enseñanza de ele

8/16/2019 Enseñanza de ELE

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@\MIÍTKEM [ MD]XKUKEKÕO HO CM HOUHÝMOZMDHC HU^MÝFC EFIF CHO@XM HRT\MOJH\M

-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Cfs hstudkfs dh cfs úctkifs 58 mýfs ho hc íilktf dh cm hoshýmozm dh choùms

hxtrmojhrms bmo puhstf dh imokgkhstf hc emríethr iuctkdksekpckomrkf dh hsth

íilktf kothchetumc. Uflrh ëc efoeurrho, ho hghetf, vmrkmlchs iuebf iís

efipchjms quh cms quh emrmethrkzmo m eumcqukhr dksekpckom purmihoth thõrkem.

^mrm efiprflmr cms iúctkpchs phrsphetkvms quh efogcuyho metumcihoth ho cm

kovhstk`mekõo dh hsth emipf lmstm bfjhmr Hccks (=;;4), quh prhshotm hc hstmdf

dh cm euhstkõo dh uom dksekpckom euym vktmckdmd quhdm pmthoth ho hc oúihrf dh

rhghrhoekms lklckf`rígkems quh mpmrheho ho cm flrm: iís dh =.8>>. Efif shýmcm

hc ektmdf mutfr:

Tbh dhvhcfpihots ko UCM rhshmreb fvhr tbh yhmrs bm vh lhho fg shvhrmc akods. Foh

dhvhcfpihot efoehros tbh sefph fg tbh géhcd fg hoqukry. Pbhrhms iueb fg tbh hmrckhr

wfra gfeusshd fo tbh ckoùkstke —mod, ko pmrtkeucmr, tbh `rmiimtkemc— prfphrtkhs fg tbh

chmrohr cmoùm`h mod wms psyebfckoùkstke ko frkhotmtkfo, cmthr wfra bms mcsf mtthodhd tf

tbh prmìmtke msphets fg chmrohr cmoùm`h mod, koerhmsko`cy, bms mdfpthd m

sfekfckoùkstke phrsphetkvh. Tbus, wbhrhms imoy rhmshmrebhrs efotkouh tf gfeus tbhkr

mtthotkfo fo bfw C< chmrohrs dhvhcfp `rmiimtkemc efiphthoeh, imoy ftbhrs mrh

efoehrohd wktb bfw chmrohrs dhvhcfp tbh mlkckty tf phrgfri sphheb mets sueb ms rhquhsts

fr mpfcf`khs mpprfprkmthcy. Ukikcmrcy, wbhrhms imoy rhshmrebhrs efotkouë tbh cfo`-

stmodko` mtthipt tf hxpcmko tbh psyebfckoùkstke prfehsshs tbmt uodhrckh C< mequksktkfo

mod ush, ftbhrs bmvh `kvho mtthotkfo tf tbh sfekmc gmetfrs tbmt kogcuhoeh dhvhcfpihot. Tbh

rhsuct ks tbmt sefph fg UCM rhshmreb ks ofw iueb wkdhr tbmo ko tbh =;0>s fr hvho hmrcy

=;2>s

(Hccks, =;;4: =).

^fr efoskùkhoth, cf quh sh bm prfduekdf ho hc íilktf dh cm kovhstk`mekõo sflrh

cm mdqukskekõo dh choùms hxtrmojhrms bm skdf cm koefrpfrmekõo dh ouhvms

phrsphetkvms quh kothotmo mthodhr m cm efipchjkdmd dhc fljhtf dh hstudkf: shrbmlcmoth efiphthoth dh uom choùm kipckem of sõcf dfikomr mkscmdmihoth su

cëxkef y sus hstrueturms `rmimtkemchs, skof tmilkëo smlhrcfs mrtkeucmr ho uo

dkseursf pfckgõokef y smlhrcfs utkckzmr dh imohrm mprfpkmdm m cfs gkohs quh hc

bmlcmoth kothotm efoshùkr y mc efothxtf sfekmc ho quh mquëc sh prfdueh. Dh mbé

hc kothrës quh cfs hogfquhs dkseurskvf y prmìítkef bmo mdqukrkdf ho cfs

imoumchs dh hoshýmozm dh hspmýfc pmrm hxtrmojhrfs. Of hs hxtrmýf, puhs,

quh, grhoth m cm ofekõo ebfisakmom dh efiphthoekm `rmimtkemc, iuebfs

hstudkfsfs dh cm mdqukskekõo dh choùms hxtrmojhrms prhgkhrmo rheurrkr mc


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efoehptf dh efiphtho

Byihs ho =;70, efif o

Hsth úctkif, ho hghetf,

koecuyh pfr cf ihofs c

(=;25):

(


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Dhc iksif ifdf, Bmwakos (=;02) Qekt. ho K. Lfsquh (=;2;: =2


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

skhodf uof dh cfs iõducfs quh efipfoho cm efiphthoekm efiuokemtkvm. Cm

prhùotm quh sur`h m efotkoumekõo hs cm dh pfr quë pmrm mcùofs hsphekmckstms

hc vmcfr dh cm rhgchxkõo `rmimtkemc ho cm hoshýmozm dh cms choùms hxtrmojhrms

hs emsk oucf.

=.= Hc cu`mr dh cm `rmiítkem ho cm hoshýmozm dh choùms hxtrmojhrms:

efofekikhotf mdqukrkdf y efofekikhotf mprhodkdf

Cfs mrùihotfs mduekdfs pmrm dhsmefoshjmr cm kotrfdueekõo dh cm hoshýmozm

dh cm `rmiítkem ho cms ecmshs dh choùms hxtrmojhrms prfvkhoho prkoekpmcihoth

dh cms thfréms quh tkhodho m prfecmimr cm prkfrkdmd dhc mprhodkzmjh omturmckstm

grhoth mc mprhodkzmjh efif rhsuctmdf dh uo prfehsf dh kostrueekõo. ^mrm tmc

hogfquh, cm mdqukskekõo dh uom choùm hxtrmojhrm skùh ho cf hshoekmc cms

pmutms prfpkms dh cm mdqukskekõo dh cm choùm imthrom, prfehsf quh sh lmsm ho

cm koihrskõo dhc mprhodkz ho sktumekfohs dh efiuokemekõo y quh eucikom sko

quh bmym ohehskdmd dh rheurrkr m oko`úo tkpf dh kostrueekõo `rmimtkemc

hxpcéektm4. Hstms thfréms mdiktho quh sflrh cm mdqukskekõo dh cms choùms

hxtrmojhrms metúmo vmrkmlchs quh dkghrhoekmo milms sheuhoekms dh mprhodkzmjh

(dkghrhoth `rmdf dh imdurmekõo ehrhlrmc, dkstkotfs fljhtkvfs, hte.), phrf

imotkhoho quh hc ihjfr ifdf (y dh bhebf, hc úokef) dh prf`rhsmr ho hc

mprhodkzmjh dh uom choùm hxtrmojhrm efosksth ho suihr`kr mc mprhodkz ho cfs

dmtfs rhmchs (hstf hs, ho cfs houoekmdfs prfduekdfs ho efothxtfs dh

efiuokemekõo).

Xof dh cfs hogfquhs thõrkefs quh iís bmo koskstkdf ho hsth puotf hs, sko dudm,

cm ccmimdm bkpõthsks dhc koput dh Armsbho. Hsth kovhstk`mdfr dkghrhoekm hotrhefofekikhotf mdqukrkdf y efofekikhotf mprhodkdf. Hc prkihrf rhspfodhrém m cfs

pmtrfohs quh emrmethrkzmo cm mdqukskekõo dh cm choùm imthrom pfr hc okýf: hs

uo smlhr koefosekhoth quh dhshilfem ho hc usf dh cm choùm. Ho emilkf, hc

efofekikhotf mprhodkdf hs efosekhoth, sh fltkhoh ihdkmoth kostrueekõo

4 Uk hxehptumifs, sk memsf, ekhrtms efrrheekfohs ofrimtkvms dh ihofr kipfrtmoekm quh mghetmo

m msphetfs ofrimtkvfs dh cm choùm of meehsklchs dkrhetmihoth pfr hc okýf (msé, pfr hjhipcf, cm

hseuhcm puhdh kipfohr gfrims ofrimtkvms efif moduvh f eculhs, quh of sfo utkckzmdms pfr cmimyfrém dh cfs bmlcmoths).


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

hxpcéektm y dhphodh dh empmekdmdhs efòktkvms dh éodfch `hohrmc y of

hspheégkemihoth cko`óéstkems (mptktudhs quh sh mpckemo kùmcihoth pmrm cm

rhsfcuekõo dh prflchims, pfr hjhipcf).

Ho hc emsf dh uom choùm, hc efofekikhotf mprhodkdf sh fltkhoh ihdkmoth cm

ihifrkzmekõo dh rh`cms y prkoekpkfs dh uom `rmiítkem. Uko hilmr`f, su utkckdmd

pmrm hc usf cko`óéstkef hs ckiktmdm, dmdf quh, sh`úo Armsbho, metumrém

ihrmihoth efif ihemoksif dh ebhquhf dh cm prfdueekõo dhrkvmdm dhc

efofekikhotf mdqukrkdf ho efodkekfohs gmvfrmlchs, efif suehdh ho cfs

efothxtfs dhofikomdfs gfrimchs.

Ho emilkf, ho sktumekfohs iís rhcmjmdms, efif cms quh emrmethrkzmo m cm

efovhrsmekõo omturmc, cm prfdueekõo cko`óéstkem prfehdh hxecuskvmihoth dhc

efofekikhotf mdqukrkdf. ^fr hjhipcf, mprhodhr dh ihifrkm hc guoekfomikhotf

dhc sksthim dh prfofilrhs ecétkefs dhc hspmýfc of phrikth `mrmotkzmr quh hc

mprhodkz vmym m usmr efrrhetmihoth tmc pmrmdkìm ho tfdms cms sktumekfohs.

Hsf sõcf suehdhrí sk hc mprhodkz bm kothrkfrkzmdf dkebf sksthim. Msé puhs, hc

efofekikhotf mprhodkdf metúm efif gkctrf efrrhetkvf prhvkf f pfsthrkfr m cm

hikskõo dhc mprhodkz, phrf of tkhoh cm empmekdmd dh dhshoemdhomr pfr sé

iksif prfdueekfohs cko`óéstkems.

Hs cf quh Armsbho dhofikom ifoktfrkzmekõo 8 . Hc prfehsf quhdm hsquhimtkzmdf

efif skùh:

GKCT\F MGHETKWF EFOFEKIKHOTF M^\HODKDF

Cm ifoktfrkzmekõo sh efoeklh efif uo prfehsf dh hdkekõo prhvkf m cm hikskõo f

pfsthrkfr (efif pmutm mutfefrrhetkvm). ^hrf su kipfrtmoekm ho hc prfehsf dh

mdqukskekõo quhdm rhch`mdm pfr hc bhebf dh quh, pmrm Armsbho, hc efofekikhotf

8

Dh hsth prfehsf dhrkvm hc ofilrh dh ifdhcf dhc ifoktfr quh Armsbho prhshotõ ho =;00 efifprhehodhoth koihdkmtf dhc ifdhcf dhc koput.

Koput efiprhosklch

Dkspfsktkvf dh

mdqukskekõo dh

cho um h DMC

fofekikhotf

mdqukrkdf

!utpfut


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

mprhodkdf of hstí efohetmdf mc ihemoksif dh mdqukskekõo dhc choùmjh y, pfr

cf tmotf, of tkhoh kogcuhoekm dkrhetm ho cm efiphthoekm dhc bmlcmoth (quh koth`rm

hc efofekikhotf mdqukrkdf). Efif puhdh kim`komrsh, hc fljhtkvf prkfrktmrkf quh

dhlh phrshùkrsh ho cm hoshýmozm of hs ftrf quh hc dh prfvhhr mc mprhodkz dh

koput efiprhosklch, puhstf quh ësth hs cm úokem guhoth dh mckihotmekõo dhc

dkspfsktkvf dh mdqukskekõo dhc choùmjh. ^mrm hccf hs ohehsmrkf quh hc prfehsf

hduemtkvf tho`m ho euhotm cm mdheumdm prf`rhskõo ho hc `rmdf dh dkgkeuctmd dh

cfs ihosmjhs quh sh utkckzmo. Ëstm hs cm tmrhm prkifrdkmc dhc prfghsfr, msé efif

hc kothotmr suphrmr cms ckiktmekfohs quh prfvkhoho dhc gkctrf mghetkvf7 y quh

puhdho hotfrphehr hc efrrhetf prfehsmikhotf dhc koput pfr pmrth dhc mprhodkz

(tkikdhz, gmctm dh iftkvmekõo, hte.). Ho emilkf, cms tmrhms ehotrmdms ho cm gfrim

`rmimtkemc sõcf mghetmo m cfs prfehsfs dh ifoktfrkzmekõo y, pfr tmotf, of

efotrkluyho ho sé iksims mc prf`rhsf ho cm mdqukskekõo. Hs iís: uo hxehsf dh

ifoktfrkzmekõo puhdh rhsuctmr efotrmprfduehoth, puhstf quh puhdh cch`mr m

lcfquhmr cm prfdueekõo.

Iuebfs kovhstk`mdfrhs bmo erktkemdf hc pcmothmikhotf dh Armsbho tmotf dhsdh

hc puotf dh vkstm thõrkef efif dhsdh uom phrsphetkvm hipérkem (eg., pfr

hjhipcf, IeCmu`bcko, =;02). Mqué sõcf dhsmrrfccmrhifs cfs prflchims quh

pcmothm cm dkstkoekõo hotrh efofekikhotf mprhodkdf y efofekikhotf mdqukrkdf y

dhjmrhifs dh cmdf ftrfs msphetfs efotrfvhrtkdfs dhc ifdhcf (efif cm gmctm dh

hxpckektud dh tërikofs efif koput efiprhosklch f gkctrf mghetkvf, cm prkfrkdmd

ftfr`mdm m cm mudkekõo sflrh cm prfdueekõo, cm hxksthoekm dh uo phréfdf skchoth

ho hc mprhodkz, hte.).

Xof dh cfs prflchims quh susektm hc ifdhcf dhc koput tkhoh quh vhr efo cmdkgkeuctmd dh efotrmstmr hipérkemihoth hc hsquhim prfpuhstf: efif cm

ifoktfrkzmekõo puhdh shr prhvkm m cm prfdueekõo dhc bmlcmoth (hc futput), of bmy

ifdf dh efiprflmr euíchs sfo cfs gmetfrhs mtrkluklchs m tmc prfehsf (hc

efofekikhotf mprhodkdf) y euíchs dhrkvmo dkrhetmihoth dhc DMC (hc

" Ho pmcmlrms dh Armsbho (=;2


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

efofekikhotf mdqukrkdf). Oõthsh quh hsth úctkif dkspfsktkvf dhdueh

koefosekhothihoth prkoekpkfs y rh`cms `hohrmchs dh emríethr gfrimc m trmvës dhc

prfehsmikhotf dhc koput efiprhosklch. ^fr cf tmotf, sh trmtm dh uo efostruetf

gfrimc quh koecuyh uo iõducf `rmimtkemc. Cm dkgkeuctmd dh prfehdhr m cm

dhsm`rh`mekõo dh cfs dfs efipfohoths quh puhdho kogcukr ho cm metumekõo dhc

mprhodkz rhsuctm hsphekmcihoth `rmvh dmdm cm dhsefohxkõo quh, sh`úo

Armsbho, hxksth hotrh milfs ihemoksifs (rhefrdhifs quh, sh`úo hsth

kovhstk`mdfr, cm ifoktfrkzmekõo of puhdh mckihotmr ho oko`úo emsf hc DMC).

