IntroductionHistoryisthestudyofideas,beliefs,andactionsofpeoplelivingofthepastEthnocentrismiswhenyouviewyourownculturetobesuperiortoallothersArchaeologyisthestudyofobjectsfrompasthumanlivesandculturesArtifactsarehumanmadeobjectse.g.,tools,pots,clothes.DoesnotincludebonesGeographyisthestudyofpeople,theirenvironment,andtheirresourcesThereareFiveThemesofGeography: LocationistherelativeorexactpositiononEarthPlaceisthephysicalandhumancharacteristicsofalocation.Physical=landscape,climate,soil,etc.Human=religion,language,jobs,food,etc.Regionisanareawithsimilarorunifyingphysicalorhumancharacteristics.Physical=sameelevation,climateHuman=samegovernment,jobs,cultureInteractionBetweenPeopleandEnvironment:howpeopleadapttoorchangeenvironments(wearheavycoats,buildbridges,etc.)Movementisthespreadofpeople,goods,andideas.WhenpeoplemigrateandtradetheyshareideasCulturaldiffusionisspreadofculturaltraitfromonesocietytoanotherClimateisaffectedbylatitude,positionrelativetoocean,andelevation7ElementsofCulture:(SantaClausisLARGE)

SocialOrganizationdescribessocialstructure,includesfamily/socialclasses.Family=patriarchal,extended,etc.Social=basedonwealth,education,lineage,canberigid,etc.Customsarerulesofbehavior,likelawsorunwrittenconventionsLanguageisthemeansofcommunicatingthoughts,feelings,andknowledgeArtsincludeart,music,literatureReligionseekstoanswerquestionsaboutlife,monoorpolytheismGovernmentisthepeople,procedures,andinstitutionsthatcreaterulesonhowtobehaveEconomyishowpeopleuselimitedresourcesforneeds/wants

EarlyHumansHominidsarecreaturesthatarebipedal,evolvedwhenAfricawasconvertedintoasteppeenvironments.MuchofAfricabecameflat,grassyland,andhominidscouldtravelfardistancesonground,lookovertallgrass,andholdthingswhilewalkingLucywasanAustralopithecusAfarensis,discoveredbyDonaldJohansonearlyhumanswerenomadsuntiltheylearnedhowtofarmanddomesticateanimalstheNeolithicRevolutionledtoriseofcivilization,noneedforhuntergathererlifestyletheFiveCharacteristicsofaCivilizationare:

AdvancedCities(MohenjoDaro,Ur,Athens)SpecializedWorkers(potters,soldiers,merchants)ComplexInstitutions(government,economy,businesses,education)RecordKeeping(scribes,papyrus,cuneiformtablets)AdvancedTechnology(boats,weapons,wheels)

MesopotamiaFertileCrescentisarablelandbetweenPersianGulfandMediterraneanSea,MesopotamiaisbetweenTigrisandEuphratesRivers(TigrisonTop).CulturaldiffusionoccurredbecauseoffewnaturalbarriersPeoplefirstsettledbyriversbecausefloodwatersleftfertilesoil/siltRiverfloodingwasveryinconsistentsomeyearswereextremedrought,othersdisastrousfloods

ThisresultedinmuchofSumerianculturerevolvingaroundappeasinggods,whomtheybelievedwerealwaysangrywithhumansUrukVaseillustratedimportanceofthetworiversuponMesopotamianlife

Sumer,firstMesopotamiancivilization,wasmadeofindependent,walledcitystatesSumeriancontributionsarewheel,sail,andplow,recordkeepingsystem,cuneiformComplexInstitutionsinSumer:

Economy:hadtradenetworks,bazaarsGovernment:leaderswereinitiallypriests(inchargeofappeasinggods),thenbecamemilitaryleaderswhenconflictsoverlandbecamemorecommon(butstillhadtogiveofferingstogods)Religion:polytheisticgodswereimmortal,hadsupernaturalpowers,believedtobeharshtohumans.Theafterlifewasaterribleplacefullofsuffering.Sumeriansbuilttemplescalledziggurats,wheretheybelievedthecityspatrondeitylived

