feminism ir k gdi2010

8/13/2019 Feminism IR K GDI2010

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Feminist IR/Feminism JP K

Link emocracy..................................................................................................................................................................................2'

&in' ( Democrac) ................................................................................................................................................ 2

Link International Institutions.............................................................................................................................................................2

&in' ( International Institutions ........................................................................................................................ 2

Link State ...........................................................................................................................................................................................2

&in' ( State .......................................................................................................................................................... 23

Link enere Lanuae....................................................................................................................................................................2+

&in' ( Gen9ere9 &anguage .................................................................................................................................25

Link "ar on 4error.............................................................................................................................................................................29

&in' ( ,ar on :error ..........................................................................................................................................2$

Link "ar on 4error.............................................................................................................................................................................30

&in' ( ,ar on :error ..........................................................................................................................................%0

Link I5La&..........................................................................................................................................................................................31&in' ( I;&a ......................................................................................................................................................... %1

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&in' ( u'es ......................................................................................................................................................... %$

Link State ...........................................................................................................................................................................................!0

&in' ( State .......................................................................................................................................................... +0

Link International Con-lict ................................................................................................................................................................!1

&in' ( International !on6lict ............................................................................................................................. +1

Link 46ir "orl "omen .................................................................................................................................................................!2

&in' ( :hir9 ,orl9 ,omen .............................................................................................................................. +2

Link IR ...............................................................................................................................................................................................!3

&in' ( IR .............................................................................................................................................................. +%


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Link/Im%act National Security ...........................................................................................................................................................!!

&in'/Imact ( ational Securit) ....................................................................................................................... ++

Link/Im%act ilitary 7ction...............................................................................................................................................................!'

&in'/Imact ( 8ilitar)


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In9i>i9ual


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===ersalism .............................................................................................................................5$

7--= 72= Link ,riate S%6ere .............................................................................................................................................................90


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&in' ; State ......................................................................................................................................................... 100

Link State .........................................................................................................................................................................................101

&in' ( State ........................................................................................................................................................101

Link State..........................................................................................................................................................................................102

&in' ( State .........................................................................................................................................................102

Link State .........................................................................................................................................................................................10!

&in' ( State ........................................................................................................................................................10+

Link Austice ......................................................................................................................................................................................10'

&in' ( Justice .....................................................................................................................................................10

Link uman Ri6ts...........................................................................................................................................................................10

&in' ( 7uman Rights ........................................................................................................................................ 10

Link uman Ri6ts/International La&.............................................................................................................................................10

&in' ( 7uman Rights/International &a ........................................................................................................ 103

Link uman Ri6ts/Ri6ts iscourse..............................................................................................................................................10+

&in' ( 7uman Rights/Rights Discourse .......................................................................................................... 105

Link uman Ri6ts/Iniiual Ri6ts..............................................................................................................................................109

&in' ( 7uman Rights/In9i>i9ual Rights ......................................................................................................... 10$

Link International La&.....................................................................................................................................................................111

&in' ( International &a .................................................................................................................................. 111

Link Ri6ts iscourse.......................................................................................................................................................................112

&in' ( Rights Discourse .....................................................................................................................................112Link La&/Iniiual Ri6ts..............................................................................................................................................................113

&in' ( &a/In9i>i9ual Rights ...........................................................................................................................11%

Link La& .........................................................................................................................................................................................11!

&in' ( &a ........................................................................................................................................................ 11+

Im%act *%%ression/*t6eriBation.......................................................................................................................................................11'

Imact ( 4ression/4therization ................................................................................................................... 11

Im%act Nuclear olocaust.................................................................................................................................................................11

Imact ( uclear 7olocaust ..............................................................................................................................117lternatie ener 7nalysis.............................................................................................................................................................11

e ( Gen9er


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e ; In9i>i9ual i9ual Re?ection Sol>enc) .................................................................................................... 121

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enc) ......................................................................................................................... 1%5

7--= 7lternatie Causes........................................................................................................................................................................139


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Feminist Jurisru9ence K

International Relations 1! "1/#

:he a66irmati>e is roote9 in attemts at masculine action ( their 6ocus on troo ith9raal

ultimatel) sub>erts the 6eminine ten9encies in International Relations.

Duncanson an9 schle 5(Claire an Cat6erine o- $in8ur6 an o- Strat6clye Ne& ,oliticalScience 30(!) %. '0)I

Nonet6eless the>ritis6 state is an9 must be caable o6 9ecisi>e action. Such caabilit) is central toRealist

unerstanins o- the state an9 shot through ith masculine associations in contrast to 6eminise9 assi>it)

an9 succumbing to constraint. 46us acti>e >erb constructions an9 9escritions o6 9ecisi>e action

re9ominatet6rou6out t6e teDt. 46e -ore&or an eDecutie summary 6or eEamle mention re%eately t6at Ee belie>e

an9 e ha>e 9eci9e9.90 >en hen the state is 9oing nothing or re9ucing its stoc'ile it is acti>el)

choosing to 9o so@ e 9eci9e9 not to ta'e an otion . . . ,e ill re9uce . . . &e 6ae not conucte . . . &e 6ae

increase our trans%arency . . . e ha>e cease9 %rouction . . . "e continue to make %roress.F91 :here is also an o>ert

emhasis on a>oi9ing inaction or constraint. EG*Hur ca%acity to actF must Enot 8e constraine 8y nuclear 8lackmail 8y

ot6ersF92 Ee must not allo such states to . . . 9eter us an t6e international community 6rom ta'ingt6e actionreuire . . . or -unamentally constrain our %olicy o%tions.F93 46e %ossi8ility o- a EormantF nuclear &ea%ons ca%a8ility cannot 8eentertaine the caabilit) must be acti>e an9 also cre9ible.F9! 46e nee -or >ritis6 nuclear &ea%ons ca%acity to 8eEcrei8leF is em%6asise at seeral %oints so een i- &e o not act it must 8e %ossi8le t6at &e can an ot6ers must 8eliee t6at &e can.

4ur Kriti' isn-t limite9 to militar) >iolence but the securit) ara9igm inherent ith the

masculine ar machine

!ohn an9 Ru99ic' % (Carol Researc6er an 4eac6er at arar eical Sins an Sara aut6or 7 ;eminist$t6ical ,ers%ectie on "ea%ons o- ass estruction 6tt%=//&&&.eneransecurity.um8.eu/co6nruick.%-) ,A

7nti5&ar 6eminists- oosition to the ractice o6 ar is simultaneousl) ragmatic an9 moral. ,e ha>ean abi9ing susicion o6 the use o6 >iolence e>en in the best o6 causes. 46e a8ility o- iolence to ac6ieeits state aims is routinely oer5estimate &6ile t6e com%leDity o- its costs are oerlooke. 4ur oositionalso stems 6rom the ercetion thatt6e %ractice o- ar entails-ar more thant6e 'illing an9 9estro)ingo- arme com8at itsel-. It reHuires the creation o6 a ar s)stem hich entails@ arming training an9organizing 6or ossible ars allocating the resources these rearations reHuire creating a culture in

hich ars are seen as morall) legitimate een allurinJ an shaing an9 6ostering the masculinities

an9 6emininities hich un9ergir9 men-s an9 omen-s acHuiescence to ar. $en &6en it a%%ears toac6iee its aims &ar is a source o- enormous iniiual su--erin an loss. oern ar6are is alsore9ictabl) 9estructi>e to societies ci>il liberties an9 9emocratic rocesses an9 the non;human orl9.

State securit) ma) sometimes be ser>e9 b) ar but too o6ten human securit) is not


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International Relations 1! "2/#

:his masculine i9eolog) is the root cause o6 all roli6eration en>ironmental 9estruction

9omestic >iolence an9 ar,arren an9 !a9) $+ "Karen J Duane & 6eminists an9 authors 7)atia Feminism an9

Peace@ Seeing connections g 1;13#uc6 o- the current unmanageabilit) o6 contemorar) li6ein %atriarc6al societies () ist6en >iee9as a conseHuence o6 a atriarchal reoccuation ith acti>ities e>ents an9 eEeriences that re6lect

historicall) male;gen9erienti-ie 8elie-s alues attitues an assumtions.Inclu9e9 amon t6ese real5li-e conseuences are%recisely t6ose concerns ith nuclear roli6eration ar en>ironmental9estruction an9 >iolence toar9 omen&6ic6 many -eminists see as the logical outgroth o6atriarchal thin'ing.In -act it is o-ten onl) through obser>ing these 9)s6unctional beha>iors 55 t6esym%toms o- ys-unctionality 55 t6at one can trul) see that an9 ho atriarch) ser>es to maintain an9eretuate them. "6en %atriarc6y is unerstoo as a ys-unctional system t6is Kunmanaea8ilityK can 8eseen -or &6at it is 55 as a %reicta8le an t6us loical conseuence o- %atriarc6y. 11:he theme that globalen>ironmental crises ar an9 >iolence generall) are re9ictable an9 logical conseHuences o6 seEism

an9 atriarchal culture is %erasie in eco-eminist literature (see Russell 19+9 2). $co-eminist C6arleneS%retnak -or instance arues t6at Ka militarism an &ar-are are continual -eatures o- a %atriarc6al society

8ecause t6ey re-lect an instill %atriarc6al alues an -ul-ill nees o- suc6 a system. iors hich i6 continue9 ill ma'e li6eon earth 9i66icult i6 not imossible.It is a stark messae 8ut it is %lausi8le. Its %lausi8ility ties inunerstanin t6e conce%tual roots o- arious &oman5nature5%eace connections in reional national anlo8al conteDts.