Tfdf hccf efotrkluyh m dkgkeuctmr cm efotrmstmekõo hipérkem dh cms bkpõthsks quh

susthotmo hc ifdhcf dh hsquhim Hccf bm cchvmdf m ftrfs ifdhcfs m prfpfohr

uom rhcmekõo iís gcukdm hotrh mdqukskekõo y mprhodkzmjh.

Hsf hs cf quh suehdh, pfr hjhipcf, ho hc ifdhcf efòktkvf dh J.\. Modhrsfo

(=;25) efofekdf efif Efotrfc Mdmptmtkvf dhc ^hosmikhotf {Mdmptkvh Efotrfc fg

Tbfu`bt, iís efofekdf pfr cm sk`cm MET*). Hsth ifdhcf pmrth dh supuhstfs

bfcéstkefs (sh fpfoh, pfr tmotf, m cfs ifdhcfs efòktkvfs dh emríethr ifducmr) y

dhgkhodh cm hxksthoekm dh trhs tkpfs dh ihifrkm: cm ihifrkm dh trmlmjf

("wfrako` ihifry"), quh sh usm pmrm cm prfdueekõo ho tkhipf rhmc, cm ihifrkm

dhecmrmtkvm ("dhecmrmtkvh ihifry"), quh mcimehom cm kogfrimekõo ho gfrim dh

uokdmdhs efòktkvms tmchs efif prfpfskekfohs, kií`hohs f pkhzms cëxkems, y cm

ihifrkm prfehdkihotmc ("prfehdurmc ihifry"), quh prfehsm cms rh`cms

`rmimtkemchs y cms mpckem sflrh cm ihifrkm dhecmrmtkvm. Uh`úo Modhrsfo, cm

ihifrkm prfehdkihotmc of hs meehsklch m cm efoekhoekm. Omturmcihoth, cms

prfdueekfohs `hohrmdms ho cm ihifrkm dh trmlmjf prfehdho dh cm efotrmstmekõo

dh cm ihifrkm dhecmrmtkvm y dh cm ihifrkm prfehdkihotmc. Hc prfehsf dh

mprhodkzmjh kipckem, sh`úo hstm thfrém, cm mckihotmekõo dh cm ihifrkmprfehdkihotmc m pmrtkr dh cm kogfrimekõo ouhvm mcimehomdm ho cm ihifrkm

dhecmrmtkvm. Cm vhotmjm dh mquëccm grhoth m ëstm hs hc emríethr iuebf iís

hefoõikef dh cm ihifrkm prfehdkihotmc. Eumodf hstm úctkim bm skdf

mdheumdmihoth mckihotmdm, cm prfdueekõo dhphodh dh prfehsfs mutfiítkefs.

Ho emilkf, hc bmlcmoth quh bm dh rheurrkr lískemihoth m cm kogfrimekõo

dhecmrmtkvm sõcf hs empmz dh prfduekr hikskfohs hstrketmihoth efotrfcmdms. Tmc

efif bm shýmcmdf L. IeCmu`bcko (=;;>):


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Pktbko tbh grmihwfra fg efothipfrmry efòktkvh psyebfcf`y, efipchx efòktkvh sakccs mrh

chmrohd mod rfutkokzhd (k.h. lhefih mutfimtke) tbrfu`b tbh koktkmc ush fg efotrfcchd

prfehsshs. Efotrfcchd prfehssko` rhqukrhs mtthotkfo mod tmahs tkih, lut tbrfu`b prmetkeh,

sul-sakccs lhefih mutfimtke mod efotrfcchd prfehsshs mrh grhh tf lh mccfemthd tf bk`bhr

chvhcs fg prfehssko`(IeCmu`bcko, =;;>: ==8).

Efif puhdh efiprflmrsh, ho cfs ifdhcfs efòktkvfs cm rhcmekõo hotrh

efofekikhotf mdqukrkdf y efofekikhotf mprhodkdf hs iuebf iís gcukdm, cf quh

bmeh rhefihodmlch cm kotrfdueekõo dh efothokdfs `rmimtkemchs ho cm

hoshýmozm dh cms choùms hxtrmojhrms:

^myko` mtthotkfo tf cmoùm`h gfri ks bypftbhskzhd tf lh gmekcktmtkvh ko mcc emshs mod imylh ohehssmry gfr mduct mequksktkfo fg rhduodmot `rmiimtkemc ghmturhs.

(Uebikdt, =;;>: =4;1 ekt. Ccflhrm, =;;8: =;)

^fr ftrm pmrth, mcùofs hstudkfs hxphrkihotmchs pmrheho ftfr`mr m cm

kostrueekõo gfrimc ho cm hoshýmozm dh cms choùms hxtrmojhrms uom kipfrtmoekm

lmstmoth suphrkfr m cm quh sh ch mskòm ho hc ifdhcf dh Armsbho (hstf hs, cm dh

kothrvhokr úokemihoth ho cfs prfehsfs dh ifoktfrkzmekõrk). Efif shýmcm Effa

(=;;5):

Of foh wfucd dhoy tbmt sfih chmrohrs gkod efosekfuscy chmrot ruchs uobhcpguc, ofr tbmt

rhmc-tkih cmoùm`h ush emooft dhphod purhcy fo efosekfuscy chmrot ckoùkstke aofwchd`h,

ms tbfsh wbf ushd tf sphod tbrhh bfurs fo m pmrm`rmpb fg Cmtko efipfsktkfo wkcc mtthst

(...). Lut sueb hvkdhoeh dfhs oft prfvh tbmt efosekfuscy chmrot aofwchd`h ks ushchss, tbmt

mcc fg kt ks mvmkcmlch focy vkm tbh Ifoktfrko` prfehss, fr tbmt, mt chmst gfr sfih chmrohrs,

sfih fg kt dfhs oft efovhrt kotf mdqukrhd aofwchd`h.

(Effa, =;;5: 74)

^fr su pmrth, I. Cfo` (=;25) mgkrim quh cm kostrueekõo gfrimc ho cm choùm

hxtrmojhrm supfoh uom vhotmjm tmotf pmrm okýfs efif pmrm mductfs, of sõcf

pmrm cfs mprhodkehs kothrihdkfs skof tmilkëo pmrm cfs dhc okvhc mvmozmdf y

tmotf ho cfs efothxtfs gmvfrmlchs pmrm cm mdqukskekõo efif ho cfs dhgkektmrkfs.

Mcùoms pruhlms hxphrkihotmchs mpfymo tmchs supuhstfs. O. Upmdm (=;27),

trms kovhstk`mr m 42 mprhodkehs mductfs dh okvhc kothrihdkf dh uom uokvhrskdmdemomdkhosh, efoecuyh quh "mtthotkfo tf lftb gfri mod ihmoko` wfras lhst". Ho


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

rhsuiho: efif pfoh dh imokgkhstf \. Hccks (=;;4: 7=7), "Ko `hohrmc, tbho, tbhrh

ks suppfrt gfr tbh ecmki tbmt gfrimc kostruetkfo bhcps chmrohrs (...) tf dhvhcfp

`rhmthr C< prfgkekhoey, pmrtkeucmrcy kg kt ks ckoahd wktb fppfrtuoktkhs gfr omturmc

hxpfsurh".

Dh bhebf, cm imyfr pmrth dh cms thfréms quh sh bmo gfriucmdf ho hc íilktf dh

cm mdqukskekõo dh choùms hxtrmojhrms bmo pmrtkdf dh cm kdhm dh quh hc

efipfohoth `rmimtkemc hs uom pkhzm lískem dhc sksthim dh mprhodkzmjh

(pkëoshsh, pfr hjhipcf, ho thfréms efif cm `rmiítkem efotrmstkvm f hc moícksks

dh hrrfrhs). Hccf of puhdh sfrprhodhr, dmdf quh hs flvkf quh, pmrm pfdhr

prfehsmr hc koput quh rheklh, hc mprhodkz dhlh efotmr efo uo momckzmdfr

`rmimtkemc quh ch phriktm hcmlfrmr bkpõthsks sflrh cm efogkùrmekõo `rmimtkemc

dh cm choùm quh kothotm mprhodhr (ho hc ifdhcf dh Armsbho, ësm hs cm guoekõo

quh dhshiphým hc DMC). \hsuctm pcmusklch supfohr quh tmc ihemoksif sh

rhtrfmckihotm dh ifdf skikcmr mc dh cfs sksthims bkpftëtkef-dhduetkvfs. Hstf hs,

hc sksthim metúm efif ifdhcf koduetkvf mc prfehsmr cm kogfrimekõo rheklkdm y

hcmlfrm rh`cms bkpftëtkems dh emríethr iís `hohrmc euym vmckdhz sh efotrmstm

pfsthrkfrihoth m trmvës dh cms hikskfohs prfduekdms. Hs hvkdhoth quh uof dh

cfs erkthrkfs dh quh sh skrvh hc mprhodkz pmrm juz`mr hc ëxktf dh sus bkpõthsks

`rmimtkemchs hs cm mdheumekõo efiuokemtkvm dh sus hikskfohs.

Cfs hstudkfs lmsmdfs ho cm ofekõo dh kothrchoùm bmo dhifstrmdf quh hc

sksthim prf`rhsm sh`úo uom sheuhoekm rhcmtkvmihoth gkjm dh mdqukskekõo, efo

htmpms lmstmoth lkho dhckiktmdms. Hsf pmrheh kodkemr quh hc momckzmdfr hstí

prf`rmimdf pmrm shcheekfomr ho emdm ifihotf cm kogfrimekõo efrrhspfodkhoth

mc hstmdkf dh cm kothrchoùm quh efrrhspfodm. Ho hstms ekreuostmoekms, cmkogfrimekõo `rmimtkemc sõcf shrí útkc pmrm hc mprhodkz sk euipch uo dflch

rhquksktf: ho prkihr cu`mr, dhlh vhbkeucmrsh m trmvës dhc imthrkmc susehptklch dh

mckihotmr mc momckzmdfr (hstf hs, grmshs dhc bmlcm rhmc y, prhghrklchihoth,

efothxtumckzmdms) y dhlh koekdkr sflrh msphetfs euym dkgkeuctmd shm meehsklch mc

okvhc dh kothrchoùm mcemozmdf prhvkmihoth.

Hs cf quh ^khohimoo (=;28: 50) bm dhofikomdf cm bkpõthsks dh cmmprhodklkckdmd:


10/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Tbh thmebmlkckty bypftbhsks prhdkets tbmt kostruetkfo emo focy prfifth cmoùm`h

mequksktkfo kg tbh kothrcmoùm`h ks ekõsh tf tbh pfkot wbho tbh strueturh tf lh tmu`bt ks

mequkrhd ko tbh omturmc shttko` (sf tbmt suggkekhot prfehssko` prhrhqukskths mrh dhvhcfphd).

(^khohimo, =;28: 50)

Omturmcihoth, uo prkoekpkf efif hc mothrkfr tkhoh uom trmsehodhoekm koihdkmtm

m cm bfrm dh hcmlfrmr uo eurréeucf dfehoth, dmdf quh flck`m m prhshotmr cm

kogfrimekõo `rmimtkemc sh`úo uom pmutm dh prf`rhskõo dhthrikomdm.

M cm vkstm dh cfs gmetfrhs quh memlmifs dh efihotmr, P. H. \utbhrgfrd (=;20:

=85) shýmcm cm efovhokhoekm dh mdheumr cms mprfxkimekfohs `rmimtkemchs m cfsouhvfs pcmothmikhotfs:

Tmr`ht-cmoùm`h `rmiimr hothrs tbh chmrohr's hxphrkhoeh oft ms mo fljhetkgkhd lfdy fg

mckho aofwchd`h tf lh imsthrhd fé ms flstmechs tf lh fvhrefih lut rmtbhr ms m ohtwfra

fg systhis ko wbkeb tbh chmrohr ks mcrhmdy hoihsbhd, tbh gucc `rmiimtkemc kipckemtkfos fo

wbkeb bh mcfoh bms tf wfra fut fo tbh lmsks fg wbmt bh efihs ko efotmet wktb ko

kothrmetkfo wktb wbmt bh bkishcg efotrkluths ms mcrhmdy meefipcksbhd cmoùm`h mequkrhr.

(\utbhrgfrd, =;20: =851 ekt. Ccflhrm, =;;8: =2)

Hc iksif mutfr trmdueh cm rhgchxkõo mothrkfr ho cms skùkhoths prfpuhstms

ihtfdfcõ`kems: "hoshýmr m mprhodhr ho cu`mr dh hoshýmr `rmiítkem1 cm

`rmiítkem kothrprhtmdm pfr prfghsfrhs y mcuiofs y of úokemihoth trmosiktkdm

pfr hc prfghsfr1 hc dhsmrrfccf dh cm efoekhoekm `rmimtkemc efif uo ihdkf

ohehsmrkf, phrf of sugkekhoth, grhoth m cm efoekhoekm `rmimtkemc efif uo ihdkf

ohehsmrkf y sugkekhoth1 cm efiprhoskõo efotrm cm ihifrkzmekõo1 cm prfvkskõo dh

prkoekpkfs `hoërmchs y of dh rh`cms hspheégkems1 cm `rmiítkem vkstm eõif mc`f

kiprhdheklch y mlkhrtf grhoth m su emrmethrkzmekõo efif mc`f ehrrmdf y

prhdheklch1 y frkhotmdm efif hxphrkhoekm fphrmekfomc grhoth m su prhshotmekõo

efif uom mrtkeucmekõo dh rh`cms" (ekt. ho Ccflhrm, =;;8: =2).

=.< Cm rhcmekõo hotrh cm choùm imthrom y cm choùm hxtrmjhrm: cm ofekõo dh

pmríihtrf


11/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Bmstm mqué bhifs efoskdhrmdf cm mdqukskekõo dh uom choùm hxtrmojhrm efif

uo prfehsf `hohrmc sfihtkdf m prkoekpkfs uokvhrsmchs. Of flstmoth, hs lkho

smlkdf quh hxkstho iúctkpchs gmetfrhs dh vmrkmekõo ho tmchs prfehsfs. Xof dh

cfs quh iís bmo prhfeupmdf m cfs kovhstk`mdfrhs hs hc dh cm kogcuhoekm dh cm

prkihrm choùm.

Dh bhebf, uof dh cfs prkihrfs ifdhcfs thõrkefs prfpuhstfs ho hsth íilktf dh

kovhstk`mekõo (hc dh cm cko`óéstkem efotrmstkvm, gfriucmdf ho cm dëemdm dh =;8>)

sh lmsmlm ho hc hstudkf sksthiítkef dh cms kothrghrhoekms (pfsktkvms f oh`mtkvms

pmrm hc mprhodkzmjh) quh cm choùm prkihrm dhc mprhodkz prfyhetmlm sflrh cm

`rmiítkem dh cm choùm hxtrmojhrm. Cm efoecuskõo quh sh dhrkvmlm dhc ifdhcf

efotrmstkvf hrm ecmrm: cm kostrueekõo `rmimtkemc dhlém ehotrmrsh ho mquhccfs

msphetfs ho cfs quh cms choùms frk`ho y ihtm sh dkghrhoekmrmo, dmdf quh

efostktuémo cm dkgkeuctmd iíxkim pmrm hc mprhodkz. Hc dheckomr dhc moícksks

efotrmstkvf efihozõ eumodf cfs hstudkfs hxphrkihotmchs puskhrfo dh

imokgkhstf cm hxksthoekm dh pmtrfohs uokvhrsmchs ho cms sheuhoekms dh

mprhodkzmjh, cf quh cchvmrém m prfpfohr cm ofekõo dh kothrchoùm.