AkkadianEmpirewasworldsfirstempire,createdbySargonofAkkadLater,SumeriancitystateswereconqueredbytheBabylonians.BabylonbecameimportanttradecenterBabylonianempirereachedpeakunderHammurabi.HeconqueredallofMesopotamiaandcreatedtheCodeofHammurabi

oneoftheworldsfirstlawcodesbestknownforharshpunishmentsengravedonstonesolawwasunchangeable/universaldidnottreatpeopleequallyMen>women,rich>poor

AssurbeganunderBabyloniancontrol,thenfoughtforindependence,becameAssyrianEmpireruledwithorganizedgovernmentandterror,verywarlikesociety,advancedwartechnology.Completelydestroyedcapturedcitiesandenslaved/killedresidentsalsohadlibrarywiththousandsofclaytablets,includingtheEpicofGilgamesh

TheChaldeanEmpireorNeoBabylonianEmpireoverthrewAssyriansNebuchadnezzarwasfamousking,expandedempiretoMesopotamia,Syria,somepartsofMediterraneancoast,conqueredCanaan,builtHangingGardensofBabylonandrebuiltBabylonwithCanaaniteslavelabor.HedeportedHebrewpopulationfromJudahtoBabylonineventcalledtheExile

ThePersianEmpireoverthrewChaldeansstartedaspeacefulkingdomuntilattacked.Asaresult,PersiangeneralCyrusbegantoorganizearmyandconquerareasinMesopotamia,Anatolia,Canaan,Egypt,India,andpartsofsoutheasternEurope.CyrustheGreatwasverytolerantofconqueredpeoplescultures,allowedHebrewstoreturntoJerusalemandrebuildtheirtempleDariusexpandedempire,butfailedtoconquerGreeceattheBattleofMarathon.dividedtheirempireintoprovinces(SatrapiesgovernedbyloyalSatraps),builtroadstoallowfastcommunication,andusedstandardcoinsthereligionZoroastrianismtaughtthattheEarthwasaconstantbattlegroundbetweenAhuraMazda(entityofgood)andAhriman(evil)

Otherempires:theHittitesinAnatolia(Turkey)developedironweaponsLydiansmadecoinmoney

JudaismTheHebrewsweremonotheistic,andbelievedthatGodandhispeoplehadacovenant/mutualpromise:GodwouldprotectHebrewsaslongastheyfollowedhiscommands

ethicalmonotheism:placesemphasisongoodbehaviortheTorahisareligioustext,thefirstfivebooksoftheHebrewBible,whichdocumentsthestoryofcreation,AdamandEve,Noahandtheflood,Abraham,MosesandtheExodusandMountSinaiand10CommandmentsAbrahamwasashepherdinMesopotamia,whomGodcommandedtomovehispeoplesouthtoCanaan

Judaism,Christianity,andIslamaresaidtohaveacommonorigin,astheirfoundersarebelievedtobedescendantsofAbraham

TheHebrewsbecameenslavedbyEgypt.AfterGodsentthe10PlaguestoEgypt,MosesledhispeopletofreedombytakingthemacrosstheRedSeainaneventcalledtheExodusWhilewanderingtheSinaiPeninsula,MoseswenttothetopofMountSinaiandreceivedthe10CommandmentsfromGod,whichwasacodeoflawsforproperbehaviorThebooksdetailingtheHebrewconquestofCanaan,riseofIsraelikingdoms,andtheirexileiscollectivelycalledTheProphetsWhenconqueringCanaan,theirgodwouldhelpinthebattlesCanaanwouldbedividedintotheTwelveTribesofIsrael,buttheywouldoftenfightamongstthemselvesKingSaulwouldunitethemintotheKingdomofIsrael,andledthemintobattleagainstthePhilistines.Here,ayoungIsraelisoldier,David,killedthegiantGoliath,andtheeventwouldbeasubjectofmanyartists,likeMichelangeloAfterSaulsdeath,DavidbecamethenewkingandestablishedthecapitalatJerusalemSolomonwasakingheraldedforbeingverywise,andalsobuilttheTempletohousethe10CommandmentsAfterwards,duetohightaxesandforcedlabor,thekingdomsplitintotwo:theKingdomofIsraelandtheKingdomofJudah.TheKingdomofIsraelwouldbeconqueredbytheAssyrians,whiletheKingdomofJudahwouldlaterbyconqueredbytheNeoBabyloniansUnderKingNebuchadnezzar,theTemplewouldbedestroyedandaboutaquarterofthepopulationwasforcedtomovetoBabyloninaneventcalledtheExileWhenPersiaconqueredBabylon,thetolerantKingCyrustheGreatallowedtheHebrewstoreturntoJerusalemandrebuildthetempleEgyptEgyptismostlydesert,allagriculturerevolvedaroundannualfloodingoftheNile(leavesbehindsilt).Floodingwasveryregular