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International Relations 1! "%/#

4ur alternati>e is to >ote negati>e. Re?ection o6 a 6rameor' that normalizes masculine

ar6are is critical to a9ot eistemologies centere9 on a 6eminist ethic o6 eace!ohn an9 Ru99ic' % (Carol Researc6er an 4eac6er at arar eical Sins an Sara aut6or 7 ;eminist$t6ical ,ers%ectie on "ea%ons o- ass estruction 6tt%=//&&&.eneransecurity.um8.eu/co6nruick.%-) ,A

>ot6 in %6iloso%6y an in E&esternF t6ou6t more enerally Eo8:ectieF kno&lee is %rouce 8y sociallyautonomous reasoners &6o 6ae transcene institutional constraints ener ienti-ications an emotion.any 6eminists roose an alternati>e eistemolog) hich stresses that all thin'ers are situate9ithin eistemic communities hichask some 8ut not ot6er uestions an legitimatesome 8ut notother a)s o6 'noing. ,e are each o6 us also situate9 b) social i9entities an9 ersonal histories. 4otake an eDam%le at 6an= some o- us aress t6e olume#s uestions as 6eirs o- t6e EictimsF o- nuclear&ea%ons or associate ourseles &it6 t6em.1 *t6ers are 6eirs o- t6e attackers. Some aress t6e issue o-E%roli-erationF o- nuclear &ea%ons -rom t6e situation o- a %ossessor state ot6ers -rom a situation in &6ic6t6ey &oul -in t6e term E%roli-erationF ina%%ro%riate. one o6 us sea's 6rom nohere there is nohenomenon ( inclu9ing nuclear attac' or roli6eration ( that can be seen in9een9entl) o6 the

situation o6 the seers.1+46ree tenets o- t6is Ealternati>e eistemolog) seem eseciall) rele>antto our&ork. e e66ects o6 the eaons hen an only &6en t6ey are etonate an9 to the ossible 9eterrente66ects o6 ossessing these eaons. :here is scant attention to the otential su66ering o6 targete9

societies an no attem%t to ealuate com%licate e--ects on %ossessor societies o- e%loyin an eelo%int6ese &ea%ons norto ra%%le ith the moral signi6icance o6 illingl) ris'ing such massi>e total9estruction.,henanti5&ar 6eminists thin' about ars the) ta'e into consi9eration the olitical socialeconomic s)chological an9 moral conseHuences o6 acceting the ractice o6 ar. "6en assessin&ea%ons the) 9o not single out or isolate eaons- h)sical militar) an9 strategic e66ects 6rom theirembe99e9ness in an9 imact uon social an9 olitical li6eas a &6ole nor 6rom the e66ects o6 the9iscourses hich constitute 'nole9ge about these eaons. ence &6en aske to t6ink a8out&ea%ons o- mass estruction e stri>e to consi9er the totalit) o6 the eb o6 social economic oliticalan9 en>ironmental relationshis ithin hich eaons o6 mass 9estruction are 9e>eloe9 9elo)e9

use9 an9 9isose9 o6 ( all the hile starting 6rom the ersecti>e o6 omen-s li>es. It is not ossible to

9o so 6rom ithin the boun9s o6 ?ust ar an9/or technostrategic 6rameor's yet t6ose are t6eery iscourses &6ic6 6ae s6a%e t6e uestions &e are aske to ans&er in t6is olume. 46us as &e res%onto t6e eitors# uestions &e -in &e nee to 8ot6 t6ink insie t6eir -rame an a8out t6e -rame itsel-.


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&in' ( Realism/Securit)

Realist assumtions are 6un9amentall) s'ee9 ( the) ignore the structural imlicationsithin nations an9 in>o'e eistemic >iolence


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&in' ( Realism/Securit)

Realist assumtions an9 the securit) ara9igm can-t sol>e structural roblems an9 ignore

constant structural >iolence.Pan9e) in 2' (7nu%am t6esis su8mitte to -aculty o- rauate stuies an researc6 in %artial -ul-illment o- t6ereuirements -or t6e eree o- octorate o- %6iloso%6y e%artment o- %olitical science Carleton uniersity ;orin

8ons &it6 &omen nature an t6e t6ir &orl= an eco-eminist critiue o- international relations %. 151+)es%ite t6e -act t6at many sini-icant critiues 6ae mae t6eir %resence -elt the 9isciline o6 IR continuesto be 9ominate9 b) the sub;6iel9 o6 militar) securit). :hec6ie- reason-or t6e same ist6e %re%oneranceo- the Realist ara9igm hich nee9s to be situate9 ithin the circumstances o6 the historical legac)an9 birth o6 IRt6e Col "ar the emergence o6 a single hegemon ost;!ol9 ,ar the renee9 threat o6terrorism etc. 46us concets o6 balance o6 oer 9eterrence so>ereignt) etc. ha>e come to occu)the central an9 >ast ma?orit) o6 sace in the sub?ect matter o6 the 9isciline. >ot6 t6eory an %ractice6ae sere to rein-orce eac6 ot6er an t6is %artners6i% 6as sere to marinaliBe all ot6er issues &6ic6 arereare as EnormatieF concerns to t6e marins o- t6e IR. 46us issues such as :hir9 ,orl9 9ebt an9o>ert) are relegate9 to the realm o6 lo olitics an9 hence ut on the bac'burner hile matters

ertaining to state securit) ars eaonisation an9 so>ereignt) are stu9ie9 as an integral art o6 thehigh olitics hich 9eser>e salience. o&eer the more recent inno>ation o6 human securit) stu9iesis rele>ant to the :hir9 ,orl9 b) sheer 9int o6 its sub?ect matter hich eElores human >ulnerabilit)

across the globe that coul9 be the result o6 natural or man;ma9e 9isasters. Simon al8y states t6attraitionally t6ere 6ae 8een t&o elements to 6uman security M -reeom -rom -ear an -reeom -rom &ant

8ut oer t6e years t6e -ormer element 6as oers6ao&e t6e latter (2002= ). ;urt6er 6e uotes t6e N,uman eelo%ment Re%ort (199!) to e-ine 6uman security. 46us issues o6 o>ert) 9isease hunger6amines 6inancial crises 6eature rominentl) here un9er the o>erarching toics o6 6ree9om 6rom ant

an9 hunger (46omas an "ilkins 200!). In t6e comin century the siE great threats to human securit)are unchec'e9 rise in oulation 9isarities in economic oortunities eEcessi>e international

migration en>ironmental 9egra9ation 9rug tra66ic'ing an9 international terrorism(al8y 2002= +#. Itbecomes clear that these threats are the result o6 actions o6 millions o6 eole rather than 9eliberate

actions o6 seci6ic states.46ere-ore the concet o6 securit) must change 6rom the realist statist an9

militarist reoccuations to inclu9e human el6are. es%ite t6e -act t6at t6e a%%roac6 is 6olistic in itsunerstanin o- &orl a--airs an emanci%atory in terms o- its aena its ra&8ack lies in t6at it larelyes%ouses a li8eral 6umanitarian -rame&ork rat6er t6an a raical e%arture -rom eDistin structural constraints


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&in' ( *tilitarianism

tilitarianism re5%er%etuates %atriarc6al 6ierarc6ies 8y esta8lis6in a rationale o- &6o &ill an&on#t surie.

Plumoo9 2(al 7ustralian Researc6 Council ;ello& at niersity o- Syney $nironmental Culture= 46eecoloical crisis o- reason %. 1'051'1) ,A

Siners inimalism is also a %olitical %osition urin minimal e%arture -rom %reailin li8eral 6umanistican $nli6tenment assum%tions an -rom t6e %resent system o- economic rationality.KK >ut surely an ecoloicalsociety &ill reuire more t6an minimal e%artures -rom t6ese systems none o- &6ic6 6ae 8een innocent

8ystaners in t6e eelo%ment o- t6e rational mac6inery &6ic6 is 8rinin t6e stri%%in o- t6e %lanet -or t6e8ene-it o- a small elite o- 6umans to a 6i6 %oint o- rational re-inement. Siners *tilitarianism rero9ucesman) elements o6 rationalism inclu9 ing the a9otion o6 uni>ersal abstract mathematicall);eEressible

6ormulae 6or 9ecision in the best uni>ersalist/Imersonalist tra9ition. 7lso in t6e rationalist tra9ition isthe content o6 the *tilitarian 6ormula ith its maEimisations(al&ays amain) illusor) recision itsintellectualist re9uction o6 ethics to a matter o6 rational calculation an9 Huanti6ication an9 its

correson9ing re9uction o6 the imortant 9imensions o6 9ecision to asects o6 li6e suose9l) suscetible

to these rational maniulations. 7n as &e 6ae seen a&areness t6e c6ie- roun o- et6ical consieration is

one 8ut only one %ossi8le ariation on reason or min alt6ou6 one t6at moernism can tie to %re-erences an6ence to aency an %ro%erty o&ners6i%. 46e most serious o8:ection to my min 6o&eer is t6at any ecoloicalor animal et6ics 8ase on Siners *tilitarianism is committe9 to a massi>e rogram o6 ran'ingHuanti6ication an9 comarison beteen beings an9 secies5 a %roram hich as I arue in t6e neDt c6a%teris unor'able ethicall) reugnant an9 built on a roblematic rea9ing o6 eHualit). 46eoretically rankincom%arisons an traeo--s 8et&een 8eins are insiste u%on 8y tilitarianism at irtually eery leel. 46isem%6asis on rankin oes not encourae t6e kin o- t6inkin t6at aims -or mutual neotiate outcomes 8utrat6er ones t6at sanction a sacri-icial orer etermine on t6e 8asis o- reater a%%roDimations to t6e 6uman.


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&in' ( ,omen-s moerment

S#s 60 Minutes IIt6at E-or t6e &omen o- 7-6anistan t6e eil t6e 8ura 6as 8ecome t6e sym8ol o- t6e 4ali8an#s %o&erF(EneileF 2001). *- course in one sense t6is may ery &ell 8e %er-ectly accurate an t6e %oint o-ienti-yin t6is moment is not to suest t6at .S. &omen (or men) s6oul not s%eak o- ot6er %eo%les#o%%ression. :he 'e) is to maintain a constantl) re6leEi>e s'eticism toar9 the a9eHuac) o6 our on(.S.) reresentations o6 the light o6 thir9;orl9 omen. 7lt6ou6 a8rey oes interie& &omen-rom 7-6anistan &e must recall t6at EumaF ESoniaF an t6e ot6ers interie&e in t6e ne&s %roram areal&ays alreay entrilouiBe 8y t6e meia narratie. >en i6 their accounts coul9 be unroblematicall)interrete9 as imme9iate an9 generalizable re6lections o6 realit) that 9iscourse has alrea9) been

e9ite9 romte9 b) certain lines o6 Huestioning i.e. me9iate9. :his is not to suggest that the omen-s

stories are 6alse but rather that e>en their in9igenous narrati>es are in6lecte9 b) their reresentation

in an ine>itabl) ,estern 9iscourse(S%iak 1999 !9).


