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PRO Transgenics

The arguments that have been put forward for the use of GMOs in agriculture include:

Better resistance to stress: If crops can be made more resistant to pest outbreaks, it would reduce

the danger of crop failure. Similar benefits could result from better resistance to severe weather,

such as frost, extreme heat or drought - although this would require manipulation of complex

combinations of genes and appropriate pest management practices to avoid excessive selection

pressure on the pest.

More nutritious staple foods: By inserting genes into crops such as rice and wheat, we can

increase their food value. For example, genes responsible for producing the precursor of vitamin

A have been inserted into rice plants, which have higher levels of vitamin A in their grain. This

is called Golden Rice. As rice feeds more than 50 percent of the world's population, it could help

reduce vitamin A deficiency, which is a serious problem in the developing world. Many other

similar products aimed at bio-fortification are in the production pipeline.

More productive farm animals: Genes might be inserted into cattle to raise their milk yield, for

example.

More food from less land: Improved productivity from GMOs might mean that farmers in the

next century won't have to bring so much marginal land into cultivation.

GMOs might reduce the environmental impact of food production and industrial processes:

Genetically engineered resistance to pests and diseases could greatly reduce the chemicals needed

for crop protection, and it is already happening. Farmers are growing maize, cotton and potatoes

that no longer have to be sprayed with the bacterial insecticide Bacillus thuringiensis - because

they produce its insecticidal agent themselves. Scientists are developing trees that have a lower

content of lignin, a structuring constituent of woody plant cells. This could reduce the need for

noxious chemicals in pulp and paper production. These developments could not only reduce

environmental impact - they could also improve the health of farm and industrial workers.

Rehabilitation of damaged or less-fertile land: Large areas of cropland in the developing world

have become saline by unsustainable irrigation practices. Genetic modification could produce

salt-tolerant varieties. Trees might also be improved or modified to become more tolerant of salt

and drought. They might also be selected or bred for rehabilitation of degraded land. While there

is some advanced research in this area, salt and drought tolerance are the result of quite complex

gene combinations, and positive results will take longer than those providing insecticide and

herbicide resistance.

Bioremediation: Rehabilitation of damaged land may also become possible through organisms

bred to restore nutrients and soil structure.

Longer shelf lives: The genetic modification of fruits and vegetables can make them less likely

to spoil in storage or on the way to market. This could expand trade opportunities as well as reduce

massive wastage incurred in transport and supply.

Biofuels: Organic matter could be bred to provide energy. Plant material fuel, or biomass, has

enormous energy potential. For example, the waste from sugar cane or sorghum can provide

energy, especially in rural areas. It may be possible to breed plants specifically for this purpose.

And other unexpected, useful products could prove of huge value.

Potential benefits for human health

Investigation of diseases with genetic fingerprinting: "Fingerprinting" of animal and plant

diseases is already possible. This technique allows researchers to know exactly what an organism

is by looking at its genetic blueprint. One benefit may be that veterinary staff can know whether

an animal is carrying a disease or has simply been vaccinated - preventing the need to kill healthy

animals.

Vaccines and medicines: Similar to the long-established development of biotechnological

vaccines for humans, the use of molecular biology to develop vaccines and medicines for farm

animals is proving quite successful and holds great promise for the future. Plants are being

engineered to produce vaccines, proteins and other pharmaceutical products. This process is

called "pharming".

Identification of allergenic genes: Although some are worried about the transfer of allergenic

genes (see Brazil nut example under arguments against GMOs), molecular biology could also be

used to characterize allergens and remove them. Indeed, the Brazil nut incident actually led to

identification of the allergenic protein.

AGAINST TRANSGENICS

Genes can end up in unexpected places: Through "gene escape" they can pass on to

other members of the same species and perhaps other species. Genes introduced in

GMOs are no exception, and interactions might occur at gene, cell, plant and

ecosystem level. Problems could result if, for example, herbicide-resistance genes got

into weeds. So far, research on this is inconclusive, with scientists divided - often

bitterly. But there is scientific consensus that once widely released, recalling

transgenes or foreign DNA sequences, whose safety is still subject to scientific debate,

will not be feasible.

Genes can mutate with harmful effect: It is not yet known whether artificial insertion

of genes could destabilize an organism, encouraging mutations, or whether the

inserted gene itself will keep stable in the plant over generations. There is no

conclusive data on this issue.

"Sleeper" genes could be accidentally switched on and active genes could become

"silent": Organisms contain genes that are activated under certain conditions -- for

example, under attack from pathogens or severe weather. When a new gene is

inserted, a "promoter" gene is also inserted to switch it on. This could activate a

"sleeper" gene in inappropriate circumstances. This is especially relevant in long-

lived organisms - such as trees. Sometimes the expression of genes is even "silenced"

as a result of unknown interactions with the inserted gene.

Interaction with wild and native populations: GMOs could compete or breed with

wild species. Farmed fish, in particular, may do this. GM crops could pose a threat to

crop biodiversity, especially if grown in areas that are centres of origin of that crop.

In addition, GM crops could compete with and substitute traditional farmers' varieties

and wild relatives that have been bred, or evolved, to cope with local stresses. For

example, local varieties in Latin America permitted the recovery from the catastrophic

potato blight in Ireland in the 1840s. Today such plants often help improve climate

tolerance and disease resistance. If genetically modified crop varieties substitute

them, they could be lost, but the same applies to improved varieties developed by

conventional breeding methods.

Impact on birds, insects and soil biota: Potential risks to non-target species, such as

birds, pollinators and micro-organisms, is another important issue. Nobody quite

knows the impact of horizontal flow of GM pollen to bees' gut or of novel gene

sequences in plants to fungi and soil and rumen bacteria. Besides, it is feared that

widespread use of GM crops could lead to the development of resistance in insect

populations exposed to the GM crops. Planting "refuge" areas with insect-susceptible

varieties is advised to reduce the risk of insect populations evolving resistance due to

the widespread growing of GMO Bt-crops.