Becauseofconsistentflooding,Egyptiansmade365daycalendarbasedontheagriculturalcycleFertileland>morefood>growingpopulations>specializedworkers

Nilewasalsoimportantfortransportationriverflowednorth,andifpeoplewantedtogosouththeywouldusetheirsailstocatchthewindblowingsouthRecordkeeping:

usedpapyrus,papermadefrompapyrusreeds

systemofwritingcalledhieroglyphsComplexinstitutions:Government

absoluteleadercalledpharaoh,leaderofgovernmentandmilitarydirectedthereligion,andwasalsobelievedtobeagodonEarthrulingpowerpasseddowninclans,calleddynasties

Economy:tradenetworksalongtheNileReligion:

Polytheistic,thousandsofgods.Osiriswasthekingofunderworld,HoruswasprotectorofpharaohsAfterlifewasbelievedtobeverysimilartothislife,peoplewereburiedwiththeirpossessionsandpetsManytemplesforworship,priestsbecameverywealthyfromofferingsandprayersduringwar

TechnologicalAchievements:Calendar(mentionedabove)PyramidswerebuiltasroyaltombsduringtheOldKingdomonly.SnefarubuiltRedPyramid(firstsuccessfulpyramid)andKhufubuiltGreatPyramidatGizaPreservedbodies,calledmummification,usingsaltandtookoutmanyorgans

OldKingdom:startedwhenNarmerunitedUpperandLowerEgyptpyramidswerefirstbuiltandimprovedendedwithkingPepiII.Aftercollapse,EgyptenteredperiodofpoliticalandeconomicturmoilcalledtheFirstIntermediatePeriodMiddleKingdomwasshortandnothingofimportancehappenedNewKingdomAhmosedroveouttheHyksos,startedEgyptianGoldenAgeHatshepsutwasthefirstfemalepharaoh,verysuccessfulAkhenatenwasverycontroversial,shownbyuniquesculpturesofhimthatshowedhisdeformities.MovedcapitalcityandtriedtoinstitutemonotheismRamsesII/RamsestheGreatfoughtagainstHittitesinBattleofKadeshGrecoRomanPeriodAlexandertheGreatconquersEgyptafterhisdeath,thePtolemysruleCleopatraislastGreektogovern,thenlosesEgypttoRomeIndiaSubcontinentofIndiaisseparatedfromAsiabytheHinduKushandHimalayanMountainsThreeimportantriversystems:Indus,Ganges,andBrahmaputra.FloodunpredictablybutcrucialforagricultureMonsoonsareseasonalwindssummerandwintermonsoonveryimportant.WintermonsooncomesfromHimalayasandisdryair,summermonsooncomesfromIndianOceanandisverymoistair.Summermonsoonresultsinflooding(canbeverydevastatingfloodsorbetoolate,resultinginfamine)HarappaandMohenjoDarowereearlycitiesthathadsophisticatedcityplanning:buildingslaidonagrid,standardproportionsforbricks,ditchesinstreets,sewagesystemthatallowedforprivatetoiletsandshowersEvidencethatcitiestradedwithMesopotamia(complexeconomy),hadspecializedworkerslikecraftsmen,anddevelopedcopper,boats,andwheels(advancedtechnology)TheAryanswereanomadicgrouplivinginthesteppelandneartheCaucasusMountains(partofgroupcalledIndoEuropeans).TheymigratedtoIndiathroughtheKhyberPassinHinduKushmountains

TheyconqueredthenativeIndoDravidians/DasasandinfluencedIndiancultureIntroducedverystrictsocialstructurecalledtheVarna/castesystembasedpartlyuponskincolor.Brahmins/priestswereontop,thenKshatriyas/warriors,thenVaisyas/skilledworkers,thenSudras/unskilledworkers.TheUntouchableswerethelowestoutcastsanddidfilthyworkAryanswerepolytheisticandgreatlyinfluencedreligion,Hinduism(seebelow)ChandraguptaMauryaunifiedIndiaandestablishedtheMauryanEmpire