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&in' ( ,omen-s moerment

Don-t bu) into the ruse ( historicall) omen-s emoerment has been use9 as ?usti6ication

to go to ar an9 eretuate >iolence all hile 9en)ing omen agenc) an9 >alue.S?oberg 3 (Laura ,6 an istin %ro-essor at uke niersity 2/136tt%=//&&&.eneransecurity.um8.eu/LauraP20S:o8erP205P202Q13Q0.%-)

ate ar;6ighting came 6rom images o6 ing in the ing their chil9ren to soccer ractice or

heating their homes or er6orming other househol9 6unctions reliant on access to oil 9ominate9 the

art o6 the Gul6 ,ar ?usti6ication rhetoric hich tal'e9 about ,esterninterests. &ac' o6 access to oiloul9 hin9er omen 6rom e66ecti>el) ser>ing as mothers an9 i>es an9 this as a art o6 the

?usti6ication 6or going to ar. 7 common imae -or t6e &ay o- li-e# arument :usti-yin nite Statesinolement in t6e ul- "ar &as t6at o- a &oman unloain 6er c6ilren out o- a car in -ront o- a 6ouse &it6

a yello& ri88on. S6e -ees 6er c6ilren &aters 6er -lo&ers an coneys t6e messae t6at 6e 6us8an is inIra -i6tin so t6at t6ey can kee% t6is &ay o- li-e. ere a &oman#s role as a mot6er is 6i6li6te.ot6er6oo in &ar seres a num8er o- -unctions= %6ysical creation o- soliers social creation o- t6esesoliers su%%ort o- t6e soliers -rom 8ack 6ome a &oman -or eac6 solier to %rotect an a com-ort -or &6osoliers are &oune in 8attle. In t6e ul- "ar in turn soliers &ere cast as -i6tin -or t6eir &ies anmot6ers#. 46ey e-ene -reeom -or t6eir c6ilren# an a ne& &orl orer# &6ere all -at6ers mot6ers anc6ilren# &oul 8e a8le to lie &it6out -ear -or t6eir lies. 46e %aeantry o- t6e &ar inclue ieota%emessaes -rom soliers in Ira 8ack 6ome# sayin 6ello to t6eir mot6ers an to t6e mot6ers o- t6eirc6ilren. 46is create t6e ou8le imae t6at mot6ers &ere 8ein -ou6t -or an t6at t6e soliers -i6tin&ere tou6 8ut -ocuse on &6at t6ey &ere %rotectin >eauti-ul Souls at 6ome. >eauti-ul Souls at 6ome&ere not t6e only %rotectie %ur%ose o- t6e "estern soliers &6o s%ent 1991 in Ira. *ne o- t6e arumentsmae -or t6e e-ense o- ities. :he Sa99am 7ussein go>ernment-s abuse o6 omen

la)e9 an imortant art in the argument that it as an illegitimate go>ernment legitimate

go>ernments oul9 not abuse omen ho are b) gen9er 9e6enseless. :his 9iscourse 6ails to mentionthe(o-ten 6orri8le) e66ects o6 ar on omen. 46e claim instea is t6at t6e iolation o- &omen is aninternational security issue. "omen must 8e -ou6tforJ t6at t6e -i6tin mi6t 6urt t6em oes not enter

%olitical conersation. In t6is situation 7merican men an &omen must %rotect Irai &omen -rom Irai men(s%eci-ically -rom an Irai man Saam ussein) 8y -orce lest t6e security o- t6e international community

8reak o&n. :he omen ho are being rotecte9 are omitte9 on a number o6 le>els@ their agenc) theirre6erences their choices an9 their ultimate 6ate.


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&in' ( ,ar/Securit)

:he a66 treats ar as an account o6 societ) instea9 o6 a ractice hich eEclu9es it 6rom true

criticism,or'man $(46om ,oli Sci o- Ne& >runs&ick OCISS ,a%er no. 31 %. 3 Aanuary 1996tt%=//&&&.yorku.ca/yciss/%u8lications/*,315"orkman.%-)I

*- course t6e -act t6at t&o loically istinct lines o- ueryMt6e -ailure to reconiBe similarities an t6e eDaltation o- a su8:ect matterM

are 8oun toet6er antici%ates one com%ellin res%onse. 46e isci%line t6at claime the stu9) o6 aras its o&n int6e a-termat6

o- "orl "ar I t6at is international relations eclise9 critiHues that ere incline9 to locate ar ithin a

broa9er eElanator) matriE. Seci6icall) the 6eministan arDist critiHues o6 ar ere eEclu9e9in t6einitial -lurry o- intellectual K6omesteainK t6at uickly came to e-ine t6e inci%ient -iel.3 ;eminist critiues t6at aresse "orl"ar I in terms o- %atriarc6al culture an society &ere circulate t6rou6out t6e &ar.! Similarly aruments a8out t6e oriins o- "orl"ar I t6at -ocusse u%on t6e nature an ynamics o- lo8aliBin ca%italism &ere %resent -rom t6e 8einnin.' It is curious t6at a -iel&it6 t6e raison etre o- eD%lainin &ar &oul cast t&o so8erin lines o- inuiry asie at its %oint o- ince%tion. "6en ie&e in t6ismanner the inaugural hase o6 intellectual acti>it) in international relations a %6ase t6at 6as 8een escri8erecently as neo5e ractice aime9 at 6oreclosing ra9ical critiHues o6 ar. ;rom t6e outset in ot6er

&ors t6e t6eoretical unerstanin o- international relations &as %ro-ounly %olitical in terms o- its consonance &it6 t6e re%rouctiono- %atri5ca%italism. 46e t6eory5t6at58ecame5%raDis crystalliBe &it6in an early 20t6 century iscursie matriD t6at marinaliBe -eministan arDist critiue an &it6 it any %ossi8ility o- aressin &ar as a 6istorically em8ee social %ractice. :he ten9enc) to

rei6) art6at is to 6ail to eEamine it as art o6 a broa9er set o6 cultural unerstanins an %ractices as

intensi6ie9 9uring the%ositiist all o6 international relations. :he imme9iate tas'at 6an became the

alication o6a naturalist moel o- science in t6e uest -or nomoloical t6eories o- &ar. Sc6olars coul a%%ly t6is theoretical

'nole9ge to the orl9 out thereK in orer to%romote an 6oster a more eace6ul orl9. K46e cause o- t6eisease once kno&nK %resciently muse Aean5Aacues Rousseau in t6e 78stract o- t6e 788T e Saint5,ierres ,ro:ect -or ,er%etual,eace in a manner t6at antici%ate t6e s%irit o- researc6ers t6rou6out muc6 o- t6e 20t6 century Ksu--ices to inicate t6e remey i-inee t6ere is one to 8e -oun.K :he >ie that ar might8e relate to %atriarc6y inee t6at it mi6t be roote9 in

atriarchal culture ort6e %ossi8ility that ar might be un9erstoo9 better as one mani6estation o6 >iolence

characteristic o6 a gen9ere9 societ) as absent 6rom almost all research. Nor &as t6e eelo%in -eminist

critiue eeme to 8e all t6at releant or 6el%-ul in unerstanin &ar. ,ar as treate9 as a thing in nee9 o6 an

account rather than a ractice 6un9amentall) lin'e9 to other sociocultural ractices.


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&in' ( 4mission

:he a66irmati>e-s 6ailure to a99ress the inherent masculinities an9 securit) ara9igms in

contemorar) nuclear states ma'e their imacts ine>itable ( the alternati>e is the best

otion.!ohn an9 Ru99ic' % (Carol Researc6er an 4eac6er at arar eical Sins an Sara aut6or 7 ;eminist$t6ical ,ers%ectie on "ea%ons o- ass estruction 6tt%=//&&&.eneransecurity.um8.eu/co6nruick.%-) ,A

Muestion :hreeas's&6et6er it is et6ical to eelo% an e%loy " as eterrents only. 46at is it asks t6eclassic uestion o- hether it is ethical to ha>e eaons an9 threaten to use then e>en i6 it is not ethicalto use those eaons militaril).7s t6e uestion is -rame t6en Eeelo%mentF an Ee%loymentF a%%earnot as %6enomena su8:ect to et6ical scrutiny unto t6emseles 8ut merely as &ay5stations as a:unctssu8sume uner &6at is taken to 8e t6e core et6ical issue &6ic6 is seen as 9eterrence. 46is -ormulation9oes not or' 6or us. "e nee to %ause an reconiBe t6at t6ere are really seeral uestions en-ole in t6atone. ,e must not onl) as' about the ethical status o6 9eterrence but also hetherits entailments 9e>eloment an9 9elo)ment ( aret6emseles ethical.2*ne o- t6e constitutie %ositions o- anti5&ar-eminism is t6at in t6inkin a8out &ea%ons an &ars &e must accor -ull &ei6t to t6eir aily e--ects on t6elies o- &omen. "e t6en -in t6at t6e eelo%ment an e%loyment o- nuclear &ea%ons een &6en t6ey are

not use in &ar-are eDacts immense economic costs t6at %articularly a--ect &omen. In t6e &ors o- a recentInian -eminist essay= :he social costs o6 nuclear eaonisation in a countr) here the basic nee9s o6shelter 6oo9 an9 ater electricit) health an9 e9ucation ha>e not been met are ob>ious.... NSOince

atriarchal 6amil) norms lace the tas' o6 loo'ing a6ter the 9ail) nee9s o6 the 6amil) mainl) uon

omen scarcit) o6 resources ala)s hits omen the har9est. Less -oo -or t6e -amily ineita8ly meansan een smaller s6are -or &omen an -emale c6ilren :ust as &ater s6ortaes mean an increase in &omen#sla8our &6o 6ae to s%en more time an enery in -etc6in &ater -rom istant %laces at o 6ours o- t6eay.F2+,hile the *S is not as oor a nation as In9ia Pa'istan or Russia it has remaine9 t6rou6outt6e nuclear ae a countr) in hich o>ert) an9 hunger are ri6e 6ealt6 care still una--ora8le to manylo&5cost 6ousin unaaila8le &it6 crum8lin %u8lic sc6ools an in-rastructure all hile the e o6 omen-s li>es e see not onl) the costso6 the 9e>eloment o6 nuclear eaons but also the siritual social an9 s)chological costs o6

9elo)ment.*ne cost accorin to some -eminists is t6at ENuclearisation %rouces social consent -orincreasin leels o- iolence.32 7not6er cost -or many is t6at nuclear &ea%ons create 6i6 leels o- tensioninsecurity an -ear. 7s 7run6ati Roy %uts it nuclear &ea%ons EGiHn-orm our reams. 46ey 8ury t6emseleslike meat 6ooks ee% in t6e 8ase o- our 8rains.F33;urt6er 6eminists are concerne9 about the e66ect o6nuclear olic) on moral thought on i9eas about gen9er an9 ho the to intersect. uclear

9e>elomentmay legitimize male aggression an9 bree9 the i9ea that nuclear eElosions gi>e a >irilit)-to the nation hich men as in9i>i9uals can someho also share. G4H6e strane c6aracter o- nuclear

%olicy5 makin not only sielines moral an et6ical uestions 8ut eners t6em. 46is elite ets to 8e

re%resente as rational scienti-ic moern an o- course masculine &6ile et6ical uestions uestions a8outt6e social an enironmental costs are mae to seem emotional e--eminate reressie an not moern. :hisrather 9angerous a) o6 thin'ing &6ic6 suests t6at uestions a8out 6uman li-e an &el-are aresome6o& neit6er moern nor %ro%erly masculine uestions or t6at men 6ae no ca%acity an concern -or

%eace an morality can ha>e 9isastrous conseHuences 6or both men an9 omen.3!


