ENVIRONMENTALLYFRIENDLY INLANDWATERWAYSHIPDESIGN FORTHEDANUBERIVER WorldWideFundforNatureInternational DanubeCarpathianProgramme (WWFDCP) ProjectName:DanubeNavigation ProjectNumber:9E0726.04 ContractNumber:066/FY09 ProjectExecutedby:DejanRadojcic ProjectLocation:RepublicofSerbia DateofAgreement:01January2009 ShortDescriptionofAssignment:Developingconcept forshipdesignfortheDanubeRiverconditions

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ABBREVATIONS,ACRONYMSandNOMENCLATURE

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0.

METHODOLOGY 8 TERMSOFREFERENCE9 INTRODUCTION10WhatisanoptimalIWWship? 10 Importanceofthewaterway 11 RestrictionsoftheDanubewaterway(withitstributaries) 11 TheDanube13 SomecriticalpointsontheLowerDanube 14 TheDanubeTributaries 15 ImpactofclimatechangeonDanubenavigation 17 Concludingremarks 17

1.

2.2.1. 2.2. 2.3. 2.3.1. 2.3.2. 2.3.3. 2.3.4. 2.4. 3.1. 3.2. 3.3. 3.4.

3. BASICAPPROACHTOINLANDVESSELHYDRODYNAMICS Shallowwaterresistance Propulsiveefficiencyinshallowwater Washproblems Concludingremarks

1919 22 22 22

4. INTERMODALITYANDIWT 4.1. 4.2. 4.3. 4.4.

2526 26 27 28

Transhipmentsandcargohandlingequipment StateoftheartofIntermodalLoadingUnits(ILU) Thehinterland Concludingremarks

5. WATERBORNEPARTOFTRANSPORT5.1. 5.1.1. 5.1.2. 5.1.3. 5.1.4. Stateoftheart Selfpropelledvessel Bargetrains Barges Pushboats

3030 30 34 37 38

2

5.2. 5.2.1. 5.2.2. 5.2.3. 5.2.4. 5.3.

Conceptsofresearchedinlandvesselsforcargotransport 41 SelfpropelledvesselINBISHIP 41 PushboatsandbargesforextremelyshallowwaterVEBISandINBATprojects41 SomeotherprojectssimilartotheINBATandINBISHIPprojects 43 Conceptsofadvancedvessels 45 Concludingremarks 46

6.6.1. 6.2. 6.3. 6.4. 6.5.

CHARACTERISTICSOFSELFPROPELLEDCONTAINERVESSELS ADAPTEDTOTHEDANUBEWATERWAY Maximalvesseldimensions Transporteconomy Hydrodynamicanalysis Hullweightconsiderations Concludingremarks

4747 49 50 52 52

7.7.1. 7.1.1. 7.1.2. 7.2. 7.2.1. 7.2.2. 7.2.3. 7.2.4. 7.2.5. 7.2.6. 7.2.7. 7.2.8. 7.3. 7.3.1. 7.3.2. 7.3.3. 7.3.4. 7.3.5.

TECHNICALMEASURESTOMAKEINLANDSHIPSCLEANER ANDMOREEFFICIENT 54Improvementsinhullresistance(withtheaimtoreduceRT) 55 Shipform 55 Shipweightreduction 57 Innovationsinpropulsionandtransmissions(withtheaimtoincreaseDS)59 Screwpropellers 59 Transmissionofpower 60 Propulsorsteeringcapabilities 60 Innovativepropellerbasedconcepts 61 Promisingpropellerbasedpropulsors 62 Otherpropulsors 64 Ratingofpropulsors 66 ImprovementofHullPropulsorinteractions 67 Innovationsinpropulsionplantsandfuels(withtheaimtoreducefuel consumptionandpollutantemissions) 68 Dieselengines 68 Emissionproblems 68 Exhaustemissionlegislation 69 FindingsfromtheCREATINGproject 69 Innovationsinpropulsionplants 73

3

7.4. 7.5.

Innovationsimportantforbettershiputilisation/navigation(withtheaim toreduceshipspeedandincreasecosteffectivenessandsafety) 75 Concludingremarks 77

8. PROPOSEDSOLUTIONSFORTHEDANUBERIVER8.1. 8.1.1. 8.1.2. 8.1.3. 8.2. 8.2.1. 8.2.2. 8.2.3. 8.3. 8.4.

79

Selfpropelledshipfortransportofcontainers 79 ProposedfeaturesofaDanubecontainershipconcept 80 Generalarrangementplanofacontainershipconcept 82 Advantagesofaconceptcomparedtoconventionalships 84 Bargetrainfortransportofbulkcargo 87 Proposedfeaturesofapushboatconcept 88 Generalarrangementplanofapushboatconcept 90 Advantagesofaconceptcomparedtoconventionalpushboats 92 Conversionandretrofittingmeasuresthatcanleadtogreenernavigation92 Thecostofnewbuildings 93

9. CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES

94 95

APPENDICIES

99

Appendix1TheOECDPublicationInlandWarerways&EnvironmentalProtection100 Appendix2Impactsofclimatechange 104 Appendix3WaveWashProducedbyHighSpeedCraft 107 Appendix4PossibleShipPollutants 111 112 Appendix5ApplicationofSPStoDanubeBargeHullStructure Appendix6StatisticsonInlandWaterwayTransportandDanubeTransport 116 Appendix7RecentIMOactivities 120

4

ABBREVATIONS,ACRONYMSandNOMENCLATURE

Abbreviations ADN EuropeanagreementconcerningtheinternationalcarriageifdangerousgoodsinIWT ADND/ADNR CarriageofdangerousgoodsontheDanube/Rhine AIS AutomaticIdentificationSystem ATM AdvisingTempomaat BD Biodiesel BDB BiodieselBlend CEC CentralEuropeanCountries CCNR CentralCommissionfortheNavigationontheRhine CPP ControllablePitchPropeller CRP ContraRotatingPropeller DGTREN EuropeanCommission,GeneralDirectorateforEnergyandTransport DMCanal DanubeMainCanal DPC DanubeProjectCentre,Belgrade DST DevelopmentCentreforShipTechnologyandTransportSystems(VBD),Duisburg(DE) ECDIS ElectronicChartDisplayandInformationSystem ECE UnitedNationsEconomicCommissionforEurope EE EastEuropean EILU EuropeanIntermodalLoadingUnit EPA EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(UnitedStates) ERT EmissionReductionTechnologies EST EnvironmentallySustainableTransport ESTR EquivalentSemiTrailers ETA EstimatedTimeofArrival FC FuelCell FEU FortyfeetEquivalentUnit(ISO40container) FPP FixedPitchPropeller GL GermanischerLloyd GMS Grossmotorschiff GRP GlassReinforcedPlastic HWL HighWaterLevel ILU IntermodalLoadingUnit IMP IntegralMotorPropeller INE InlandNavigationEurope ISO InternationalStandardOrganization IT InformationTechnology ITTC InternationalTowingTankConference IWT InlandWaterTransport JRB YugoslavShippingCompany IWW InlandWaterWay LNG LiquefiedNaturalGas LNRL LowNavigationandRegulationLevel LoLo LoadonLoadoff LR LloydsRegister

5

LSF MARIN NGE O/D PIANC PMF RCD RDP RIS RoLa RoRo SCR SEEC SES SPP SPS SWL TEN TEU ToR VBD WEC WP WWF

LowSulphurFuel MaritimeInstituteofNetherlands,Wageningen NaturalGasEngine OriginDestination PermanentInternationalAssociationofNavigationCongresses ParticulateMatterFilter RecreationalCraftDirective(UnitedStates) RimDrivenPropeller RiverInformationServices RoadRailcombinedtransport RollonRolloff SelectiveCatalyticReduction SouthEastEuropeanCountries SurfaceEffectShip SurfacePiercingPropeller SandwichPlateSystem SafeWorkingLoad TransEuropeanNetwork TwentyfeetEquivalentUnit(ISO20container) TermsofReference VersuchsanstaltfurBinnenschiffbaue.V.Duisburg(nowDST),Germany WestEuropeanCountries WorkPackage WorldWideFundforNature

ProjectsAcronymsConsortiumforOperationalManagementPlatformforRiverInformation Services(FP5Project) COVEDA ContainerVesselsfortheDanubewaterway(DPCProject) CREATING ConceptstoReduceEnvironmentalimpactandAttainoptimalTransport performancebyInlandNaviGation(FP6Project) EUDET EvaluationoftheDanubewaterwayasakeyEuropeanTransport resource(FP4Project) INBAT InnovativeBargeTrain(FP5Project) INBISHIP NewOpportunitiesforInlandWaterwayTransport(BRITEEURAMProject) KLIWAS Consequencesofclimatechangefornavigablewaterwaysandoptionsforthe economyandinlandnavigation(NationalGermanproject) MUTAND MultimodalRoRoTransportontheDanuberiver(DPC&DSTproject) PASCAT PartialAircushionSupportedCatamaran(GROWTHProgramme) PELS ProjectEnergysavingAirLubricatedShips(NationalDutchresearchproject) SMOOTH SustainableMethodsforOptimaldesignandOperationofShipswithairlubricaTed Hulls(FP6Project) SPIN StrategiesforPromotingInlandNavigation(GROWTHProgramme) VEBIS Improvementoftheefficiencyofinlandwatertransportation(GermanProject) ELWIS,DORIS,ALSODanube,CRORIS,YURISNationalRISprojects 6 COMPRIS

Nomenclature B cT CC dwt DP F FNh FnL g h hWLNRL hAHWL H L mlig mc n nH PB PD r Ri RT Rv Rw T v D S Vesselbeam(m) Trainformationcoefficient(RT/Ri) Coefficientofcontainertransportefficiency(no.containerskm/h/kW) Deadweight(t) Propellerdiameter(m) Freeboard(HT)(m) Froudenumberbasedonwaterdepth(v/(gh)) Froudenumberbasedonwaterlinelength(v/(gL)) Gravitationalacceleration(m/s2) Waterdepth(m) WaterdepthbyLNRL(m) AirclearanceoverHWL(m) Vesselheightordepth(m) Vessellength(m) Lightshipmass(t) Containermass(t) Numberofcontainersonboard Numberofcontainerlayers Installedpower(kW) Deliveredpower(kW) Resistanceratio(Rwh/Rw) Individualresistanceofeachbarge(kN) Totalresistance(kN) Viscousresistance(kN) Subscripts Wavemakingresistance(kN) hFinitewaterdepth(shallowwater) Vesseldraught(m) Infinitewaterdepth(deepwater) Vesselspeed(km/h) OAOverall Propulsiveefficiency Shaftefficiency

7

0. METHODOLOGYIntroductorypart(Sections2,3and4) First,asanintroduction,restrictionsoftheDanubewaterway(anditstributaries)aregiven,as restrictions in water depth, lock size and bridge heights dictate main ship dimensions. This is followed by sections (probably complicated to a nontechnical reader) on shallow water hydrodynamics which is important for design and operation of every vessel intended to navigate in inland waterways. Basic knowledge about transhipment possibilities, intermodal loadingunits,logisticsandassociatedproblemsisalsoessentialastheseinfluenceshipdesign. Waterbornetransport(Sections5and6) Waterborne transport is in the focus of this study, so stateoftheart of selfpropelled vessels andbargetrainsfollows.Specialattentionisgiventodesignofselfpropelledcontainervessels fortheDanubewaterway(Section6)asthey,perse,actuallydonotexist(likeontheRhine). Measurestomakeinlandshipscleanerandmoreefficient(Section7) Adiscussionfollowsonshipcomponents(propulsors,machinery,etc.)andachievementsthat leadtofuelefficiency;thisisimportantforthedesignofinnovativeDanubevessels.Theseare recent achievements in ship resistance, propulsion, engines, construction and ship utilization. Someoftheachievementsthatarementionedwillbeimplementedinthedesignsofproposed conceptsfortheDanube(giveninSection8). ProposedconceptsfortheDanubeRiver(Section8) Finally,thereportgivesasectionondesignofconceptsforcontainerandbulkcargotransport. These concepts fulfil contemporary ecological demands, apply innovative technologies, and obey the existing waterway restrictions explained above. The designs proposed are a selfpropelledvesselforcontainertransportandbargetrainforbulkcargotransport. Appendices Topicstreatedintheappendicesgivesomeextrainformationusefulforthesubject. Severalpartsofthisreportoriginatefromotherstudiesandpapersthatwerewrittenorco written by the author of this study (namely, SPIN, CREATING, COVEDA etc.). In the parentheses, after each section title, references are given from where most of the text/materialoriginatesfrom.Consequently,referencesaregivenwherevernecessary,except incasesexplainedabove. 8

1. TERMSOFREFERENCE

ThemostimportantitemsoftheTermsofReference(ToR)are: Information on shallow draught ship technology is needed to fine tune WWFs argumentsandpositionininlandnavigationontheDanube.