Dh bhebf, cm ohehskdmd dh efoekckmr uokdmd y vmrkmekõo bm skdf skhiprh uof dh

cfs rhtfs m cfs quh sh bmo hogrhotmdf cms thfréms dhc mprhodkzmjh. Xof dh cfs

ifdhcfs quh bm `hohrmdf imyfr vfcuiho dh kovhstk`mekõo ho cms úctkims

dëemdms ho hc íilktf dh cm hoshýmozm dh cms choùms hxtrmojhrms hs hc dh

prkoekpkfs y pmríihtrfs, prfpuhstf pfr Ebfisay (=;2=) efo hc ofilrh dh

rheekõo y ck`mikhotf. Ho hsth ifdhcf sh kothotmo efoekckmr prheksmihoth cfs dfs

pfcfs hotrh cfs quh sh iuhvh hc prfehsf dh mdqukskekõo: uokdmd y vmrkmekõo0.

Hc skùkhoth hsquhim kothotm rhgchjmr cm mrquktheturm dhc ifdhcf `rmimtkemc dh

prkoekpkfs y pmríihtrfs:

@\MIÍTKEM XOKWH\UMC

# ^mrm uom kotrfdueekõo í ësth ifdhcf ho hspmýfc, eg. Dhifoth (=;2;). Tmilkëo puhdh

hoefotrmrsh uom iuy Efipchtm hxpfskekõo dh cfs hstudkfs dh mdqukskekõo dh shùodms choùmshghetumdfs ho hc imref dh hsth ifdhcf ho Ckehrms (=;;7).

^rkoekpkfs+

^mríihtrfs


12/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

^rfehsf dh gkjmekõodh pmríihtrfs y

gkjmekõo dhc cëxkef

EFI^HTHOEKM @\MIMTKEMC

Hsquhim 5. Ifdhcf `rmimtkemc dh prkoekpkfs y pmríihtrfs.

Efif hs lkho smlkdf, cm @@ skhiprh bm pmrtkdf dh uom bkpõthsks uokvhrsmckstm

dhc choùmjh: cms dkstkotms choùms omturmchs of sfo skof imokghstmekfohs

pmrtkeucmrhs dh uo iksif pmtrõo cko`óéstkef `hohrmc (cm `rmiítkem uokvhrsmc),

trmosiktkdf `hoëtkemihoth. Cm `rmiítkem uokvhrsmc efostm dh prkoekpkfs

iíxkimihoth `hohrmchs. Mcùofs dh hccfs sfo dh emríethr gkjf: tfdms cms

choùms efilkomo sus uokdmdhs cëxkems ho guoekõo dh uom hstrueturm jhrírqukem

(pfsklchihoth, skùkhodf erkthrkfs dh rmikgkemekõo lkomrkm)1 tfdf oúechf cëxkef f

guoekfomc dm frk`ho m prfyheekfohs skotíetkems hodfeëotrkems1 cm mskòmekõo dh

pmphc thiítkef dh uo prhdkemdf m sus mrùihotfs sh dm lmjf rhquksktfs dh

bhrimodmd hstrueturmc1 cms dhphodhoekms cëxkems dhlho shr rhsphtmdms ho cm

skotmxks1 tfdf hchihotf dhlh euipckr efodkekfohs dh ch`ktkimekõo, hte. Mbfrm

lkho: mcùofs prkoekpkfs mdiktho ho su pcmsimekõo ho cms choùms pmrtkeucmrhs

ekhrtfs `rmdfs dh vmrkmekõo. Cm ofekõo dh pmríihtrf hs cm quh rhgchjm ho hc

ifdhcf hstfs iír`hohs dh vmrkmekõo: msé, cms choùms puhdho mdiktkr f of

sujhtfs ho cms frmekfohs thipfrmckzmdms1 cfs fphrmdfrhs kothrrf`mtkvfs shtrmscmdmo mc grhoth dh cm frmekõo ho cm skotmxks (efif ho hspmýfc) f lkho

phrimoheho ho su pfskekõo lískem (efif ho ebkof)1 cms choùms tkhoho

prfofilrhs rhcmtkvfs f of (y ho tmc emsf utkckzmo cm efilkomekõo dh uo ohxf dh

sulfrdkomekõo y uo prfofilrh pmrm gfrimr sus frmekfohs dh rhcmtkvf), hte.

Dhsdh hstm phrsphetkvm, cm `rmiítkem uokvhrsmc sh efoeklh efif uo ihoú efo

fpekfohs y hc prfehsf dh mdqukskekõo dh cm `rmiítkem dh uom choùm efosksth

prheksmihoth ho cm gkjmekõo dhc vmcfr dh emdm pmríihtrf ho guoekõo dh cfs dmtfs

@rmiítkem dh C

Hxpfskekõo m cfs dmtfscko`óéstkefs dh C durmoth

hc prfehsf dhmprhodkzmjh


13/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

m cfs quh hc okýf hstí hxpuhstf ho su htmpm dh mprhodkz. Msé quhdmo dhgkokdfs

cfs dfs efoehptfs guodmihotmchs dh hsth sksthim:

• @rmiítkem uokvhrsmc: Uksthim dh prkoekpkfs, efodkekfohs y rh`cms quh

sfo hchihotfs f prfpkhdmdhs dh tfdms cms choùms buimoms y quh sh

trmosiktho efif pmrth dh cm bhrhoekm `hoëtkem dh cm hsphekh.

• ^mríihtrf: @rmdf dh vmrkmekõo quh mdikth uo uokvhrsmc cko`óéstkef ho

emdm uom dh sus rhmckzmekfohs efoerhtms. Cfs vmcfrhs efoerhtfs pmrm

emdm pmríihtrf ho uom choùm dhthrikomdm sfo gkjmdfs pfr hc okýf

durmoth hc prfehsf dh mdqukskekõo.

Hs hvkdhoth quh ho uo hsquhim efif hc dh Ifdhcf `rmimtkemc dh prkoekpkfs ypmríihtrfs dhserktf mothrkfrihoth, hc prflchim dh cm vmrkmekõo kothrcko`óéstkem

sh mskòm mc efoehptf dh pmríihtrf: cms vmrkmoths `rmimtkemchs dhlho

efrrhspfodhr m fpekfohs pmrmiëtrkems dkstkotms.

Xof dh cfs hghetfs pfsktkvfs dh cm thfrém dh cfs pmríihtrfs hs hc dh bmlhr

hstkiucmdf cfs hstudkfs dh efipmrmekõo cko`óéstkem. Xo supuhstf lískef dh cm

thfrém dh cfs pmríihtrfs hs quh pfr cf ihofs ho mcùofs dh hccfs sh dm hcefotrmsth hotrh uom fpekõo ohutrm f of imremdm y ftrm imremdm. Cm prkihrm

rhprhshotm hc vmcfr kokekmc dhotrf dhc sksthim dh cm `rmiítkem uokvhrsmc (@X),

ikhotrms quh m cm shùodm sõcf sh meehdh m trmvës dhc efotmetf efo cfs dmtfs m

cfs quh hc mprhodkz hstí hxpuhstf ho su prfehsf dh mprhodkzmjh (sh trmtm, pfr cf

tmotf, dh cm fpekõo imremdm). Ho tmc emsf, hc vmcfr imremdf sh suphrpfoh mc

dkrhetmihoth dhrkvmlch dh cm @X. Msé sh dhlh rhef`hr hstm fpfskekõo hotrh cfs

dfs vmcfrhs quh mdikth uo pmríihtrf:

Wmcfrhs dh cfs pmríihtrfs:

• of imremdf: efrrhspfodh mc vmcfr msfekmdf mc hstmdkf kokekmc dhc

prfehsf dh mdqukskekõo.

• imremdf: hxk`h quh hc mprhodkz cf gkjh lmsíodfsh ho cfs dmtfs dhc

mduetf.


14/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Thokhodf ho euhotm hstf, vhmifs mcùofs emsfs dh vmrkmekõo quh bmo skdf

hstudkmdfs dhsdh cm phrsphetkvm dh cfs pmríihtrfs:

Hjhipcfs dh pmríihtrfs:

• fikskõo dh sujhtf: Jh suks mrrkvë bkhr, K emroh yhsthrdmy, Cchùë myhr.

• dkrheekfomckdmd dh mskòmekõo dh emsf: UWF - UFW/^rhp T- T ^rhp

• rhcmtkvkzmekõo: hc okýf euym imdrh efofehs - 6*hc okýf quh efofehs m su

imdrh

• hxtrmeekõo dh hchihotfs qu-: ]umod pmrthz-vfus6 - Wfus pmrths qumod6

- ]umod hst-eh quh vfus pmrthz6

Hstm sktumekõo mskiëtrkem efo rhsphetf m cfs vmcfrhs pmrmiëtrkefs phrikth

prhvhr quh ho dhthrikomdms efodkekfohs cfs vmcfrhs of imremdfs puhdho

mgcfrmr ho choùms quh bmo shcheekfomdf cm fpekõo imremdm, ikhotrms quh cm

sktumekõo efotrmrkm of hs prhvksklch quh sh dë. Xo hjhipcf dh hccf ofs cf

prfpfrekfomo cms efostrueekfohs dh rhcmtkvf ho hspmýfc. Cms choùms prhshotmo

dfs gfrims dh efostrukr tmc tkpf dh sulfrdkomdms: ihdkmoth cm hxksthoekm dh uo

pmrmdkìm prfpkf dh prfofilrhs rhcmtkvfs (ësm hs cm hstrmth`km utkckzmdm pfr hc

hspmýfc) f ihdkmoth cm efcfemekõo mc grhoth dh cm sulfrdkomdm dh uo

sulfrdkomoth (kdëotkef mc utkckzmdf pmrm cms efipchtkvms) y cm prhshoekm ho hc

kothrkfr dh cm grmsh dh uo prfofilrh efrrhghrhoth efo hc mothehdhoth dh cm

rhcmtkvm. Hstm úctkim pmrheh shr cm fpekõo of imremdm, dmdf quh cms uokdmdhs

quh ho hccm sh utkckzmo sfo kodhphodkhothihoth ohehsmrkms. Ho emilkf, cm ftrm

fpekõo flck`m m hstmlchehr uo pmrmdkìm prfpkf dh gfrims quh metúmo

lkguoekfomcihoth (efif ohxfs dh sulfrdkomekõo y efif dhthotmdfrms dh uom

guoekõo prfpkm dhotrf dh cm rhcmtkvm). Efif bhifs dkebf, hc hspmýfc sh mef`h

ho hsth emsf m cm fpekõo imremdm2. Uko hilmr`f, bmy efothxtfs ho cfs quh

rhmpmrheh hc ftrf vmcfr dhc pmríihtrf. Hccf sh prfdueh ho mquhccfs emsfs ho cfs

$ Oõthsh quh hsth pcmothmikhotf phriktkrém dkserkikomr cm gfrim quh dhc rhstf dh cfs prfofilrhs

rhcmtkvfs. Dh bhebf, mcùofs `rmiítkefs hspmýfchs, dhsdh @õihz Bhrifskccm (=258) mouhstrfs déms, bmo shýmcmdf cm pfsklkckdmd dh quh hc ccmimdf quh rhcmtkvf of shm

hshoekmcihoth dkstkotf dhc ohxf sulfrdkomoth quh mpmrheh mc grhoth dh cms efipchtkvms. Eg.Lruemrt (=;;4m) pmrm uo moícksks metumckzmdf dh cm iksim bkpõthsks.


15/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

quh cm sfcuekõo ofrimtkvm quhdm lcfquhmdm pfr ftrms rhstrkeekfohs skotíetkems,

efif suehdh ho cfs hjhipcfs mpfrtmdfs pfr Ghroíodhz Ufrkmof (=;;8):

m. Hc ebkef quh ih prhùotmsth sk (cf) efofeém

l. *H= ebkef m qukho ih prhùotmsth sk efofeém.

e. Xo cklrf quh qukho cf efiprm *(cf) chh efo ̀ ustf.

d. Xo cklrf quh (cf) chh efo ùstf qukho cf efiprm.

h. Xo cklrf quh *(cf) chhs y *(cf) rhefikhodms.

Hc iksif ghoõihof sh dhthetm ho hc hspmýfc bmlcmdf efo cm sustktuekõo dhc

mdjhtkvf rhcmtkvf euyf pfr cm efilkomekõo quh + su. Ho Miërkem, cm efcfemekõo

dhc prfofilrh ecétkef dhotrf dh cm sulfrdkomdm pmrheh hstmr iuy hxthodkdm.

Msé, pfr hjhipcf, ho hc rhcmtf Bfilrh dh cm hsqukom rfsmdm; dh Jfr`h Cuks

Lfr`hs, hc omrrmdfr y prftm`fokstm, quh sh hxprhsm ho uo okvhc efcfqukmc

sulhstíodmr, mc rhghrkrsh m uo smcõo mc quh meudém grheuhothihoth, dkeh: "Hrm uo

cfemc quh ustë cf dkvksmlm dh chjfs", efo mpmrkekõo motkofrimtkvm dhc prfofilrh

dhotrf dh cm rhcmtkvm. Dh bhebf, hc iksif ghoõihof mpmrheh ho grmoeës, choùm

ho cm quh tmilkëo hxksth uo pmrmdkìm dh prfofilrhs phrsfomchs. Ho tmc

choùm, cm gfrim ofrimtkvm dh (l) quhdm sustktukdm grheuhothihoth ho hc bmlcm

pfr (m):

m. C'bfiih quh jh cuk mk dkt dh vhokr,

l. C'bfiih b quk j'mk dkt dh vhokr.

Dhsdh hc puotf dh vkstm dh cm mdqukskekõo dh choùms hxtrmojhrms, cm bkpõthsks

dhc imrhmjh dh cfs pmríihtrfs tkhoh lmstmoth kothrës. Hc skùkhoth eumdrf rhgchjm

cms eumtrf pfsklkckdmdhs quh sh puhdho dmr efo rhsphetf m cm imrem dh uodhthrikomdf pmríihtrf ho cm choùm imthrom y ho cm choùm hxtrmojhrm (dfodh

'+' rhprhshotm cm fpekõo imremdm y '-' cm of imremdm):

C= CH

m. - -

l. - +

e. + -


16/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

d. + +

Eumdrf =. Imrem dh pmríihtrf choùm imthrom y choùm hxtrmjhrm

Dh cms eumtrf sktumekfohs rhgchjmdms ho hc eumdrf =, ho tmo sõcf dfs dh hccms

dkvhr`ho milms choùms: cms kdhotkgkemdms efif (l) y (e). ûhs lkho: cm

prhdkeekõo quh hghetúm cm thfrém dh cfs prkoekpkfs y cfs pmríihtrfs hs quh cm

fpekõo dh (l) shrí cm quh imyfr dkgkeuctmd supfodrí pmrm cfs mprhodkehs. Ho tmc

sktumekõo, ho hghetf, cm choùm hxtrmojhrm fptm pfr uom sfcuekõo imremdm,

ikhotrms quh cm choùm dhc mprhodkz bm gkjmdf pmrm hc iksif ghoõihof hc vmcfr

of imremdf. Xo hjhipcf dh hsth tkpf hs hc quh prhsuiklchihoth sh ch prhshotm

mc hstudkmoth hxtrmojhrf dh hspmýfc quh bm dh mprhodhr m usmr efrrhetmihoth

cms efostrueekfohs ho cms quh uom sulfrdkomdm efipchtkvm metúm efif

efipchihotf dh uo ofilrh. Hxmikohifs hc pmrmdkìm:

m. Ik kdhm dhc iuodf.

l. Ik kdhm dh quh Jumo hs eucpmlch.

e. Iy kdhm fg tbh wfrcd.

d. Iy kdhm tbmt Jfbo ks ùkcty.

h. Cm ihym kdhm dhc iõo.

g. Cm ihvm kdhm quh ho Jfmo ës eucpmlch.