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&in' ( 4mission

:he a66irmati>e-s scenarios subscribe to the tra9itional >alues o6 International Relations in

that the) omit the in9i>i9ual su66erings an9 eEeriences o6 a66ecte9 omen.

S?oberg 3 (Laura ,6 an istin %ro-essor at uke niersity 2/136tt%=//&&&.eneransecurity.um8.eu/LauraP20S:o8erP205P202Q13Q0.%-)

:he search 6or 6eminist 'nole9ge can be seen as a ?ourne) to un9erstan9 an9 change the orl9

through gen9ere9 lenses.F In -eminist researc6 I am lookin to unerstan international %olitics to -in itsin:ustices an to c6allene t6ose in:ustices &6ile reconiBin a %luralism concernin t6e e-inition ana%%raisal o- in:ustice. 7s 7nn 4ickner %oints out this ma'es 6eminist metho9not an eent 8ut a ?ourne)a :ourney t6at I take through obser>ation critiHue re>ealing re6ormulation re6leEi>it) an9 actiongui9e9 b) gen9ere9 lenses."e &ill start &it6 iniiual ener. ;eminists in IR -reuently o out o- t6eir&ay to look forwomen in lo8al %olitics. ,omen are necessaril) a art o6 global olitics@ the) ma'e umore than hal6 the orl9-s oulation an9 are locate9 e>er)here that men are. Qet the stories o6

global olitics o6ten 9o not mention the omen hose li>es a66ect an9 are a66ecte9 b) international

relations. 46e 6istories or Ira Iran es their actions an9 their su66ering.

Sea'ing about omen-s li>es ma'es it more 9i66icult to ignore them.


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&in' ( Proli6eration

Rhetoric o6 roli6eration is art o6 the securit) ara9igm that ?usti6ies masculine >iolence

on those ercei>e9 as threats.

!ohn an9 Ru99ic' % (Carol Researc6er an 4eac6er at arar eical Sins an Sara aut6or 7 ;eminist$t6ical ,ers%ectie on "ea%ons o- ass estruction 6tt%=//&&&.eneransecurity.um8.eu/co6nruick.%-) ,A

Proli6eration is not a mere 9escrition or mirror o6 a henomenon that is out there but rather a

>er) seci6ic a) o6 i9enti6)ing an9 constructing a roblem. Proli6eration F as use in "estern%olitical iscourse oes not sim%ly re-er to t6e Emulti%licationF o- &ea%ons o- mass estruction on t6e%lanet. Rat6er it constructssome " as a roblem an ot6ers as un%ro8lematic. It 9oes so b) assumingre;eEisting legitimate ossessors o6 the eaons imlicitl) not onl) entitle9 to those eaons but to

mo9ernize an9 9e>elo ne generations o6 them as ell.46e E%ro8lematicF " are only t6oset6at Es%reaF into t6e arsenals o- ot6er -ormerly non5%ossessor states. 46is is %resuma8ly t6e 8asis -or t6eElicit/illicitF istinction in t6e uestionJ it oes not re-er to t6e nature o- t6e &ea%ons t6emseles nor een tot6e %ur%oses -or &6ic6 t6ey are intene only in t6e case o- nuclear &ea%ons to &6o t6e %ossessor is&6ere ElicitnessF is 8ase on t6e treaty5ens6rine E&e ot t6ere -irst.F 46us use o- the term roli6erationten9s to locate the erson ho uses it ithin a ossessor state an9 aligns him or her ith the olitical

stance 6a>oring the hierarch) o6 state oer enshrine9 in the current 9istribution o6 ,8D . 46e-ramin o- Uuestion ;our. E... is it %ro%er to eny G"H %ossession to ot6ers -or t6e same %ur%osesVFseems similarly 8ase in a %ossessor state %ers%ectie as it is %resuma8ly t6e %ossessor states &6o mustecie &6et6er it is %ro%er to eny %ossession to ot6ers. 7s &e 6ae alreay state &e -in "t6emseles intrinsically morally ine-ensi8le no matter &6o %ossesses t6em an &e are concerne a8out t6e&ie array o- costs to any state o- eelo%ment an e%loyment. "e t6ere-ore re:ect t6e iscourse#s im%licitiision o- EooF an E8aF Esa-eF an Eunsa-eF " (e-ine as oo or 8a e%enin on &6o

%ossesses t6em). *ur concern is to unerstan 6o& some " are renere inisi8le (Eo ursF) an someisi8le (Et6eirsF)J some renere malinant an ot6ers 8enin. ere &e :oin ot6ers in notin t6at t6elanuae in &6ic6 t6e case aainst E%roli-erationF is mae is et6no5racist an contem%tuous. enerally in"estern %roli-eration iscourse as a &6ole a istinction is ra&n 8et&een Et6e Sel-#(seen as res%onsi8le) st6e non5"estern nruly *t6er.F3 :he *S reresents itsel6 as a rational actor hile reresenting the*nrul) 4ther as emotional unre9ictable irrational immature misbeha>ing. ot onl) 9oes this 9ra

on an9 reconstruct an 4rientalist ortra)al o6 thir9 orl9 actors3J it 9oes so through the me9ium o6gen9ere9 terminolog). >y ra&in t6e relations 8et&een %ossessors an non5%ossessors in enere terms t6e %ruential rational aance mature restraine tec6noloically5 an 8ureaucratically5 com%etent(an t6us EmasculineF) Sel- ersus t6e emotional irrational un%reicta8le uncontrolle immature

%rimitie unisci%line tec6noloically5incom%etent (an t6us E-eminineF) nruly *t6er t6e iscoursenaturaliBes an leitimates t6e Sel-/%ossessor states 6ain &ea%ons &6ic6 t6e *t6er oes not. >y ra&inon an eokin enere imaery an resonances t6e iscourse naturaliBes t6e iea t6at E"eF / t6e S / t6eres%onsi8le -at6er must %rotect must control an limit E6erF t6e emotional out5o-5control state -or 6er o&noo as &ell as -or ours. :his ,estern roli6eration 9iscourse has ha9 a 6unction in the i9er conteEt o6*S national securit) olitics. ,ith the en9 o6 the >il mire in the late 1$50s until the attac's o6Setember 11th 2001 the *S aeare9 to be ithout an enem) o6 gran9 enough roortions to ?usti6)

maintaining its sraling militar); in9ustrial establishment. 46is i--iculty &as -orestalle 8y t6econstruction o- t6e cateory o- Erogue statesF states seen as uncontrolla8le irres%onsi8le irrationalmaleolent an antaonistic to t6e "est.3+ 46eir unruliness an9 antagonism as reresente9 as intrinsicto their irrational nature i6 it ere not in their nature the *S oul9 ha>e nee9e9 to as' more

seriousl) i6 actions on the art o6 the ,est ha9 ha9 an) role in ro9ucing that hostilit) an9 9isor9er.

:he 9iscourse o6 ,8D roli6eration has been one o6 the rincial means o6 ro9ucing these states as

ma?or threats.4o say t6is is neit6er to 8ack a&ay -rom our %osition o%%osin &ea%ons o- mass estructionnor to assess t6e eree to &6ic6 " in t6e 6ans o- E*t6erF states actually o t6reaten t6e S t6eE*t6erF states# reional o%%onents or t6eir o&n %o%ulation. >ut it is an assessment o- t6e role o- "

%roli-eration iscourse in naturaliBin an leitimatin ot6er&ise5i--icult5to5make5a%%ear5rational %roramsan eD%enitures suc6 as National issile e-ense.39


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&in' ( 7egemon)/8ilitarism/7umanitarianism

:he militar) uts on a 6aca9e o6 ossible liberation 6rom seEism hile aging ar on the

omen the en>ironment an9 culture.!hou9r) 5 (7BiB %ro-essor at cill niersity 6tt%=//&&&.oole.com/searc6V?7BiBWC6ouryXie?ut-5+Xoe?ut-5+Xa?tXrls?or.moBilla=en5S=o--icialXclient?-ire-oD5a) ,A

:he bur9en o6 ar con6lict >iolence an9 militarize9 caitalism 6alls 9isroortionatel) on omen.

:he imacts o6 omen can be seen not onl) in con6lict zones but through the roli6eration o6 small

arms an9 creeing militarization o6 communities an9 societ) at large lea9ing to more >iolence against

omen in 9omestic an9 communit) conteEts raes seEual >iolence 9islacement an9 the eEaltation o6

arrior masculinities. "omen are more likely to 8ecome &ar re-uees. nsur%risinly t6en it 6as also8een &omen &6o 6ae le resistance aainst militariBation &ar an iolence *S militar) bases an9 theaccoman)ing masculinization o6 broa9er societ) an9 social beha>iour.It is usually &omen &6o %ick u%t6e %ieces in communities ri%%e a%art 8y &ar iolence an state re%ression. Cynt6ia $nloe notes t6at social&orkers &6o aress issues o- omestic iolence Earee t6at military serice is %ro8a8ly more conucie toiolence at 6ome t6an at any ot6er occu%ationF.!3 ean&6ile e are sub?ecte9 to constant claims that a

rimar) goal o6 the *S;le9 in>asion an9 occuation o6 e than rall)ing them aroun9 the o>ertl) imerialist olicies o6 securing *S control o>er oil

an9 natural gas sulies.!! Just as urorte9 humanitarian concerns are heele9 out as?usti6ications 6or thinl);>eile9 imerialist ars o>er resources+ militar) contractors an9 ar