KautilyawashisadvisorwhocompiledhisadviceongoverningempireintheArthasastra.usageofbureaucracy,orhavingsmallerviceroysgovernprovincesusefear:usedspies,torture

UnderAsoka,MauryanEmpirereachedpeak.Expandedempireusingviolentconquest,untiltheBattleatKalinga,whichwassoviolentthatafterwardsAsokaconvertedtoBuddhismenforcednewlawsoftoleranceandnonviolence,inscribedtheselawsonthePillarsofAsokaanddistributedaroundempireMoralConquest:traveledaroundempireandtoforeignstatestohavediscussionsonnonviolencebuilthospitals,veterinaryshelters,botanicalgardens,andasystemofroads

ChandraGuptalaterestablishestheGuptaEmpireAccomplishmentsinliterature:legaltexts(Dharmasastras),MahabaratareachesfinalformMedicine:useyogatoregulatebreathing,freehospitals,doctorsperformedsurgeryRoads:weremiddlemenontheSilkRoad,BuddhismspreadtoAsiaMath:Aryabhatawasafamousastronomer/mathematicianandfurtherdevelopedgeometry,algebra,andtrigonometry,usedArabicnumeralswithfractions,decimals,and0Astronomy:calculatelengthofyear,proposedthatEarthspunonaxis,MercuryandVenusrevolvearoundsun

HinduismAryanswerepolytheisticandcompiledtheirprayers/instructionsforperformingritualsintheVedas,thelongest/mostimportantbeingtheRigVeda.BrahminswerepriestsTheUpanishads(philosophicalreflectionofVedas)focusedonhowonecouldbeliberatedfromthislifeThegoalofhumanityistoachievemoksha,whichistheliberationfromsamsara(cycleofbirth,death,andrebirth).Becauselifewasaccompaniedwithsomuchsuffering,onehadtotrytoescapeitTheatmanwasoneseternalsoulthatwasrepeatedlyrebornWhatdeterminedwhetheronewasrebornornotwastheirkarmaanddharma

Karmaisallthegood/baddeedsdoneDharmaisduty,determinedbywhatcasteyoulivedin.Thecastesystemwassorigidbecausetheybelievedonewaswheretheywerebecauseoftheiractionsoftheirpastlife,andsotheyhadtoupholdtheirpositionsanddotheirduties.Ifonerebelledagainstsystem,theywouldbeborninlowercaste

BrahmanwastheuniversalsoulthateveryonewasapartofHinduismistechnicallymonotheisticbecauseeverygodwasjustadifferentmanifestationofBrahmanBuddhismFounderwasSiddhartaGautama,questionedwhytherewassomuchsufferinginlifeengagedinmeditationandbecameenlightenedrenamedBuddha

BuddhacametounderstandtheFourNobleTruths:lifeisdukkha/dissatisfaction>dukkhaiscausedbydesire>toeliminatedukkhaonemusteliminatedesire>musteliminatedesirebyfollowingEightfoldPathWhenonehasfollowedEightfoldpath,theycouldachieveenlightenmentorNirvana,triggeringreleasefromsamsaraBuddhistmonks/nunslivedlifeofpovertyandlivedinmonasteriesTheravadasectofBuddhismismosttraditional,believedBuddhatobeanormalhumanandenlightenedpeoplecouldnotberebornMahayanasecttaughtthatBuddhawasagodlybeingwhoarrivedtohelpothersachieveenlightenment,andenlightenedpeoplecouldchoosetobereborntohelpothersBuddhismwasspreadthroughoutAsiathroughSilkRoadMaindifferencesfromHinduism:rejectscastesystem(anyonecouldachievenirvana)anddoesnotworshipHindugodsJainismTheprincipleofahimsaornonviolencewasmainpartofreligiontaughtworshipperstobeextremelypeacefulandtolerantrefusedtohurteveninsectsChinaWasisolatedfromworldbyGobiDesert,Himalayanmountains,andseas.Thisresultedinthembelievingthemselvestobethecenteroftheworld,andthenresultinginethnocentrismandisolationismwhentheycameincontactwithoutsideworldOnly10%oflandisfarmableallfarmlandinNorthChinaPlainbetweenYangtzeRiverandHuangHe,whereearlycivilizationbegan

theHuangHe/YellowRiverisyellowduetoyellowcoloredsiltcalledloess,veryfertileYellowRiveralsocalledChinasSorrowbecausefloodingcouldbeunpredictable/violent

