

• We also know that V(x*)=x*

xy

dyyFc )(1

x

y

dyyFc0

)(

searching for minimumsearching for maximum

Page 12: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

איזו שיטה עדיפה?

• Take the uniform distribution as an example:– One-sample strategy:

overall expected cost: – Sequential search:

1

1

1

111

NNNNxExEc NN

012 cNcN

c

cccN

2

42

cNxEN )(

)(2

2)(

0

2

0

xVcx

xdyyFc

x

x

x

y

Page 13: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Comparison

• Sequential search is always better (why?)• Unless what?

Page 14: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

דוגמה

ל- 50מחירים מתפלגים בצורה אחידה בין • )רציף(100

דולר1עלות כל מחיר נוסף – •

1

50

1

5050

50501

NNNNxExEc NN

50 100

f)x(

0.02

1

5050

N

xEN

6.6N

N=5: E_5+5=63.33N=6: E_6+6=63.14N=7: E_7+7=63.25

Page 15: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

EN+N

N

Page 16: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

בו-זמנית?Nמתי נעדיף לדגום

מועמד השולח בקשות למספר מוסדות•

חברה הפונה למספר ספקים לקבל הצעות•

תהליך הבודק מספר שרתים בו זמנית•

Page 17: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

תוחלת של מקסימום

NNN xFxxxPxF ,,max 1

1 NNN xFxNf

dx

xdFxf

Page 18: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

תוחלת של מקסימום (המשך)

: 1 ל- 0עבור התפלגות אחידה בין •

y

NN dyyyfxE

1

N

NxEN

xEN

N

Page 19: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Problem 1

• You are about to purchase an iPod touch over the internet

• You estimate the price distribution of the product over the different sellers to be uniform between 200-300 dollars

• You can search by yourself, by visiting different web-sites – the cost of time for obtaining a price quote is $1

• How will you search? What will be your expected cost? What’s the mean of the number of merchants you’ll visit?

Page 20: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Problem 1 (cont.)

• Alternatively, you can access one of the comparison-shopping web-sites over the internet– Web-site “A” offers you searching 100 web-sites

for a total of $10 (average of 10 cent per searched site).

– Web-site “B” offers you searching 20 web-sites for a total of $2 (average of 10 cent per searched site)

Page 21: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Solution

• The minimum of a sample of size 100 can be calculated using:

y

NN

NNN

dyyyfxE

xFxNfdx

xdFxf 11

99

99

1

01.03

201.0101.0*100

1

x

x

xFxNfdx

xdFxf NN

N

NN xFxF 11

therwise 0

300x200 01.0

300 x 1

200 x 0

300x200 200*01.0

)(

of(x)

x

xF

Page 22: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Solution (cont.)

• Calculating the expected minimum:

Integration by parts:

9901.03 xxfN

300

200

9901.03yy

NN dyyydyyyfxE

99100 01.03,01.03

1,

ydvyv

duyu

99.200

01.1

1200

01.1

01.03)]200(0[

01.0301.0301.03

300

200

101

300

200

100300

200100

300

200

99

y

y

y

y

N

y

dyyyydyyyxE

Page 23: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Solution (cont.)• 214.14>200.99+10• So we better take this offer…• and here is a simpler way to come up with

that:– The minimum of 100 quotes is very close to the

200 lower bound– In fact, we know for the uniform distribution that:

200 300

f)x(

0.01 NN

xEN1

1

1

In the 201 vicinity

Page 24: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

It can become even simpler…

• In our problem:

0 1

f)x(

1

200 300

f)x(

0.01

100*1

1200

N

xEN

Page 25: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Solution for web-site B

• Conclusion: it’s better to use web-site B

76.204100*1

1200

N

xEN

1099.200276.204

Page 26: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Problem 1 (cont.)

• What would be the break-even cost of search c, for which we’ll prefer to search by ourselves?