ro6iteering cororations ortra) themsel>es as inclusi>e sociall) rogressi>e an9 gen9er;sensiti>e. *nt6eir cor%orate &e8sites t6ese cor%orations# core 8usiness is %ainte oer &it6 a cosmetic eneer t6at coul cause us to -oret t6at it is-or &ar an killin %eo%le. ;or eDam%le ,entaon contractors like Nort6ro% rumman 8oast o- t6eir E&ork-orce iersityF! ans6o&case t6eir &omen eDecuties. 46e Canaian an S e-ence inustries 6ae set u% oraniBations like "omen in e-ence anSecurity ("iS)! sine memoranums o- unerstanin &it6 Canaa#s e%artment o- National e-ence an are a--iliate &it6 t6eCanaian 7ssociation o- e-ence an Security Inustries (C7SI)!+ an inustry5le association o- more t6an ''0 mem8er -irms in t6ee-ence an security inustries in Canaa to E%romote t6e aancement o- &omen leaers in e-ence an security %ro-essions acrossCanaaF. Rayt6eon t6e maker o- E>unker >usterF 8om8s 4oma6a&k an ,atriot missiles lo88e at 7-6anistan an Ira!9 causinmany eat6s %roclaims= Eiersity at Rayt6eon is a8out inclusieness M %roiin an atmos%6ere &6ere eeryone -eels alue an

em%o&ere to %er-orm at a %eak leel rearless o- t6e many &ays %eo%le are i--erentF'0. irinia58ase >ooB 7llen amilton'1 oneo- t6e 8iest su%%liers o- tec6noloy an %ersonnel to S oernment s%y aencies like t6e CI7 NS7 e-ence Intellience 7ency(I7) as &ell as t6e S e%artment o- e-ence an e%artment o- omelan Security (-ormer CI7 irector R. Aames "oolsey is no&a senior ice %resient o- >ooB 7llen) also 8oasts 6o& it is committe to iersity in t6e &ork-orce E8ecause &e 8eliee t6at iersityo- 8ackrouns contri8utes to i--erent ieas &6ic6 in turn ries 8etter results -or clients. 4o us iersity means all t6e &aysiniiuals i--er -rom one anot6erMrace ener et6nicity %6ysical a8ilities eucational 8ackroun country o- oriin ae seDualorientation skills income marital status %arental status reliion &ork eD%erience an military sericeF. 46en t6ere is 7eis e-enceSerices'2 &6ose em%loyees &ere cau6t on ieo ranomly s6ootin automatic &ea%ons at ciilian cars in >a6a#s air%ort roa'3&6ic6 claims E*ur eual5o%%ortunity %olicy em%6asiBes our aim to create a &ork enironment t6at is inclusie an non5iscriminatory&6ere all em%loyees are em%o&ere 8y t6eir iniiuality an encourae to use it in orer to ac6iee successF. reen&as6inenironmentally estructie cor%orations is es%ica8le enou6. Oet t6ere is somet6in %articularly o8scene a8out t6e &ays in &6ic6t6ese cor%orations 6ie 8e6in suc6 mission an alues statements an commitments to EiersityF com%lementin t6e claims o- t6emilitaries in 7-6anistan to 8e li8eratin 7-6ani &omen.


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&in' ( Democrac)

7istorical eEamles ro>e that 9emocrac) is ba9 6or teh omenz.

:ic'ner 1(A. 7nn %ro- at t6e Sc6ool o- International Relations SC Gendering World Politics: Issues andpproac!es in t!e Post"#old War $ra %. 10510+) A

46at 9emocratic transitions ma)actually be negati>e 6or omen&as most eient in t6e -ormer Soietnion an some states in $ast $uro%e= gen9er relationsassociate &it6 t6e %u8lic/%riate iie t6erebecame more ronounce9. Aecause o6 the elimination o6 Huota s)stemsin leislatures in t6is reion thenumber o6 omen in institutional olitics as sharl) re9uce9a-ter transitions to emocracy &it6 t6e

%ro%ortion o- &omen electe to re%resentatie 8oies eclinin -rom an aerae o- 33 %ercent to 10 %ercent.3 46is ecline &as es%ecially sini-icant ien t6at leislatie 8oies 8ean to %lay a real role in %olicymakin. It is im%ortant to note6o&eer t6at &omen#s re%resentation uner Communist reimes &as larely &ino& ressin= &omen &ere eually marinaliBe -romreal centers o- %o&er 8e-ore an a-ter emocratic transitions.3 In $ast $uro%e an Russia t6e ro% in %olitical %artici%ation o- &omenurin t6e transition &as accom%anie 8y a loss o- economic status. 7%%laue 8y li8erals t6e transition to mar'eteconomies an structural a:ustmentassociate9 ith the o%enin to t6eglobal econom) too'9isroortionate numbers o6 omen out o6 the labor 6orce because o6 the nee9 to she9 labor to a9?ust

to mar'et cometitionJ as in ot6er cases o- structural a:ustment t6e state sector &6ere &omen are o-tenem%loye s6rank ramatically. In t6e early 1990s in all o- eastern Central $uro%e eDce%t unary &omen constitute '0 to 0

%ercent o- total unem%loyeJ in %ost5Soiet Russia in 1992 t6ey constitute 0 %ercent.3+ "6ere &omen &ere &orkin t6ey tene to8e con-ine to traitional lo&5%ayin E-emaleF occu%ations.Gi>en the 9iminishing 9eman9 6or laboran t6e erosiono- state5%roie social serices suc6 as ay care an 6ealt6 care omen ere reconstructe9 as 9een9enti>es mothers consumers an9 caregi>ersJ &it6 c6il5care an maternity leae 8ein ismantle omenere cast as unreliable or'ers.ner socialism t6e -amily %laye t6e role o- an em8ryonic ciilsociety re%resentin antistate -reeomJ 6olloing 9emocratization the 6amil) as reconstructe9 alonglines consistent ith the liberal tra9ition as male9ominate9 6emale;9een9ent. 7t t6e same time as&omen &ere reassine to t6e %riate s%6ere t6e %u8lic s%6ere &as 8ein realue t6us accentuatin t6e

%u8lic/%riate iie. >ar8ara $in6orn 6as claime t6at these 9e>elomentsere a return tot6enineteent65century li8eral ersion o- citizenshi base9 on roert) oning males(outline 8y ,ateman)hich rein6orce9 a atriarchal conceto- roles. $in6orn suests t6at t6ese roles are %ro-ounly

unemocratic.39 In s6ort &omen#s ri6ts in $ast $uro%e an %ost5Communist Russia eroeJ omen beganto be constructe9 as assi>e beingsrat6er t6an mature %olitical su8:ects. In t6e 1990s as is o-ten true in times o-ma:or %olitical c6ane t6ere &as also a sense t6at &omen#s ri6ts &ere %eri%6eral an t6at &orkin to im%roe t6em &as a luDury ient6e economic i--iculties o- transition. In a critiue o- -eminist literature o- socialist transitions Aaui 4rue 6as uestione its em%6asison &omen#s ictimiBationJ s6e claims t6at t6is literature runs t6e risk o- creatin a ictimiBe ientity -or t6e &omen o- $ast $uro%e t6atis not unlike t6e cateory 46ir "orl &omenMone t6at %ostcolonial -eminists o8:ect to stronly. 4rue#s stuy o- &omen in t6e CBec6Re%u8lic suests t6at t6ey &ere 8ot6 &inners an losers in t6e transition. Neert6eless s6e %oints to t6e masculiniBation o- a ro&in6i65%ai %riate sector &it6 &omen 8ein is%ro%ortionately locate in lo&er5&ae %u8lic5sector occu%ationsJ s6e conclues t6at&omen 6ae enerally 8een more isaantae t6an men 8y structural c6anes.!0


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Scholars


&in' ( Democrac)

Democrac) resents an inherent gen9er bias.

:ic'ner 1(A. 7nn %ro- at t6e Sc6ool o- International Relations SC Gendering World Politics: Issues andpproac!es in t!e Post"#old War $ra %. 110) A

,hen roonents o6li8eral 9emocrac)an marketiBation sea'o- t6e s%rea o- 6uman ri6ts 8aseon"estern notions o- iniiualism 6eminists ha>e cautione9 that8ot6 9e6initionso- 6uman ri6ts an t6ekins o- iolations t6at et attention -rom "estern states an t6eir 6uman5ri6ts communities ma) begen9er biase9.Since basic nee9s an9 el6are ro>isionso o6ten 6all to omenan9since omen areis%ro%ortionately economicall) 9isa9>antage9 the re6erence b) ,estern liberal states 6or oliticalrights o>er economic rights ma)also resent%articular roblems 6or omen. In aition since 6uman5ri6ts iolations are usually e-ine as iolations 8y o--icials o- t6e state omestic iolence 6as not 8een a

%riority on t6e international 6uman5ri6ts aena. In or9er to un9erstan9 the role o6 gen9erMt6e e--ectso- emocratic transitions on &omen an t6eir actiities in t6ese transitionsMe nee9 a re9e6inition o69emocrac) that starts at the bottom.Generall) omen are better reresente9 in local oliticsJ o-ten

t6ey are &orkin outsie reular %olitical c6annels. eorina"aylen 6as claime t6at an) anal)sis o69emocratization that 6ails to incororate a gen9ere9 ersecti>eignoring the actions o6 certaingrousill be 6lae9.!' 46ere-ore t6e liberal 9emocratic state must be reeEamine9 6or its gen9erbiasesas &ell as its class an racial 8iasesJ 9e6initions o6 reresentation an9 citizenshi in the saces inhich olitical li6e occur nee9 to be rethought. e loo'e9 be)on9 the stateto 8uil institutions an net&orks t6at are more likely t6an t6e state to9iminish gen9er an9 other social hierarchies.ien t6e 8arriers to -ormal %olitical o--ice t6at eDist -or &omen in moststates incluin emocracies &omen actiists -reuently 8y%ass t6e state 8y &orkin eit6er at t6e rassroots leel or 8y :oinin -orcestransnationally to &ork -or &omen#s ri6ts at t6e lo8al leel.

Democrac) mas's male ri>ilege.