Transfer of allergenic genes: These could be accidentally transferred to other species,

causing dangerous reactions in people with allergies. For example, an allergenic

Brazil-nut gene was transferred into a transgenic soybean variety. Its presence was

discovered during the testing phase, however, and the soybean was not released.

Mixing of GM products in the food chain: Unauthorized GM products have appeared

in the food chain. For example, the GM maize variety Starlink, intended only for

animal feed, was accidentally used in products for human consumption. Although

there was no evidence that Starlink maize was dangerous to humans, strict processing

controls may be required to avoid similar cases in the future.

Transfer of antibiotic resistance: Genes that confer antibiotic resistance are inserted

into GMOs as "markers" to indicate that the process of gene transfer has succeeded.

Concerns have been expressed about the possibility that these "marker genes" could

confer resistance to antibiotics. This approach is now being replaced with the use of

marker genes that avoid medical or environmental hazards.

Loss of farmers' access to plant material: Biotechnology research is carried out

predominantly by the private sector and there are concerns about market dominance

in the agricultural sector by a few powerful companies. This could have a negative

impact on small-scale farmers all over the world. Farmers fear that they might even

have to pay for crop varieties bred from genetic material that originally came from

their own fields when they buy seeds from companies holding patents on specific

genetic modification "events". Some argue that the World Trade Organization's

agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) encourages this,

but there are options to protect farmers' traditional practices within that agreement.

Also, the new International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and

Agriculture recognizes the contributions of farmers to the conservation and use of

plant genetic resources over time and for future generations. It provides for an

international framework to regulate access to plant genetic resources and establishes

a mechanism to share the benefits derived from their use.

Intellectual property rights could slow research: The proprietary nature of

biotechnology products and processes may prevent their access for public-sector

research. This might have a stronger negative impact in developing countries where

no private research initiatives are in place. In addition, most developing countries still

do not provide patent protection to biotechnological products and technologies.

Because patents have a national scope, the entry of products developed through

proprietary biotechnologies could be prevented in those external markets where patent

protection exists.

Impact of "terminator" technologies: Although these are still under development and

have not yet been commercialized, they would, if applied, prevent a crop from being

grown the following year from its own seed. This means that farmers could not save

seeds for planting the next season. Some believe that this technology, also known as

the Technology Protection System, could have the advantage of preventing out-

crossing of GM seeds.

EVOLUTION CONCEPTS 1

Retrieved from: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_02

University of California Museum of Paleontology's Understanding Evolution (http://evolution.berkeley.edu)


Montgomerey, Stephen. Retrieved from: http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk/pages/index.php?page_id=j2

2.1 What Is Evolution?

Evolution is the slow process that changes animals and plants and it’s a great piece of science! It describes

loads of things in nature like fossils, peacocks' tails, lions’ teeth, birds’ wings and human brains, just to

name a few. It is also supported by lots and lots of evidence that has been collected by scientists for more

than 150 years! Some people think it’s not true. They prefer religious explanations of why nature is like it is,

but the evidence says that evolution is the real explanation.

2.2 What is a species?

A species is a group of animals or plants that are very similar. Members of a species share the same

characteristics. For example the species pet cats belong to all have sharp teeth, retractable claws, fur, a tail

and the same number of toes and nipples. Members of our own species, Homo sapiens, to give it its proper

name all walk upright, have some sharp teeth and some flat ones, our eyes point forwards, we have some

hair but not all over and we have pretty big brains!

Scientists often decide whether two groups of animals or plants are different species by working out whether

or not they can mate with each other. If you try and get a rose to make seeds with a cabbage it won’t work:

they are separate species. If you try and get a rose to make seeds with another rose that will work: they are

the same species even if they look quite a lot different!

Of course you can’t go around trying to force lots of animals and plants to mate with each other! Scientists

can use other more subtle measures, for example if two groups of birds look really similar but sing different

songs and don’t seem to find each other attractive, it's a good bet they are different species.

2.3 How Do Species Evolve?

All species are related to each other. If you trace your family tree back through your parents, grandparents

etc. it will quite quickly join up with your cousin’s family tree. If you keep going back far enough,

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/evo_02

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/

http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk/pages/index.php?page_id=j2

eventually your tree will join up with that of a chimpanzee! Keep going and it will join up with your pet

hamsters, further still with your pet cats. Keep going and eventually it will join up with your pet goldfish

and if you really keep going for a long time you can trace it back so it joins up with an apple tree’s family

tree, and eventually bacteria will join up too!

So what makes all the species different? Charles Darwin had the answer! Animals and plants produce too

many offspring. Think about how many tadpoles you see at the start of spring, and how few frogs you see at

the end of spring. A lot of them die, because there is not enough food to go around. Of course they all try

their best to get all the food they need, so they have to compete with each other.

Darwin realized all the members of a species are unique, and they are all slightly different. Sometimes this

can be the difference between life and death! Think about a bird, which eats seeds, which have a tough case

like a nut. When nuts are in short supply only the really strong birds with big beaks will be able to crack

them open and eat them. Since they get more food, they will be less likely to starve or get sick.

Now, since offspring inherit a lot of their characteristics from their parents birds with big beaks will have

chicks that grow up to have big beaks too. So over many generations the average beak size in that group of

birds, which struggle to crack tough nuts, will increase. Each generation changes by a really little bit, but all

these changes can be added up over time to make a big difference: that’s evolution! Darwin called this

process natural selection.


Montgomerey, Stephen. Retrieved from: http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk/pages/index.php?page_id=j2

3.1 How Do We Know?

Darwin’s ideas have been about for 150 years, and they haven’t always been popular. At first scientists

played around with several different ideas. But scientists are picky people who love testing ideas and finding

lots of different types of evidence to help explain things. After 150 years of hard work, scientists are now

sure Darwin was right and that life has evolved by natural selection. So what's the evidence?