`. Im phosëh quh Jhmo ëtmkt efupmlch.

Hc sustmotkvf kdhm hs uo ofilrh dh rhprhshotmekõo quh mdikth (shcheekfom) uo

efipchihotf ofikomc u frmekfomc quh hxprhsh hc efothokdf dh cm

rhprhshotmekõo ihotmc mcudkdm. Uk hc efipchihotf hs ofikomc, tfdms cms

choùms ho hc pmrmdkìm mothrkfr imremo cm dhphodhoekm guoekfomc dhc

efipchihotf efo rhsphetf mc oúechf kdhm pfr ihdkf dh uom prhpfskekõo(mquhccm quh metúh ho emdm choùm efif rhprhshotmoth iís `houkof dh cm

rhcmekõo dh efipchihotõ dh uo ofilrh: dh y fgho cfs emsfs quh ofs feupmo).

Uko hilmr`f, eumodf hc efipchihotf dh kdhm mdfptm gfrim dh frmekõo

sulfrdkomdm efipchtkvm, cm imyfrém dh cms choùms prhsekodho dh tmc imrem dh

sulfrdkomekõo, dmdf quh cm prfpkm frmekõo ym koecuyh uom imrem dh

dhphodhoekm quh kodkem su dhphodhoekm dhc ofilrh. Hc hspmýfc fptm, sko

hilmr`f, pfr imothohr cm prhpfskekõo tmilkëo ho hsth emsf, cf quh pmrheh

efrrhspfodhr m uom fpekõo imremdm. ]uh hccf hs msé cf dhiuhstrm hc mu`h quh


17/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

skhiprh bm thokdf ho ouhstrm choùm hc ghoõihof efofekdf efif quhésif, quh

efosksth prheksmihoth ho dhspfjmr dh cm prhpfskekõo m cms frmekfohs

sulfrdkomdms ho efothxtfs efif cfs dhc pmrmdkìm mothrkfr;. Dh kùmc imohrm,

puhdh prhdhekrsh quh hsth msphetf dh cm `rmiítkem hspmýfcm rhsuctmrí dkgéekc dh

dfikomr m cfs grmoehshs, ko`chshs f ktmckmofs quh kothotho mprhodhr ouhstrm

choùm. Dh bhebf, puhdf mshùrmrchs quh cfs emtmcmofbmlcmoths (ho euym

choùm imthrom of sh efcfem prhpfskekõo moth cm sulfrdkomdm) tkhodho m koeurrkr

ho hc quhésif eumodf bmlcmo hc hspmýfc.

Efoskdhrhifs mbfrm lrhvhihoth cm sktumekõo quh rhgchjm hc eumdrf = (e). Ho

hsth emsf, hc mprhodkz dh cm choùm hxtrmojhrm bm dh kothrkfrkzmr uom fpekõo quh

hs dkstkotm m cm dh su prfpkm choùm, phrf cm dkghrhoekm efo rhsphetf mc emsf

mothrkfr hs guodmihotmc: mqué cf quh dhlh koefrpfrmrsh m cm kothrchoùm hs cm

fpekõo of imremdm dhc pmríihtrf. Cm prhdkeekõo ho hsth emsf hs quh hc

dfikokf dh tmc fpekõo shrí iuebf ihofs dkgéekc, dmdf quh, efif ym sh bm

dkebf, hc rheursf m cm fpekõo of imremdm skhiprh hs pfsklch. Xo hjhipcf dh

hstm sktumekõo cf efostktuyh hc ccmimdf pmríihtrf dhc sujhtf oucf: ikhotrms quh

hc hspmýfc, mc kùmc quh cms dhiís choùms rfiíokems (hxehptumdf hc grmoeës),

mdiktho cm fikskõo dhc sujhtf dh uom frmekõo, ho grmoeës f ko`cës dhlh bmlhr

skhiprh pfr cf ihofs uo prfofilrh quh metúh efif sujhtf `rmimtkemc=>,

koecusf ho mquhccfs emsfs ho cfs quh tmc prfofilrh hs of mrùihotmc (hstf hs,

metúm efif ihrm imrem `rmimtkemc y of efrrhspfodh shiíotkemihoth m oko`úo

fljhtf dhc iuodf ihotmc f rhmc dhc bmlcmoth, efif ho kt rmkos f kc shilch quh

Jhmo vkhodrm dhimko). O. Bymis (=;27) bm ifstrmdf quh cfs okýfs ko`chshs, ho

% Hc ghoõihof efotrmréf (dhquhésif) tmilkëo mpmrheh efo prfguskõo ho hc íilktf dhc hspmýfc.

Xom bkpõthsks pcmusklch sflrh cm efkoekdhoekm dh milfs ghoõihofs, mpmrhothihothefotrmdketfrkfs, efosksth ho mtrklukr hc dhquhésif m uo ghoõihof dh uctrmefrrheekõo prfvfemdfprheksmihoth pfr cm koshùrkdmd quh `hohrm ho hc bmlcmoth hc bmlhr fptmdf pfr uom sfcuekõoimremdm ho cfs emsfs dh dhc pmrmdkìm. Eg. Lruemrt (=;;4l) pmrm uom dhghosm dh hstmbkpõthsks.

=& Cfs pmríihtrfs sh efoeklho efif efodkekõo ohehsmrkm, phrf of sugkekhoth. Hs dhekr, quh hc

mgkrimr quh hc sujhtf ho hspmýfc puhdh hckdkrsh of supfoh sfsthohr quh tfdf sujhtf dh frmekõopuhdm shr suprkikdf cklrhihoth. Flvkmihoth, puhdh bmlhr ftrfs prkoekpkfs `rmimtkemchs fprmìítkefs quh flckùho m quh uo dhthrikomdf sujhtf mpmrhzem rhmckzmdf cëxkemihoth. Msésuehdh, pfr hjhipcf, ho mquhccfs emsfs ho quh hc sujhtf efostktuyh cm kogfrimekõo ouhvm dh cm

frmekõo. Dh mbé cm kipfsklkckdmd dh hckikomr hc sujhtf prfofikomc tú ho uom frmekõo efif Hstf cfbms bhebf tú (eg. cm imcm gfrimekõo dh *Hstf cf bms bhebf).


18/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

su prfehsf dh mprhodkzmjh dh cm choùm, pmsmo pfr htmpms ho cms quh utkckzmo

sksthiítkemihoth cm hckskõo dhc sujhtf==. Hstm kovhstk`mdfrm efoecuyh quh ho

hsth emsf hc vmcfr of imremdf dhc pmríihtrf hs hc quh phrikth cm fikskõo

(oõthsh quh, pfr ftrm pmrth, ëstm hs cm fpekõo iís hefoõikem). ^fr cf tmotf,

emlh gfriucmr cm bkpõthsks dh quh hc mprhodkz ko`cës f grmoeës dh hspmýfc, m

phsmr dh quh thodhrí m efcfemr kodhlkdmihoth sujhtfs prfofikomchs pfr

kothrghrhoekm dh su choùm imthrom, memlmrí pfr gkjmr hc pmríihtrf mdheumdf sko

iuebm dkgkeuctmd.

Hs pfsklch quh sh dhtheth puhs cm rhcmekõo kooh`mlch quh hxksth hotrh cm thfrém

dh cfs pmríihtrfs y mcùofs dh cfs prkoekpkfs dh cm `rmiítkem efotrmstkvm. Ho

hghetf, milms thfréms mckhotmo cm príetkem dh cm efipmrmekõo cko`óéstkem y sh

ehotrmo ho cfs efotrmsths hxksthoths hotrh dfs f iís `rmiítkems. ^hrf erhf quh

cm thfrém dh cfs pmríihtrfs rhsuctm iís pcmusklch pfr dfs iftkvfs: ho prkihr

cu`mr, pfrquh prhdkeh mdheumdmihoth cm hihr`hoekm dh thodhoekms uokvhrsmchs

of imremdms quh puhdho of hstmr prhshoths ho cm choùm imthrom dhc

mprhodkz, y ho shùodf cu`mr, pfrquh jhrmrqukzm cfs `rmdfs dh dkgkeuctmd quh

sfo prhvksklchs eumodf hc emikof tfimdf pfr dfs choùms hs dkstkotf.

=.5 Mcùoms rhgchxkfohs sflrh hc hogfquh dh cm `rmiítkem ho cm hoshýmozm

dh cms choùms hxtrmojhrms

Bmstm mqué, bhifs hxmikomdf mcùoms thfréms sflrh cm mdqukskekõo euyms

bkpõthsks tkhoho trmsehodhoekm ho cm mdqukskekõo dh cms choùms hxtrmojhrms. Ho

hstm úctkim pmrth hstudkmrhifs mcùoms dh cms emrmethréstkems quh m ouhstrf

ifdf dh vhr dhlhrém euipckr cm hoshýmozm dh cm `rmiítkem ho cms ecmshs mhxtrmojhrfs.

Cm prkihrm euhstkõo quh pfdhifs pcmothmr hs cm dhc phsf rhcmtkvf quh dhlh

thohr cm `rmiítkem ho hc eurréeucf dh hspmýfc efif choùm hxtrmojhrm. @mreém

==

Thodhoekms skikcmrhs sh imokgkhstmo ho mcùoms efostrueekfohs dhc rh`kstrf hserktf (ms bmslhho smkd lhgfrh...) u frmc (`ft tbh tkeahts6).


19/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Umotm-Ehekckm (=;;8: =;5) dkstkoùh dfs erkthrkfs lískefs dh fr`mokzmekõo dh cfs

prf`rmims dh hoshýmozm, tmc efif shýmcm:

m. Hc moícksks dh cm choùm, ihdkmoth cm efoskdhrmekõo dh hchihotfs mkscmdfs

efif cms hstrueturms `rmimtkemchs f cms guoekfohs (prf`rmims cko`óéstkefs).

l. Hc moícksks dh cfs prfehsfs pskefcõ`kefs kipckemdfs ho hc mprhodkzmjh, efo cm

utkckzmekõo dh cms tmrhms efif uokdmdhs dh fr`mokzmekõo dh cfs prf`rmims

(prf`rmims pskefcko`óéstkefs).

Hc iksif mutfr sh iuhstrm pmrtkdmrkf dh uom koth`rmekõo dh milfs erkthrkfs:

"(…) Lmsmr tfdf uo eursf ho Qcms príetkems gfrimchsY hs mc`f quh rhsuctmrí m

tfdms cuehs kosugkekhoth, pfr eumotf hc mcuiof ohehsktm tmilkëo dhsmrrfccmr uom

shrkh dh bmlkckdmdhs quh ch phriktkrí trmosghrkr cf mprhodkdf m cms sktumekfohs

efiuokemtkvms quh sh prfdueho guhrm dh ecmsh. Ho hc hxtrhif fpuhstf,

tmipfef pmrheh quh tho`m shotkdf hxecukr eumcqukhr gfrim dh príetkem

efotrfcmdm y ehotrmrsh hxecuskvmihoth ho metkvkdmdhs kothrmetkvms quh

kipckquho oh`fekmekõo dh skòkgkemdfs" (p. =;0). Dh bhebf, cms efoecuskfohs

mothrkfrhs dhrkvmo dhc hogfquh ifducmr dh cm dksekpckom mc quh ofs bhifs

rhghrkdf mc efikhozf dh hstm efiuokemekõo. Ukhodf hc `rmimtkemc uof dh cfs

iõducfs quh efipfoho cm efiphthoekm efiuokemtkvm dhc bmlcmoth, pmrheh

flvkf quh cm `rmiítkem dhlh hstmr prhshoth ho cms ecmshs dh choùms

hxtrmojhrms. ¶Ho quë `rmdf y efo quë rhchvmoekm6 Cm rhspuhstm m tmc euhstkõo

mdikth iúctkpchs vmrkmoths sh`úo hc okvhc dh cfs mprhodkehs. Cfo` (=;;=),

ihdkmoth uo juh`f dh pmcmlrms, dkstkoùh hc hogfquh `rmimtkemc ehotrmdf ho cm

gfrim (gfeus fo gfri) dhc ehotrmdf ho cms gfrims (gfeus fo gfris). Hsth úctkif

hs hc quh efrrhspfodh m cfs eurréeucfs hstrueturmchs, ho cfs quh hc erkthrkflískef hs hc trmtmikhotf prf`rhskvf dh cfs dkstkotfs pmrmdkìms `rmimtkemchs. Hc

prkihrf, pfr hc efotrmrkf, kipckem cm mcthromoekm hotrh cfs erkthrkfs lmsmdfs ho hc

skòkgkemdf y hc hstrketmihoth gfrimc. Ho hsth emsf, hc prf`rmim sh lmsm ho

tmrhms, phrf sh mtkhodh mc hstudkf dh cms gfrims cko`óéstkems ho cm ihdkdm ho cm

quh ëstms vmo mpmrhekhodf ho cms metkvkdmdhs efiuokemtkvms quh sh dhsmrrfccmo

ho hc mucm. Dhotrf dh hstm frkhotmekõo, hc hogfquh `rmimtkemc puhdh lmsmrsh ho

cm príetkem dh metkvkdmdhs rhcmekfomdms efo cms prfpkhdmdhs gfrimchshspheégkems quh sh qukhrm hstudkmr f lkho ho cm efrrheekõo y efihotmrkf dh cfs


20/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

hrrfrhs prfduekdfs pfr cfs hstudkmoths ho hc eursf dh cms metkvkdmdhs

efiuokemtkvms prf`rmimdms.

=.4 Gfrim y guoekõo ho cm ̀ rmiítkem pmrm hxtrmojhrfs

Uhm eumc shm cm fpekõo pfr cm quh sh fpth, erhhifs quh uom emrmethréstkem

guodmihotmc quh dhlh euipckr hc hogfquh `rmimtkemc ho cm hoshýmozm dh cms

choùms hxtrmojhrms hs cm dhc meehsf m trmvës dhc skòkgkemdf skhiprh quh hccf

shm pfsklch. Ho mpmrkhoekm, hstf ebfem efo uom dh cms thodhoekms

guodmihotmchs dh cm cko`óéstkem thõrkem dhc sk`cf RR: cm quh bm prfecmimdf cm

prkfrkdmd dh cm gfrim sflrh hc skòkgkemdf. Uko hilmr`f, cm hvfcuekõo

hxphrkihotmdm pfr cm cko`óéstkem ho cfs úctkifs tkhipfs (koecusf ho hc shof dh

thfréms dh lmsh gfrimc efif cm @@T) bm cchvmdf m dhspfjmr m cm dksekpckom dh cm

"shimotfgflkm" (utkckzf mqué uo ohfcf`ksif meuýmdf pfr Jfsë M. Imrtéohz) quh

cm bmlém emrmethrkzmdf dhsdh Lcffigkhcd.