:ic'ner 1(A. 7nn %ro- at t6e Sc6ool o- International Relations SC Gendering World Politics: Issues andpproac!es in t!e Post"#old War $ra %. 1215122) A

"6ile li8eraliBation may allo& s%ace -or &omen#s oraniBin t6e issue t6en 8ecomes= "6at kin o- state&ill 8est sere not only &omen#s interests 8ut %eace an security 8roaly e-ineV 46e li8eral state &6ic6 isc6aracteriBe 8y market emocracy rat6er t6an social emocracy is clearly not t6e kin o- state t6at-eminists 6ae in min. &iberal 9emocrac) hasnot ins%ire -eminists &6o &ork outsie t6e li8eral traition

8ecause o- ee% structures o- ener ineualityJ t6ese ee% structures t6ey claim 6ae 'et omen uneHuale>en a6ter the) recei>e9 the >ote an9 other 6ormal rights.7n im%ortant issue -or -eminist t6eoristst6ere-ore is &6et6er ineuality can 8e aresse &it6in a li8eral5emocratic -rame&ork or &6et6er t6emoel is -unamentally -la&e ien t6e structural %ro8lems o- t6e %u8lic/%riate iie.+3 7s sueste 8y,ateman#s analysis certain -eminist %olitical t6eorists see a ee% ener 8ias in emocratic t6eory. ;or t6emsee'ing eHualit) in a man-s orl9 is roblematic because it assumes a stan9ar9 o6 normalit) that is

maleJ in t6e "est this stan9ar9 is that o6 hite ri>ilege9 males.+! :hemo9el o6 the abstractin9i>i9ual 8e6in &6ic6 t6is enere re%resentation is 6ien is a oer6ul ime9iment to therecognition o6 gen9er as a salient olitical 6actor. 46e association o- citiBens6i% &it6 masculinec6aracteristics suc6 as rationality an autonomy is %ro8lematic -or &omen#s citiBens6i%J omencannot beinclu9e9in cateories associate ith ublicshere acti>ities that are themsel>es 9e6ine9 b) theeEclusion o6 6emale traits an9 i9entities.+' For omen to be eHual olitical actors this must berecognize9.


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&in' ( International Institutions

International norms are masculine.

:ic'ner 1(A. 7nn %ro- at t6e Sc6ool o- International Relations SC Gendering World Politics: Issues andpproac!es in t!e Post"#old War $ra %. 12!) A

"orl5orer an normatie IR t6eorists 6ae c6allene us to t6ink a8out t6e meanin o- emocracy 8eyon its narro& statist -orm.46ey 6ae arue t6at a true Eemocratic %eaceF cannot 8e 8uilt on eDclusie -orms o- national emocracy 8ut must 8e conce%tualiBein lo8al terms. ra&in on -eminist literatures in emocratic t6eory an em%irical eDaminations o- t6e eD%eriences o-states t6at 6ae recently unerone emocratic transitions IR -eminists 6ae reanalyBe emocratiBation aneD%ose its ener 8iases. 46ey 6ae also %ointe out t6at the norms an9 rules uon hich ,estern9emocrac) has been built an t6at 6ae 8een carrie u% into international oraniBations are gen9ere9.*ni>ersalist claims embo9ie9 in such international norms as human rights are base9 on male

9e6initions o6 rights. 7lt6ou6 not normally inclue in conentional IR aenas 9emocratization at allle>els 6rom the local to the global has been centralto IR -eminist analyses. In calling 6or a 6orm o69emocrac) that 9ismantles oressi>e social hierarchies 6eminists ha>e begun to buil9 mo9els o6

9emocrac) that rethin' the state an9 its international securit) olicies.

International institutions eretuate atriarch).

:ic'ner 1(A. 7nn %ro- at t6e Sc6ool o- International Relations SC Gendering World Politics: Issues andpproac!es in t!e Post"#old War $ra %. 1115112) A"omen#s lo& rate o- %artici%ation in t6e nite Nations %articularly in states# i%lomatic missionsMa %attern t6at6as 8een re%licate in many ot6er I*sMsuests t6at &omen#s attem%ts to ain leerae at t6is leel 6as in manycases 8een less success-ul t6an at t6e national leel. 7s 7nne Runyan 112 emocratiBation &arns there is a 9angero6 tra9ing gen9ere9 nationalism 6or gen9ere9 internationalism. !9 Since interoernmental oraniBationsre%resent t6e ie&s o- oernments o- t6eir mem8er states rat6er t6an t6eir %o%ulations this lac' o6 transarenc)comoun9s the un9erreresentation o6 omen-s >oices as ell as those o6 men 6rom eEclu9e9 or

marginalize9 grous. 7s t6e *nite9 ations has begun to le9ge to mainstream a gen9er ersecti>eF t6e

uestion 8ecomes= ,hose ersecti>e ill be reresente9 hen grous ith the most resources are the mostli'el) to gain accessT'0 International oraniBations suc6 as t6e *nite9 ations ha>e la)e9 an imortant role inromulgating uni>ersal normsan stanars o- conuct t6at as iscusse earlier 6ae 8een seen 8y certain&orl5orer sc6olars as inicatin t6e 8einnins o- a lo8al society or an eDtension o- t6e 8ounaries o- %oliticalcommunity 8eyon t6e nation5state.'1 "6ile -eminists also assume t6e %ossi8ility o- community 8eyon statist

8ounaries the) Huestion the eEtent to hich these uni>ersalizing norms are base9 on male eEeriences. >ot6-eminist t6eorists an &omen oraniBin t6rou6 social moements an nonoernmental oraniBations (N*s)6ae &orke 6ar to 8rin t6ese ener 8iases to li6t an to try to re-rame norms an rules in &ays t6at et 8eyont6em. *ne suc6 eDam%le 6as 8een t6e re-ormulation o- t6e meanin o- 6uman ri6ts.


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&in' ( State

otions o6 so>ereignt) an9 the state are inherentl) masculine.

:ic'ner 1(A. 7nn %ro- at t6e Sc6ool o- International Relations SC Gendering World Politics: Issues andpproac!es in t!e Post"#old War $ra %. '!) A

"6ile critical5security stuies 6as em%6asiBe t6e im%ortance o- ientity -or unerstanin state 8e6aior6eminist theorizingis istinctie inso-ar as it re>eals6o& t6ese ientities o-ten e%en on t6emaniulations o6 gen9er. 7n eDamination o- t6e 6istorical eelo%ment o- state so>ereignt)an stateientities as t6ey 6ae eole oer time oes inee suggest 9eel) gen9ere9 constructions that ha>e notinclu9e9 omenon t6e same terms as men. $arly states in siDteent65 an seenteent65century $uro%e &ereienti-ie &it6 t6e %erson o- t6e soerein kin. 7obbes-se%iction o- t6e &e>iathan a manin armor&earin a cro&n an carr)ing a sor9 ser>es as a >isual reresentation o6t6is early5moern -orm o-so>ereign authorit). "it6 t6e aent o- re%u8lican -orms o- oernment in t6e ei6teent6 an nineteent6centuries the i9entit) o6 the eole remaine9 limite9 omen ere incororate9 slol) into theolitical rocessan it is still uestiona8le &6et6er t6ey 6ae ac6iee a leitimate oice in t6e construction

o- -orein %olicy.0 "e must conclue t6ere-ore t6at the historical construction o6 the state uon hichthe unitar);actor mo9el in international theor) is base9 reresents a gen9ere9 masculine mo9el.Int6e "est t6e imae o- a 6oreign olic) ma'er has been strongl) associate9 ithelite &6ite males anre%resentations o- hegemonic masculinit).


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&in' ( Gen9ere9 &anguage

7e/man language romotes male imager) at the eEense o6 omen.

Sen9er $1 (ale ;eminist sc6olar an ae Lanuae)

:hrough the intro9uction o6 he/man males ere able to ta'e another ste in ensuring that the thoughto6 realit) o6 our societ) is that the males become 6oregroun9 hile the 6emales become the blurre9 an9

o6ten in9eciherable bac'groun9. 7e/man ma'es males linguisticall) >isible an9 6emales linguisticall)

in>isible. It %romotes male imaery in eeryay li-e at t6e eD%ense o- -emale imaery so t6at it seemsreasona8le to assume t6e &orl is male until %roen ot6er&ise. It rein-orces t6e 8elie- o- t6e ominant rou%t6at t6ey males are t6e uniersal t6e central im%ortant cateory so t6at een t6ose &6o are not mem8er o-t6e ominate rou% learn to acce%t t6is reality. It %reis%oses us to see more male in t6e &orl &e in6a8it sot6at &e can -or eDam%le %ro:ect male imaes on our %ast an allo& -emales to o unnoticeJ &e canconstruct our t6eories o- t6e %ast incluin eolutionary ones -ormulatin eD%lanations t6at are consistentonly &it6 t6e male eD%erience. 7e/man also ma'es omen outsi9ers an9 are not ?ust metahoricall).:hrough the use o6 he/man omen cannot ta'e their eEistence 6or grante9@ the) must certainl) see'

sel6 con6irmation so that the) are inclu9e9 in the human secies.


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&in' ( ,ar on :error

:he 9iscourse o6 the ,ar on :error necessaril) ortra)s omen as >ictims nee9ing heroic

men to sa>e themJohnstone $(Rac6ael La& o- 7kureyri Icelan C6icao5eale9 a%erceie nee9 6or the state to 9e6ine its

masculinit) in the a6termath o6 attac'. :his reHuire9 ainting men as heroes an9 omen as >ictims.211

C6inkin an C6arles&ort6 escri8e t6e meia res%onses in t6e immeiate a-termat6 in &6ic6 omen ere 6eature9 as

hea>enl) rear9s 6or terrorists or as >ictims o6 the attac' %re-era8ly &io&s o- murere men rather than the

omen ho t6emseles or'e9 9ail) in the tin toers or in the rescue ser>ices.212 ,omen in the arme9

ser>icesan -ire-i6tin teams ere consicuous b) their in>isibilit).213 ,omen in ictims o6 a brutal :aliban reHuiring rescue b) heroic ",estern# men t6ou6 not %olitical %artici%ation.21!46e su--erin &omen enure uner t6e air%o&er o- t6ose same "estern -orces an t6e 6ars6i% encountere as essential serices are

%ut 8eyon t6eir use are un-ortunate Ecollateral amaeF M a sacri-ice -or t6eir reater lon5term oo.21' Susan ;alui#s 200

inestiatie retros%ect o- t6e meia in t6e a-termat6 o- 9/11 %roies t6orou6 con-irmation o- t6e 7ustralians# early im%ressions.21In suc6 times a 6eminist ersecti>e o6 the state that see's omen-s emoerment an9 eHual

articiation in the ublic shere is unli'el) to 6in9 6a>or.