3.2 A Blast from the Past!

Fossils are the remains of animals and plants, which died and were buried. Over millions of years they can

be turned to rock. The earth’s crust doesn’t stay still. It consists of lots of slabs of rock, called ‘plates’,

which float on a layer of molten rock – just like ice on a lake (except hot!). These plates move very slowly

around the globe, they can also be lifted up or pushed down if they collide with each other.

If a fossil is in a piece of rock being lifted up, and if we are very lucky, it might appear on the surface and

some fortunate fellow might find it. The fossil record is quite incomplete; it doesn’t record every species that

has ever lived. You can imagine why with all that molten rock and huge pressure! But we do have lots of

evidence to support Darwin’s ideas. We have fossils of very simple life forms that date back to 3.5 billion

years ago! That’s 3,500,000,000! As you go through the fossil record, towards the present day, more groups

appear; plants, trees, flowers, animals, fish, amphibians, reptiles, mammals all pop up.

In some cases we have been very lucky and the fossil record has preserved an animal or plant that links two

different groups. These ‘intermediates’ show evolution caught in the act! One good example is the evolution

of four legged, land living animals from fish. Creatures like Tiktaalik and Ichthyostega look a lot like a fish

with flimsy legs, and they are actually the link between fish and amphibians! Animals like these lived at the

waters edge about 375 million years ago, first propping themselves up on their front legs to gulp in air, then

eventually evolving limbs which they could use to walk.

3.3 DNA: It's In The Blood!

Scientists have developed ways of taking DNA from an animal or plant cell and ‘sequencing’ or reading it.

When you do this you can compare the DNA of lots of different living creatures. Amazingly, you find some

of the same chunks of DNA in bacteria as in humans. When you look at more closely related organisms you

http://darwin200.christs.cam.ac.uk/pages/index.php?page_id=j2

can see their DNA is increasingly similar. Famously the DNA sequences of humans and chimpanzees are

about 97% identical.

3.4 Evolution in Action!

DNA and fossils give us clues about the past, but evolution still happens! It’s ongoing and will keep going

for as long as life exists and we can even see it happening! One of the best examples comes from a bunch of

birds on the Galapagos Islands known as Darwin’s Finches because they helped to make Darwin think about

evolution when he saw them during his round the world trip.

Researchers on the Galapagos Islands have been watching these birds very carefully since the 1970s. Each

year they capture every single bird on the island called Daphne, and measure all their bits and bobs. They

pay particular attention to their beaks because these birds feed on seeds that fall on the ground and have hard

outer cases, which have to be cracked open to get at the good bit inside.

The scientists watched the birds during a drought, when seeds got very scarce. After a year only the toughest

seeds were left, the ones no bird bothered to try and crack before. Many birds started to starve and die. The

ones that survived had the biggest beaks and were able to crack the tougher nuts. They got enough food to

mate, and their offspring inherited their big beaks. After the drought ended the researchers compared the

average beak sizes before and after. The birds alive after the drought had beaks that were 1-2mm bigger than

those that had died. That might seem small but it was the difference between life and death! And 1mm is a

big increase for a beak that was only 3mm thick to begin with!


Retrieved from: http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0932663.html

4.1 The Fossil Record

Fossils are the remains or impressions of living things hardened in rock. All living organisms have not been

preserved in the fossil record; in fact, most have not because very specific conditions must exist in order to

create fossils. Even so, the fossil record provides a fairly good outline of human evolutionary history.

The earliest humans were found in Africa, which is where much of human evolution occurred. The fossils of

these early hominids, which lived 2 to 6 million years ago, all come from that continent. Most scientists

believe early humans migrated out of Africa into Asia between 2 million and 1.7 million years ago, entering

Europe some time within the past 1 million years. What follows are some highlights of the early human

species that have been identified by scientists to date.

4.2 Australopithecines

An African apelike species evolved probably around 6 million years ago with two skeletal characteristics

that set it apart from apes: small canine teeth (the teeth on either side of the four front teeth) compared to the

long canines found in almost all other primates, and, most importantly, bipedalism or walking on two legs as

the primary mode of locomotion.

The name Australopithecine means “southern ape,” in reference to South Africa where the first known

fossils were found. Many more australopith fossils have been found in the Great Rift Valley in eastern

Africa, in countries including Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, and Chad.

The very early years of the transition from ape to human, from 6 million to 4 million years ago, is poorly

documented in the fossil record, but those fossils that have been discovered document the most primitive

combinations of ape and human features.

Probably the best-known australopith specimen is “Lucy,” the partial skeleton of a female discovered in

1974 in Hadar, Ethiopia. Lucy belongs to a species, Australopithicus afarensis, which thrived in eastern

Africa between 3.9 million and 3 million years ago. Scientists have found several hundred A. afarensis

fossils in Hadar. Lucy lived 3.2 million years ago.

Another very exciting A. afarensis site was discovered in northern Tanzania at Laetoli. In addition to

fossilized bones of A. afarensis, researchers in 1978 discovered trails of bipedal human footprints preserved

in hardened volcanic ash over 3 million years ago. The footprints provided irrefutable evidence that

australopiths regularly walked upright.

4.3 The Genus Homo

The genus Homo first evolved at least 2.3 million to 2.5 million years ago. The most significant difference

between members of this genus and australopiths, with which they overlapped, was their significantly larger

brains (about 30 percent larger, though still small compared to modern humans).

Scientists divide the evolution of the modern human genus into three rough periods: early, middle, and late.

Species of early Homo, among them Homo habilis, resembled australopiths in many distinct ways, but they

had smaller teeth and jaws, more modern-looking feet, and hands capable of making tools.