Knowledgeoninlandnavigationandinnovativeshipdesignsthatprovidetechnicallyand economicallyfeasiblealternativestopresentconceptsandtechnologyshouldbegiven. Proposedsolutionsshouldbeinharmonywithpresentecologicaldemands,i.e.should require less or no new infrastructure/river modification that negatively impacts river ecosystemsanddynamics.

Technical solutions should be proposed that adapt ships to the Danube River, in particulartotheshallowsectorsontheLowerDanube,butthatarealsoabletooperate ontheDanubetributariesandDanubeMainCanal.

Transportofcontainerandbulkcargoshouldbeconsidered;attentionshouldbepaidto upgrading/retrofittingpresentvesselsandtothenewships.

9

2. INTRODUCTION[SPIN,COVEDA] 2.1. WhatisanoptimalIWWship? There are several definitions of optimal ship, one of them, according to Zigic (2008), define optimalshipas: Modernandenvironmentallyfriendly Withlowexhaustemissions Withlowfuelconsumption Economicalinoperation Highlycompatiblewiththewaterway Havecapabilitytoaligntotheriver Haveminimalimpactsonbankvegetationandfishfauna.

Allowedwaterdepth,thatchangesalongtheriverandduringtheseason,shouldbespecially analysedasitinfluencestransportperformancethroughshipcarryingcapacityandspeed(see Figure2.1).

Figure2.1Influenceofwaterdepthonshippayloadandspeed(Source:Zigic,2008) Operationalcostsaredramaticallyreducedwithincreaseofwaterdepth,i.e.increaseofvessel draught. Nevertheless, during the low water levels, the ship should be able to operate with restrictedeconomicaleffects.Thesameshipshouldbeabletooperateindeeperwatertoo,but will then be less efficient than the ship initially designed for deepwater operation only. Extremely shallow water, however, is often regarded as severe operational conditions. Therefore,transportcosts,howevercalculated,areverymuchinfluencedbywaterdepth. Alltransportmodestogreaterorsmallerextenthavesomenegativeimpactsonwater,air,soil bioticbalance,climaticconditions, health,andeconomy,tonameafew.Amongstthem,IWT seemstohavetheleasteffectsthatcanbequantified,forinstancethroughdirectandindirect

10

costs (see Appendix 6, and leaflets on Environment and Sustainability by INE www.inlandnavigation.org and Power of Inland Navigation by BVB). Direct costs are more or lessobvious,butindirectcostsaresomehowhiddenanddifficulttoquantify.Thereareother impactswhichareevenmoredifficulttoquantify,forinstanceaccidents,congestion,impacts onhumans,floraandfaunaetc.Anoptimalship,therefore,shouldcausetheleastimpactsthat arementionedabove.Thiscanbeachievedbya)applyingcontemporarydesignmeasures,and b) through making design compromises (sometimes it is necessary to sacrifice/reduce cost effectivenesstoobtainanoverallgoodandenvironmentallyacceptablevessel).

2.2.

Importanceofthewaterway

Generallyspeaking,themaincharacteristicsofallinland(river)vesselsaremoreorlesssimilar, i.e.theyhaverestricteddraught(T)duetotherestrictedwaterdepth(h).However,somerivers are deeper or are regulated and have minimal guaranteed water depth throughout the year, while others are shallower and/or unregulated. The most important European rivers differ mainlyintheabovementionedtheRhineisdeeperandregulated(which,however,requires many investments into fairway maintenance) while the Danube, although much longer and wider, is relatively shallow and unregulated river with large variations in water depths. Consequently, the main difference between Rhine and the Danube vessels is their draught, whichhasveryimportantconsequencesonseveralothershipparameters. Furthermore,theRhinepassesthroughthemostdevelopedpartofEurope,probablytheworld, so it is quite normal that several technical solutions applied on the Rhine vessels are copied/transferred to other river vessels, in this particular case to the Danube vessels. However,itshouldbeunderlinedthatoftenitisnotpossibletocopy/transfereveryserviceor technical solution due to the alreadymentioned waterway differences. Other differences are alsoimportant,forinstancehinterlandandinfrastructuredevelopmentalongtheRhineandthe Danube corridor (see Section 4.3), which actually dictate volume and type of cargo, transhipmentfacilities,intermodalloadingunitsetc. 2.3. RestrictionsoftheDanubewaterway(withitstributaries)

CharacteristicsofinlandvesselsfortheDanubewaterwaydependverymuchonthewaterway itself,i.e.itsdepth,heightofthebridgesandsizeoflocks.Therefore,themaincharacteristicsof theDanubewaterwayanditstributariesshouldbestatedhere(seeFigure2.2).

11

Figure2.2LocksandportsontheDanube(Source:TTSGroup) u k u )

12

2.3.1. TheDanube Accordingtoitsphysicalandgeographicalcharacteristics,theriverDanubeisofficiallydivided bytheDanubeCommissionintothreemainsectors:UpperDanube(SectorI),MiddleDanube (Sector II) and Lower Danube (Sector III). Each of these sectors is subdivided into sections accordingtodifferentnavigationalconditions(Table2.1).TheEUDETProjectshowed,however, that such division is partly out of date, and proposed a new division of the Danube, which differentiatethecanalised(articulated)sectionsfromthefreeflowingpartsofthewaterway. AlthoughtheEUDETdivisionrelatesbettertothepresentstateofDanubewaterway,thereis still not enough statistical analysis (especially concerning water depth) to cover it properly. Even in the EUDET study, waterway statistics are mostly given according to the Danube Commissionclassicalsubdivision. Themostimportantstatisticalinformation,fromthepointofviewofvesseldesign,iswaterway depth and the air clearance under the bridges. So, in Table 2.2 an attempt is made to re examinedifferentsources(e.g.EUDETandWESKA)todeducetheappropriatedataforwater depth at LNRL* and critical bridge heights at HWL**, and to implement them to the EUDET divisionoftheDanubewaterway.Numbersinbracketsindicatethatdifferentdatawerefound inthereferences. Table2.1DivisionofthewaterwaybytheDanubeCommissionSection I1 I2 I3 I4 II1 II2 II3 III1 III2 From Kelheim Passau Linz Vienna Gonyu Budapest MoldavaVeche Drobeta Braila Danubekm 2415 2227 2135 1929 1791 1646 1048 931 170 To Passau Linz Vienna Gonyu Budapest MoldavaVeche Drobeta Braila Sulina Danubekm 2227 2135 1929 1791 1646 1048 931 170 0

UpperDanubeSectorI

MiddleDanubeSectorII

LowerDanubeSectorIII

*

LNRL:LowNavigationandRegulationLevelisthewaterlevelthatcorrespondstotheflowavailablefor94%of durationofthenavigableseason,i.e.excludingthewinterperiodsofbreakofnavigationaffectedbyice. ** HWL: High Water Level is the water level that corresponds to the flow occurring at 1% of duration of the navigableseason.

13

Table2.2TheEUDETdivisionoftheDanubewithmainrestrictionsofthewaterway Section KelheimStraubing Straubing Vilshofen VilshofenMelk MelkDurnstein DurnsteinVienna ViennaCunovo Cunovo Palkovicovo Palkovicovo Budapest Budapest Slankamen SlankamenIron GatesII IronGatesIIBala Arm Bala/BorceaArm Giurgeni GiurgeniBraila BrailaSulina BalaArm Cernavoda Cernavoda Giurgeni Cernavoda Constanta ChiliaArmBlack Sea Danubekm 24142324 23242249 22492038 20382008 20081921 19211853 18531811 18111646 16461215 1215863 863346 346240 240170 1700 346299 299240 640 1160 Remark canalised freeflowing (shallow) canalised freeflowing (shallow) canalised freeflowing (shallow) canalised freeflowing (shallow) freeflowing(good) canalised freeflowing freeflowing(good) freeflowing maritimesection freeflowing (shallow) freeflowing(good) navigablecanal freeflowing(good) Depthby LNRL (m) 2.9 2(1.7) 2.8 2.3(2.5) 2.8 2.2(2.5) 2.5 2.0(2.5) 2.5 Wellover2.5 2.3 2.7 2.4 7.32 Couldbe bypassed Over2.5 Wellover2.5 Over2.5 Airclearance overHWL(m),if lowerthen7.5m 6.03 4.73 6.36 6.65 6.7 6.7 Minimallock dimensions(m) Beam Length 12 190 2 24 230 2 24 230 2 24 230 234 275 234 310

ECEClass

VbVIb VIa VIb VIb VIb VIc VII VII VII VII VII VIc VII VIIVIc VIa VIc VII VIc VII

Note:Navigabilityofthefairwayisalsoinfluencedbythenaturalprofileofawatercoursethalweg(riverpathwithmaximum depthand/orvelocity).

2.3.2. SomecriticalpointsontheLowerDanube In order to improve navigation conditions, necessary water depth, width and minimal curve radiusaccordingtotheDanubeCommissionrecommendationsshouldbeatleast2.5m,150 180mand1000mrespectively.Nevertheless,duetovariousreasonswaterdepthonseveral 14

sectors,andinparticularonsomeLowerDanubesectors,islessthanrecommended.Justone exampleofcriticalsectors(identifiedbytheEUsTENTProgramme)are: Danubekm375to175(CalarasiBraila),and Danubekm531to521(Batinsector).

Amongst these, the Danube between km 346 and 300 (Bala Branch outlet to Black SeaCanal outlet at Cernavoda, Figure 2.3) is particularly critical for navigation during the dry seasons, withwaterdepthonsomesectorsofaround1.5monly.Consequently,shipsoftenhavetouse adetourviaBalaBorceaBranchwhichincreasesnavigationlengthtotheBlackSeaCanalfor around110km.Moreover,onewaynavigationandconvoydismantlingisoftennecessaryinthe BorceaBranch.

Figure2.3CriticalpointsonCalarasiBrailasector(Source:ISPA) 2.3.3. TheDanubeTributaries TheDanubehasmorethan30navigabletributaries,butonlythosehavingtheECEclassIIIand abovearegiveninTable2.3.SincethetributarieshaveamuchlowerclassthantheDanube, allowedvesseldimensionsarealsodepictedinTable2.3.TheRhineMainDanubewaterwayis showninFigure2.4.

15

Table2.3Navigable etributaries sandcanalsoftheDanu ube (Source:Manualon nDanubeNa avigation)

2.4RhineMainDanubeWaterway( (Rotterdam Sulina3467km) Figure2 (Sou urce:ManualonDanube eNavigation) 16

2.3.4. ImpactofclimatechangeonDanubenavigation It is difficult to estimate possible impacts from the climate change on Danube navigation. AccordingtoProspectsonthedevelopmentofinfrastructureandnavigationontheDanube, inthefuturetherewillprobablybemoreperiodsofintenserainfall(dangerofhighwater),but alsomoreandlongeraridperiods. AccordingtoarecentPIANCReport(seeAppendix2),shippingcompaniestrytorespondtothe phenomena of low water levels and floods in a way that it assures the reliability of inland navigation through adaptation of the fleet and new vessels of different design as well as light loading of current vessels and use of vessels with decreased draught. Increased and decreasedwaterlevels(andthereforewatervelocitiestoo);changeintimingofseasonalhigh andlowwaterandshorterdurationofrivericealsodemandbettermanoeuvringcapabilitiesof ships. The Federal Institute for Hydrology of the German Ministry of Transport is presently funding project KLIWAS, whose purpose is to develop a sound statement about the span of possible climate changes. In the same context see also proceedings of recent conference RhineschifffahrtundKlimawandel. 2.4. Concludingremarks Waterdepth a) b) c) OntheUpperDanubethemostcriticalstretchisbetweenStraubingandVilshofenwith hWLNRL2.5m.OntheMiddleDanubethedepthisoftenover5m. Bridgeheightorairclearance ThemostcriticalbridgeheightsareagainontheUpperDanube,i.e.thebridgesinDeggendorf andPassauwithhAHWL=4.73mand6.36m,respectively.TheheightofRMDcanalbridgesis around 6 m. All other bridges upstream from Budapest are around 6.7 m. Downstream from BudapesthAHWL>7.5m.

d)

17

Sizeoflocks MostoftheDanubelockshavestandardEuropeandimension.Themostcriticaloneisupstream ofStraubingat12x190m(asalllocksofRDMcanal),whiletherestontheUpperDanubeare 2x24x190m.ThelocksbuiltbyexEastEuropeanCountriesareeven2x34x275(310)m (seeFigure2.5).