:he ,ar on :error has 9emote9 omen to being the >ictims

Pettman +(Aan Ainy irector o- "omen#s Stuies 7N >ro&n Aournal o- "orl 7--airs 10(2)"inter/S%rin 200! %. ++)I

In an early res%onse to t6is crisis 7nn 4ickner aske E"6at can a -eminist analysis a to our unerstanin o- 9/11 an its

a-termat6VF20 S6e emonstrate t6at 6emi; nistso ha>esome ery im%ortant things to sa) regar9ing the gen9er o6

i9entit) >io; lence an9 ar an s%eci-ically eelo%e t6ese insi6ts in relation to $/11 an9 i9e a >aluable ersecti>e on these 9e>astating actions#.22 >ot6 articles note t6e a%%arent

isa%%earance o- &omen in t6e iolence an &6at -ollo&e as menhi?ac'ers rescuers national securit) o66ic; ers

an meia commentatorsM6ille9 our screens an9 nesaers

.23 ESetember 11 an9 its reercussions ha>eaeare9 then to be all about men attac'ing sa>ing li>es an9 reson9ing through 6urther attac'F

&6ic6 seems normal.2! Su8stitute 19 &omen 6i:ackers commentators an leaers an a i--erent scenario eelo%s.2' So too

omen let alone -eminists ere not seen as authorities ha>ing an)thing to a99 to the anal)sis. ;or eDam%leaccorin to t6e uarian surey o- almost '0 o%inion %ieces in t6e Ne& Oork 4imes in t6e -irst siD &eeks a-ter t6e attack only t&o&ere 8y &omen.2 It is uite &ron 6o&eer to suest t6at ener 6a isa%%eare or een t6at &omen &ere not %resent. ,omen

aeare9 in a)s long embe99e9 in the gen9ere9 ar stor). :he) aeare9 alongsi9e men as >ictims

an9 relati>es o6 >ictims o6 $/11.


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&in' ( ,ar on :error

:he ,ar on :errorism 6orces states to ta'e resonsibilit) 6or the ri>ate actions o6 their

citizens hile still ignoring the >iolations o6 omen-s human rights in the ri>ate shereJohnstone $(Rac6ael La& o- 7kureyri Icelan C6icao5ie o6 state resonsibilit)%er se. 7s suc6 it is comarable toCook#s a%%roac6 o- eEan9ing

ositi>e obligations o6 states to rotectiniiuals %articularly omen 6rom ri>ate >iolations o6 human

rights.11 Shoul9 the state 6ail to meet the stan9ar9s reHuire98y t6e resolutions the state ill be

resonsible not -or t6e terrorist attacks (or %riate 6uman ri6ts iolations) 8ut 6or the searate 9elict o6 its 6ailure to

rotect. EG4H6ese allee cases o- State res%onsi8ility -or t6e acts o- iniiuals are really cases o- res%onsi8ility o- t6e State -or

omissions 8y its orans= the State is resonsible 6or ha>ing 6aile9 to ta'e aroriate measures to re>ent or

unish the in9i>i9ual-s act.F Geness or in9i66erence toar9 terrorist agen9as&it6in its o&n

territory mi6t trigger its resonsibilit) %ossi8ly on the same scale as though it ha9actiely articiate9 in the

lanning.

:he ,ar on :error ro>es that states shoul9 be hel9 resonsible 6or ri>ate >iolations o6

international la ( hoe>er the) still turn a blin9 e)e to the ri>ate abuse o6 omen

Johnstone $(Rac6ael La& o- 7kureyri Icelan C6icao5y aiin an a8ettin murer t6e 4ali8an reime is committin murer . . . $ery nation in eery reion no&6as a ecision to make. $it6er you are &it6 us or you are &it6 t6e terrorists. ;rom t6is ay -or&ar an) nation that continues

to harbor or suort terrorism ill be regar9e9 b) the *nite9 States as a hostile regime.F1' In

Noem8er 2001 6e continue= EI6 )ou harbor terrorists )ou are terrorists. I- you train or arm a terrorist you are a

terrorist. I- you -ee a terrorist or -un a terrorist you#re a terrorist an9 )ou ill be hel9 accountable b) the *nite9

States an9 our 6rien9s.F1'+ I- t6is eDam%le o- state %ractice an t6e &ie o%inio iuris in its su%%ort is to 8e consiere assu--icient to constitute a ne& rule o- customary international la& t6en t6e more raical -eminists 6ae &on a 8attle al8eit in a manner

t6ey mi6t t6emseles -in i--icult to su%%ort.1+! In s6ort this ne rule hol9s that states areres%onsi8le 9irectl)

resonsible 6or ermitting ri>ate >iolations o6 international la to occur. Go>ernments in such

circumstances shoul9 anticiate the ossibilit) o6 imme9iate reercussions against their on

institutions not :ust aainst t6e %riate actors &6o irectly cause t6e 6arm.


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&in' ( I;&a

International la banishes omen to the ri>ate shere here the) are be)on9 the reach o6

state resonsibilit)Johnstone $(Rac6ael La& o- 7kureyri Icelan C6icao5


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&in' ( I;&a

International la 9enies omen a sense o6 sel6 b) 6ailing to hol9 states resonsible 6or

>iolence against omenJohnstone $(Rac6ael La& o- 7kureyri Icelan C6icao5iolence against them# are consi9ere9

non;olitical. "omen are e--ectiely eDclue -rom %ositions o- oernance in 7-6anistan an Ira an similarly 6ae 8een

larely eDclue in neotiations 8et&een com%etin -actions.20 46e "male# sel6;9eclare9 lea9ers are resume9 to

sea' 6or all an9 omen-s rights become a matter o6 relati>e cultural >alues.20+ :his is sel6;

9etermination o6 a highl) selecti>e sel6. Uiolence against omen Hua omen is consi9ere9 a matter

o6 9omestic la an hen 9omestic rocess 6ails to ta'e it seriousl) no Huestions are raise98y t6e state#s

allies about the legitimac) o6 the go>ernment or its so>ereign in>iolabilit).209 es%ite c6anes in t6e lanuae

o- state res%onsi8ility little has change9 6or omensince t6e Eli8erationF o-


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Link I5La&

International la& continues t6e su8orination o- &omen 8ecause it oes not reuire action in t6e

-ace o- a8use!hin'in $$(C6ristine Int La& o- Lonon 7 Critiue o- t6e ,u8lic/,riate imension $uro%ean Aournal o-International La& %. 392)I

:he 6eminist critiHuealso has articular resonance in international la. Aecause the state 9oes not incur

resonsibilit) 6or >iolations committe9 ithin the ri>ate sector it can ignoret6e continue subor9ination

o6 omenin t6at arena. 46us 9omestic >iolence against omen can be 9esignate9 as a%riate &ron an iniiual

matter that is outsi9e international scrutin). 46e traition o- >ieing seEual con9uct as ri>ate allos

seEual abuse b) ublic o66icials suc6 as %rison o--icials or %olice o--icers also to be rea9il) 9iscounte9 as not

coming ithin their o66icial 9uties.Failure b) a state to in>estigate an9 unish such matters is a

continuation o6 the eEclusion o6-amily/ri>ate li6eeen -rom omestic leal interention an t6us -ar 6rom

international accountabilit).Similarly treatment o- omestic -orein mais &it6in -orein states can 8e -actore out -rominternational la&. i%lomatic %rotection o- aliens &as t6e 6istoric startin %oint -or t6e -ormulation o- %rinci%les o- state res%onsi8ilityan t6e 8asis -or t6e i--erentiation 8et&een ultra ires acts o- o--icials -or &6ic6 t6ere is res%onsi8ility 8ecause o- t6eir a%%arentaut6ority an t6e %riate acts o- iniiuals -or &6ic6 t6ere is no res%onsi8ility. 46e em%loyment o- -orein mais -alls &it6in 8ot6 o-

t6ese areas= t6eir 6ouse6ol &ork is %riate an o-ten conceale -rom omestic leal reulation an t6eir em%loyment een 8yoernment o--icials is not in t6at ca%acity. Oet t6eir em%loyment a8roa is o- ma:or economic sini-icance to many senin states ansu%%orte 8y receiin states. 46eir i9esrea9 abusein many states is not ri>ate but s)stemic it is uhel9 b)

go>ernment olicies that 6ail toenuire a8out t6eir treatment or to o66er rotection against 'non abuses an9

as such shoul9 engage state resonsibilit).

International la ignores ri>ate con9uct thereb) mas'ing abuse in the ri>ate shere

!hin'in $$(C6ristine Int La& o- Lonon 7 Critiue o- t6e ,u8lic/,riate imension $uro%ean Aournal o-International La& %. 3+53++)I

:heInternational La& Commission#s (I&!# Dra6t ealreay been relie9 uon -or eDam%le 8y t6e International Court o-Austice as customar) international la.46e S%ecial Ra%%orteur 6as em%6asiBe t6at the articleso not encom%ass

%rimary rules o- international o8liation 8ut 9escribe theseconary rules o6 state resonsibilit) 6or the commission

o6 an internationall) rong6ul act.Res%onsi8ility o- ot6er international actors suc6 as international oernment

oraniBations an iniiual res%onsi8ility -or international crimes o no -orm %art o- t6is re-erence. :he concet o6 state

resonsibilit) rests uon 9istinguishing acts an9 omissions that can be attribute9 to the state 6rom

those that cannot -or it is aDiomatic t6at ri>ate con9uct is notin %rinci%le attributable to the state. 7rticle ' sets

out t6e eneral %rinci%le o- attri8ution to t6e state o- t6e acts o- its orans. ities but uon the characterization o6 the actor as a state organ acting in that

caacit). Nor is t6e %osition o- a %articular oran &it6in t6e oraniBational structure o- t6e state eterminatie. I9enti6ication o6

a state organ an9 the resonsibilities therein is establishe9%rimarily in accor9ance ith international

la.


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Link I5La&

46e uniersalism o- international la& %reents t6e %rotection o- &omen#s 6uman ri6ts

Isoto +"Aibian Int. &a * o6 Gu)ana *ni>ersalism an9 Regionalism in International &aei.o8:ectis.net/eentos51/ilsa8rasil200+/artios/6e6/isoto.%-)I*ni>ersalism assumes that the orl9is oerne an oerates un9er a single s)stem that is alicable to

states an ot6er leal %ersons. o&eer alt6ou6 international la& assumes t6at states are linke 8y a common %ur%ose an estiny itis su8mitte t6at t6e &orl#s iersity is re-lecte in t6e i--erent ieoloies cultures reions economic aancement an ot6er -actorst6at a--ect international relations. 46ere-ore notithstan9ing uni>ersalism 9i>ersit) is e>i9ent to an) obser>er.