XiaDynastyFirstdynasty,buildingsmadeofwoodandsurroundedbyhugewallsShangDynastyRoyalburialswerehugetombsforthekings(complexinstitutions)andfilledwithartifactslikebronzeweapons,tools,pots(specializedworkersandadvancedtechnology)Oraclebonesweremeansofcommunicatingwithgods,andshowedalotaboutthewritingsystemandreligion

pictographicsystem,3000characterstomemorizepeopleweremorelikelytoworshipancestorsthanlargergods

YinandYangwasthebalanceoftwoforcesthatgovernedtheuniverse,QiistheuniversesflowofenergyZhouDynastyviolentlyoverthrewtheShang,justifiedtheirconquestbysayingthatthegodshadbecomeunhappywithhowtheyruledChinaandgavetherighttoruletotheZhouMandateofHeavenwastheideathatthegodsgaveauthoritytorule,andwasusedtoexplaindynasticcycle(riseandfallofdynasties).Iftherewasanaturaldisaster,itwasasignthatthegodswerenothappywithrulerusedfeudalism:kingsweregivenlandbyemperortoruleoverbuiltroadsandcanalsandintroducedcoins,allofwhichincreasedtradedevelopedcastirontechnology,improvedfarmingtoolsandweaponsWarringStatesPeriod

Timeofchaos,butledtoChinesegoldenageofphilosophy,alsoknownasHundredSchoolsofThought,inwhichphilosopherstriedtounderstandwhatwentwrongwithgovernmentandtriedtohelprulersConfucianismwasfoundedbyKongFuzi,mainteachingswritteninTheAnalects

ordercouldbemaintainedifeveryonepracticedli(properbehavior).Thisincludedrespectforhierarchythesuperiorarevirtuousandfair,whileinferiorareobedientfilialpietywasrespectforonesparentsandancestors

DaoismwasfoundedbyLaozi,mainteachingsinDaoDeJinganaturalforcecalledDaoguidedallthings,andorderwasmaintainedbyfollowingthisnaturalorder(i.e.,gowiththeflow).Notfollowingtheorder/tryingtoresistwouldcausemisery,taughtthatancestorworshipencourageddwellinginthepastgovernmentforcedpeopletoactagainsttheirnatures,thus,thesizeandpowerofgovernmentshouldbereduced(Thebestgovernmentisthatwhichgovernsleast)

LegalismwasfoundedbyHanFeitaughtthathumanswerenaturallyevil/selfishandsogovernmenthadtodoeverythingintheirpowertocontrolthemencouragedrulerstoenforcestrictlawsanduseseverepunishmentsexactoppositeofDaoismwouldbeusedindynastiesfollowingperiodsofchaos/turmoil,andeventuallydynastywouldcollapseduetobeingtoostrict(Ex.Qin,Sui)andthenbecomesreplacedwithConfucianistdynasty(Han,Tang)Itskindalikewhenparentsgivechildrentimeoutsforbeingbrattyitseffectivetoinstallorder,butchildrenhatetheirparentsfordoingit.Afterrealizingthechildhatesthem,theparentsswitchtacticsandbecomemorelenient

QinDynastyEmperorShiHuangdiunifiedChinabyreplacingZhousfeudalismwithcentralizedlegalistgovernment,seizedlandofnobles/forcedthemtomovetocapitalcity,andorderedmeltingofallweaponsBuiltroads,standardizedwriting,currency,cartaxles,weightsandmeasures,andlawthattreatedallsocialclassesequallytounifyChinaDestroyedConfucianandDaoistteachingstopreventrebellionCreatedGreatWallofChinabyconnectingsmallerpreexistingwallstokeepoutinvadingXiongnufromnorthHadroyaltombwitharmyofterracottasoldiersHanDynastyLiuBangloweredQintaxesandlaborrequirementsandreducedpunishmentsWasaConfucianistsociety,peoplewantingtoobtaingovernmentpositionstookcivilserviceexamstotesttheirknowledgeaboutConfucianism

thisallowedforsomemovementinsocialclassespoorpeople(iftheycouldgetaneducation)hadtheopportunitytomoveupinsocialpyramidgentryclass:classofwealthypeoplewhoDIDNOTacquirewealthfromlandowning