They probably lived from between 2.5 or 2.3 million and 1.6 million years ago. The middle Homo species,

including Homo erectus, evolved anatomically to be more similar to modern humans but their brains were

relatively small (though bigger than australopiths). They probably overlapped with earlier Homo species, as

they developed perhaps between 2 million and 1.8 million years ago. Homo erectus was a very successful

species of the middle period; fossils have been found throughout Africa, Europe, and much of Asia, and the

species may have survived for more than 1.5 million years.

The final transition, from the middle to late periods, happened about 200,000 years ago. Late Homo species,

including Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, evolved large and complex brains, leading eventually to

language, and developed culture as an increasingly important aspect of human life.

4.4 Homo sapiens

Scientists have dated the oldest known fossils with skeletal features typical of modern humans from 195,000

years ago. Early anatomically modern Homo sapiens fossils have come from sites in Sudan, Ethiopia, South

Africa, and Israel. Many scientists have therefore concluded that modern Homo sapiens evolved in Africa

and began spreading to other parts of the world 90,000 years ago or a little earlier, although whether, how,

why, and when this happened is still in dispute. And it was not until about 40,000 years ago that

anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, emerged. Since that time, human evolution has been

primarily cultural as opposed to biological.

EVOLUTION THEORY: LAMARCK

Retrieved from: http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_09

Early Concepts of Evolution: Jean Baptiste Lamarck

Darwin was not the first naturalist to propose that species changed over time into new species—that life, as

we would say now, evolves. In the eighteenth century, Buffon and other naturalists began to introduce the

idea that life might not have been fixed since creation. By the end of the 1700s, paleontologists had swelled

the fossil collections of Europe, offering a picture of the past at odds with an unchanging natural world. And

in 1801, a French naturalist named Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck took a

great conceptual step and proposed a full-blown theory of evolution.

Lamarck started his scientific career as a botanist, but in 1793 he became one of the founding professors of

the Musee National d'Histoire Naturelle as an expert on invertebrates. His work on classifying worms,

spiders, molluscs, and other boneless creatures was far ahead of his time.

Organisms driven to greater complexity This sort of evolution, for which Lamarck is most famous today, was only one of two mechanisms he

proposed. As organisms adapted to their surroundings, nature also drove them inexorably upward from

simple forms to increasingly complex ones. Like Buffon, Lamarck believed that life had begun through

spontaneous generation. But he claimed that new primitive life forms sprang up throughout the history of

life; today's microbes were simply "the new kids on the block."

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/history_09

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/0_0_0/history_14


Lamarck also proposed that organisms were driven from simple to increasingly more complex forms.

Evolution by natural processes Lamarck was proposing that life took on its current form through natural processes, not through miraculous

interventions. For British naturalists in particular, steeped as they were in natural theology, this was

appalling. They believed that nature was a reflection of God's benevolent design. To them, it seemed

Lamarck was claiming that it was the result of blind primal forces. Rejected by some on religious grounds

and shunned by scientists like Cuvier for lack of deductive rigor in his arguments, Lamarck died in 1829 in

poverty and obscurity.

But the notion of evolution did not die with him. The French naturalist Geoffroy St. Hilaire would champion

another version of evolutionary change in the 1820s, and the British writer Robert Chambers would author a

best-selling argument for evolution in 1844: Vestiges of a Natural Creation. And in 1859, Charles Darwin

would publish the Origin of Species. Lamarck, St. Hilaire, Chambers, and Darwin all had radically different

ideas about how evolution operates, but only Darwin's still have scientific currency today.

Different from Darwin Darwin relied on much the same evidence for evolution that Lamarck did (such as vestigial structures and

artificial selection through breeding), but made completely different arguments from Lamarck. Darwin did

not accept an arrow of complexity driving through the history of life. He argued that complexity evolved

simply as a result of life adapting to its local conditions from one generation to the next, much as modern

biologists see this process. But of course, Darwin's ideas weren't entirely modern either. For example, he

tried on and eventually rejected several different ideas about heredity (including the inheritance of acquired

characteristics, as championed by Lamarck) and never came to any satisfying conclusion about how traits

were passed from parent to offspring.

Lamarckian inheritance is an idea that today is known mainly from textbooks, where it is used to as a

historical contrast for our modern understanding of genetic inheritance, which began with the rediscovery of

Mendel's work in the late 1800s. Despite all he got wrong, Lamarck can be credited with envisioning

evolutionary change for the first time.

EVOLUTION THEORY: DARWIN

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - The PremiseDarwin's Theory of Evolution is the widely held notion that

all life is related and has descended from a common ancestor: the birds and the bananas, the fishes and the

flowers all related. Darwin's general theory presumes the development of life from non-life and stresses a

purely naturalistic (undirected) "descent with modification". That is, complex creatures evolve from more

simplistic ancestors naturally over time. In a nutshell, as random genetic mutations occur within an

organism's genetic code, the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid survival -- a process known


http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/glossary/glossary_popup.php?word=vestigial+structure

http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/glossary/glossary_popup.php?word=artificial+selection


as "natural selection." These beneficial mutations are passed on to the next generation. Over time, beneficial

mutations accumulate and the result is an entirely different organism (not just a variation of the original, but

an entirely different creature).