Figure2.5Djerdap1lock(Serbianside)fullandempty(Source:WitteveenBos) Implicationsonshipdesign Taking into account that a) an IWW vessel should be designed according to the particular waterway,andb)thatallaroundclearancebetweenthevessel(orhercargo)andbridge/river bottom/lockside should be at least 0.3 m, the maximal allowed vessel dimensions, with possibleminorrestrictionsinsailingduringthedryseasons,are For the whole Danube including the stretch upstream of StraubingVilshofen, as well as throughtheDMCanal:T 3300 kW 20 < D 25 25 < D 30 2009.01 2007.01 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.03

Date

CO

NOx+HC g/kWh 7.5 7.2 7.2 7.2 7.8 8.7 9.8 9.8 11.0

PM

0.40 0.30 0.20 0.20 0.27 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50

Source:MTU

Figure7.20EUExhaustemissionlegislationcomparisonofMarine/Mobilemachinery Obviouslyemissionregulationsforroadvehicles(EURO)andIWTaredifferent.Inadditionthere isconsiderabletimelaginimplementationofEURO&CCNRemissionregulations.Takinginto accountthatshipenginesaremucholderthantruckenginesandthattheybelongtoprevious technological generation (with a lifetime of at least 20 years for ship engines vs. 5 years for trucks), emission legislation becomes extremely important. The abovementioned is actually themainreasonshipsarenotascleanaspreviouslyclaimed. IntheCREATINGproject(whoseobjectivewastofindsolutionstoimprovetheenvironmental performanceofIWT)emissionswerecomparedbetweenIWWshipsaRhineselfpropelled

70

Figure7.21Emissionlegislationforroadvehiclesandships

vessel,DanubeRoRovesselandDanubecouplingtrainandatruckonthebasisoftkmwas evaluated. Surprising results were obtained, see Figure 7.22. Taking into account that fuel consumptionpertkmofwaterbornetransportisroughly1/3ofthatofroadtransport,andthat truckshavecleanerengines,followsthat: a)ShipsareNOTsocleanintermsofNOxandPM,unlessEmissionReductionTechniques(ERT) areapplied,and b)StandardsaccordingtoCCNRIII(correspondingtoEUROV)maybemetonlybyapplication ofERT(inparticularSCR+PMF+LSF)(seeFigure7.22andTable7.3).

Figure7.22EmissioncomparisonsbetweenconsideredIWWships andatruckonthebasisoftkm

71

Emission Reduction Technologies ERT consist of several compatible and complementary measures(Table7.3): FirststepReductionofallowedsulphurformarineoildiesel Goal: 0.1% (which is still 100 x higher than for trucks), otherwise even IWT cannot compete with trucks in terms of emissions (this fuel is supposed to be available throughouttheEUin2011) SecondstepApplicationofnewdieselenginetechnologiesandexhaustgascleaning. Olderenginesshouldberetrofittedwithaftertreatmentdevices. Table7.3Changesinmassemissionscomparedwithabasic casewithoutreductiontechniques(CCNR1) NOX PM F.C. CO2 SOX

Aftertreatmenttechniques SCR PMF 81% none 35% 85% 7.5% +2% 7.5% +2% 7.5% +2%

Drivemanagementsystem ATM 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%

Dieselfuelquality BD BDB LSF +10% +2% none 30% 6% 17% +15% +3% none 65% 13% none 100% 20% 100%

Newenginetechniques NGE SCRSelectiveCatalystReduction PMFParticulateMassFilter ATMAdvisingTempomaat BDBiodiesel BDBBiodieselBlend(80%fossil+20%BD) LSFLowSulphurFuel NGENaturalGasEngine F.C.ChangesinFuelconsumption

98.5%

97.5%

+4.5

10%

100%

72

So,togettheclimatefriendlyIWWShipaccordingto: CCNRIII(correspondstoEUROV)fromaCCNRIship,itisnecessarytoapplySCR+PMF +ATM+LSF(seeTable7.3).AccordingtotheCREATINGproject,thisgreeningonIWW should be stimulated by financial interests (investment cost of application of SCR+PMF+ATM+LSF is supposed to return in 3 years). It should be noted that application of just biodiesel (BD) is not sufficient, and its application is controversial anyway.Notethatoldshipengineswillprolongimplementationforca.20years! For EURO VI emissions, similar fuel & engine technology as truck engines is necessary (which brings new problems), or a completely new engine technology (Natural Gas Engines,FuelCells)shouldbeapplied.

WithintheCREATINGproject,theDemonstratorthecleanestshipeverwassuppliedwith the abovementioned technologies. This was the lowemission, fuel efficient and environmentallyfriendly BP motor tank vessel Victoria (60x11.45 m, 1300 t, with MTU 880 kW/1800rpm).Exhaustfiguresaswellassavings,whichareconstantlyupgraded,canbefound atwww.cleanestship.eu/chartsandarebasedon3000operationalhoursperyear,anaverage deliveredpowerof70%andafuelconsumptionof203g/kWh.Theundertakenmeasureswere: LowsulphurEN590fuel(equaltoroadstandard)wasusedreducesSOx&PM APM&SCRcatalystinthesamereactor(selectivecatalyticreduction&sootfilter)was implemented,producedbyHugEngineeringreducesNOx&PM ATM(theAdvisingTempomaat)producedbyTechnoFysicaenabledoptimaloperation ofthevesselreducesCO2

Regarding the same subject, Schweighofer & Blaauw (2008) and Schweighofer & Seiwerth (2007)papersshouldbealsoconsulted. 7.3.5. Innovationsinpropulsionplants PossibleinnovationsaredepictedinFigure7.23.Notethatdarkerpartsofthetablemeanshort ormediumtermapplications,whilewhiteonesaremediumandlongtermnicheapplications. Actually, the darker parts were explained above, while the white parts dieselelectric, gas enginesandfuelcellsdeservefurtherdiscussion.

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Fig gure7.23In nnovationso ofpropulsionplantsand dfuels(Source:CREATIN NGproject) Dieselelectricconce eptsarenotsofarinthe efuture;the eyarealread dyappliedon nseavessels sand on the IWW icebreaker Roeth helstein (se Figure 5.16). This concept was also applie in ee s ed INBISHIPproject(see eSection5.2 2.1andFigur re7.13). Natural gas engines (NGE) are actually die s esel engines that, inste of ordin s ead nary fuel oil, use liquefied natural ga (LNG). T as The necessa engine adaptations for LNG a present day ary s are t technolo ogyandthe mainproble emissafefu uelstorageo onboard(or within)the shipitself(t tobe inliquid formgasha astobecool ledandpres ssurized).Co omparedto conventiona aldieseleng gines, entandhave elowerenvir ronmentalim mpact. NGEaremoreefficie Fuelcells s(FC)areno owadaysuse edonsubmarines,whileR&Dwork kisfocused onroadveh hicles andstationarypowe erplants,butthegoalo ofzeroemiss sionisdrivin ngdevelopm mentofhydr rogen FCandh hydrogensto oragemetho ods.FCaree electrochem micaldeviceswhichconv vertthechemical energyofafuel(forexamplehyd drogenorna aturalgas)in ntodirectcu urrentpower.BureauVe eritas ently publish hedguidelin for safe application of FC on sh nes hips. Concer rningcomme ercial (BV) rece shipappl lication,vari ioustypesof fFCareinth heresearch/ /experiment talphase. Withinth heINBATpr roject,FCpo owerwasex xamined(see eZenczaket tal.2003)fo oralowdra aught pushboat tandwasco omparedtovariantsof dieselpowe erplants.Re egardingweight,FCpow weris comparabletoacon nventionalshippowerp plantwitha mechanical ltransmissio on,however r,the costofFC Cwasconsid derablyhigherthanothe erenginesth hatwerecon nsidered. Within the EU supp ported Lifeproject Zem mships (Zero Emission Ship) the first FC pow o wered passenge ershipFCS Alsterwasse erwasdev veloped(Figu ure7.24).Sh hewasdesig gnedasam mono hull ship with two fuel cells of 50 kW and a carrying capacity of 100 passengers. The sh is hip 74

fuelledbyhydrogen,whichisstoredonboardatapressureof350bar.Theshipis25.5mlong andhasadraughtof1.2m.ThevesselhasbeensailingontheAlsterinHamburgsinceAugust 2008.FCSAlsterwasserisregardedtobethefirstIWWpassengervesselwhereFCareused forthemainpropulsion.BesideZemshipproject,thereareotherprojectsonFCapplicationson maritime vessels, as for instance MOSTH, FelowSHIP, FCSHIP etc., all with a goal to obtain a nearzeroemissionshipengine.Consequently,therearealsoanumberofreportsavailableon theinternet.

Figure7.24TheFCSAlsterwasser (Source:www.naiades.info/wiki/index.php5/Zemships__Zero_Emission_Ships)

7.4. Innovationsimportantforbettershiputilisation/navigation (withtheaimtoreduceshipspeedandincreasecosteffectivenessandsafety) RiverInformationServices(RIS)providepossibilitiesforvoyageplanning,trackingandtracing, bothfromvesselsandfromshores.Improvedcommunicationandinformationexchangewithin thesystemindirectlycontributestotheoptimisationoffuelconsumption.Thiscanbeachieved, for instance, through the exchange of information related to lock operation, port/terminal planning,customsetc.ononeside,andskippersonanother,givingrelevantinformationabout the ship (her position, speed, destination, cargo etc.). According to received information, a skipper can calculate the estimated time of arrival (ETA) to a certain destination, and, if possible, reduce/adjust ship speed. Amongst others, this might result in reduction of fuel consumption.

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Software esolutionsf foradvanced drouteplan nningareav vailablenow wadays.Inso omecasesro oute planning software relies on the data provided within the unique RIS environment. Plan e e nning procedur resbeforethejourneya arealsopos ssible,since RISprovide esreliablein nformationa about thewate erdepthand dpotentialo obstaclesontheintende edroute.InlandECDISc chartsare,inthe firstplace,developed dtoprovide eadditionals safety,buta alsoenablen navigationw withanoptim mised speed. Afterthe einitialsucce essofGermanELWIS,A AustrianDOR RISandtheE EUprojectA ALSODanube e,the importan of RIS fo inland na nce or avigation rapidly increa ased. As a re esult, the C COMPRIS Pro oject, together with its extensions CRORIS and YURIS w e were a further step towards the full e impleme entationoft theRISonth heDanube River.More eover,theEC Cprepared thesocalledRIS Directive e,whichsets supalegalf frameworkforRiverInfo ormationSer rvicesinEur rope. Concerni ingtheDanube,RIStec chnologyisa alreadyused don theAu ustriansecto oroftheDanube andcerta ainlywillbeusedonthe ewholeDanu ubeinthenearfuture. On board computer risation and RIS applica d ation (Figure 7.25) in ad e ddition to cr rew training can g lead to socalled ecosailing (e equivalent t ecodriving which is nowadays widely ap to s s pplied througho Europe resulting in fuel reduc out n ctions of 5 to 10%). Fo instance, in Holland, the or Ecodrivin Programm Voortvarend Bespar (Saving While Sailing) was in ng me ren g nitiated with the h goaltore educefuelc consumption nandpolluta antemission nsfrominlan ndvessels(p partoftheD Dutch Air Quali Action Plan, see ww ity ww.voorvarendbesparen.nl). According to DNV, shipowners can , s reduceairemissions supto15% fromships, usingavailabletechnolo ogyontodaysshipswit thout incurring gadditionalc costs!