^hrsfomcihoth, of erhf quh cms gfrims cko`óéstkems shmo uom ihrm prfyheekõo

dh cms ohehskdmdhs efiuokemtkvms (m prkfrk, pfdrém phosmrsh ho cm pfsklkckdmd

dh quh tmchs guoekfohs sh imokghstmrmo m trmvës dh efogkùrmekfohs gfrimchs

iuy dkstkotms, efif pruhlm cm prfpkm vmrkmekõo kothrcko`óéstkem), phrf cm vhotmjm

dhc hogfquh ofekf-guoekfomc (eg. @mreém Umotm Ehekckm, =;;8: 4>) efosksth ho quh

phrikth meehdhr m cm gfrim m trmvës dhc skòkgkemdf, prfehdkhodf dh ifdf

pmrmchcf mc prfehsf koduetkvf dhc mprhodkz y mjustíodfsh mc hogfquh

efiuokemtkvf quh dfikom ho cfs eurréeucfs dh hsth íilktf. Ftrm vhotmjm dhc

hogfquh ofekfguoekfomc hs quh phrikth vkoeucmr efostrueekfohs gfrimcihoth

dkstkotms quh dhshiphýmo uom iksim guoekõo ho cm choùm. ^hoshifs, pfrhjhipcf, ho ghoõihofs efif hc dh cm emusmtkvkdmd (y su fpuhstf, cm

motkemusmtkvkdmd f hr`mtkvkdmd), quh efostktuyh uof dh cfs sksthims iís

efipchjfs dh eumcqukhr choùm. Ho hspmýfc, tmchs efostrueekfohs puhdho

hxprhsmrsh m trmvës dh efotrmsths cëxkefs f skotíetkefs, efif iuhstrmo cfs

skùkhoths pmrhs:

m. hxpcftmr / hxpcfskfomr.l. ifrkr / imtmr.


21/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

e. Cm puhrtm sh ehrrõ / Hc ujkhr ehrrõ cm puhrtm.

d. Hc metf efihozõ. / Hc frmdfr efihozõ hc metf.

h. Hc metf sh kokekõ. / Hc metf efihozõ. / Hc metf kokekõ (ho Iëxkef)

g. Hc prhskdhoth dkiktkõ. / *H= efoshjf dkiktkõ mc prhskdhoth. / Hc efoshjf bkzf

dkiktkr mc prhskdhoth.

Hc iksif pcmothmikhotf pfdrém bmehrsh efo cms gfrims dh hxprhsmr imodmtfs,

dh gfriucmr prhùotms, dh hxprhsmr ëogmsks f dh efdkgkemr cm ifdmckdmd

hpkstëikem.

Ftrm vhotmjm flvkm dhc usf dhc ofekfguoekfomcksif ho cms hxpckemekfohs

`rmimtkemchs hs cm dh quh phrikth rhduekr efoskdhrmlchihoth cm efipchjkdmd

thrikofcõ`kem quh emrmethrkzm m cm cko`óéstkem gfrimc y lmsmrsh ho efoehptfs

iuebf iís meehsklchs pmrm hc hstudkmoth.

Mbfrm lkho: cm pfsklkckdmd dh rheurrkr skhiprh m ofekfohs shiíotkems f

efiuokemtkvms tkhoh uo céikth. Xo hjhipcf ecmrf cf prfpfrekfomo cfs emsfs dh

efoefrdmoekm rhduodmoth. Uk efipmrmifs hc hspmýfc uom iujhr mctm efo hc

ko`cës m tmcc wfimo mpmrheho dkghrhoekms ho cm efoefrdmoekm dh `ëohrf y

oúihrf dh cfs mdymehoths dhc ofilrh quh dkgéekcihoth puhdho shr

rhcmekfomdfs efo ihemoksifs quh of shmo dh frdho hstrketmihoth gfrimc: ho

hspmýfc, hc dhthrikomoth y hc mdjhtkvf efoeuhrdmo efo hc oúechf ofikomc ho

`ëohrf y oúihrf, ikhotrms quh ho ftrms choùms tmc rhcmekõo f of sh dm f

quhdm ckiktmdm mc pmr dhthrikomoth-oúechf. Tfdf prfghsfr dh hspmýfc pmrm

hxtrmojhrfs smlh quh prheksmihoth hc emsf mc quh memlf dh mcudkr hs guhoth

efostmoth dh hrrfrhs pmrm hc bmlcmoth omtkvf dh choùms quh of prfyhetmo dh

ifdf tmo `hohrmc sus rhcmekfohs dh efoefrdmoekm. ^rheksmihoth, hs pfsklch

quh hstfs emsfs rhprhshotho uom dkgkeuctmd hsphekmc pmrm cfs bmlcmoths, dmdf

quh cm gfrim of quhdm msfekmdm efo uom guoekõo efiuokemtkvm prfpkmihoth

dkebm.

Ftrf emsf ho hc quh hc hogfquh ofekfguoekfomc rhsuctm dh dkgéekc mpckemekõo hs hc

dhc pmrmdkìm mc quh ofs bhifs rhghrkdf efo mothrkfrkdmd: hc hspmýfc efcfem

skhiprh uom prhpfskekõo moth cfs efipchihotfs frmekfomchs dh uo sustmotkvf f


22/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

dh uo prfofilrh (tfdmvém rheuhrdf cm hxtrmýhzm quh emusmlm m iks

hstudkmoths lhc`ms dh okvhc mvmozmdf cm prhshoekm dh dh ho uom efostrueekõo

efif hsf dh quh th vmyms).

Mqué hc prflchim sh pcmothm m cm bfrm dh meftmr hc ghoõihof pmrm kiphdkr uom

mpckemekõo kodkserkikomdm dh cm prhpfskekõo ho efothxtfs ho cfs quh hc

efipchihotf ofikomc of hs uom efipchtkvm, skof uom rhcmtkvm. Ho dhgkoktkvm: sh

trmtm dh quh hc hstudkmoth dk`m cm kdhm dh quh th klms m imrebmr, phrf of *cm

kdhm dh quh ih efihotmsth (ho cu`mr dh cm kdhm quh efihotmsth). \heuërdhsh

quh ho cm imyfrém dh cms cho`ums hc prkihr emsf emrheh dh prhpfskekõo

kotrfduetfrkm=


23/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

ghoõihof sko rheurrkr m uom fotfcf`ém `rmimtkemc dhimskmdf tëeokem. Dh bhebf,

uom dh cms tmrhms quh efovhodrém mlfrdmr m hsemcm `cflmc dhotrf dh cm

hoshýmozm dh cms choùms hxtrmojhrms hs hc dhc hstmlchekikhotf dh cm

thrikofcf`ém ohehsmrkm pmrm hxprhsmr cms dkghrhoekms `rmimtkemchs quh sfo

phrtkohoths ho emdm okvhc.

=.8 @rmiítkem, dkseursf y efothxtf: hc emsf dhc mrtéeucf

Bmstm mqué, bhifs kothotmdf prhshotmr mcùofs emsfs quh pcmothmo prflchims

m uo hogfquh `rmimtkemc ofekfguoekfomc. Ho emilkf, bmy ftrfs dfikokfs dh cm

choùm quh sh mdmptmo lmstmoth lkho m tmc pcmothmikhotf. Xof dh hccfs hs hc

rhcmtkvf m cm dhthrikomekõo y mc mrtéeucf. Efif hs lkho smlkdf, uom dh cms

dkgkeuctmdhs imyfrhs m cms quh sh hogrhotmo cfs mprhodkehs jmpfohshs f hscmvfs

(hxehptumodf cfs lúc`mrfs) dh hspmýfc hs hc quh efoekhroh mc dfikokf dhc

sksthim dh mrtéeucfs dh ouhstrm choùm. Hccf sh dhlh m quh sus rhsphetkvms

choùms, mc kùmc quh suehdh ho ftrms iuebms (y ho hc prfpkf cmtéo), emrheho dh

tmc tkpf dh uokdmdhs. Omturmcihoth, cm gmctm dh tmchs gfrims of kipckem cm

kohxksthoekm dh cms efrrhspfodkhoths guoekfohs. Cf quh feurrh hs quh tmchs

efothokdfs sh efdkgkemo dh ftrf ifdf. ^fr hjhipcf, m trmvës dhc frdho dh

pmcmlrms. Hsf hs cf quh pmrheh suehdhr ho ebkof, efif iuhstrm hc efotrmsth

tfimdf dh @kvõo (=;24: =2: =2


24/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Ho hspmýfc, hc sksthim dh cm dhthrikomekõo dhc ofilrh of sh lmsm ho hc frdho

dh pmcmlrms, muoquh hxkstho ekhrtfs pmrmchcksifs quh kodkemo ecmrmihoth quh

milfs ghoõihofs hstío vkoeucmdfs ho uo okvhc iís prfguodf, tmc efif

iuhstrm cm skùkhoth dkstrkluekõo dh dmtfs:

Hc cuohs ih efiprë cfs zmpmtfs - Hc cuohs ih efiprë uofs zmpmtfs

Cfs zmpmtfs ih cfs efiprë hc cuohs - 6*Xofs zmpmtfs ih cfs efiprë hc cuohs (eg. Xofs

ih cfs efiprë hc cuohs y ftrfs hc juhvhs).

Xo dfeuihotf guh hotrh`mdf mc juhz. / Hc dfeuihotf guh hotrh`mdf mc juhz.

Cf quh iuhstrmo cfs dmtfs mothrkfrhs hs quh hxksth uom ekhrtm rhcmekõo hotrh cm

hstrueturm kogfrimtkvm dh cm frmekõo (hstf hs, cm quh dkstkoùh cm kogfrimekõo

ouhvm dh cm kogfrimekõo efofekdm) y hc `rmdf dh dhthrikomekõo dh cfs UUOO.

Efif vhrhifs m efotkoumekõo, uo UO hs kodhthrikomdf sk mcudh m uo fljhtf f

kodkvkduf dhc eumc of pfshh gkebm hc fyhoth. Dkgéekcihoth, pfr cf tmotf, puhdh

suehdhr quh uo UO dh hsth tkpf puhdm mpmrhehr ho uom frmekõo dhotrf dh cm

pmrth kogfrimtkvm quh sh prhsupfoh efofekdm pfr hc fyhoth. Dh mbé cm

kipcmusklkckdmd dh mcùoms dh cms sheuhoekms mothrkfrhs. Oõthsh, of flstmoth,

quh cm rhcmekõo of sh dm ho shotkdf efotrmrkf: uo UO dhthrikomdf (hs dhekr, uo

fljhtf f kodkvkduf ym prhshoth ho hc gkebhrf ihotmc dhc fyhoth) puhdh

phrghetmihoth efostktukr f gfrimr pmrth dhc shìhotf kogfrimtkvf dh uom

frmekõo (dh cm kogfrimekõo ouhvm). Msé, ho uom frmekõo efif Myhr vk m tu

bhrimom hs flvkf quh hc fyhoth efofeh m su bhrimom. Cf quh hc bmlcmoth

supfoh quh pmrm mquëc hs ouhvf hs hc bhebf dh quh cm bmym vkstf myhr. Dhlh

dkstkoùkrsh, puhs, hotrh cm dhthrikomekõo (gkebms efofekdms) y cm kogfrimekõo

ouhvm (quh kipckem uom rhcmekõo metmoekmc hotrh hc prhdkemdf y sus mrùihotfs).

Cms `rmiítkems dh hspmýfc pmrm hxtrmojhrfs suhcho kothrprhtmr hc

guoekfomikhotf dhc mrtéeucf ho ecmvh efiuokemtkvm. Msé, pfr hjhipcf, cm

dhgkokekõo quh prhshotm Imtth Lfo (=;;


25/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

^hrf of sfo sõcf cms `rmiítkems iís rhekhoths cms quh mdfptmo uom

phrsphetkvm ofekfguoekfomc m cm bfrm dh dhgkokr hc mrtéeucf. Ho ouhstrm trmdkekõo

`rmimtkemc mluodmo cms dhgkokekfohs hghetumdms efo erkthrkfs skikcmrhs mc

mothrkfr. Msé suehdh, pfr hjhipcf, efo cm prkihrm hdkekõo dh cm @rmiítkem dh cm

\MH f efo cm @rmiítkem dh Lhccf, tmc efif sh rhgchjm ho (m) y (l),

rhsphetkvmihoth:

(m) Cfs ofilrhs efiuohs uoms vhehs mdiktho mrtéeucf, y ftrms of. Mdiktho mrtéeucf

eumodf sh usmo ho shotkdf dhgkokdf, õ dhthrikomdf, efif: cfs bfilrhs sfo

ifrtmchs: pfrquh hc shotkdf dh hstm prfpfskekõo efiprhbhodh í tfdfs cfs bfilrhs1

phrf sk sh dkxhsh: bfilrhs bmy milkekfsfs, y bfilrhs ifdhrmdfs, sh fikth hc

mrtéeucf, pfrquh hc sustmotkvf efiúo bfilrhs hstí ho shotkdf kodhgkokdf, sko

dhthrikomr euíchs sfo cfs milkekfsfs, ok euíchs cfs ifdhrmdfs. Uk dhekifs: dmih

cfs cklrfs, pfohifs mrtéeucf, pfrquh hc quh cfs pkdh, y hc quh cfs bm dh dmr smlho dh

quë cklrfs dhthrikomdfs sh trmtm1 phrf sk dhekifs: dmih cklrfs, of sh pfoh mrtéeucf1

pfrquh hc quh cfs pkdh, of bmlcm dh ekhrtfs y smlkdfs cklrfs, skof dh eumchsqukhrm

quh shmo.

(\MH, =00=, emp. W)

(l) Juotmodf hc mrtéeucf dhgkokdf m uo sustmotkvf, dmifs m hothodhr quh hc fljhtf hs

dhthrikomdf, hstf hs, efosmlkdf dh cm phrsfom m qukho bmlcmifs, cm eumc, pfrefoskùkhoth, fyhodf hc mrtéeucf, ikrm, pfr dhekrcf msé, ho su ihoth mc fljhtf quh sh

ch shýmcm. Uk yf dkjhsh ¶quë chs bm pmrhekdf m usthdhs cm gkhstm 6, erhhrém sko dudm

quh mc prfouoekmr yf hstms pmcmlrms sh chvmotmrém, efif pfr hoemotf, ho hc mcim dh

usthdhs cm kdhm dh ekhrtm gkhstm pmrtkeucmr, y sk msé of guhrm, sh hxtrmýmrém cm

hxprhskõo. Cf iksif quh sk dkrk`khodf hc dhdf m uom pmrth dh ik mpfshotf dkjhsh

¶quë chs pmrheh m usthdhs mquhccm gcfr6 y vfcvkhodf usthdhs cm vkstm of mehrtmsho m

vhr gcfr mcùom. Hc mrtéeucf (efo hstm pmcmlrm usmdm mlsfcutmihoth sh dhskòm hc

dhgkokdf), hc mrtéeucf, puhs, shýmcm kdhms1 kdhms dhthrikomdms, efosmlkdms dhc fyhoth

f chetfr1 kdhms quh sh supfoho y sh shýmcmo ho hc hothodkikhotf dh cm phrsfom m

qukho dkrk`kifs cm pmcmlrm

(Lhccf, =240, §


26/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

m) Mxkfim dh hxksthoekm: Tkhoh quh hxkstkr uo fljhtf, y sõcf uof, mc quh puhdm mpckeírshch cm

hxprhskõo utkckzmdm pfr hc bmlcmoth.

l) Mxkfim dh kdhotkgkemekõo: Uh ch dhlho bmlhr dmdf mc fyhoth ihdkfs sugkekhoths pmrm

kdhotkgkemr hc fljhtf mc quh sh rhgkhrh cm hxprhskõo usmdm pfr hc bmlcmoth.