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Natural Selection While Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a relatively young archetype, the evolutionary worldview itself is as

old as antiquity. Ancient Greek philosophers such as Anaximander postulated the development of life from

non-life and the evolutionary descent of man from animal. Charles Darwin simply brought something new to

the old philosophy -- a plausible mechanism called "natural selection." Natural selection acts to preserve and

accumulate minor advantageous genetic mutations. Suppose a member of a species developed a functional

advantage (it grew wings and learned to fly). Its offspring would inherit that advantage and pass it on to their

offspring. The inferior (disadvantaged) members of the same species would gradually die out, leaving only

the superior (advantaged) members of the species. Natural selection is the preservation of a functional

advantage that enables a species to compete better in the wild. Natural selection is the naturalistic equivalent

to domestic breeding. Over the centuries, human breeders have produced dramatic changes in domestic

animal populations by selecting individuals to breed. Breeders eliminate undesirable traits gradually over

time. Similarly, natural selection eliminates inferior species gradually over time.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - Slowly But Surely... Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a slow gradual process. Darwin wrote, "…Natural selection acts only by

taking advantage of slight successive variations; she can never take a great and sudden leap, but must

advance by short and sure, though slow steps. Thus, Darwin conceded that, "If it could be demonstrated that

any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight

modifications, my theory would absolutely break down." Such a complex organ would be known as an

"irreducibly complex system". An irreducibly complex system is one composed of multiple parts, all of

which are necessary for the system to function. If even one part is missing, the entire system will fail to

function. Every individual part is integral. Thus, such a system could not have evolved slowly, piece by

piece. The common mousetrap is an everyday non-biological example of irreducible complexity. It is

composed of five basic parts: a catch (to hold the bait), a powerful spring, a thin rod called "the hammer," a

holding bar to secure the hammer in place, and a platform to mount the trap. If any one of these parts is

missing, the mechanism will not work. Each individual part is integral. The mousetrap is irreducibly

complex.

Darwin's Theory of Evolution - A Theory in Crisis Darwin's Theory of Evolution is a theory in crisis in light of the tremendous advances we've made in

molecular biology, biochemistry and genetics over the past fifty years. We now know that there are in fact

tens of thousands of irreducibly complex systems on the cellular level. Specified complexity pervades the

microscopic biological world. Molecular biologist Michael Denton wrote, "Although the tiniest bacterial

cells are incredibly small, weighing less than 10-12 grams, each is in effect a veritable micro-miniaturized

factory containing thousands of exquisitely designed pieces of intricate molecular machinery, made up

altogether of one hundred thousand million atoms, far more complicated than any machinery built by man

and absolutely without parallel in the non-living world."

And we don't need a microscope to observe irreducible complexity. The eye, the ear and the heart are all

examples of irreducible complexity, though they were not recognized as such in Darwin's day. Nevertheless,

Darwin confessed, "To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to

different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and

chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the

highest degree."

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Worksheet 1: Biochemistry

Name:

1. The three types of chemistry are _____________________, ___________________ and

__________________

2. Inorganic chemistry studies molecules found in (living things / non-living things) and that (contain

/ don’t contain) Carbon atoms (C).

3. Match the following definitions with their appropriate terms.

Definition

______Water is attracted to solid surfaces

______Causes molecules to bond

______Dissolves substances

______Ability to spread through fine pores

Terms

A. Solvent

B. Cohesion

C. Adhesion

D. Capillary

4. The polar nature of water causes water molecules to be (attracted / repelled) to one another. The

(positively/ negatively) charged region of one water molecule is attracted to the (positively/

negatively) charged region of another water molecule. This attraction is called a

_____________________, which is the (force/polarity) of attraction between a hydrogen molecule

with a partial (positive / negative) charge and another atom or molecule with a partial or full

negative charge.

5. Describe the characteristics that make Carbon atoms suitable for biological systems

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

6. In a covalent bond (electrons are unevenly shared / protons are unevenly shared / electrons are

evenly shared), meanwhile in an ionic bond (electrons are unevenly shared / protons are unevenly

shared / neutrons are evenly shared).

7. _____________________have multiple Carbons, while _______________________ only have

one Carbon.

8. A triglyceride is composed by 3____________________ and 1 __________________

9. Draw an amino acid molecule and label its main functional groups:

Worksheet 2: Cytology

Name: 1. Cells are __________________________________________________ and they can be both

____________________ and ___________________________.

2. An example of a unicellular organism is:

a. Polar Bear

b. Humans

c. Bacteria

d. Plants

3. An example of a multicellular organism is:

a. Bacteria

b. Polar Bear

c. Archaea

d. An eukaryotic bacteria

4. Describe the major contributions of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek to cell biology.

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

5. Explain how the 3 types of microscopes work and what you can see with each one of them:

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

6. The three postulates of the cell theory state that:

a. _______________________________________________________________

b. _______________________________________________________________

c. _______________________________________________________________

7. Prokaryotes are (complex/simple) cells and they presumably were the (last / first) cells on Earth.

They are characterized for (having / not having) a bounded nucleus.

8. Eukaryotic cells are found in the following kingdoms: ___________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

9. Classify the following graphs as Eukaryote or Prokaryote. Then identify if they are from an animal

cell, plant cell or a bacterium. In the back of the worksheet draw each cell and label its main

parts

Worksheet 3: Molecule Transport

Name: 1. The two roles of the cell membrane in the cell is to _____________________ and

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. The cell membrane is composed by the following biochemical components:

a._________________________ and b. _____________________________.

3. Match the following definitions with their terms

Definitions

Takes in liquids

Molecules move from an area of greater

concentration to lesser concentration.

Mixtures of substances

The same

Removes particles form the cell

Transport that uses chemical energy

Water molecules move from an area of

greater concentration to an area of

lesser concentration

Molecules are equally spread out

Less

Transport that doesn’t use chemical

energy

Takes molecules into the cell

Takes in food

A. Osmosis

B. Active transport

C. Endocytosis

D. ISO

E. Solutions

F. Equilibrium

G. Phagocytosis

H. HYPO

I. Diffusion

J. Pinocytosis

K. Passive transport

L. Exocytosis

4. Write the 2 most important cations that participate in active transport: _______________________

5. Draw an label the parts of the cellular membrane:

Worksheet 4: Nucleic Acids

Name: 1. DNA stands for _______________________________________________________

2. DNA was first discovered in __________________________, but its iconic shape was established

in _____________________________.