Figure7.25 5Bridgecomputerizatio ononriverv vessel(Sourc ce:Wittevee enBos)

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7.5. Concludingremarks InordertoachievemoreefficientandcleanerIWT,contemporarylogisticsconceptsshouldbe applied.Transhipmentshouldbecheapandfast,andthewaterbornepartoftransportshould beefficient.Concerningthelastitem,besidesthemeasuresthatoftendonotdependonship design(crewcosts,taxes,loanandfuelcosts),thefollowingisnecessary(accordingtoFigure 7.1): a) b) c) d) Reductionoftotalresistance Increaseofpropulsionefficiency Reductionoffuelconsumption Reductionofshipspeed(ifpossible)

Ofcourse,otheraspectsofshipdesignshouldnotbeforgotten,i.e.safetymeasuresandcheap production. To achieve this goal it is necessary to obtain the following (according to the conclusionsofeachsubsectionofchapter7): In order to maximise the gains and minimise the costs, it is important to involve the hydrodynamicexpertiseatanearlydesignstage.Oftenagood,lowresistancehullformcan beobtainedonlyifmodelexperimentsarecarriedoutinspecializedtowingtanks. Weightreductionispossiblenotonlybyapplyingthelatesttechnologies(likeSPS),butin the first place by not unreasonable accumulating the additional weight by thickening the hullstructuremorethanrulesarerequiring. To obtain good propulsion efficiency, new propulsors should be considered (see Sections 7.2.5.and7.2.7). Newenginetypesshouldbeconsideredforshipapplications,mostprobablyderivedfrom general application diesel engines or road vehicles. Exhaust emission legislation measures areimportantforcleannessofshipengines.Figure7.26depictsPMandNOxemissionsfor EURO,CCNRandStageIIIAstandards.Thepreconditionforlowemissionsis,however,low sulphurfuel.CO2emissionschargescouldbecomeeffectiveinthenearfuture(i.e.fuelcost mightincludeenvironmentallyrelevantsurchargesbasedonSOXandCO2),solowemission engineswillpayoffinshorterperiodoftime. For better ship utilisation, commandbridge computerisation is necessary through applicationofRISandothercontemporaryITachievements.Butaboveall,crewtrainingis necessary (particularly on the Danube) that would result in higher safety measures and betterecosailingcapabilities.AccordingtoDNVshipsfromallmarketsegmentscanreduce theirairemissionsbycarefullyanalyzingandoptimizinganumberofindividualoperations, such as optimizing engine performance, optimizingtrim for all drafts and speeds and the 77

propu ulsion system efficiency andimpro y oving voyage managem e ment. Actuall all aspec of ly, cts ship operations should be th s horoughly reviewed in order to inc crease efficiency and re educe emiss sions.

Figure7.26PMandNOxemiss sionsforEURO,CCNRan ndStageIIIA Astandards (Sourc ce:CREATING GProject) Most of the measur mentione above m be and s res ed may should be applied for a new build all dings. Neverthe eless,themajorityofex xistingoldan ndoftennot twellmaint tainedvesse elscanbenefitby applyingsomeofthe eabovemen ntionedmea asures.Note ethattheD Danubefleetisonaverag ge20 years yo ounger than that on th Rhine, but is by far in worse shape due to unaccep he r ptable negligenc ceandlacko ofregularm maintenance(Figure7.27 7).

Figu ure7.27Tu ugboat,Belg grade,2008

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8.

CUSTOMDESIGNEDVESSELSFORTHEDANUBERIVER

Withtheaimtodemonstratehowacontemporary,safe,costeffective,shallowdraughtvessel intendedparticularlyfortheDanubewaterwayshouldlooklike,someoftheconclusionsand technicalachievementsaimedatincreasingefficiencyofinlandnavigation,anddiscussedinthe previoussections,willbeincorporatedintodesignoftwospecificshiptypes: Selfpropelledcontainervessel Bargetrain(actuallyapushboat)forbulkcargo.

These two distinct ship type concepts are chosen because they are good representatives of typicalshipsusedontheDanube.Thisdoesnotmeanthatselfpropelledvesselsareassigned justforthecontainertransportorbargetrainsforbulkcargo,northatinnovationsintegrated into one concept cannot be applied in the other. Concepts would be able to operate on the navigabletributaries,RMDwaterwayandothercanals,naturallywithcertainrestrictionsthat aregiveninTable2.3andFigure2.4. Needless to say, but new vessels have to be built (hence designed and operated through its lifetime)incompliancewithvariousinternationalandnationalrulesandregulations.Thisis,per se,aguaranteethatthevesselwillbesafeandenvironmentallyacceptable(seeAppendices4 and7).Also,itisusuallyunderlinedthatashipandherequipmentwillbemadeaccordingto goodshipbuildingpracticeandexperience,standardsoftheyardetc.;thosephrases,however, donotmeanmuchastheyarenotsocompulsory,althoughtheyaresaidworldwide. Conceptswillbefollowedwithasectiononpossibleconversionsandretrofittingmeasureswith asimilarpurpose,i.e.toshowapplicationofnewtechnologiesonalreadyexistingvessels.

8.1.

Selfpropelledshipfortransportofcontainers

Special attention was paid to existing navigation conditions on the Lower Danube, but as it mightbeexpectedthatthecontainervesselwouldoperateonthewholeDanube,restrictions oftheUpperDanubewerealsotakenintoconsideration.Anoptimisedvessel,ingeneral,was briefly explained in Section 2.1, restrictions of the Danube waterway in Section 2.3 and its implications on ship design in 2.4. The cargo that should be transported intermodal loading units (ISO containers and EILUs), their size etc. are explained in Section 4.2, while main characteristicsofconventionalselfpropelledvesselssuitedfortheDanubewaterwayaregiven inSection6.

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8.1.1. ProposedfeaturesofaDanubecontainershipconcept Theobjectivehereistoexplain(inwords)howsuccessfulshallowwatercontainervesselcould looklike.Therefore,therecommendedvesseldimensionsandotherimportantcharacteristics tobeincorporatedintodesignarethefollowing: Draught (T) 2.5 m maximum for three layers of full containers of average mass of 13 t (see Figure 6.2). With two layers of full containers, draught will be up to 1.85 m. Nevertheless,accordingtotransportstatistics,onaverage2/3ofallcontainersareloaded and 1/3 are empty (with a mass of ca. 2 t only). Therefore, it might be expected that in reality draught will be smaller than stated above. If reduced draught sailing would be necessary,acouplingtrainshouldbeconsidered. Breadth (B) 11.65 m (cargo hold breadth just above 10.3 m) allows abreast loading of fourISOcontainersor2.502.55mwidedomesticcontainersEILUs(seesection4.2).Note that the usual ship breadth is up to 11.45 m (due to locks and gangway restrictions), but keeping in mind the extensive use of palletwise EILUs within Europe (other transport modes are using them) and that the competitiveness of IWT should be increased, a ship widthof11.65missuggested(althoughlocksontheUpperDanubeare12or24mwide, see Table 2.2 and 2.3). Note that for the Rhine corridor the breadth of 11.65 m was requested, but is not allowed yet. Concerning the Danube, downstream of Vilshofen the allowedbreadthcouldbeanythingupto23.4m(seeSection2.4),butkeepinginmindthat thelargerthebreadthis,thelargershipresistanceandwavewashis.Abreadthof11.65m waschosenasagoodoverallcompromise. Length(L)104mfollowsfromthedesiredcargoholdlengthofaround80m.Withinthis length,longitudinally13TEUsmaybestowedwith2050mmclearancebetweenthem(this requires toplift transhipment with a spreader). A hold length of 80 m allows also a wide varietyofotherstowingpossibilities,forinstance(6x40+1x20),(4x45+4x20),(4xA1360 +4x20),(9xC745+2x20),etc.Discussiongiveninsection6.2(longorbeamyvessel)and 7.1.2(L/Hratio)explainswhythelongershipisnotrecommended.Furthermore,withthis shiplength,acouplingtrainwithastandard77mDanubebargewouldbeshorterthan185 m(seeTable5.1). Height (H) 3.1 m. This is a discussible subject and is beyond the scope of this study. Namely,freeboard(F)of0.6mandsafetyclearanceof1000mm(i.e.hatchcoamingheight ofatleast400mm)issuggestedforZone3(theDanube)andforthevesselsoftypeC(open holdvessels)seeUNECEAmendmentoftheRecommendations,GLandsimilarrules. Nevertheless,takingintoaccountsomerecentdisastersduetoinsufficientsafetyclearance (seeHofmanetal2006)F = 0.6 m and a coaming height of 1.1 missuggested,whichis morethanrequiredbytherules.Besides,H=3.1alsosatisfiesGLsuggestionforL/35.

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Shipformshouldbeoptimisedforlowresistancenavigationinshallowwater.Theform shouldberelativelyfull(bothCBandCParound0.9),withfullforeandafterbodyproviding substantial buoyancy (hence allowing larger payload) at low draughts. This, however, will inevitablyincreaseresistance.Afterbodyisstronglyinfluencedbypropellerdiameterand propulsortype(twinrudderpropellersofrelativelysmalldiameterareimaginedhere).Ship formshouldmirrorweightdistribution(accommodationinthefront,enginesatthestern) whichshouldreducethetrimofpartlyloadedship.Theabovewaterbowformshouldbe adaptedforpushing(couplingtrainformation).Note,however,thathullformoptimisation withthepurposetoreduceresistancerequiresmodeltesting(seesection7.1.1). Ship weight should be reduced by around 10% compared to conventional designs by applyingstateofthearttechnologies,probablyhightensilesteelforthehullstructure(see section 5.1.1 vessel Sava Mala), SPS or aluminium for superstructure. Capital weight savings, however, should not be expected, but overall weight savings within the classical steelbuildingapproachmightbeobtained(seeSection7.1.2).Althoughsomewhatopposite to the weight savings, ballasting is often necessary, so ballast tanks should be considered too. Propulsion two rudder (azimuthing) propellers in nozzles with D1.35 moptimisedfor bothlowdraughtandfulldraughtoperation,seeSections7.2.3to7.2.5.Propulsorsmaybe a) of innovative design, for instance dieselelectric with Azipods (INBISHIP concept, see section5.2.1andFigures7.12and7.13),orb)conventionalmechanicalZ drive rudder propellers(seeFigure7.11).Bothwilleliminatetheneedforruddersandwillalsoenable exceptional manoeuvring capabilities. If dieselelectric propulsion is envisaged then an innovativetipdrivenpropulsormightalsobeconsidered(seeSection7.2.4andFigure7.9). Abowthrusterofaround250kW(withtheabilitytoassiststoppingandimprovethrust fourchannel)eitherdieselorelectricallydriven,shouldbeconsidered. Engines low emission diesel engines satisfying Stage IIIA/Tier 3 norms or better (see Section 7.3.3) with relatively high power to weight ratios should be considered. If diesel electric propulsion would be applied (Azipods), then a power of around 4x400 kW is suggested; for mechanical rudder propellers around 2x700 kW or so would be sufficient. Powerisestimatedforanassumedspeedof16km/h,aswellasacouplingtrainformation withone,probablytwoDanubebarges(dependingonwaterwayconditions).Dieselelectric propulsion is ecologically very attractive, but is also more expensive than mechanical transmission.NearzeroemissionFCorsimilar(seeSection7.3.5)shouldntbeexpectedto beseenonIWvesselsinnextdecadeortwo.Nevertheless,infuturedieselelectricsetsmay bereplacedbyFC,soelectricallydrivenrudderpropellers(ofAzipodtypeortipdriven/rim driven)mightberegardedasthepropulsorofthefuture. Shoretoshippowersupply(ofelectricitywhileinport,oftencalledcoldironing)shouldbe consideredwiththeaimtoreduceonboarddieselemissions. 81

Accommodation,wheelhouseandengineroom.Allcrewpremisesshouldbedimensioned according to UNECE Recommendations based on six crew members and should be positioned in the bow (the wheelhouse too), while the engines (placed in well insulated spaces)shouldbeatthestern.Thisenablesgoodvisibility(hencesafetytoo),crewcomfort (novibrationsandnoise)andawellbalancedshipatlowdraughts. Electronics and computerisation should of latest generation, providing a oneman bridge systemincludingadatabasedshipmonitoringsystem(engineandshipsystemmonitoring andrecording,voyageoptimization,etc.);seeSection7.4. An onboard crane with a capacity 35t/30m should be considered as this would allow transhipment at any port (see Figure 5.5). However, this would reduce the number of containersthatcouldbetransported.