Hancontributions:papermaking,fishingreel,rudder,acupuncture,herbalmedicineandanesthesia,jadeandivorycarvings,collarharness,doublebladedplow,wheelbarrowWudicolonizedManchuria,Korea,andVietnam,forcedthemtoassimilatetoChineseculture,alsoexpandedtotraderoutesthatconnectedtoIndia,MiddleEast,andEuropeThisledtothedevelopmentoftheSilkRoads,vastseriesoftradenetworksconnectingChinatoIndiatoEurope,namedafterthemostpopulartradeitem:Chinesesilk

bothgoodsandideaswerespread,ex.Porcelain,spices,glassware,andBuddhismSomeChinesewereafraidoftheirculturebecomingdilutedbytheincreasedcontactwithoutsidecultures(ethnocentrism)somerchantswereactuallyconsideredtheleastimportantpeopledespitetheirwealth

ExampleofMandateofHeaven:Becausefathershadtodividelandamongstsons,landholdingsbecamesmallerwitheachgeneration.Asaresult,farmersbecamepoorerandeventuallyhadtoselllandtowealthyfarmers.ManypeasantsunitedbehindscholarnamedWangMang,andheoverthrewtheHantodistributelandbacktothepoor.However,afloodstruckandkilledthousandsofpeople,sopeoplethoughtthegodsdidnotlikehimandreestablishedtheHanEraofThreeKingdoms:achaotictime,nocentralauthority,theHunsfromnorthkeptinvadingSuiDynastyReestablishedorderusinglegalism,althoughveryunpopular(quicklyoverthrownduetoforcedlaborandhightaxes)expandedGreatWallandconstructedtheGrandCanal,connectedYellowandYangtzeriversandunifyingChinaTangDynastyandSongDynastyChinasGoldenAgereinstatedConfucianismandcivilservice,loweredtaxesandredistributedlandWuZhaowasfirstandonlyfemaleemperor(likeHatshepsutfromEgypt)CulturaldiffusionresultedfromSilkRoad:hadlargestcitiesintheworld,withpeoplefromaroundknownworld(Europe,Arabia,India,Japanetc)comingtogetherandsharingforeignideasInventions:porcelain,mechanicalclock,moveabletype,gunpowder,papermoney,andcompassFootbindingbecameaverypopularpracticeuntilearly1900s,inwhichyounggirls(usuallyage46)hadtheirfeetbrokenandbentintoatinyhooflikeshape,wasconsideredtobeveryfashionableandalmostnecessarytoattractahusbandYuanDynastyGenghisKhanunitedtheMongolsandconqueredChina,hissonKublaiKhanbegannewdynastywhereforeignnationruledChina,gotridofmanytraditionalChineseinstitutionslikeConfucianismPaxMongolica(MongolPeace):MongolsbeganprotectingtravelersfrombanditsonSilkRoads,tradebecomesmuchsaferandreachespeak(itkindamakessensebecausebefore,theMongolsweretheonlybanditsontheroutes,sonowtheresnopointinstealingfromyourowntraderoutes)Chineseinventionslikecompass,gunpowder,andmoveabletypeareintroducedtoEurope

Compass:usedinAgeofExplorationGunpowder:usedinwarfareMoveabletype:adaptedintoprintingpressandfacilitatedtheReformation

MarcoPolotravelstoChinaandpublishesaccountofadventures,sparksEuropeanintenseinterestinChinaanditswealthMingDynastyZhuDibuildsForbiddenCity(emperorspalace)andlaunchesZhengHesvoyageZhengHe:ChineseMuslimadmiral,sailedtoSoutheastAsia,India,Arabia,andAfricawithfleetofhundredsofboatstodisplayChinaspowerandexpanditsalliesMingDynasty:Manchurianrule,butunlikeMongols,upheldtraditionalChinesebeliefsJapanArchipelago,mountainousterrain,andfrequentearthquakesandtsunamisKoreawasaculturalbridge/steppingstonebetweenChinaandJapan