3. Nucleotides are the___________________________ of the DNA chain; they are made up of a

__________________________, __________________________, and a ___________________.

4. Describe the shape and structure of the DNA chain.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

5. Complete the following questions about nitrogenous bases:

______________________ is always connected with _________________________

_________________________ is always connected with ______________________

6. What is DNA replication?

_____________________________________________________________________

7. RNA is used for the creation of (proteins/lipids). It’s called the __________________ because it

carries __________________________________________. Unlike DNA, RNA is (single /

double) strained, and instead of thymine (T), it contains _________________. The 3 types of RNA

are_______________________________.

8. Compare and contrast transcription and translation.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

9. Label the parts of the double helix of DNA in the following graph:

Worksheet 5: Cell Cycle (Spiral)

Name: 1. Cell division is the process ______________________________________________. There are

two phases involved __________________________ which accounts for the 90% of the cell’s life

and ________________________.

2. In the first phase

a. Cells copy

b. Cells copy DNA and prepare for

division

c. Cells divide

d. Chromosomes separate

3. In the second phase:

a. Cells copy DNA

b. Cells prepare for division

c. Chromosomes separate into two

cells

d. Cells divide

4. Cells spend more time in mitosis than in (cytokinesis/ interphase/ synthesis).

5. In First growth (G1) ______________________ copies itself, while in second growth (G2) the cell

is ________________________________________________.

6. Chromosomes are ________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

7. Which is the acronym for all the cell cycle phases?

a. PMAT

b. IPMAT

c. IMAPT

d. IMPAT

8. Nuclear division occurs in interphase (TRUE / FALSE)

9. What are checkpoints, and how are they related with apoptosis?

_____________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________

10. Identify the phase of cell division in which the following events happen

i. The nuclear membrane and nucleus disappear ____________________________

ii. The spindle attaches to the kinetochore _________________________________

iii. The spindle forms __________________________________________________

iv. The nuclear membrane and nucleus reappear _____________________________

v. Chromatids separate and microtubules dissasembly ________________________

vi. Chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell ____________________________

vii. Chromosomes disappear and cleavage furrow forms _______________________

viii. The two new cells form ______________________________________________

11. Draw and label a diagram representing a plant cell during interphase and mitosis in the next page.

Worksheet 6: Classic Genetics

Name:

1. Who is considered the father of classic genetics? ________________________________________

2. Genetics is the study of _______________________, which is the passing of

_______________________________________________________________________________.

3. Match the following terms to their definitions

Definitions:

Mixed expression of traits________

Weaker Trait _______

Shows both traits at the same time_______

Stronger trait _______

Terms:

A. Incomplete dominance

B. Co-dominance

C. Dominant

D. Recessive

4. What are alleles? _________________________________________________________________

5. _____________________ means that the alleles are the same, while _____________________

means that the alleles are different.

6. What is genotype? ________________________________________________________________

7. Explain how biotechnology can be useful for medicine and agriculture

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

8. What is the Chi Square (χ2) and why is it used in genetics?

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________________________________

9. For each genotype, indicate whether it is heterozygous (HE) or homozygous (HO)

AA ____

Bb ____

Cc ____

Dd ____

Ee ____

ff ____

GG ____

HH ____

10. For each of the genotypes below, determine the phenotype.

Purple flowers are dominant to white flowers

PP _______________________

Pp________________________

pp ________________________

Brown eyes are dominant to blue eyes

BB ________________________

Bb ________________________

bb ________________________

Round seeds are dominant to wrinkled

RR ________________________

Rr _________________________

rr _________________________

Bobtails are recessive (long tails dominant)

TT ________________________

Tt _________________________

tt __________________________

11. For each phenotype, list the genotypes. (Use the letter of the dominant trait)

Straight hair is dominant to curly.

____________ straight

____________ straight

____________ curly

Pointed heads are dominant to round heads.

____________ pointed

____________ pointed

____________ round

12. Set up the square for each of the crosses listed below. The trait being studied is round seeds

(dominant) and wrinkled seeds (recessive)

Rr x rr

What percentage of the offspring will be

round? _______

Rr x Rr


round? _______

RR x Rr


round? ___________

RW x RW


wrinkled? ______

13. In rabbits, grey hair is dominant to white hair. Also in rabbits, black eyes are

dominant to red eyes.

GG = gray hair

Gg = gray hair

gg = white hair

BB = black eyes

Bb = black eyes

bb = red eyes

14. What are the phenotypes (descriptions) of rabbits that have the following genotypes:

Ggbb ____________________ ggBB ____________________

ggbb ____________________ GgBb ____________________

15. A male rabbit with the genotype GGbb is crossed with a female rabbit with the

genotype ggBb The Square is set up below. Fill it out and determine the phenotypes and

proportions in the offspring.

How many out of 16 have grey fur and black eyes? _____

How many out of 16 have grey fur and red eyes? _______

How many out of 16 have white fur and black eyes? ____

How many out of 16 have white fur and red eyes? ______

16. A male rabbit with the genotype GgBb is crossed with a female rabbit with the

genotype GgBb The square is set up below. Fill it out and determine the phenotypes and

proportions in the offspring.

How many out of 16 have grey fur and black eyes? ____

How many out of 16 have grey fur and red eyes? _____

How many out of 16 have white fur and black eyes? ____

How many out of 16 have white fur and red eyes? _____

Worksheet 7: Evolution

Name: Concept 1: Looking at the cladogram answer the following questions:

1. What is the different trait between the (primate and rabbits) and the (crocodile and birds) groups?

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. What is the different trait between (amphibians) and (primates, rabbits, crocodile and birds)?