Itshouldbenotedhoweverthattheshipowner,accordingtohisownrequirements,judgments of the market trends and costs, usually requires a specific ship to be designed/built (having particular dimensions, carrying capacity, engines, equipment) and that design freedom as exercisedaboveisveryseldom.Forinstance,shipspeed,whichisamongstthemostinfluential designparameters,wasomittedinthisdiscussion.

8.1.2.Generalarrangementplanofacontainershipconcept A General Arrangement (GA) plan of a container ship concept is shown in Figure 8.1 and its enlarged bow and stern parts, in Figures 8.2 and 8.3, respectively. Two additional variants of thesameconceptaredepictedinFigures8.4and8.5.Namely,dieselelectricpropulsionanda conventionalmechanical(azimuthing)rudderpropellermaybeemployedseeFigure8.4.An onboardcraneisdepictedintheGAplan,Figure8.5(withamechanicaltransmissionalready showninFigure8.4)resultinginreducedcarryingcapacity,seebelow.Themainparticularsof theabovementionedvesselsarethefollowing: Loam Boam Hm Tm Holdlengthm Holdwidthm Heightabovebasislinem PBkW TEU(3layers/4layers) Payloadcapacityt Configuration BasicWithaCrane 104.0 102.5 11.65 11.65 3.1 3.1 2.5 2.5 80.0 78.5 10.34 10.34 8.3 8.3 4x400 2x700 156/208 134/172 1950 1800 82

Figure8.1G GeneralArra angement planofacon ntainershipconcept dieselelectr d ricpropulsio on 83

Figu ure8.2Enla argedbowp part(bothva ariants) 8.1.3. A Advantageso ofaconceptcomparedt toconventio onalships Some of the concepts feature (underline below) s f es ed suggest an environmen ntally accep ptable vessel w with a large volume a e and payload capacity. At the sa d ame time d due to sup perior manoeuv vring capabilities, the p proposed co oncept shou be safer than similar selfprop uld pelled vesselso ontheRhineandDanube e.So: Spec attentio was paid to lowdr cial on d raught perf formance. C Consequently, the prop posed conc ceptshouldbeabletoo operatesucc cessfullyand dthereforeb becosteffectiveatboth hlow drau ught of up to 1.71.8 m (with two container layers) and f draught of up to 2 m t m full t 2.5 (with3layersof ffullcontain nersoreven4layersofm mixedfullan ndemptycontainers). The chosenhold dlength(80 0m)andbre eadth(10.34 4m)allows stowingofa avarietyof 2.50 2.55 m wide do 5 omesticcon ntainers(EILUsofC745 andA1360 type),besid destheusua alISO cont tainers (TEU and FEUs). By the wa the sam hold leng and som Us ay, me gth mewhat narr rower brea adthhascon ntemporary MGS,which his110mlo ong(vs.prop posed104m m).Theconc cepts over dimensi rall ions 104x11 1.65 m allo ows passage through all Danube locks, eve in e en coup plingtrainfo ormation. 84

Figure8.4 Enlargedste ernpart v variant withconven ntionalZdr riverudderpropellers

art Figure e8.3 Enlarg gedsternpa varian ntwithdiese elelectricpr ropulsion

85

Figure8. .5GA plan nofa containershipconce ept variantw withconvent tional rudderp propellersan nd onboardcrane 86

Anonboardcranewouldallowtranshipmentatanyportwhichwouldbeanadvantage particularlyontheMiddleandLowerDanubewhereadequatecontainerports(hubs)and dedicated container transhipment equipment are rare. However, this would reduce the numberofcontainersthatcouldbetransported. Rudderpropulsorsenableexceptionalmanoeuvringcharacteristics(steering&stopping) even at low draughts, resulting in a safer ship. If dieselelectrical propulsion would be installed, then additional benefits would be evident, i.e. better adaptation to various operation/sailing modes (upstream/downstream, speed and coupling train formation requiring employment of 1, 2, 3 or all 4 diesel engines). This would also reduce fuel consumption (probably by 10% in upstream and even more in downstream navigation), therefore emission levels would be lower as engines would run at optimal RPM/loading. For refrigerated containers and other large electricity consumers (a bow thruster for instance), the same electrical network could be used, eliminating the need for auxiliary units. Conventional, mechanicallydriven rudderpropellers have the advantage of being cheaperandretractable(hencecanbetteradapttowaterdepths). Thepositionofengines/engineroomatthesternandthecrewpremisesatthebowoffers additional crew comfort (reduced vibrations and noise). Application of contemporary equipmentandelectronicsenablessafersailingandloweroveralloperationalcosts. 8.2. Bargetrainfortransportofbulkcargo The main advantage of a push train, or barge transport, compared to selfpropelled ship transport,isthatcosteffectivenavigationwithreduceddraughtwithpartlyloadedbargesmay beutilized.Usuallyitisthedraughtofapushboatthatposesthemainproblem,asitcannotbe reduced below a certain level (the transom and propellers should have designed minimal draught,otherwisetheycannotworkproperly).ConventionalDanubepushboatswithapower ofaround2000kWusuallyhavedraughtofmorethan1.7to1.8m,meaningthatthisdraught isactuallyalimitingfactor.Duetothat,pullingtechnologywasnevercompletelyabandonedon theDanubeastowingvesselshavelowerdraught(usuallybelow1.5m)andarethereforeused duringthedryseasons.Consequently,alowdraughtpushboatwithapowerofaround2000kW wouldbemorethanadvantageousontheDanube. Ifnavigationwithareduceddraughtwouldberequired,thentosubstituteforreducedcarrying capacity,thenumberofbargesinaconvoymightbeincreased;powerneededforpushingthis convoy would not increase proportionally (see Section 5.1.2); this is the main advantage of pushboat technology). Suggested power of around 2000 kW would be sufficient for sailing alongthewholeDanubeatusualpushtrainspeedswithuptosixfullyloadedDanubebarges (withacarrying1500to1600teach).TonnagecapacityatreduceddraughtofatypicalDanube barge(77x11x2.8m)follows: 87

T[m] Tonnage[t]

0.5

1.0 300400

1.5 700800

2.0 11001200

2.5 15001600

Note that according to the ToR, vessels for bulk cargo and container transport should be suggested. Therefore, a selfpropelled vessel (Section 8.1) was designed particularly for container transport, and a barge train was designed for bulk cargo, although discussions that followwouldbethesameforothercargo(generalcargo,containersetc.),theonlylimitation beingthedraughtofbargesandofapushboat. 8.2.1. Proposedfeaturesofapushboatconcept

Draught (T) 1.4 m maximum. Larger draught would certainly be desirable from a hydrodynamicpointofview,butifthereisaneedtopushaconvoyatextremelylowwaters (see Section 2.3.2), then 1.4 m is probably the maximum allowable draught. With the abovementioned draught, a propeller in a nozzle with a diameter of 1.5 m could accept power of up to 700 kW, making a threepropeller installation feasible. Furthermore, a standard Danube barge with a draught of 1.5 m will carry a bit less than 800 t, which is approximatelyhalfofthecarryingcapacityofafullyloadedbargeat2.5m.Itisadiscussible subject, but sailing at a lower draught than 1.5 m would probably not be costeffective. From this point of view, the pushboats draught of 1.4 m is also justified. Obviously the choiceofdraughtisthemostimportanttechnicalcompromiseinpushboatdesign. Triplescrew propulsion, (skewed) propellers in nozzles with a diameter (D) of 1.5 m, should be located in a relatively shallow tunnel. A somewhat larger propeller diameter wouldbeallowable(anddesirable),buttakingintoaccountthelimitedbreadthof11mand highspeeddiesels,itisbelievedthat1.5mwouldbejustsufficient.Withanenginepower of 700 kW, propeller loading would be 375 kW/m2, which is high, but is still acceptable. Specialattentionshouldbepaidtothedesignoftunnels,propellersandanozzleswiththe aim to increase ahead and astern thrust and reduce vibrations (model experiments are recommended). Breadth (B) 11 m, which is the same as a standard Danube barge. A somewhat larger breadthwouldnotbesoharmful,asthepushboatisusuallypushingamuchwiderbarge convoy.Evenifonlyonebargeispushed,asomewhatwiderpushboat(thanabarge)would not be so disadvantageous. Barge packing, however, is easier if both the pushboat and a bargehavethesamewidth.Nevertheless,ifdraughtislimited,theneitherthelengthora width(orboth)shouldsubstitutetheneededbuoyancy.Consequently,itwasdecidedto fixthebreadthto11m. 88

Length (L) of around 30 m,undertheconditionthereisenoughspaceforallnecessary machineryandcrew.Asomewhatlongervessel(ifBandTarefixed)wouldbeacceptable. With L=30 m, the overall length of a convoy of two barges and a pushboat would be 2x77+30=184m,whichisstillacceptableforpassingthroughDanubelocks(seeTables2.2 and5.1). Height (H) 2.5 m is considered to be minimal for fitting engines and other necessary machineroomequipmentbelowthedeck. Weight (dry) is estimated to be 270 t taking into account lightweight engines and other equipmentandmachinery.Alargervaluemightcompromisethedraughtandthereforethe projectitself.Afullyloadedpushboatwithfuelandotherprovisionsshouldbearound350t (at a level draught of 1.4 m). Weight saving should be considered wherever possible (SPS technologymightbeemployedforthesuperstructure). Ship form, and particularly the tunnels, is of utmost importance as relatively large power needstobeinstalledwithinanextremelyshallowdraughthull(seeFigures5.19and5.22). The transom and propellers should always have a draught of around 1.4 m, while weight variations(duetofuelconsumption)shouldchangethetrimandbowdraughtonly.Model experimentsarerecommended. PropulsionplantLowemissiondieselenginesof3x700kW,satisfyingStageIIIA/Tier3 norms or better (see Section 7.3.3) with relatively high power to weight ratio should be considered. Transmission of power should be via conventional horizontal shaftline and a gearbox (with somewhat higher reduction ratio), see Section 7.2.2. Main engines and gensets should be flexibly mounted to the motor girder to reduce noise and vibrations levels.Withinstalledpowerofaround2000kWsailingalongthewholeDanubewithapush trainofsixfullyloadedbarges(atT=2.5m,carryingaround1500to1600tofcargoeach)at usual convoy speeds is possible during most of the navigable season. Expected fuel consumptionwouldbearound10t/day. Shoretoshippowersupply(ofelectricitywhileinport,oftencalledcoldironing)shouldbe consideredwiththeaimtoreduceonboarddieselemissions. Steeringthreefishtailrudderslocatedbehindpropellers(withoutflankingrudders,see section7.2.3)andagondola type bow thruster(withelectricalmotor)ofaround300 kW shouldbeconsidered. Provisionsformax7days,meaningthat70t(around85m3)offuelshouldbeprovided. Nevertheless,althoughontheDanubeitisaccustomedtocarryrelativelylargequantitiesof fuel (often for a roundtrip), much smaller quantities and refuelling on the way should be considered as overall situation within the New Europe has changed. Carrying smaller quantitiesoffuelmightbeacosteffectivemeasure.

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Crew members 8, according to UN ECE Recommendations. Accommodation premises shouldbeinonetiersuperstructureonthedeck(comprising4singleand2doublecabins, althoughthisdependsontheshipownersneeds/request).Livingpremisesshould befully airconditioned. Resiliently mounted superstructure (on pneumatic shock absorbers) for reducedvibrations,noiseandincreasedcomfortshouldalsobeconsidered(howeverthat wouldrequiresomewhatdifferentcabinarrangementthangivenontheGAplan). Wheelhouse with the possibility to be raisedtoincreasevisibilitytoatleast250m,as requestedbyUNECERecommendations.Whenloweredmaximalheightabovewaterlevel shouldbebelow6.3m,allowingsailingbelowallDanubebridges(excepttoontheUpper DanubeatHWL,seeTable2.2). Electronics and computerization should be of the latest technology, providing oneman watch operation of the vessel with engine and shipsystem monitoring and recording, voyageoptimization,etc.;seeSection7.4.