]ukzís uo ifdf dh rhgchjmr tfdfs hstfs rhquksktfs shrém dhekr quh hc bmlcmoth

usm uom dhserkpekõo dhgkokdm eumodf supfoh quh hc fyhoth hs empmz dh

kdhotkgkemr kohquévfemihoth ho su ihoth hc fljhtf f kodkvkduf dhskòmdf.

Oõthsh quh cm kdhotkgkemekõo dhlh hghetumrsh ho cm ihoth dhc fyhoth, of ho hc

iuodf rhmc, ym quh of hs dkgéekc hoefotrmr dhserkpekfohs dhgkokdms quh of

efrrhspfodho m hotkdmdhs rhghrhoekmchs prhvkmihoth kdhotkgkemdms ho uo iuodf

rhmc f pfsklch. Msé suehdh efo cfs skotmìms dhgkokdfs ho eurskvm cfs skùkhothsemsfs:

Kdhotkgkemekõo OF HU 9 \hghrhoekm

• Uh dhsefofeh hc mutfr dh Hc Cmzmrkccf dh Tfrihs.

• Cm pfckeém kòfrm hc eucpmlch.

• Hs ihotkrm quh Mzomr bmym mcifrzmdf efo hc rhy dh Grmoekm, pfrquh ho Grmoekm

of bmy rhy.

Xo ifdf iuy `rígkef dh rhgchjmr hc guoekfomikhotf dh cfs mrtéeucfs cf efostktuyh

cm thfrém dh cfs gkebhrfs gfriucmdm pfr Bhki (=;2


27/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

quh msé suehdh ho hsth emsf.) Xom vhz M bm prfghrkdf (m), L tfim dfs gkebms y m emdm

uom dh hccms chs dm uo oúihrf, pfo`mifs pfr emsf, hc = y hc


28/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

sh mefifdmo m hstm iksim hxpckemekõo skhiprh quh supfo`mifs, efif

pmrheh cõ`kef bmehr, quh hc gkebhrf dhc fyhoth koecuyh tmilkëo kogfrimekõo

sflrh hc efothxtf sktumekfomc y prmìítkef ho quh sh dm hc metf efiuokemtkvf.

Msé, ho (m) hc bmlcmoth mcudh m uo rhtrmsf ho su bfrm dh cch`mdm. ^fr cf tmotf, hs

cõ`kef supfohr quh hc mutflús mcudh uoévfemihoth mc ihdkf dh trmospfrth efo

quh sh bm dhspcmzmdf. Ho (e), m su vhz, hc skotmìm hc phrrf sh vkoeucm m

ouhstrf efofekikhotf hoekecfpëdkef dhc iuodf: hs rhcmtkvmihoth grheuhoth quh

tmchs mokimchs metúho efif ùmrdkmohs dksumsfrkfs dh uo hstmlchekikhotf.

^hoshifs ho cm phrpchjkdmd quh supfodrém pmrm hc chetfr dhc mouoekf hc emilkf

ho hstm iksim sktumekõo dh hc phrrf pfr cm bfrik`m. Hc emsf iís pmrmdkìítkef

hs hc dh (h): hc mrtéeucf dhthrikomdf sh puhdh utkckzmr sk cm sktumekõo

efiuokemtkvm sh prfdueh ho prhshoekm dhc vhbéeucf quh efotkhoh cm pkhzm (pfr

hjhipcf, ho uo efoehskfomrkf ho hc quh ih iuhstrmo hc iftfr dhc efebh quh

prhthodf efiprmr). Ho tmc efothxtf, cm shùodm sheuhoekm dh hsh iksif

hjhipcf shrém tftmcihoth komdheumdm. Ho emilkf, hsh iksif houoekmdf shrém

phrghetmihoth efrrhetf sk tmc pkhzm mpmrheh mkscmdm (skhiprh quh ho hc efothxtf

cko`óéstkef koihdkmtmihoth mothrkfr of sh bulkhrm bhebf mcuskõo mc efebh dhc

quh gfrimlm pmrth).

Xom pruhlm dh quh cm ofekõo dh mefifdmekõo rhsuctm kipfrtmoth m cm bfrm dh

hxpckemr hc usf dhc mrtéeucf dhgkokdf vkhoh dmdm pfr hc bhebf dh quh ësfs sfo

cfs úokefs efothxtfs ho cfs quh cms dhserkpekfohs dhgkokdms puhdho phrdhr su

prhsupfskekõo dh uokekdmd. Kim`kohifs quh ho cm oftkekm sflrh uo mthotmdf sh

chh: Hc prfyhetkc hotrõ pfr cm vhotmom dh uo hdkgkekf dh mpmrtmihotfs. Ho hc

mothrkfr houoekmdf hc usf dhc mrtéeucf dhthrikomdf ho hc skotmìm cm vhotmom of

mutfrkzm m supfohr quh hc hdkgkekf dh mpmrtmihotfs guhrm uom hsphekh dh luoahrefo uom úokem vhotmom. Hsh houoekmdf, pfr hc efotrmrkf, hs efipmtklch efo uom

sktumekõo ho cm quh hc hdkgkekf tuvkhrm iuebms vhotmoms. Dh bhebf, cm iksim

sktumekõo pfdrém bmlhrsh dhserktf pfr ihdkf dh cm grmsh Hc prfyhetkc hotrõ pfr

uom vhotmom dh uo hdkgkekf dh mpmrtmihotfs. Of flstmoth, ho cm efiphthoekm

`rmimtkemc dh eumcqukhr bmlcmoth dhc hspmýfc hsth úctkif houoekmdf rhsuctm iís

hxtrmýf quh hc mothrkfr (cm dkstkoekõo ho hsth emsf of mghetm m cm `rmimtkemckdmd

skof m cm mehptmlkckdmd). ^fr cf tmotf, ho hc prkihr hjhipcf sh bm emoehcmdf cmprhsupfskekõo dh uokekdmd ho hc skotmìm cm vhotmom. Hc iftkvf dh quh hccf sh


29/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

bmym prfduekdf rmdkem ho hc ihemoksif dh cm mefifdmekõo: hc skotmìm

ofikomc cm vhotmom puhdh mpmrhehr efif dhserkpekõo dhgkokdm pfrquh sh

vkoeucm dkrhetmihoth mc skotmìm uofs mpmrtmihotfs.

Ho rhsuiho: erhhifs quh hc guoekfomikhotf y cm dkstrkluekõo dh cfs mrtéeucfs

dhiuhstrmo quh cms thfréms lmsmdms ho prkiktkvfs shiíotkefs ck`mdfs mc prfpkf

metf efiuokemtkvf rhsuctmo pcmusklchs. Efif ym bhifs vkstf, ho hsth emsf cfs

ihjfrhs `rmiítkefs rheurrho tmilkëo m hsth tkpf dh hxpckemekõo eumodf sh trmtm

dh prfpfohr bkpõthsks dh kovhstk`mekõo of ck`mdms m cm príetkem dfehoth m

hxtrmojhrfs.

=.7 Hotrh cm uokekdmd guoekfomc y cm prfckghrmekõo dh skòkgkemdfs: hc emsf

dhc kiphrghetf

Xom thodhoekm efostmoth ho hc hstudkf cko`óéstkef bm skdf cm lúsquhdm dh cm

kovmrkmoth. Ofekfohs tmo lískems efif cm dh gfohim f ifrghim prfehdho

prheksmihoth dh hsm thodhoekm m muihotmr hc `rmdf dh mlstrmeekõo pmrm

efoshùkr uokdmdhs iís mlmremdfrms y `hohrmchs. ^hrf tmc thodhoekm of sõcf

sh pfoh dh imokgkhstf ho cm fotfcf`ém dh cms uokdmdhs cko`óéstkems lískems.

^mrm cm imyfrém dh cms thfréms, cm efrrhspfodhoekm uoévfem hotrh gfrim y

guoekõo hs uo dhskdhrítui lískef ho tfdfs cfs efipfohoths cko`óéstkefs. Hc

prflchim quh sh pcmothm ho cm hoshýmozm m hxtrmojhrfs hs bmstm quë puotf hs

mdiksklch kotrfduekr mctfs `rmdfs dh mlstrmeekõo ho mrms dh efoshùkr

dhserkpekfohs iís `hohrmchs. Omturmcihoth, cm fpekõo mcthromtkvm hs hxpckemr

uom dhthrikomdm gfrim efif uo efojuotf iís f ihofs dksphrsf dh vmcfrhs

dkstkotfs. Dfs hjhipcfs emrmethréstkefs dh cf quh hstmifs dkekhodf sfo hcsuljuotkvf y hc tkhipf vhrlmc efofekdf efif prhtërktf kiphrghetf dh kodkemtkvf.

Ho hsth mpmrtmdf ofs rhghrkrhifs m hsth úctkif.

Dhotrf dhc pmrmdkìm vhrlmc dhc hspmýfc, hc prhtërktf kiphrghetf feupm uom

mipckm zfom quh suhch emrmethrkzmrsh ho guoekõo dh trhs vmcfrhs guodmihotmchs,

tmc efif shýmcm ^frtf Dmphom (=;2;):


30/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

m. Msphetf kiphrghetkvf: "hxprhsm meekfohs, prfehsfs f hstmdfs ho uom vkskõo of

efipchxkvm, komemlmdm" (^frtf Dmphom, =;2;: 2


31/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Uh trmtm dh prhshotmr cm rhcmekõo hotrh uo sujhtf y uo prhdkemdf efif mc`f tftmcihoth

hstítkef, koifvkckzmdf ho uo kostmoth, k`umc quh eumodf sh dhtkhoh hc prfyhetfr ho uom

kim`ho pmrm momckzmrcm y flshrvmrcm. Mdhiís, hc kiphrghetf ch mtrkluyh m cm rhcmekõo

sujhtf-prhdkemdf quh prhshotm, hc hstmtutf dh ihrm emrmethréstkem dh uom sktumekõo quh hc

houoekmdfr hstí kothotmodf hvfemr f dhserklkr: ho hc kiphrghetf of suehdho efsms, ho hcshotkdf dh quh cf hxprhsmdf ho kiphrghetf of rhikth dkrhetmihoth m su rhghrhoth

hxtrmcko`óéstkef (metf, mefothekikhotf f prfehsf), mc efotrmrkf dh cf quh suehdh eumodf

sh hxprhsm mc`f ho prhtërktf kodhgkokdf. Hc kiphrghetf usm hchihotfs hxtrmcko`óéstkefs

pmrm pcmothmrcfs efif imref sktumekfomc dh uom kogfrimekõo.

(Imtth Lfo, =;;


32/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Dh bhebf, cm iksim kdhm sflrh hc vmcfr lískef dhc kiphrghetf cchvmrí m Lhccf m

htkquhtmrcf efif ef-prhtërktf. Hc hsquhim skùkhoth iuhstrm hc vmcfr dh hsth

tkhipf ho hc efojuotf dh cms gfrims vhrlmchs dhc kodkemtkvf:

M L E

^rhtërktf ^rhshoth Guturf

MM EM ^M ME M^

Moth-^rht. Ef-^rht. ^fst.^rht. Moth-^rhs. Moth-Gut.

MEM M^M

Moth-Ef-^rht. Moth-^fst-^rht.

Ho hc hsquhim mothrkfr, M dhoftm hc prkiktkvf lískef "mothrkfrkdmd", E hxprhsm

"efhxksthoekm" y ^ kipckem "pfsthrkfrkdmd". Ho hc sksthim dh Lhccf, bmy sõcf trhs

tkhipfs prkimrkfs (quh sfo cfs quh sh moecmo dkrhetmihoth mc ifihotf dh cm

houoekmekõo). Tfdfs cfs dhiís sfo sheuodmrkfs y sõcf puhdho shr

kothrprhtmdfs ihdkmoth su vkoeucmekõo m mcùof dh cfs tkhipfs prkimrkfs.

Oõthsh quh hc kiphrghetf quhdm emrmethrkzmdf efif uo tkhipf sheuodmrkf, quh

imrem cm efhxksthoekm efo uo pmsmdf. Tmc rhcmekõo sh flshrvm dh ifdf

imokgkhstf ho frmekfohs efif Eumodf smcém dh emsm, sfoõ hc thcëgfof.

Bmlktumcihoth, sh bm thodkdf m kothrprhtmr quh hc vmcfr dh efhxksthoekm sõcf sh

dm ho cfs emsfs ho quh ho cm iksim frmekõo mpmrheh uo vhrlf quh ihoekfom

hxpcéektmihoth hc mefothekikhotf efkoekdhoth ho hc tkhipf. ^hrf hccf of hs msé.

Cf guodmihotmc pmrm cm kothrprhtmekõo dhc kiphrghetf hs su emríethr dh koduetfr

dh uom sktumekõo pmsmdm pmrmchcm m cm hxprhsmdm pfr ëc. Dh mbé su emríethr

mcuskvf, dh erhmekõo dh milkhoths, dh dfodh dhrkvmo cfs usfs ccmimdfs

omrrmtkvfs, ho hc shotkdf dh Phkorkeb (=;72). Tmilkëo rhsuctm pfsklch dhrkvmr dh

hsth vmcfr prkik`hokf cfs usfs dh efomtf f dh efrthsém: ho milfs emsfs hc

kiphrghetf mcudh m uom kothoekõo quh sh prhshotm efif rhcmekfomdm efo uo

efothxtf mothrkfr (msé, ]uhrém phdkrch uo gmvfr mcudh m uom vfcuotmd prhvkm). Dh

mbé hc vmcfr prmìítkef iís mthoumdf dh cms phtkekfohs y dhshfs quh sh


33/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

hxprhsmo m trmvës dh hsth tkhipf, puhs cm meekõo sh vkoeucm m uom sktumekõo

prhehdhoth h kipcéektmihoth sh ch efiuokem mc fyhoth cm dkspfoklkckdmd m

ifdkgkemr cm metktud sk ësth imokghstmrm mcùom fpfskekõo.

Ho =74> pulckemlm Jfbmoo Mifs Efihokus, uom dh cms gkùrms dhc buimoksif

tmrdéf hurfphf, uom Dkdíetkem imòm quh koecuém rh`cms pmrm hc mprhodkzmjh dh

cms dkvhrsms dksekpckoms. Hotrh cfs efoshjfs quh dhdkemlm m qukhohs bmlémo dh

mprhodhr uom choùm hxtrmojhrm, gkùrmlm hc dh quh cm choùm dhlh mprhodhrsh

iís efo hc usf quh efo rh`cms. Ftrm rh`cm pmrm gmekcktmr cm pfck`cftém rhzmlm msé:

"cfs prkihrfs hjhrekekfs dh cm ouhvm choùm bmo dh bmehrsh sflrh uo thim

efofekdf". Hc efoshjf koihdkmtmihoth skùkhoth, of flstmoth, imtkzmlm hc

mothrkfr: "cms rh`cms shrvkrío pmrm myudmr m rhmgkrimr hc usf". Erhf quh ho cmsshothoekms mothrkfrhs quhdmo rhef`kdms luhom pmrth dh cms thodhoekms

dfikomoths ho cm metumckdmd ho cm ihtfdfcf`ém dh cm hoshýmozm dh choùms.

^fr cf quh rhsphetm m cm hoshýmozm dh cm `rmiítkem, ho hstm dksekpckom of dhlh

efoehlkrsh efif uo gko ho sé iksim, skof quh su prhshoekm dhlh hstmr

sulfrdkomdm m uom gkomckdmd príetkem: cm ihjfrm ho hc usf dh cfs mprhodkehs.