_______________________________________________________________________________

3. What is the different trait between the (amphibians) and the (ray fined fish)?

_______________________________________________________________________________

4. And between the sharks and the fish?

_______________________________________________________________________________

5. Why do you think these types of diagrams are developed? How are molecular phylogenetic trees

similar to these diagrams?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Concept 2:

6. In your own words, what is evolution?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

7. What is a species? How do scientists determine whether two species are different?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

8. What did Darwin discover that can be the difference between life and death in species? Use an

example in your answer.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

9. What is natural selection?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Concept 3:

10. What are fossils and how are they formed?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

11. Using a specific example, explain how fossils are used to show evolution.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

12. How is DNA used to show patterns of evolution?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

13. How do Finches in the Galapagos help to show evolution in action?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Concept 4:

14. Who is Lucy? Why is she so important in the evolution discussion?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

15. Complete the following features about the Evolution of hominids

How long ago did

they live? Physical characteristics

Australopithecines

Homo habilis

Homo erectus

Homo sapiens

16. Contrast Darwin’s Theory versus Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet 8: Taxonomy

Name: 1. Why is it necessary for scientists to use scientific names instead of just common names?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Complete the order to how species are classified below

o

o

o

3. How is the scientific name formed? What are the specifics way that it must be written?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

4. What are the criteria to classify species in Kingdoms?

a. _________________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________________

c. _________________________________________________________________

5. Kingdom Monera is formed by ______________________________________________________

6. What is the main difference between Kingdom Protista and Kingdom Monera?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

7. What are the main species found in Kingdom Fungae? ___________________________________

8. What are the differing characteristics found in the Kingdom Plantae?

_______________________________________________________________________________

9. What are the main characteristics of Kingdom Animalia? Give 3 examples of invertebrate animals,

3 terrestrial vertebrate animals and 3 aquatic animals.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

10. What is the scientific name of the modern human being?

Name that Kingdom:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Worksheet 9: Microbiology

Name: 1. What are microbes? _______________________________________________________________

2. Why are microscopes necessary to study microbes?

_______________________________________________________________________________

3. Which are the three groups of microbes?

a. _______________________________________

b. _______________________________________

c. _______________________________________

4. What is the difference between solitary and colonial microbes?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

5. Compare and contrast sexual and asexual reproduction of microbes.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

6. Fungi are (eukaryotes / prokaryotes) and (autotrophs / heterotrophs)

7. Do Fungi need light to live? Describe the type of habitat that fungi need to thrive

_______________________________________________________________________________

8. Hyphae are ______________________________________________________________________

9. What do fungi use as their energy source? _____________________________________________

10. How do they break down food? _____________________________________________________

11. Describe in which ways fungi are harmful and beneficial for humans.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________.

12. Compare and contrast the domains Archaea and Prokarya

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

13. How can bacteria be helpful? What diseases do they cause?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

14. Explain the structure of viruses and how they infect living cells

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

15. Describe the three sub groups of the Kingdom Protista.

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

16. Why horizontal gen transfer is critical in the debate about GMO’s?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

Worksheet 10: Kingdom Plantae

Name: 1. What are the differences between gymnosperms and angiosperms?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Two examples of monocots are ______________________________, meanwhile an example of

two eudicots would be __________________________________________.

3. Explain the process of plant reproduction in eudicots in your own words.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

4. The three parts of a seed are ________________________________________________________

5. What is a vascular system?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

6. Why is a vascular system more important for larger plant species?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

7. Name two types of non-vascular plants.

a. __________________________________

b. __________________________________

8. Do non-vascular plants grow very large? Why or why not?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

9. Compare “thalloid” versus “leafy” liverworts:

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

10. How do hornworts differ from mosses?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

11. Is it necessary for plants to have a vascular system to complete photosynthesis?

____________________________

12. What are the three basic components of all vascular plants?

a. _____________________________

b. _____________________________

c. _____________________________

13. Explain the job of the roots in the plant system.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

14. The job of the stem is to transport ________________________ and ________________ and act

as a ___________________________________________________________________________.

15. The function of leaves is to ________________________________________________________.

16. What are buds? __________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________.

17. Explain how xylem transports water in plants.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

18. How is phloem involved in photosynthesis?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

19. The sporophyte is (haploid / diploid) and reproduces by (mitosis / meiosis), meanwhile the

gametophyte is (diploid / haploid) and reproduces by (meiosis / mitosis).

20. In the space below draw and label the parts an angiosperm. Be sure to include a diagram of the

flower as well as its parts

Question Bank 11: Kingdom Animalia

Name:

1. Complete the following table with the etymology of each word [5 pts]

Porifera porus = _________________ fero= ______________________

Cnidaria knide = _________________

Platyhelminthes platus = ____________________ helmins = ______________________

Rotifera rota = ____________________ fero = ___________________

Mollusca molluscus, mollis = ____________________

Annelida anelles, anulus = _____________________ oda = _______________________

Nematoda nema = ______________________

Arthropoda arthron = ____________________ podos = _________________________

Echinodermata echinos = ____________________ dermatos = ____________________

Chordata chorda = ____________________

2. (Coelomates /Acoelomates/ Pseudocoelomates) are animals without a body cavity. (Coelomates

/Acoelomates/ Pseudocoelomates) are animals whose body cavity is not completely lined by

mesoderm. (Coelomates /Acoelomates/ Pseudocoelomates) have a body cavity completely lined by

mesoderm Most animals have tissues and radial or bilateral symmetry.

__________________symmetry is associated with cephalization. Most animals have a body cavity that

aids movement and the transport of nutrients and wastes [3pts]

3. Suppose you watch a video showing the development of an unknown animal. What clues can the

developmental pattern give you about how this organism is classified? [3pts]

4. List the evidence that biologists use to classify earthworms and snakes in different clades despite the

superficial similarities between these animals. [3pts]

5. If you found a fossil and were not sure whether it was from a reptile or a mammal, how might you

tell the difference? [3pts]

6. If all animals disappeared from the Earth (from Porifera to Mammals), what would the positive and

negative effects be on plants? [3pts]

7. Mammals are (endothermic/ exothermic). (Exothermy /Endothermy) enables mammals to occupy a

range of habitats and sustain strenuous activity, but it requires large amounts of food and oxygen.