Everythingelseshouldbeasusualonapushboatofthissize,intendedfornavigationalongthe Danube River. Nevertheless, modern lightweight equipment and materials should be consideredwhereverpossible,aslargerweight(displacement,hencedraught)thanpredicted caneasilycompromiseeverypushboat. 8.2.2. Generalarrangementplanofapushboatconcept The General Arrangement (GA) plan of a pushboat concept is shown in Figure 8.6. The pushboatsmainparticularsarethefollowing: Loam Boam Hm Tm Heightabovebasislinem PBkW BowthrusterkW Crew 30.0 11.0 2.5 1.4 6.0 3x700 250300 8

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Figure8.6GeneralArrangementplanofapushboatconcept n g o

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8.2.3. Advantagesofaconceptcomparedtoconventionalpushboats Themainadvantageoftheproposedpushboatisitsextremelylowdraughtofonly1.4m (compared to draught of above 1.7 m of similar conventional pushboats). This enables navigationwithpartlyloadedbargesonthewholeDanubeevenatLNRL. A gondolatype bow thruster of 250 300 kW enables enhanced manoeuvring capa bilities, eliminating the necessity for conventional flanking rudders. Due to absence of flankingrudders,unobstructedwaterinflowtothenozzlescanbeachieved(hencehigher efficiency),whichisveryimportantparticularlyforhighlyloadedpropellers(duetolimited propellerdiameter,whichisaresultofdraughtlimitation). Application of the latest technological achievements that increase efficiency, safety, cleanliness and comfort (for instance: clean engines, the advising tempomaat, RIS equipment,resilientlymountedsuperstructureetc.).Nevertheless,thesebenefitsarenota result of the proposed pushboat concept, but rather of a modern era. Namely, almost all Danubepushboatswerebuilt30orsoyearsagoandthereforewereequippedaccordingto thestandardsbelongingtotheprevioustechnologicalgeneration,soanewlybuiltpushboat ofanydesignorconceptwillbeadvantageouscomparedtotheold(conventional)ones. 8.3. Conversionandretrofittingmeasuresthatcanleadtogreenernavigation Firstofall,gradualphasingoutofoldervesselsshouldbeconsidered.Anoldfornewpolicywas appliedontheRhine,sosimilarmeasureswithexperiencegainedsofaronthepatternRiver RhineshouldbeconsideredtobeemployedontheDanubetoo. The list of conversion and retrofitting measures with the aim to modernise existing vessels is endless. Only some of them those that reduce fuel consumption are mentioned below (accordingtoZigic2006): Replacementofold(usuallymediumspeed)withnew(usuallyhighspeed)enginesthis needsanewtransmissiongeartoo!Inthefirstplacemaintenancecostsarereduced,but fuelconsumptionandpollutantemissionsarereducedaswell. Replacementofpropellers/nozzlesorwholeafterbody(whenpropulsorsaredamagedso repair is not viable), or when engines are replaced. New stern+propellers+engines can reduceconsumptionupto13%. Lengtheningofahull(middlebody)orrebuildingofthecargoholdbyimplementingnew technologieswiththeaimtoreduceweight(withemploymentofSPSforinstance).

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Artif ficial (and cheap) modif fication of p pre and/or aftbody of a pushing ship and pu f ushed barg to form a stumpen connect ge a nd tion (Figure 8.7) may r e reduce explo oitation costs by arou 5%. Stil this meas und ll, sure is seldom applied. Accordingly, formatio of pusht on trains (stum mpendconnection)wo ouldalsobec costeffectiv ve.

Figure8.7F Fullscaletes stswithapo olyurethanew wedgetomatchstumptransom ofabarg ge(Source:DST) Notetha atotherkind dsofmeasur resmightbe eundertaken ntoo(forinstancethosewhichenh hance manoeuv vrabilityand dsafety,ena ablevessels tocomplyw withnewrul lesetc.).Nev vertheless,s some essential features of existing vessels often cannot be changed nor thei character o d, ir ristics noticeablyimproved,whicheverreasonabletechnicalm measureswouldbeapplie ed. 8.4. Thecostofnewbuildings s

ectedcostfo orbuildingt theselfprop pelledvesselandpushbo oatconceptsarearound56 Theexpe millionand45millio onEuros,res spectively.T These,however,toagre eatextentde ependonch hosen equipme ent,shipyard d,material(steel)cost, timeoforderetc.Ther refore,variationsoford derof magnitud deofaround d10to20%totheabovementioned dmightbeexpected.Bythewayino order toreduce eproduction ncostsinlan ndvesselsno owadaysare eusuallybuil ltintwoorm morecompa anies. Typically thehullisb builtinalow wercostarea,suchasSe erbiaorChin na,andthen niscomplet tedin theNetherlandsorG Germanywherecostsarehigher. Retrofitti and conversion cost are impossible to be anticipated as they de ing ts e d epend on se everal factors.N Notehoweverthatduetoa)inadeq quatesafety yandenvironmentalpolicy(onceve essels are built and explo t oited), and b) general durability of river vessels and their equipm ment, shipowne ersofteninc clinetovario ousretrofitt tingorconve ersionpossib bilitiesrathe erthanscrap pping and building new vessels. Cons v sequently, a oldforn an new policy/s scheme sho ould probably be ube. initiatedontheDanu

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9. CONCLUSIONSConcludingremarksweredrawnaftereachSection,sothereisnoneedtorepeatthemagain. Moreover, all of Section 8, ending with the custom designs of two typical Danube vessels selfpropelled and pushboat concepts, is a kind of conclusion, as most of the innovations and benefitsmentionedinprevioussectionswereincorporatedinthenewdesigns. It should be underlined, however, that contemporary (modern) shallow draught vessels, particularly suited for the Danube waterway, are feasible and desirable. The only problem is thatinherentlytheywillbelessefficientandlesscosteffective(ifwaterisdeepenough)than the vessels with deeper draught (see Figure 2.1). Besides, IWT (river vessels) in general have verystrongcompetitionfromothermodesrailwayandroadtransport,sounderthepresent circumstancestheremaybealimit(concerninglowdraughtnavigation)underwhichIWTwill notbecosteffectiveanymore,asothermodes(alreadymuchstrongerandbetterpositioned) will prevail. On the other side, when there is not enough water (when LNRL) low draught vesselswillhavealogisticaladvantagecomparedtodeeperdraughtpushboats,aswillbeable tonavigatealltheyearround. Consequently,underwhichconditionsIWTwillwork(i.e.whatwouldbeminimal/guaranteed water depth along the river and throughout the season, cost of fuel, taxes, eventual state subsidiesetc.)isapoliticalquestionwhichshouldalsobeinfluenced,amongstothers,bythe technical and ecological requirements of IWT. Ships were navigating in the past, often transporting a larger quantity of cargo than today (on the yearly basis) although navigational conditionswereworse(withalotofshallowsandfreeflowingsectors,seeforinstanceFigure 9.1), but the business environment was different than it is today (with pipelines, railway and roadinfrastructurepassingthroughtheDanubecorridor).

Figure9.1TowingwiththeassistanceofraillocomotivesinSipskikanal,Danubekm944+ 2200m,rightbank(currentspeedupto18km/h),from1918tillthebeginningof1970 (whenDjerdapdamwasbuilt)(Source:www.tkinfo.net)

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REFERENCES***AmendmentoftheRecommendationsonTechnicalRequirementsforInlandNavigationVessels, UNECEInlandTransportCommittee,2006. ***AustrianrivericebreakerwithAzipodPropulsion,Ship&BoatInt.,No6,RINA,London,1995. Balcu, A., ISPA measure 2002 RO 16 PA 011 Technical Assistance for the Improvement of the NavigationConditionsontheDanube,PPPresentation,TrapecS.A. Bilen, B., Innovations in River PushTrain Technology (in Serbian), Institute of Technical Sciences of SerbianAcademyofScienceandArt,Belgrade,1996. Bilen,B.,Zerjal,M.,AnewConceptofPushboatDesign,inPracticalDesignofShipsandMobileUnits, ElsevierScienceB.V.,1998. Blaauw, H., Radojcic, D., Thill, C., Zigic, B., Hekennberg, R., The four cases of CREATING, 2nd RINA SymposiumonCoastalships&Inlandwaterway,London,March2006. Brix,J.,editorManoeuvringTechnicalManual,SeehafenVerlagGmbH,Hamburg,1993. Bross,H.,KustenundBinnenmotorschiffemitspeziellerFlachwasserfahreigenschaftfurdenTransport vontrockenemundflussigemMassengutsowieStuckgutundContainer,VBD,2002. Carlton,J.S.,MarinePropellers&Propulsion,ButterworthHeinemann,London,1994. Cox,G.,Sex,LiesandWaveWake,RINAConferenceHydrodynamicsofHighSpeedCraft,London,2000. *** CREATING WP5 State of the art of existing hull and propulsor concepts, Internal report and presentationsregardingtheDanubeRoRovessel,Nov.2005. Crist,P.,GreenhouseGasEmissionsReductionPotentialfromInternational Shipping,OECD/ITF Joint TransportResearchCentreDiscussionPapers,2009/11,OECDpublishing,doi:10.1787/223743322616. ***CurrentStateofStandardisationandFutureStandardisationNeedsforIntermodalLoadingUnitsin Europe,FinalReportforPublication,fundedbyECFP4Programme. ***FuelCellswhatistheirmarinefuture,Ship&BoatInt.,No7/8,RINA,London,2003. ***FutureEmissionLimitsforNonRoadMobileMachinery(EUDirective97/68/EC). Doyle, R., Whittaker, T., Elsasser, B., A Study of Fast Ferry Wash in Shallow Water, FAST 2001, Southampton. Guesnet, T., Delius, A., Jastrzepski, T., Efficient Freight Transport on Shallow Inland Waterways ResultsoftheINBATR&DProject,9thSymposiumPRADS,LuebeckTravemuende,2004. Guesnet, T., Modern Concepts in the Design of Vessels for Inland Waters, Coastal Ships and Inland Waterways,RINA,1999. Hehle, M., Low Emission Diesel Engine Technology and Exhaust After treatment in Heavy Duty Operation,4thDanubeSummit,Constanta,June2008.