=.0 Cm Ukotmxks ho hc iëtfdf trmdkekfomc (@rmiítkem y Trmdueekõo)Uk pfr mgío dkdíetkef bulkërmifs dh pmrehcmr hc `rmo feëmof dh cm Bkstfrkm dh cm

Cko`óéstkem, dkghrhoekmrémifs mc ihofs trhs pmrmdkìms: hc trmdkekfomc, hc

hstrueturmc-`hohrmtkvkstm y hc dh cm cko`óéstkem dh cm efiuokemekõo. Xo rhsuiho

efipmrmtkvf dh sus emrmethrhs `hohrmchs puhdh flshrvmrsh ho hc skùkhoth

`rígkef:

Trmdkekfomc Hstrueturmc Cko`óéstkem dhefiuokemekõo

Ofrimtkvm

Efrrheekõo

Trmosehodhoth

Choùm hserktm

Mtfikstm

^mcmlrm

Ifrgfcf`ém

Choùmjh

Dhserkptkvf-hxpckemtkvm

@rmimtkemckdmd

Koimohoth

Choùmjh frmc

Uksthiítkem

Frmekõo (houoekmdf)

Gfofcf`ém-Ukotmxks

Choùm

Dhserkptkvf-hxpckemtkvm

Hgkemekm efiuokemtkvm

Koimohoth-Trmosehodhoth

Tfdfs cfs choùmjhs

Uksthiítkem

Thxtf

^rmìítkem,

Ufekfcko`óéstkem...


34/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

Ofrim cko`óéstkem

Ukòkgkemekõo

Efiphthoekm cko`óéstkem

Ukòkgkemdf

Efiuokemekõo

Efiphthoekm efiuokemtkvm

Uhotkdf

Hstm dkvkskõo trkpmrtktm shrém mpckemlch mskiksif m cm ihtfdfcf`ém dh cmhoshýmozm dh shùodms choùms: iëtfdf trmdkekfomc f dh `rmiítkem-

trmdueekõo, iëtfdfs hstrueturmchs y iëtfdfs efiuokemtkvfs. Tmc pmrmchcksif of

hs purm efkoekdhoekm, skof rhsuctmdf dhc trmsvmsh kohvktmlch hotrh hc dhsmrrfccf

thõrkef dh cm Cko`óéstkem y sus mpckemekfohs príetkems.

Of sh bm dh phosmr, sko hilmr`f, quh cm ihtfdfcf`ém dh cm hoshýmozm dh

shùodms choùms (C


35/67


-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

bkstõrkefs, gkcfsõgkefs, hte.). Cfs iëtfdfs dh hoshýmozm sh fr`mokzmlmo ho

eumtrf mpmrtmdfs: @rmiítkem, Cëxkef, Hjhrekekfs y Trmdueekõo. Cm Ifrgfcf`ém sh

efovkhrth ho hc ehotrf dh cms uokdmdhs dkdíetkems:

m. ^rhehdh m cm Ukotmxks ho hc frdho.

l. Tfdm cm cheekõo k̀rm ho tfrof m cfs efothokdfs `rmimtkemchs hxpckemdfs.

Hstfs sh hxpfoho dh gfrim hxbmustkvm y dh uom vhz pmrm skhiprh (efif

sk sh trmtmrm dh uom `rmiítkem pmrm omtkvfs).

e. Cfs hjhrekekfs hstío dhstkomdfs m mcemozmr hc dfikokf dh emrmethrhs

gfrimchs (dheckomekfohs, efoju`mekfohs...). Uh ehotrmo

guodmihotmcihoth ho cm pmcmlrm.

d. Cm trmdueekõo hs hch`kdm ho guoekõo dh cms rh c̀ms `rmimtkemchs.

h. Hc cëxkef (skhiprh ho ckstms dh efrrhspfodhoekms) hstí sulfrdkomdf tmotf

m cm `rmiítkem efif m cm trmdueekõo.

Cm Ukotmxks dh cms choùms ecískems mcemozm uo dhsmrrfccf iuy hoefikmlch sk sh

cm efthjm efo cm dh cms choùms vhroíeucms. Uko hilmr`f, suhch emrhehr dh uom

hjhrektmekõo mdheumdm, hsphekmcihoth ho cf quh sh rhgkhrh m cms dhstrhzms dh

prfdueekõo.

Hc iëtfdf trmdkekfomc dh hoshýmozm dh cms choùms ecískems guh fljhtf dh

ouihrfsms erétkems. ^hrf su frkhotmekõo of prhshotmlm uo `rmo dhshogfquh,

dmdf hc fljhtkvf quh phrshùémo: mc trmtmrsh dh choùms iuhrtms, cf quh

kothrhsmlm hrm cm kothcheekõo dh thxtfs ym prfduekdfs, of cm prfdueekõo dh

ihosmjhs.

Cms choùms ifdhroms msuiho kokekmcihoth ho su hoshýmozm puotf pfr puotf,

pmsf pfr pmsf, cfs prkoekpkfs, pmtrfohs, prf`rmims y gkomckdmd dh cms `rmiítkems

dh choùms ecískems (cmtéo, `rkh`f, bhlrhf, hte.). Hs hvkdhoth quh mc ifdkgkemr hc

fljhtf sh prfdujhrfo oftmlchs dkstfrskfohs y ckiktmekfohs:

m. Of sh hstudkmlmo dh gfrim efovhokhoth ok cms dhstrhzms frmchs (bmlcmr y

hseuebmr) ok cm prfdueekõo hserktm.


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

l. Tmrtmiudhz, vmekcmekõo h koefrrheekõo. Mc hstmr lmsmdfs cfs hjhrekekfs ho

cms emrmethréstkems gfrimchs dh cm pmcmlrm, cm efostrueekõo dh frmekfohs

of hrm gcukdm ok efrrhetm. Cm efogfrimekõo quh dh uo iksif prfehsf

rhmckzm emdm choùm hs dkstkotm: Ih ùstm hc emgë /K ckah efgghh / J'mkih ch

emgë.

e. Uh prhsekodém dh tfdm rhghrhoekm mc vmcfr efiuokemtkvf (prmìítkef,

sfekfcõ`kef, eucturmc...) dh cms efostrueekfohs.

d. Uheuhoekms mchjmdms dhc dkomiksif y gchxklkckdmd dhc usf rhmc.

Efif sh puhdh flshrvmr, cfs imoumchs dhc pmrmdkìm @rmiítkem- Trmdueekõo

dhseukdmlmo dh gfrim imokgkhstm cms efostrueekfohs skotíetkems, ho hsphekmc, su

hjhrekekf y su efohxkõo efo hc dkseursf.

Cm mpckemekõo dhc iëtfdf trmdkekfomc m cm hoshýmozm dh shùodms choùms vkvms

sõcf prfdujf hghetfs rhcmtkvmihoth pfsktkvfs ho dhthrikomdf `rupf sfekmc: hc dh

cms phrsfoms dh eucturm quh sõcf utkckzmo cfs kdkfims pmrm chhr y trmduekr thxtfs

ekhotégkefs, ckthrmrkfs... dh ftrms choùms. Cm kothoskgkemekõo dh efotmetfs y

ifvkckdmd kothromekfomc pusf ho hvkdhoekm sus hofrihs ckiktmekfohs.

=.2 Cko`óéstkem hstrueturmc y hoshýmozm dh C


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Cm rhofvmekõo hstrueturmckstm ho cm Ihtfdfcf`ém dh cm Hoshýmozm dh C< tkhoh

cu`mr guodmihotmcihoth ho cm Miërkem dh cfs mýfs 4> y 8>, efo uo prfguodf

kogcujf ihtfdfcõ`kef dh cm pskefcf`ém lhbmvkfrkstm f efoduetkstm:

• Hc choùmjh hs uom gfrim dh efoduetm.

• Flhdheh mc pmtrõo dh hstéiucfs y rhspuhstms.

• Hc okýf kiktm cfs sfokdfs, pmcmlrms y efostrueekfohs dh sus imyfrhs.

• Cfs mductfs rhefiphosmo cfs mekhrtfs y efo su mprflmekõo cfs

rhguhrzmo. Dhsmpruhlmo y efrrk`ho cfs hrrfrhs.

• Hc okýf sh hsguhrzm ho hc mprhodkzmjh bmstm quh, pfr ihdkf dh cm

rhphtkekõo, mceíozmcfs bílktfs cko`óéstkefs efrrhetfs.

• Hc efipfrtmikhotf hs iheíokef, rhspfodhifs m bílktfs.

• Mprhodhr uom choùm hs mdqukrkr uofs bílktfs.

• Jkc mprhodkzmjh skùh hc pmtrõo dh hosmyf y hrrfr.

=. Uh rhguhrzmo Efo cm príetkem cms hikskfohs efrrhetms, cfs bílktfs

luhofs.


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• Of gmvfrheho cm erhmtkvkdmd, skof cm ihrm rhphtkekõo.

• Hsemsm omturmckdmd.

Ho hc emipf dh cm Ukotmxks hc emilkf rhsphetf mc pmrmdkìm trmdkekfomc guh uom

rhvfcuekõo, uo smctf eumcktmtkvf. Cfs hjhrekekfs hstrueturmchs (pmtthro-drkccs):

m. Hjhrektmo cm gfrim skotíetkem, cm hsphekgkekdmd kdkfskoerískem dh cms

efostrueekfohs skotmìítkems ho emdm choùm, msphetf tftmcihoth

fcvkdmdf pfr cfs iëtfdfs trmdkekfomchs.

l. Gmvfrheho cm mutfimtkzmekõo `cflmckzmdm dh cms efostrueekfohs

skotíetkems m trmvës dh cm rhphtkekõo y dh cm príetkem efotkoumdm.

e. Gmekcktmo uom hxprhskõo gcukdm (frmc y hserktm) y uom ihjfr efiprhoskõo

dh cfs ihosmjhs (dhsdh hc tfdf m cms pmrths). ^hriktho suphrmr cm

koshùrkdmd, cms pmusms y hc tmrtmiudhf.

d. Uh hckikomo iuebfs hrrfrhs dhlkdfs m kothrghrhoekm skotíetkem efo cm

choùm dh frk`ho. Mc mskikcmr efif bílktf uom hstrueturm, sh hvktm hc

emcef pmcmlrm pfr pmcmlrm m pmrtkr dh Cc.

h. ^fr ftrm pmrth, ho cm príetkem phdm`õ`kem hc vhtf m cm skòkgkemekõo of guh

tmo tmjmoth efif ho cm kovhstk`mekõo.

Ho hc shof dh cm cko`óéstkem dhserkptkvm mihrkemom dh cfs mýfs 8> y 7> sh

dhsmrrfccm uom frkhotmekõo gheuodm ho kovhstk`mekfohs sflrh cm ihtfdfcf`ém dh

cm hoshýmozm dh cm C


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sh bm dh prfduekr imyfr kosksthoekm ho cm hxpckemekõo thõrkem y ho cfs

hjhrekekfs príetkefs.

Hc moícksks efotrmstkvf gmvfrheh kovhstk`mekfohs guodmihotmcihoth ho dfs

emipfs: cm Gfoëtkem y cm @rmiítkem. Ho Ukotmxks sh pfoh hsphekmc rhckhvh ho

shýmcmr cms dkghrhoekms hotrh hstrueturms skotíetkems utkckzmdms pmrm hxprhsmr

uom iksim sustmoekm dh efothokdf f uofs iksifs usfs. Hotrh cfs trmlmjfs quh

efipmrmo ouhstrm choùm efo hc ko`cës bhifs dh shýmcmr cms kovhstk`mekfohs

dh \. Cmdf msé efif hc efofekdf cklrf dh Utfeawhcc-Lfwho-Imrtko Tbh

@rmiimtkemc Utrueturhs fg Ho`cksb mod Upmoksb Q=;78Y.

=.;. Cm cko`óéstkem dh cm efiuokemekõo

Dhsdh cfs mýfs shshotm mskstkifs m cm `ëohsks y dhsmrrfccf dh uo ouhvf

pmrmdkìm thõrkef ho cm Cko`óéstkem. Hs hc dhsmrrfccf dh prkoekpkfs dh cm

@rmiítkem Hstrueturmc y dh cm @rmiítkem @hohrmtkvm:

- Guoekõo efiuokemtkvm ^rmìítkem

- Emríethr sfekmc Ufekfcko`óéstkem

- Emríethr pséqukef ^skefcko`óéstkem

- Emríethr frmc Moícksks dh cm Efovhrsmekõo

- Emríethr eucturmc Htofcko`óéstkem

- Koecuskõo dhc Thxtf Cko`óéstkem Thxtumc

Ukhiprh sh efofekhrfo mpckemekfohs dh cm Cko`óéstkem. Durmoth hstfs mýfs

muihotmo dh gfrim efoskdhrmlch `rmekms mc dhsmrrfccf ihtfdfcõ`kef ytheofcõ`kef. Omeh cm Cko`óéstkem Mpckemdm. Muoquh ho su `hstmekõo guh

efoduekdm prheksmihoth pfr cm prhfeupmekõo ihtfdfcõ`kem dh cm hoshýmozm dh

cms choùms, cuh`f bm efofekdf `rmo hxpmoskõo: Hoshýmozm dh cms choùms

hxtrmojhrms, Hoshýmozm dh cm choùm imthrom, Chxkef`rmgém, Thrikofcf`éms,

Trmdueekõo, ^mtfcf`éms dhc choùmjh y rhhduemekõo. Cko`óéstkem efiputmekfomc,

^cmokgkemekõo cko`óéstkem, Cko`óéstkem dfeuihotmc, hte.


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EFI^HTHOEKM EFIXOKEMTKWM

Cm Cko`óéstkem Hstrueturmc y hc @hohrmtkvksif thoémo efif fljhtf dh dhserkpekõo

cm choùm f cm efiphthoekm cko`óéstkem: hc efofekikhotf dhc eõdk`f dh uo kdkfim.

Cm Cko`óéstkem dh cm Efiuokemekõo bm vhokdl m dhifstrmr quh efofehr uom

choùm hs mc`f iís mipckf quh cm kothrkfrkzmekõo dh cms uokdmdhs y rh`cms dh uo

eõdk`f. Hc guodmihotf dh cfs skùkhoths hrrfrhs of hs `rmimtkemc:

=. Luhofs déms (m cms skhth dh cm tmrdh)


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Cm efiphthoekm efiuokemtkvm sh puhdh suldkvkdkr:

m. Efiphthoekm cko`óéstkem: Gfofcõ`kem, Ifrgfcõ`kem, Ukotíetkem y

Chxkefcõ`kem.

l. Efiphthoekm phrkgërkem: Thxtumc, ^skefcko`óéstkem, Ufekfcko`óéstkem y

Htofcko`óéstkem f eucturmc.

e. Efiphthoekm prmìítkem.

Cms dkihoskfohs quh mghetmo m cms efostrueekfohs skotmìítkems rhskdho

guodmihotmcihoth ho cfs smlhrhs skotíetkef, thxtumc y prmìítkef. ^mrm ftrms

dhserkpekfohs dh cm efiphthoekm efiuokemtkvm, vëmsh D. Byihs Q=;0Y, C.G. Lmebimo Q=;;>Y.

EFI^HTHOEKM UKOTÍETKEM

Cm guoekõo rhprhshotmtkvm. Hxksth uo efoshosf lmstmoth `hohrmckzmdf ho cm

Cko`óéstkem dh cfs úctkifs mýfs: cm efilkomtfrkm skotíetkem sh fr`mokzm ho trhs

okvhchs guoekfomchs:

• guoekfohs gfrimchs: sujhtf, e.dkrhetf, e.kodkrhetf...