(Placental mammals /Monotremes / Marsupials) lay eggs. (Placental mammals /Monotremes /

Marsupials) give birth to young that continue development in the mother’s pouch. (Placental

mammals /Monotremes / Marsupials) typically develop the embryo within the uterus for longer

periods than marsupials do before giving birth [3pts]

8. Describe the main features about birds regarding to reproduction, circulatory system, respiratory

system and external anatomy [3pts]

9. What would happen to a coral reef if pollution or sediment caused the water around the reef to

become less clear? Explain your answer. [3pts]

10. Hookworm infections are extremely common in China, where rice is grown in paddies that are

periodically flooded. Considering what you know about how hookworms invade the human body, why

do you think hookworm infections are so common in this part of the world? [3pts]

11. Clams reproduce by releasing sperm and eggs into the water. How might this process affect the

reproductive success of these mollusks? Would you expect clams to release many sperm and eggs or

only a few? To what Phylum do they belong? [3pts]

12. Arthropods first lived on land about 400 million years ago. They have survived several time

periods in which other Phyla became extinct. What characteristics might have enabled arthropods to

survive and adapt? [3pts]

13. Describe which physical characteristics enable fish to adapt to an aquatic environment. Also

explain how the heart and gills function in fish. [3pts]

14. Some viviparous snakes and lizards live in cold climates. Why might viviparity be advantageous in

such environments? Are reptiles endothermic or exothermic organisms? [3pts]

15. In recent years, surgeons have tried transplanting baboon and pig hearts into humans. Explain why

surgeons tried these hearts rather than a large turtle’s heart. [3pts]

16. When tadpoles undergo metamorphosis, their bodies begin to produce an enzyme that converts

ammonia into urea. The time that a tadpole takes to produce this enzyme varies among species. In the

graph below, the rate of enzyme production is shown for a species that inhabits a desert-like

environment and a species that inhabits a forest environment. Which curve represents which frog?

Explain. [5pts]

17. In the space provided, write the letter of the term or phrase that best describes each numbered item

[5pts].

______ 1. multicellularity

______2. diploid

______3. tissue

______4. radial symmetry

______5. bilateral symmetry

______6. digestive tract

______7. open circulatory system

______8. neuron

______9. exoskeleton

______10. endoskeleton

a. one-way street

b. team

c. reinforcement bars in concrete

d. twins

e. mirror image

f. apartments in apartment building

g. tire pump

h. armor

i. bicycle wheel spokes

j. electrical wire

Worksheet 12: Biomes

Name:

Worksheet 13: Climatographs

Name:

Months of the Year Average Day

Temperature(°C)

Cumulated Bimonthly

Rainfall (cm)

January- February 23 40

March- April 25 70

May-June 26 80

July-August 28 95

September-October 27 110

November-December 24 70

𝑡° =∑ 𝑡°

6 = ∑ 𝑝𝑝 (𝑚𝑚)=

1. Which life zone do you think is represented with the data above? ___________________________

2. Give two examples of where you could find this life zone.

a. ________________________________ b. __________________________________

3. Which months would you considered a. The rainy season _________________________________

b. The dry season_____________________________.

In the space below create a climatograph. On the X axis label the months. On the Y axis (one on each

side) label the temperature and the rainfall.

Months of the Year Average Day

Temperature(°C)

Cumulated Bimonthly

Rainfall (cm)

January- February 15 20

March- April 11 35

May-June 7 40

July-August 5 45

September-October 6 51

November-December 8 33

𝑡° =∑ 𝑡°

6 = ∑ 𝑝𝑝 (𝑚𝑚)=

4. Which life zone do you think is represented with the data above? ___________________________

5. Give two examples of where you could find this life zone.

a. ________________________________ b. __________________________________

6. Which months would you considered a. The rainy season _________________________________

b. The dry season_____________________________.

In the space below create a climatograph. On the X axis label the months. On the Y axis (one on each

side) label the temperature and the rainfall.

Worksheet 14: Nutrient Spirals

Name:

1. What is difference between a food chain and a food web? ________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

2. Autotrophs:

a. Create their own food

b. Photosynthesize

c. Are producers

d. All of the above

3. Heterotrophs must eat (producers / nitrogen / other organisms below in the food chain) as an

energy source.

4. Heterotrophs are producers and always are at the top of the food chain (True / False)

5. Match the term to its definition:

Definition:

______________ Only eats plants

______________ Decompose organic matter

______________ Only eat meat

______________ Eat both plants and meat

Term:

A. Omnivores

B. Carnivores

C. Herbivores

D. Saprophyte

6. In the space below draw the food chain and the corresponding ecological pyramid of a polyfarm of

maize, cucumber and beans. What possible pests and beneficial organisms would you find?

7. What is photosynthesis? What organelle is necessary for photosynthesis?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

8. Complete the chemical reaction of photosynthesis in the spaced below:

________________ + ____________________ _____________________ + ____________

9. Compare and contrast chemosynthesis and photosynthesis.

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

10. Create your own water spiral in the space below. Be sure to label using the appropriate terms.

11. Why is the Nitrogen cycle important to farmers?

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________________________________

12. Write the seven properties of an ecosystem

12.1. ______________________________________________________________________

12.2. ______________________________________________________________________

12.3. ______________________________________________________________________

12.4. ______________________________________________________________________

12.5. ______________________________________________________________________

12.6. ______________________________________________________________________

12.7. ______________________________________________________________________

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