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Heuser,H.,AnwendungbeimEntwurfvonBinnenschiffen,Schiffstechnik,Band33,Heft1,April1986. Hofman, M., Radoji, D., Resistance and Propulsion of Fast Ships in Shallow Water, Monograph, FacultyofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityofBelgrade,Belgrade,1997,(inSerbian). Hofman,M.,Kozarski,V.,ShallowWaterResistanceChartsforPreliminaryVesselDesign,International ShipbuildingProgress,DelftUniversityPress,Vol.47,No.449,2000. Hofman,M.,Inlandcontainervessel:Optimalcharacteristicsforaspecifiedwaterway,CoastalShips& InlandWaterwayII,RINA,2006. HofmanM.,MaksiI.,BakalovI.,SomeDisturbingAspectsofInlandVesselStabilityRules,Journalof ShipTechnology,Vol.2,No.2,NewDelhi,2006. Lewthwaite, J., Wash Measurements on Inland Waterways using the WAVETECTOR Buoy, RINA ConferenceonCoastalShips&InlandWaterways2,London,2006. Jastrzebski,T.,Sekulski,Z.,Taczala,M.,Graczyk,T.,Banasiak,W.,Zurawski,T.,AConceptoftheInland Waterway Barge Base on the IcoreR Steel Panel, European Inland Waterway Navigation Conf., Gyor, June2003. Jovanovic,M.,ShipDesign(inSerbian),UniversityofBelgrade,Belgrade,2002. *** Manual on Danube Navigation, Published by via donau Osterreichische Wasserstrassen GessellschaftmbH. ***ManualonDanubePorts,PublishedbyviadonauOsterreichischeWasserstrassenGessellschaft mbH. *** OECD Publication Inland Warerways & Environmental Protection, European Conference of MinistersofTransport(ECMT),ISBN9282113469,2006. ***PIANCWaterbornetransport,portsandwaterways:Areviewofclimatechangedrivers,impacts, responsesandmitigation,ClimateChangeandNavigation,2008. *** PIANC Guidelines for Managing Wake Wash from High Speed Vessels, Report of WG 41 of InternationalNavigationAssociation,Brussels,Belgium,2003. ***ThePowerofInlandNavigation,DutchInlandshippinginformationAgency(BVB). ***ProspectsonthedevelopmentofinfrastructureandnavigationontheDanube,viadonau,Vienna 2006. ***ProvisionalRulesfortheApplicationofSandwichPanelConstructiontoShipStructure,LR,2006. Radojcic, D., TipDriven Marine Propellers and Impellers a Novel Propulsion Concept, SNAME Propeller/ShaftingSymposium,VirginiaBeach,1997. Radojcic,D., PowerPredictionProcedureforFast SeaGoingMonohullsOperatinginShallowWater, TheShipforSupercriticalSpeed,19thDuisburgColloquium,May1998. Radojcic,D.,IntegrationoftheDanubeintoEuropeanintermodaltransportchainsthroughYURISand MUTANDprojects,The1stDanubeSummit,Constanta,June2002. 96

Radojcic, D., Danube Intermodal Ships Container vs. RoRo, The ship in intermodal traffic, 26th DuisburgColloquiumDuisburg,June2005. Radojcic,D.,NewOpportunitiesontheDanubeCorridor,RoRo2006,Ghent,May2006. Radojcic, D., On Engineering Greener Logistics on Inland Waterways, PP Presentation, RoRo 2008, Gothenburg,May2008. Radojcic, D., Bowless, J., On High speed Monohulls in Shallow Water, to be presented on Second ChesapeakePowerBoatSymposium(CPBS),Annapolis,2010. ***ResolutionNo.21PreventionofPollutionofInlandWaterwaysbyVesselsEconomicCommission forEurope,UNECE/TRANS/SC.3/179. ***RhineschifffahrtundKlimawandelNavigationontheRhineandClimateChangeAchallengeand anOpportunity,Bonn,June2009. ***RulesandRegulationsfortheClassificationofInlandWaterwaysShipsLR. *** Sandwich Plate System: an innovation in ship construction, Ship & Boat Int., No 9/10, RINA, London,2003. Schweighofer, J., Seiwerth, P., Environmental Performance of Inland Navigation, European Inland WaterwayNavigationConference,Visegrad,June2007. Schweighofer,J.,Blaauw,H.,VirtualGuidedTouroftheCleanestShip,4thDanubeSummit,Constanta, June2008. SPINRhine, Version 1 Innovative Types of Inland Ships and their Use on the River Rhine, its TributariesandtheAdjacentCanalsbyMueller,E.,VBD,Duisburg,2003. SPINWorkingPaper,InnovativeTransportVehiclesontheDanubeanditsTributaries,byRadojcic, D.,DPC,Belgrade,2004. Tieman, R., Practical Experience with the Adaption of the Inland Navigation Fleet to Changes in the Water Discharge and with the Reduction of Fuel Consumption, Navigation on the Rhine and Climate ChangeAchallengeandanOpportunity,Bonn,June2009. Zenczak, W., Michalski, R., Jastrzebski, T., Conceptions of Power Plant of Innovative PushBoat on ShallowWaters,EuropeanInlandWaterwayNavigationConf.,Gyor,June2003. Zibbel,H.G.,Mueller,E.,BinnenschiffefurextremflachesWasserErgebnissedesVEBISProjektes, Handb.D.Werften,Vol.XXIII,1996. Zibell,H.G.,NeueForschungsergebnissemitFlachwasserschiffen,BinnenschiffahrtZfB,Nr.10,May 1994. Zigic,B.,ModernisationoftheDanubefleetMatchingthefuturerequirements,3rdDanubeSummit, Budapest,Oct.2006. Zigic,B.,Optimalshipdesignforshallowwateroperation,4thDanubeSummit,Constanta,June2008.

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Zoelner, J., Vortriebstechnische Entwicklungen in der Binnenschiffart, IST Symposium, New and FurtherDevelopment,Duisburg,2003. ***WaterTransportEnvironmentandSustainability,INE. Werft, van der K., INBISHIPTM Innovation in Inland Shipping, Int. Conf. on Coastal Ships and Inland Waterways,RINA,London,1999. *** WESKA 2002 Westeuropaeischer Schiffahrts und Hafenkalender, BinnenschifffahrtsVerlag GmbH,DuisburgRuhrort,2002. www.aircomposite.com www.ddrbinnenschifffahrt.de/schiffstypSSSElbe.htm www.dieselnet.com/standards/eu/nonroad.php www.dstorg.de/projekte/projekte/inbiship/ship.htm www.iesps.com www.imo.org www.inlandnavigation.org www.kliwas.de www.mercuriusgroup.nl www.naiades.info/wiki/index.php5/Category:Innovation_database www.nationalwaterwaysfoundation.org www.newlogistics.com www.panda.org www.RolsRoyce.com www.Schottel.com www.siemens.com www.smoothships.eu www.Vethmotoren.com www.voithturbo.com www.zemships.eu/en/service/downloads/index.php

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APPENDICES 99

APPENDIX1TheOECDPublicationInlandWarerways&EnvironmentalProtection,whosesummaryfollows,is regardedimportantasassessesthewaysinwhichtheEUWaterFrameworkDirectiveaffectsthe planningenvironmentforinternationalwaterwaysandsetsanewagendaforimprovingtheecological valueofwaterways.ThereportmakesrecommendationsongoodpracticeandidentifiestheDanube riverbasinasthecriticalareaforimprovement.Thisiswheretheeffortsofinternationalgovernmental organisationsandNGOscouldmostusefullybecombinedtodevelopabasinwideenvironmental protectionandwaterwaydevelopmentstrategy.

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101

102

103

APPENDIX2 Impactsofclimatechange(fromPIANCReportonclimatechangeandnavigation) The main goal of EnviCom Task Group 3 Climate Change and Navigation was to discuss the climate change related issues for the navigation sector and how to deal with the above mentioned problems and various project scenarios. Potential adaptation and mitigation responseswerealsoidentified. Climate change impacts inland navigation primarily through ice conditions, icing, extreme hydrologicalconditions,rivermorphology,windconditionsetc.Linksbetweendriversofchange andpotentialimpactsoninlandnavigationaredepictedinthefollowingfigure.

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Potential impacts on navigation primarily in terms of water depth and velocity, resulting in changesinsedimentationandpresenceandabsenceoficearelistedinthefollowingtable

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Ifnavigationconditionsarealteredoveralongerperiodsoftime(lowwaterlevelsforinstance) adaptationofthefleetandnewvesselsofdifferentdesignseemtobeinevitable.Thefollowing table summarizes some possible responses which, however, require additional investments and/orcausehigheroperationalcosts.

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APPENDIX3 WaveWashProducedbyHighSpeedCraft[2ndCPBS,2010]Fast vessels produce wave wash that is different than that of conventional ships and natural waves,havinglongperiodsandsignificantenergy.Theamplitudeoftheleadingwaveproduced byhighspeedcraftisnotsolarge(whencomparedtostormwaves,forinstance)butitdoes have a relatively long wave period. When these waves reach (get into) shallow water their height increases rapidly, often causing large and damaging surges on the beaches. They also arrive unexpectedly, often after the high speed craft has passed away. Consequently, wash restrictionswereimplementedonseveralsensitivehighspeedcraftroutes.Duringthelast20 yearsofevolution,washrestrictionswerefirstbasedonspeedlimits,thenwavewashheights, and ultimately by the limitation of energy produced by wash at certain distance from the vesselstrack.Accordingtothelatestfindingsbothwashheightandenergyareimportant;see forinstanceCox(2000)andDoyleetal.(2001). Concerning wash in the sheltered waters, it is only a vessels divergent waves which are relevant. A visual indicator of wave wash size is usually its height only; however the wave periodseemstobethecriticalfactorregardingdamage. Deepwater Asmentionedabove,wavewashrestrictionsarenowbasedontheenergyinthewavetrain.By usingthisapproachthewaveheightandperiodaretakenintoconsideration.Forexample,the StateofWashingtonrestrictwavewashenergy,E,tovaluesoflessthan2450J/matadistance of300moffthevesselstrack,or2825J/matadistanceof200moffthevesselstrack. Thedistancesfromthevesselareincludedintherequirementsbecausewaveheightdiminishes as the lateral distance from the sailing line increase. The decay rate in farfield (distances beyondtwowaterlinelengths)maybeobtainedfromtherelation1/x0.33,wherexisdistance perpendicular to ship track. It should be noted, however, that the wave period is nearly constantasdistancexchanges. Thecalculationsofwavewakeenergyperlinearlengthofwavefrontisgivenbythefollowing equation,inwhichtheperiod,T,isassociatedwiththemaximumwaveheight. E=(g2H2T2)/16=1960H2T2J/m. Shallowwater The characterization of shallow water waves is more complicated because wave period also varieswithdistancefromthesailingline.Longerandfasterwavestravelontheoutsideofwash 107

andhave ealargerKe elvinangleth hantheshorterandslowerwaves. Whenthew wavesarein nvery shallow w water and the supercrit t tical region, the first w , wave in the g group is usu ually the hig ghest. However as depth increases, th second o third wav typically b r, i he or ve becomes the highest. F e Figure 1 below depictswave epatternsinshallowwat terinsubcr ritical,critica alandsuper criticalregio on.

1

Combinedinfluenceoflengt thFroudenumber randdepthFroudenumberonwave eheightisdepicte ed(MichletSoftwa are,LeoLazausk kaswas

rvariouslengthFr roudenumbersan nddepthFrouden numbers).Theima agesinthecenter vertical employedto calculatesurfacewavepatternsfor oraconstantleng gthFroudenumberFnL0.43(excep ptthelastimage),whiledepthFrou udenumberincrea asesfrom0.65to2.5.On columnarefo theotherhan nd,theimagesint thecenterhorizon ntalrowhaveaconstantdepthFrou udenumber(Fnh=0 0.90),whilelength hFroudenumberincrease from0.26to 0.61.Thelastima agedepictswavesforthesupercriticalspeed,i.e.FnL> >0.7.Theprogress sionfromthetoptobottomofthe vertical figures illustr rates the wave pa attern changes ass sociated with tran nsitioning from th subcritical regim to the supercr he me ritical regime. Relative to this,thehorizontalfigures,all evaluatedforthe esamedepthFroudenumber,dep pictsomewhatdiff ferentwavepatte ernsandheightsw withthe differentleng gthFroudenumbe ers.Themiddlefig gurehasthemaxim mumwaveheightasFnh=0.9andFnL0.4. L

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Theappropriatemeasureofwavewashinshallowwaterseemstobeboththewaveheightand waveenergy,whichcanbeobtainedfromthewavewashtrace(forinstance,typicalRhinebargewash (subcritical speed) at 30 m off vessel track, having height 0.47 m and period 3 sec, hence E=1030J/sat200misdepictedbelow).

Source:Lewthwaite2006

Asexpected,thelargestwavesoccuraroundFnh=1.Variationofwaveheightandenergywith depthFroudenumberrecordedatxLareshownbelow.

Source:Doyle,2001

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Mostoftheenergyiscontainedinasinglelongperiodwavewithsmalldecayenergydispersion atadistance.Thedecayrateinshallowwaterissmallerthanindeepwaterandisafunctionof h/L ratio. The decay ratio at critical speeds is different than that in supercritical region, as shownbelow.Thisisacontributingfactortounexpectedlylargewavesinshallowwaterata largerdistancefromavesselstrack.Ifratioh/L>0.5,thewavesaremoreorlessthesameasin deepwater.