:he 9ebate on uni>ersalisman reionalism in international la oses challengesan %ers%ecties to&ars

international cooerationan con-lict resolution. S%eci-ically in t6e eelo%ment an a%%lica8ility -or a uni-orm stanar o-

international 6uman ri6ts la& an international 6umanitarian la& the uni>ersalit) o6 human rights has been an9 is still

a sub?ect o6 intense 9ebate. :hiso- course oses challenges 6or the uni>ersal romotion an9 rotection o6

human rights stan9ar9s in a ierse &orl. In some cases uniersalism is o-ten ie&e as a construct o- &estern 6eemony an

im%erialism eseciall) in resect to the romotion an9 rotection o6 the human rights o6 omen. 46is %a%er

seeks to iscuss 6o& uni>ersalisman reionalism oses a challenge tointernational coo%eration in the%romotion an

rotection o6 omen un9er the human rights corus. ,art II s6all eal &it6 t6e international la& 8asis -or uniersalism8ase on t6e %roisions o- i--erent treaties as &ell as customary international la&. ,art III s6all iscuss 6uman ri6ts la& s%eci-icallyanalyBin t6e ri6ts o- &omen in relation to uniersalism an reionalism. ,art I s6all %lace t6e e8ate on uniersalism anreionalism in res%ect to international 6umanitarian la& in as -ar as it o--ers %rotection -or &omen in res%ect to ener crimes. ,art conclues t6e %a%er.


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&in' ( u'es

Discourses about nuclear eaons are in6use9 ith 9ichotomies hich 6a>or the masculine

o>er the 6eminine

Duncanson an9 schle 5(Claire an Cat6erine o- $in8ur6 an o- Strat6clye Ne& ,olitical Science30(!) %. '!)I

"e &rite -rom t6e %ers%ectie o- a E6eminist anti;militarismF! &6ic6 Ere?ects 8ot6 the militar) an9 olitical use o6

eaons o6 mass 9estruction in ar6are or 6or 9eterrence. It isalso ee%ly critical o6 the 9iscourses hich

ha>e 6rame9 ublic 9iscussion o6 eaons o6 mass 9estruction.F' eelo%in out o- a lon traition o- -eminist

inolement in %eace an anti5&ar moements t6is %osition is -eminist 8ecause it sees gen9er as la)ing a 'e) rolein &ar

int6e culture o- reainess an ent6usiasm -or &ar kno&n as militarism an9 in the reliance on eaons o6 mass

9estructionF like 4rient. "6at is enerV ;eminists no& o--er multi%le an sometimes con[ictin accounts o- t6is key conce%t.;ollo&in Carol Co6n %er6a%s t6e most im%ortant &riter on ener an nuclear &ea%ons &e &ant to em%6asise t6ree imensions

6ere.+ Firstl) gen9eras a cateory hels us un9erstan9 the a)s in hich iniiual (an collectie) i9entit) is

sociall) constructe9aroun an through assumtions aboutmale/-emale seDual i--erence or the categories o6

masculinit) an9 6emininit). Secon9l) gen9er is a a) o6 structuring relations o6 oerF9 one hich

most -eminists aree Eshos constanc) in assigning greater >alue tot6at &6ic6 is associate &it6 masculinit) an9

lesser >alue tot6at associate &it6 6emininit). . . t6e terms are not ine%enent 8ut -orm a 6ierarc6ical (uneual) relation.F10:hir9l) Eener also -unctions as a sym8olic system= our i9eas about gen9er ermeate an9 shae our i9eas

about many ot6er as%ects o- society 8eyon male -emale relationsMincluin %olitics eaons an9 ar6are.F11 46is

means t6at 9iscourses about nuclear eaons amonst ot6er t6ins are in6use9 ith a series o6 concetual

9ichotomies&6ic6 [o& -rom an uner%in t6e %rimary sini\ers o- masculine/-eminine ith the masculine si9e o6 the

9ichotom) 6a>oure9 o>er the 6eminine. "e &oul a t6at -eminist &ork 6as increasinly insiste on t6e com%leDity &it6&6ic6 ener o%erates intersectin &it6 ot6er -orms o- %o&er an ientity in conteDt5s%eci\c &ays. 46is means t6at &e s6oul not -allinto t6e tra% o- t6inkin t6at t6ere is only one -orm o- masculinity an one o- -emininityMrat6er t6ere are multi%le ersions o- eac6

some o- &6ic6 are more ominant or E6eemonicF t6an ot6ers at %articular %laces an times.12 7s a result e shoul9 eEect a

articular gen9ere9 9iscourse to construct an9 mobilise mar'ers an9 s)mbols o6 multile an9 e>en

conVicting masculinities an9 6emininities.

uclear imager) is inherentl) masculine in its 9issociating us to the realit) o6 the horror o6

nuclear catastrohe

!ohn 53 (Carol Researc6er an 4eac6er at arar eical Sins KSeD an eat6 in a &orl o- e-enseIntellectualsK 6tt%=//&&&.:stor.or/sta8le/%-%lus/31!209.%-) ,A

Nuclear missiles are 8ase in Ksilos.K *n a 4rient su8marine &6ic6 carries t&enty5-our multi%le &ar6ea nuclear missiles cre&mem8ers call t6e %art o- t6e su8marine &6ere t6e missiles are line u% in t6eir silos reay -or launc6in Kt6e C6ristmas tree -arm.K "6at

coul 8e more 8ucolic5-arms silos C6ristmas treesV In the eer5-rienly een romantic orl9 o6 nucleareaonr) ene;mies eEchange arhea9s onemissile ta'es out another eaons s)stemscanKmarr) u couling issometimes use9 to re6er to the iring beteen mechanisms o6 arningan9 resonse or to the s)cho;olitical lin's beteen strategic(intercontinental) an9 theater($uro%ean5

8ase) eaons. 46e %atterns in &6ic6 a IRe missiles nuclear &ar56eas lan is kno&n as aK-oot%rint.K21 46ese nuclear eD%losies are not ro%%eJ a K8usK KeliersK t6em. In aition nuclear8om8s are not re-erre to as 8om8s or een &ar6easJ t6ey are re-erre to as Kreentrye6iclesK a term -ar more 8lan an 8enin &6ic6 is t6en s6ortene to KRsK a term notonly totally a8stract an remoe -rom t6e reality o- a 8om8 8ut also resonant &it6 t6eimae o- t6e recreational e6icles o- t6e ieal -amily acation.:hese 9omestic images must bemore than sim%ly onemore 6orm o6 9istancing onemore a) to remo>e onesel6 6rom the grisl) realit)behin9 the or9sJ orinary a8straction is aeuate to t6at task. Somet6in else somet6in ery %eculiar isoin on 6ere. !alling the attern in hich bombs 6all a 6ootrintK almost seems a&ill-ul 9istortingrocess a la)6ul er>erse re6usal o6 accountabilit);because to be accountable to realit) is to be

unable to 9o this or'. :hese or9s ma) also ser>e to 9omesticate to tame the il9 an9uncontrollable 6orces o6 nuclear 9estruction. 46e meta%6ors minimiBeJ t6ey are a &ay to make%6enomena t6at are 8eyon &6at t6e min can encom%ass smaller an sa-er an t6us the)


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are a a) o6 gaining master) o>er the unmasterable. 46e -ire58reat6in raon uner t6e 8e t6e one&6o t6reatens to incinerate your -amily your to&n your %lanet 8ecomes a %et you can %at.


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&in' ( u'es

:he 9iscourse o6 nuclear eaons is inherentl) hallic an9 ties to masculinit) an9 seEualotenc)

Duncanson an9 schle 5(Claire an Cat6erine o- $in8ur6 an o- Strat6clye Ne& ,olitical Science30(!) %. '!+)I

*n t6e \rst %oint -eminists 6ae lon 6i6li6te t6at the olitical an9 militar) oer associate9 ith nuclear

eaons is lin'e9 metahoricall) ith seEual otenc) an9 masculinit). 46is linkae is neit6er ar8itrary nor

triial= seEual metahors are a a) o6 mobilising gen9ere9 associationsin orer to create eEcitement

about suort 6or an9 i9entiWcation ith8ot6 the eaons an9 the%olitical regime ossessing them.1'

46us -eminist 6istories o- t6e eelo%ment o- the nuclear arms racein t6e ecaes a6ter ,orl9 ,ar :o

9emonstrate"s#t6e eDtent to &6ic6 it as a race to ro>e masculine roess -uelle 8y EmissileF eny1 ith the

nuclear eaonso- t6e Col "ar su%er%o&ers Eheele9 out li'e monumental halluses on ara9e.1 Such

imager) has ro>e9 se9ucti>e to man) go>ernments across time an9 sace. 46us &6en Inia eD%loe \enuclear eices in ay 199+ inu nationalist leaer >alas6a6e8 46akeray arue t6at EG&He 6ae to %roe t6at &e are not eunuc6sFan ,rime inister 7tal >e6ari a:%ayee &as %ortraye in a ne&s%a%er cartoon as %ro%%in u% 6is coalition &it6 a nuclear 8om8ca%tione Eae &it6 iara.F1+ Inee as Inian noelist 7run6ati Roy 6as commente= Reain t6e %a%ers it &as o-ten 6ar totell &6en %eo%le &ere re-errin to iara (&6ic6 &as com%etin -or secon %lace on t6e -ront %aes) an &6en t6ey &ere talkin a8out

t6e 8om8ME"e 6ae su%erior strent6 an %otency.F19 Similar language has ermeate9 the nuclear 9iscourse o6

the militar) an9 9e6ence in9ustr). In6er roun58reakin stuy o- the 9iscourse o6 ernment

has not 6ull) relinHuishe9 the masculine;co9e9 restige an9 status that is associate9 ith the

celebration o6 Wreoer. 7lt6ou6 t6e "6ite ,a%er eD%licitly enies t6is aain %er6a%s ue to an a&areness o- t6e -eminist

critiue aruin t6at E&e maintain our nuclear -orces as a means o- eterrin acts o- aression an not -or reasons o- statusF2 itsac'nole9gement o6 the secial treatment a66or9e9 to nuclear eaons states in9icates there is still

ri9e in belonging to the club@ :he P: recognises the *K-s status "along ith that o6 the *S

France Russia an9 !hina# as a nuclear eaon state.F


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Link Nukes

46e tec6nostrateic iscourse o- nuclear &ea%ons eDclues all t6at is -eminine

Duncanson an9 schle 5(Claire an Cat6erine o- $in8ur6 an o- Strat6clye Ne& ,olitical Science30(!) %. ''1)ISuch blan9 9escritors as stoc'iles an9 9eterrent s)stem bring us tot6e secon stran o- t6e -eminist

critiue o- t6e &ay in &6

feminism ir k gdi2010

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