• guoekfohs shiíotkems: "m`hoth","pmekhoth","kostruihotf"...

• guoekfohs kogfrimtkvms: thim/rhim, gfef...

Cms dfs prkihrms efogkùrmo cm ccmimdm guoekõo rhprhshotmtkvm dhc choùmjh: su

ikskõo hs rhgchjmr, efpkmr, rhprhshotmr sktumekfohs, prfehsfs, mefothekikhotfs...

Hc hiksfr pmrth dh uom rhprhshotmekõo ihotmc y lusem uom fr`mokzmekõo

skotíetkem:

Uujhtf Whrlf e.dkrhetf e.kodkrhetf

Imrém rh`mcõ uom ofvhcm m Imouhc

–m`hoth’ –prfehsf’ –ihtm’ –lhohgkekmrkf’

Uujhtf Whrlf mtrklutf e.kodkrhetf e.m`hothXom ofvhcm guh rh`mcmdm m Imouhc pfr Imrém


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Cms trmosgfrimekfohs pfsklchs dhc okvhc shiíotkef mc okvhc skotíetkef of sfo

kdëotkems ho tfdms cms choùms. Ho ko`cës (koecusf ho cmtéo y mchiío) emlh cm

"pmskvm" dhc "lhohgkekmrkf" Q@fozíchz Emcvf =;;4, =>;Y:

- Jfbo thccs Imry m stfry

• M stfry ks tfcd tf Imry ly Jfbo

• Imry ks tfcd m stfry ly Jfbo

- Kfmoohs dfomukt cklrfs grmtrk ihf

• Cklrk dfomtk suot grmtrk ihf m cfmrih

• Grmthr ihus dfomtms hst cklrks m Kfmooh

Eb. Gkccifrh Q=;72Y y, iís rhekhothihoth, U.E. Dka Q=;2;Y bmo hstmlchekdf uo

frdho dh prkfrkdmdhs ho hc pmsf dh guoekfohs shiíotkems m guoekfohs

skotíetkems, frdho quh, pfr supuhstf, of hs kdëotkef ho tfdms cms choùms.

Cm guoekõo kogfrimtkvm. Ftrf hstmdkf ho cm efogkùrmekõo skotmìítkem dh uo

ihosmjh cf efostktuyho cms guoekfohs kogfrimtkvms. Hc bmlcmoth fr`mokzm su

ihosmjh dh meuhrdf efo cf quh kim`kom quh of efofeh su kothrcfeutfr. Cms

sheuhoekms Imrém gréh hc lfoktf y Hc lfoktf cf gréh Imrém pfshho cm iksim

guoekõo rhprhshotmtkvm: "dkeho" cf iksif. Uko hilmr`f, of "kogfrimo" dh cf

iksif, rhspfodho m prhùotms dkghrhoths:

Kogfrimekõo ouhvm Kogfrimekõo ouhvm

¶]uë

¶]uë¶]ukëo

bmeh Imrém6

gréh Imrém6gréh hc lfoktf6

(Imrém)

(Imrém gréh)(Hc lfoktf cf gréh)

gréh hc lfoktf

hc lfoktfImrém

Kogfrimekõo efofekdm

Hc hstudkmoth dh hspmýfc choùm hxtrmojhrm bm dh "smlhr" quh Hc lfoktf cf gréh

Imrém of hs uom rhspuhstm mdheumdm m ¶]uë bmeh Imrém6

Ftrm guoekõo kogfrimtkvm hs hc gfef f rhmceh. Cm choùm efofeh vmrkfs

prfehdkikhotfs: mehotf, dkeekõo rmchotkzmdm, rhphtkekõo, efostrueekfohs


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hogítkems... Ihdkmoth cfs prfehdkikhotfs dh ëogmsks hc bmlcmoth prhthodh ccmimr

cm mthoekõo dh su kothrcfeutfr:

• lkho pmrm rhgutmr uom kdhm, erhhoekm u fpkokõo dhc dhstkomtmrkf:

- Uu imdrh hstí hoghrim

- Uu imdrh hs cm quh hstí hoghrim

• lkho pmrm imremr uo emipf dh rhghrhoekm f uokvhrsf dh dkseursf ho hc

quh tkhoh vmckdhz su houoekmdf:

- Ho eumotf m hsm gmikckm, of tkhoh iuebfs rheursfs

- ^mrm ié, quh hsth hs uo oh`fekf rukofsf

Cms guoekfohs kogfrimtkvms of sõcf mghetmo mc frdho, m cm prfsfdkm (mehotfs dh

kosksthoekm, pmusms...). Cm cho`um dkspfoh dh efostrueekfohs skotíetkems

hsphekmchs pmrm gfemckzmr sh`ihotfs: sfo cms hstrueturms dh ëogmsks.

=. Efostrueekfohs heumekfomchs (bhodkdms, hsekodkdms...)

- Mccé guh dfodh ch rflmrfo

- Ho kovkhrof hs eumodf imdurmo cms omrmojms

- Efo ikif hs efif sh bm dh trmtmr m cfs emebfrrfs

- Jumo hs qukho cf smlh

-


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4. Efostrueekfohs dhc tkpf ¡Hc zfrrf dhc eurm!

Umlhr bmehr skotíetkef: Fofimskfcf`ém y Uhimskfcf`ém. Cm Cko`óéstkem

Hstrueturmc y @hohrmtkvm, ho prkoekpkf, sh pcmothmo hc hstudkf dhc smlhr

cko`óéstkef efo mlsfcutm kodhphodhoekm dh cfs prfehsfs dh efdkgkemekõo

(fofimskfcõ`kef) y dhsefdkgkemekõo (shimskfcõ`kef). Ho rhmckdmd, prhdfikomlm

hstm úctkim phrsphetkvm: ho hc moícksks dh cfs ihosmjhs dh uo efrpus hc

kovhstk`mdfr metúm dh uo ifdf skikcmr mc quh dhsefdkgkem. Dh bhebf, hc `rmo

prflchim dh cm @rmiítkem @hohrmtkvm, cm milk`óhdmd, sh prhshotm sõcf mc

rhehptfr. Mc hiksfr ch mghetm cm skofokikm. Hc hstrueturmcksif mchiío guh uom

hxehpekõo:

- Dkghrhoekmrfo cfs emikofs fofimskfcõ`kef (m) y shimskfcõ`kef (l):

m. Efoehptf Ukòkgkemdf Ukòkgkemoth

l. Ukòkgkemoth Ukòkgkemdf Efoehptf

- Dhifstrmrfo quh of sh trmtmlm dh prfehsfs tmutfcõ`kefs.

Uk lkho cms `rmiítkems thõrkems puhdho prhsekodkr dh cms frkhotmekfohs shùkdms

ho cm efdkgkemekõo y ho cm dhsefdkgkemekõo, efovkhoh quh cms `rmiítkems

dhstkomdms m cfs hstudkmoths dh uom shùodm choùm mdfptho uof f milfs

shotkdfs. Cm frdhomekõo dh efothokdfs bm dh hstmr dkspuhstm dh tmc ifdf quh

gmekckth hc dhsmrrfccf dh cms dhstrhzms prfduetfrm y rhehptfrm dh ihosmjhs. Hs

dhekr, sh bm dh fr`mokzmr cm hoshýmozm dhc smlhr cko`óéstkef dh tmc imohrm quh

gmekckth hc smlhr bmehr. Efif dheém hc mgfrksif ecískef "Of hxksth cm iksimdkstmoekm hotrh Ih`mrm y Thlms quh hotrh Thlms y Ih`mrm".

Cms rhgchxkfohs sflrh cm fr`mokzmekõo fofimskfcõ`kem y shimskfcõ`kem tuvkhrfo

rhphreuskõo emsk hxecuskvmihoth ho hc hstudkf dhc cëxkef. Cms msfekmekfohs dh

skòkgkemoth y skòkgkemdf hrmo dkstkotms sk sh shùém uom u ftrm rutm. Cm

Chxkef`rmgém trmdkekfomc bm skdf shimskfcõ`kem. Bmo hxkstkdf kothotfs cfmlchs dh

efiphodkfs chxkef`rígkefs dh efrth fofimskfcõ`kef. Msé, cm prkihrm pmrth dhcDkeekfomrkf Kdhfcõ`kef dh J. Emsmrhs, euyf chim rhzm "Dh cm kdhm m cm pmcmlrm".


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¶]uë feurrém ho cm Ukotmxks6 Cm @rmiítkem Trmdkekfomc, quh ho cm dhserkpekõo

ifrgfcõ`kem klm dhsdh cm gfrim mc shotkdf, mc cch`mr m cms frmekfohs efipuhstms

mdfptmlm ho iuebms femskfohs uom phrsphetkvm kovhrsm. Hc guodmihotf dh

dhofikomekfohs efif mdvhrsmtkvm, efoehskvm, emusmc, gkomc, efodkekfomc,

efosheutkvm, kcmtkvm, efipmrmtkvm, dksyuotkvm, dkstrklutkvm, hte. sh bmccm ho hc

skòkgkemdf, of ho cm gfrim. ^fr hc efotrmrkf, cm Cko`óéstkem Hstrueturmc hstí iís

mthotm m cms rhcmekfohs gfrimchs quh sh hstmlcheho hotrh cfs efostktuyhoths y

mdfptm uom phrsphetkvm shimskfcõ`kem. Whmifs, efif hjhipcf, hc

efipfrtmikhotf moth cms efipmrmtkvms.

Cms "efipmrmtkvms" y su hotfrof sfo uo hjhipcf prftftépkef dh eumotf vhokifs

hxpckemodf. ^mrtmifs dh cm frkhotmekõo fofimskfcõ`kem: cm kdhm "efipmrmr" sh

imokgkhstm m trmvës dh dfs hstrueturms skotíetkems dkghrhoekmdms:

Ukòkgkemdf Ukòkgkemoth

=. Trmlmjm iís quh su pmdrh

–efipmrmekõo’(suphrkfrkdmd)


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Uk`okgkemoth Uk`okgkemdf

=. Ufcghm iís quh @frkm (efipmrmekõo)

Iís quh


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m. Tfdm `rmiítkem dhdkemdm m cm hoshýmozm dh C< bm dh frdhomr su

prf`rmimekõo ho milms dkrheekfohs, pfrquh msé sh gmekcktmo mc

hstudkmoth dh C< cms rutms sh`ukdms pfr cms dhstrhzms dh prfdueekõo y

rhehpekõo dh ihosmjhs. Mqué rhskdh hc iërktf dh flrms efif cm

@rmiítkem Efiuokemtkvm dh G. Imtth Lfo Q=;;


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Umcvf bforfséskims hxehpekfohs, cfs `rmiítkefs of trmspmsmlmo hc uilrmc dh

cm frmekõo (f houoekmdf). Hc dhsmrrfccf dh dksekpckoms efif cm Uhikõtkem

Ckthrmrkm y, sflrh tfdf, cm Cko`óéstkem dhc Thxtf bm ifstrmdf:

=. ]uh cfs houoekmdfs sh fr`mokzmo ho uom uokdmd dh frdho suphrkfr:

hc thxtf.


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m hsth rhsphetf, m prfpõsktf, dkebf shm dh pmsf, pfr ekhrtf...

8. Imremdfrhs dh koghrhoekms pmrmchcms.

tmilkëo, pfr hc efotrmrkf, tmipfef...

7. Imremdfrhs dh kovhrskõo koghrhoekmc.

prheksmihoth, prheksmihoth pfr hsf, pfr hsf iksif...0. Ifdmckzmdfrhs.

• Hpkstëikefs: m ik ifdf dh vhr, lkho phosmdf, dh vhrdmd, dh vhrms, ho

efoerhtf, ho hc gfodf, ecmrf, dhsdh cuh`f, ho vhrdmd, pfr supuhstf,

¶of6, ¶vhrdmd6...

• Wfcktkvfs y hvmcumtkvfs: mc gko, mc ihofs, ihofs imc, pfr dhs`rmekm, pfr

gfrtuom, pfr suhrth...

2. \htmrdmdfrhs dhc efcfqukf y iuchtkccms.

I. Emsmdf Whcmrdh Q=;;5, 57-52Y fgrheém uom ckstm iís pflcmdm dh guoekfohs

thxtumchs y dh sus imremdfrhs: mecmrmekõo, mdkekõo, mdvhrthoekm, mgkrimekõo,

mprflmekõo, mshotkikhotf, mthoumekõo, (mutf)efrrheekõo, emusmckdmd, ekhrrh

dkseurskvf, efikhozf dkseurskvf, efoehskvkdmd, efoecuskõo, efodkekõo,

efosheuhoekm, efotkoumekõo, efotkoukdmd, efotrmsth, efrrheekõo, eucikomekõo,

dhdueekõo, dk`rhskõo, dudm, hjhipckgkemekõo, ëogmsks, houihrmekõo,

hqukvmchoekm, hvkdhoekm, hxbmustkvkdmd, hxpckemekõo, koecuskõo, koghrhoekm,

kothoskgkemekõo, ccmimdm dh mthoekõo, imothokikhotf dh mthoekõo kothrcfeutkvm,

imtkzmekõo, oh`mekõo, fpfskekõo, frdhomekõo, prhemuekõo, prhekskõo,

rhempktucmekõo, rhguhrzf, rëpckem, rhstrkeekõo, rhsuiho, tfpkemckzmekõo, trmoskekõo.

M hstms ckstms sh pfdrémo mýmdkr ouhvms emth`fréms (mr`uihotmtkvfs, kcmtkvfs...).

Uu hstudkf ho cm hoshýmozm dh C< hs tftmcihoth ohehsmrkf pfrquh efostktuyho

uo sfpfrth dh efiuokemekõo gcukdm y omturmc. Uu mpmrkekõo ho cm hoshýmozm bm

dh hstmr ck`mdm m cfs hjhrekekfs dh efovhrsmekõo. Tmc vhz shm hc okvhc ihdkf hciís mprfpkmdf pmrm kokekmr su dfehoekm: prkihrf m trmvës dh su dhtheekõo y

hxpckemekõo m pmrtkr dh thxtfs y, pfr úctkif, ho hjhrekekfs dh pmrtkekpmekõo metkvm.

EFI^HTHOEKM EFOWH\UMEKFOMC [ UKOTMRKU

Cm efovhrsmekõo sh bm efovhrtkdf ho fljhtf mutõofif dh moícksks cko`óéstkef.

Efostktuyh cm gfrim iís prftftépkem y hspfotíohm dh cm efiuokemekõo, phrftmilkëo cm iís fcvkdmdm. Cm Cko`óéstkem sh bm prhfeupmdf dhc hstudkf dh cms


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-Wkr`kokm Umor!"o-

m. Cfeutkvfs: meekfohs rhmckzmdms pfr hc bhebf dh bmlcmr: gfoëtkefs,

skotíetkefs, rëtkefs f shiíotkefs

l. Kcfeutkvfs: metfs kothoekfomchs quh hghetumifs mc bmlcmr: mgkrimr,

prh`uotmr, mpfstmr, jurmr, smcudmr, ghckektmr, phdkr, supckemr, frdhomr,

rhecmimr, ccmimr, mvksmr, prfihthr, prhshotmrsh, dhsphdkrsh, rhgutmr,

rmzfomr, mr`uihotmr, justkgkemr, hxpckemr, dhouoekm

enseñanza de ele

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