Source:Doyle,2001 LowWashHulls Naval architects are nowadays trying to identify a low wave wash hull form characteristics. Generally,foralowwasha)thespeedscorrespondingtoFnL=0.350.65shouldbeavoided,and b) displacement should be as low as possible while length should be as large as possible. According to Cox (2000) there is no sufficient evidence for claims that catamaran, multihull vessel,oranyotherformissignificantlybetterthanmonohulls(providedcomparisonismade betweencompetentdesigns).AccordingtoPIANC2003,highspeedcraftwavewashcannotbe reducedjustbyoptimizingthehullformandvariousdesignratiossincewaveperiodgenerally increaseswithspeedanddoesntdecayquickly,whichisimportantfornavigationparticularlyin shallowwater.

110

APPENDIX4 PossibleShipPollutantsPrevention of pollution by inland vessels is generally regulated by various international and nationalrules(seeUNECEResolutionNo.21,forinstance).OfparticularinterestareADNRules (InternationalCarriageofDangerousGoodsbyInlandWaterways)whichrepresentasetofregulationswhichplayanimportantroleincontrollingwaterpollutionbyinlandnavigationvessels.

As a consequence of abovementioned inland navigation vessels have to be equipped with appropriate technical means for collection, retention on board and transfer into reception facilities (shore based and floating) of waste generated on board. Possible ship pollutants areindicatedinthefollowingFigure.

Source:Highlights3/2003AnewsletterpublishedbySSPA,Sweden

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APPENDIX5

ApplicationofSPStoDanubeBargeHullStructureSandwich Plate or Panel System (SPS) consists of two plates with welded perimeter bars and withanelastomerinjectedbetweentoformasolidunit.In2006LRrevealedProvisionalRules for the Application of Sandwich Panel Construction to Ship Structure. The Rules cover construction procedures, scantling determination for primary supporting structures, framing arrangementsandmethodsofscantlingdeterminationforsteelsandwichpanels.TheRulesare in general applicable to monohull ships of normal forms, speed and proportions. As usually, applicationofSPSinanyareathatisnotspecifiedintheRules,requiresspecialconsiderationby LR. The overall philosophy of the Rules is to ensure that designs utilising steel sandwich construction are equivalent in strength and safety to conventional steel construction. The thickness of the top and bottom plate and core of the SPS is determined on basis of the scantlingsgivenfortheequivalentordinarysteelconstruction.TheassumedscantlingsofSPS construction are checked for strength by formula given in the Rules. If the strength is not satisfied, the chosen thickness has to be increased. The process is iterative. Welding is conductedviatheperimeterbar,seeconnectiondetailsbelow.

ThepurposeoftheinvestigationwastovalidatewhetherapplicationofSPSconstructiontoa Danubebargecanleadtosignificantweightreduction(40%orsoasreported,forinstance,by Jastrzebski 1993). A typical general cargo Danube barge of 77x11x2.8 m is chosen for this comparison. A conventional steel structure was evaluated according to LR Rules and RegulationsfortheClassificationofInlandWaterwaysShips(forgeneralcargo,bulkcarrierand containershiptype),whileProvisionalRuleswereusedforSPSstructures.

112

comparisonw wasmadebetweenfollo owingconce epts: Weightc a) A existing, convention An nallybuilt (mixed fram med) steel barge, built 30 years ago t ac ccordingtoYugoslavRe egisterofShi ippingRules, , andcalcu ulated(accordingtoLR)conventiona alsteelbarg gewithtwot typesofstru uctures b) m mixedframin ngsystem c) lo ongitudinalf framingsyste em, aswellas sinnovative(calculatedaccordingto otheProvisi ionalRules) d) SPSstructure e. udinal frami system is the type of ship stru ing ucture in wh hich all seco ondary structure A longitu stiffeners are set up longitudinally, while in a trans s u e sversally fra aming system all secon ndary structure estiffenersa arepositionedtransvers sally.Amixe edframings systemdeno otesheredo ouble bottomt tobetransv versallyfram med,whilethedoubles sideanddec ckarelongit tudinallyframed. Theexist tingbargeis sbuiltwith mixedframingsystem, whichisno owadaystypicallyapplie edfor inlandba argestructures.Conside eringtheloc calstrength requirements,sternand dbowstructures are assumed to be conventiona built an therefore remain the same in a cases. Fig ally nd e all gures tofthemidshipsectionofthebargesconsidere ed. belowrepresentpart

Mixedframed d tudinallybui iltbarge(cas se:c)calcula ated) M Longit cases:a)exis sting,andb) )calculated) (c 113

SPSconstruction(cased)c calculated) Weig ghtcomparis sonforgeneralcargoDa anubebarge(77x11x2.8m)forallfo ourconsidere ed cases sisshownbe elow.

STEEL T WEIGHT

Comm ment: Compl letesteelweight tisshownconsis stingofmiddleb bodyof67man ndbow&sterno of10m. TotallightweightofparticularJRBbar rgeis342t(stee elweight316ta andequipment2 26t). Weigh htofbow&stern nisassumedtobethesame(53 3t)inallcases.

114

Concludingremarks Duetothevariousexploitationreasonsthehullstructurescantlingsofthecalculatedbargesare oftenincreased,allowingthemtomeetstrengthrequirementsoveraprolongedperiod(more than 50 years). Consequently, the existing barge is heavier by around 12.5% than an equivalently framed calculated barge. If longitudinal framing would be used, this difference would be 18%, although a conventional steel structure was assumed for both cases. The innovativeSPSstructurewouldbelighterby22%,11%and5%respectively.Summarising,the innovativeSPSbargecanbelighterbyonlyupto10%thanaconventional(calculated)barge. Nevertheless, it seems that weight savings should first be examined within the conventional steel construction approach, and afterwards the innovative approaches, like SPS, could be examined. Notethatcontainerandbulkcargobarges(thatwerealsoanalysed)areheavierbyaround10% thanthegeneralcargobargesandthatasavingsduetoapplicationofSPSconstructionwould besmalleraround2to5%only.

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AP PPENDIX6

Statistic csonInlandWaterw n wayTransp portandDa anubeTransport

Withintotalt W trafficenerg gyconsumpt tion Road+Rail+IW WT,IWTssh hareisonly ab bout1.5% (Source:EEA A)

Transportd distanceper rmodewith hfuel consumptio onof5lit/to on(Source:BVB)

Externa alcostofgoods transpo ort(Source: :BVB)

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Energyconsumptionininland navigation(Source:ECDGfor energy&transport)

CONGESTIONIWThasnorestrictionsonfreightgrowth(allowableincreaseontheRhine andDanubeare4and10times,respectively).Furthermore,itistheonlymodewhichcan relievecongestedroadsandrailway.

RecentUSAstatistics(fromMaritimeTodayEnews,June17th2009)AModalComparisonofFreightTransportationEffectsontheGeneralPublic www.nationalwaterwaysfoundation.org TheresearchteamfocusedonCarbonDioxide(CO2)emissions,whicharecurrentlythefocusofthe publicpolicydebateonGreenHouseGasses.UsingEPAparameters,theteamcalculatedhowmuch CO2isemittedpertonmileforeachmode.Emissionspertonmilearethoseemissionsexperiencedin movingonetonofcargoonemile.TheteamdeterminedthattheemissionsofCO2pergallonoffuel burnedareroughlythesameforeachmode,sothecomparisonfocusedonhowmuchcargogetsmoved forthatgallonoffuel.Theydeterminedthatcomparedtoinlandbargetransportation,railtransport generates39%moreCO2andtruckinggenerates371%moreCO2. Truckscanonlyproduce155tonmilesofcargomovementpergallonoffuelandcandeliveronly13,964 tonmilesofcargomovementforeachtonofCO2produced. Railroadsproduce413tonmilesofcargomovementpergallonoffuel,allowingthemto37,207.2tons milesofcargomovementpertonofCO2produced. Inlandtowboatsmovethemostcargopergallonoffuel576tonmilespergallonandthusproduce theleastamountofCO2emissionspertonmile,deliveringsome51,891tonmilesofcargomovement foreachtonofCO2emitted. Toputthesenumbersinperspective,theresearchteamcalculatedthatifallthecargothatmovedby bargein2005,theyearofthestudy,wereinsteadmovedbyrail,itwouldhaveresultedinanadditional 2.1milliontonsofCO2intheatmosphere.Ifthatsamecargohadmovedbytruck,itwouldhave generatedanadditional14.2milliontons. Regardingthesamesubject,seealsoCrist(2009)paperonGreenhouseGasEmissions(OECDpubl.).

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Marketshare M edevelopme entof ca argotranspo ortontheDa anube (S Source:Mier rkaDonauha afen) TOTALFREIGHTRANS SPORTONT THEDANUBE E2007 Inmill liontons/ye ear

Source: :DanubeNa avigationinA Austria,AnnualReport2 2008,viadon nau 118

Danubefleet(2003)Source:ProspectsoftheDevelopment,viadonau Shiptype Number Capacity Averageage (1000t) (years)Motorcargovessel Drycargobarges Tankers Tankbarges Pushboats TOTAL 104(6206) 1796(2522) 8(1390) 192(147) 283(675) 2631(10940) 160(6158) 2842(3348) 10(1771) 258(215) 3256(11492) 29(50) 24(29) 29(36) 41(34) 24(49) 26(44)

Comment: In the parentheses given are data for the Rhine vessels. Only vessels that are appropriate for the international trade are contained. Only vessels larger than 1000 t are containedfortheDanubestatistics.Pushboatswithengineslargerthan750kWarecontained fortheDanubestatistics.

EstimatedfleetdemandfortheDanubein2015(numberofvessels) Source:ProspectsoftheDevelopment,viadonau Shiptype Year2003 Totaldemand AdditionalDemandMotorcargovessel Drycargobarges Tankers Tankbarges Pushboats TOTAL 104 1796 8 192 283 2631 293428 7691117 3855 112162 169246 13812008 189324 0 3047 0 0 219371

Comment: For details see the source document. Total demand and additional demand are given fromto as the number depends on actions undertaken for improving the navigation. Additional demandisconstructionofnewvesselsduetofleetmodernization.

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APPENDIX7 RecentIMOActivitiesIt should be mentioned that IMOs Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) is, amongst others, developing measures to enhance energy efficiency in international shipping andtherebyreducegreenhousegasemissions.Thesearetechnicalandoperationalmeasures aswellaspossiblemarketbasedinstruments.Consequently,thefollowingwasintroduced: EnergyEfficiencyDesignIndex(EEDI)fornewships,onthebasisofexperiencegainedthrough its trial application over the past six months. The EEDI is meant to stimulate innovation and technical development of all the elements influencing the energy efficiency of a ship, thus makingitpossibletodesignandbuildintrinsicallyenergyefficientshipsofthefuture. Energy Efficiency Operational Index (EEOI), which enables operators to measure the fuel efficiencyofanexistingshipand,therefore,togagetheeffectivenessofanymeasuresadopted toreduceenergyconsumption.TheEEOIhasbeenappliedbyMemberStatesandtheshipping industry,onatrialbasisandsince2005,tohundredsofshipsinoperation;itprovidesafigure, expressed in grams of CO2 per tonne mile, for the efficiency of a specific ship, enabling comparisonofitsenergyorfuelefficiencytosimilarships. ShipEnergyManagementPlan(SEMP)incorporatesguidanceonbestpractices,whichinclude improvedvoyageplanning,speedandpoweroptimization,optimizedshiphandling,improved fleetmanagementandcargohandling,aswellasenergymanagementforindividualships. The above mentioned is a successor instrument to the Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations FrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)andconcernsseagoingships,butsooner orlatersimilarmeasureswillhavetobeappliedtoinlandshipstoo.Inthecontextofthisstudy, EEDI,EEOIandSEMParerelatedtosubjectspresentedinSection7. MEPC is currently developing a Convention on ship recycling regulations for international shippingandforrecyclingactivities.Thenewconvention(expectedtoenterintoforcein2013) willprovideregulationsforthedesign,construction,operationandpreparationofshipssoasto facilitate safe and environmentally sound recycling, without compromising the safety and operational efficiency of ships; the operation of ship recycling facilities in a safe and environmentally sound manner; and the establishment of an appropriate enforcement mechanism for ship recycling, incorporating certification and reporting requirements. Consequently,everynewshipwillhavetoenterservicewithacertifiedInventoryofHazardous Materials(IHM)andtheshipyardwillberesponsibleforpreparingit. 120

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