Page 27: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Solution

x

y

dyyFc0

)(

76.206

200

201.0y

xc

2285.02005.0201.076.206

2002

76.206

200

xxxcy

Page 28: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

מודל משולב

α+βN הזדמנויות היא: Nעלות דגימה של •G(x) ו- g(x)ערך דגימה מגיע מהתפלגות •מינימום המדגם הוא:•

FN(y) ו- fN(y)פונקציית התפלגות המינימום:•

תוחלת המינימום:•

אינסופיhorizonה- •

x0

NN xxY ,,min 1

NN YE

NN yGyF )(11)( 1)(1)()( NN yGyNgyf

Page 29: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

אסטרטגיה אופטימלית

, ניתן:Nלאחר קבלת מדגם בגודל • YNלסיים החיפוש ולשלם – α+βN, ולשלם שובNלבקש מדגם נוסף בגודל –

האסטרטגיה האופטימלית מאופיינת על-ידי •:*(N*,x)הצמד

–N*גודל המדגם האופטימלי שיש לעבוד לפיו - –x* -ה - reservation valueבו יש להשתמש

אינם תלויים באיטרציית *x ו- *Nשאלה: מדוע •החיפוש בה אנו מצויים )כלומר בזמן(?

Page 30: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Analysis

• For fixed (arbitrary) N, VN(x) is the expected search cost (until the search is terminated) using the rule:– Terminate search if YN≤x

– Resume search otherwise

• Notice that:

Page 31: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Analysis

• The expected cost is thus:

• Notice that:

(this is very intuitive)

Page 32: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Analysis

• Also notice:

32

)(

)(

)( 0

xF

dyyyfN

xVN

x

y

N

Bernoulli trial is an experiment whose outcome is random and can be either of two possible outcomes, "success" and "failure".

Page 33: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Analysis

Page 34: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Analysis

• Proof:

)(

)(

)( 0

xF

dyyyfN

xVN

x

y

N

Page 35: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

The Quasi-Convex Function

Page 36: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Strictly Decreasing Cost Function

• If VN‘(x)=0 does not exist over [0,A] then either:– VN(x) is strictly increasing

– VN(x) is strictly decreasing

• From , the sign of VN‘(x) is determined by , and from the sign is negative

Page 37: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Strictly Decreasing Cost Function

Page 38: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Strictly Decreasing Cost Function

Proof:For any value x≥A, (why?)Therefore, VN(x) strictly decreases in x if and

only if A-VN(A) < 0 which is equivalent to

Page 39: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Example – uniform distribution•(0.01=, 0.002=, N=3)

0.050

0.150

0.250

0.350

n=1

n=2

n=4

n=6

n=10

xVN

CLT

0.085

0.093

0.101

0.109

0.117

n=6

n=10

n=12

n=14

n=18

xVN

CLT

α+βN

Page 40: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

2001אפריל 30

**)( xxV )(xV

)( RVx *x

xxV xxV

התחום בו מצוי הפתרון

Solution Algorithm

NN

N

NN

Page 41: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Finding x*

• What if α, β, N increase?

Page 42: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Finding N*

• The trivial way:– Set N = 1 and calculate V1(x)=x1 Then set N = 2 and

calculate V2(x)=x1 and so on. Then choose a sample size N* for which the value of the cost function is minimal

– How long should we continue with this?

–We know that and Also, clearly: and therefore:

1* 1N

Page 43: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Algorithmic approach for N*

Proof:

Therefore:

Page 44: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

• Similarly:

• Now, let’s assume and show that:

• According to theassumption:

Page 45: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

• If (i.e., otherwise):

• Therefore:

Page 46: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

however notice that:non-negative, strictly decreasing in kHence:

Which leads to a contradiction!

Implication: just check for increasing N values until you see an increase

kkk yGyGyFyF 11

Page 47: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Special cases

• What is the optimal sample size for α=0? β=0?

Page 48: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search
Page 49: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Calculating the variance

Page 50: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

)()(1

)()(12)(2

2

xFxLxYYE

xFxVxYYENNxL

NNNN

NNNNN

)()(1

)()(2)(2

2

xFxLxYYE

NxFxVNNxL

NNNN

NNN

)(

2

)( 0

2

xF

dyyfyNxVN

xLN

x

NN

N

Page 51: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search
Page 52: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search
Page 53: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search
Page 54: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Finite Decision Horizon

• What would be the solution in the “regular” sequential search?

• For the multi-sample case, the solution via backward induction:– For k=1 (one period remaining) – it’s the one

sample problem– For k=2: the decision maker will follow the rule:

• If then stop; otherwise take an additional sample of N1*

Page 55: Advanced Topics in Search Theory 3: Concurrent Search

Finite Decision Horizon