ReligionwasShintoism:believedthatkami(spirits/gods)weremanifestedbyforcesofnature(e.g.,mountains,tsunamis,forests),andthespiritsoftheancestorswerealsokami(formofanimism)Feudalsociety,nocentralauthority,landownerswerecalledDaimyosDaimyoshadsoldierscalledsamuraiwhoweregovernedbyCodeofBushidothatrequiredcourageandnobledeath.SuccessfulattemptsofunifyingJapan:HeianPeriod,Tokugawa

leadersofmilitary,governmentandtaxeswerecalledShogun(emperorswerebelievedtobegods,buthadlittleactualpower)

GreeceCivilizationbeganontheBalkanPeninsulaandAnatoliaThreeimportantseaswereMediterranean,Ionian,andAegean,mostpeoplelivedbycoast/traveledbyseaMountainousterrainresultedinindependentcitystates(acitystatewascalledapolis)withindependentgovernment,laws,andarmyEarliestcivilizationwasMinoancivilizationontheislandCrete

KingMinosbuiltcapitalinKnossos,mythaboutMinotaurlivingunderpalacebullsweregreatlyrespected

Phoenicianswerehugeseapower,networkoftraderoutesaroundMediterranean,inventedphoneticalphabetandproducedpopularpurpledyeMycenaeanswereIndoEuropeans,migratedtoBalkanpeninsulaandcontrolledMediterraneantrade

verypowerfulandwealthykings(monarchy),culturerevolvedaroundwarKingAgamemnondefeatedTroyintheTrojanWar,butwarledtoweakeningofMycenaeans

DorianswerealsoIndoEuropeans,replacedtheMycenaeansandledtoGreekDarkAgecitiesdisappeared,populationdeclined,tradecollapsedverylittleart,writtenlanguagewaslostIlliadandtheOdysseywascollectionoforalmythscomposedbyHomer,revealedmuchaboutAncientGreekmythology/religion

AfterDorianAge,newpoleis(pluralofpolis)emerged,likeAthens/SpartaTheAgorawasthecitycenter,includedmarketplaceandimportantgovernmentbuildingsTheAcropoliswasafortificationonahilltopnearthecenterofthecitywhereresidentstookshelterininvasioncitizenswereonlyfreemenwhoownedpropertyandwhosefatherswerecitizensasaresult,verysmallpercentageofpeoplewereactuallycitizensCitizenswereexpectedtoserveassoldiers/hoplitesinmilitary

Asaresult,theybegantodemandmorepoliticalrights,ledtoriseofdemocracyinpoleislikeAthensDemocracy:governmentinwhichthepeopleruledthemselvesimportanttonotethatonlyasmallpercentofthepopulation(thecitizens)wasactuallyinvolvedinthis.Alsoimportanttonotethatslaveryfacilitatedthegrowthofdemocracy(peoplecouldaffordtogotodebatesinsteadofworkinthefieldsbecausetheyhadslaves)

CreationofDemocracyinAthens:DracopublishedDraconianLawCode,whichhadharshpunishments,butalsoreplacedarbitraryorallaw

Solonoutlaweddebtslavery(whenpersonindebtbecameslavetopayoffdebt)andcreatedaCouncilof400forwealthycitizensandanAssemblyforallcitizens.TheCouncilwouldproposelawsandtheAssemblywouldvoteonthemCleisthenes,FatherofDemocracy,replacedCouncilof400withCouncilof500,andhadmemberschosenbylot(randomdraw)insteadofbywealthSpartawasdifferentfromAthensbecausetheyhadanoligarchy,inwhichafewpeople(CouncilofElders)governedoverthepopulationSpartahadaverymilitaristicsocietyandemphasizeddutytothecommunity

Thiswasmostlybecauseslaves/HelotsgreatlyoutnumberedSpartans,sotheyhadtoconstantlyputdownrebellionsWomenalsoreceivedmilitarytraining,andhadagenerallybettersocialstatusthanAthenianwomen

Athenswasanintellectualsocietyandemphasizedindividualfreedom/expressionPersianWar

BeganwhenPersianEmpire(underDarius)conqueredAnatolia,whereafewGreekcolonieswere.Thecoloniesrevolted,withAthenianassistance.DariussworetodestroyAthensinresponseAtBattleofMarathon,Persianshadahugearmy,AtheniantroopswereathirdofthePersiantroops.Despitethedisadvantageinnumbers,theGreekswonAftertheirlossthePersiansdecidedtoattackAthens,whichwasleftunguarded.AthenianssentthemessengerPheidippidestorunfromMarathontoAthenstotellthecitizensthatthehopliteswerevictoriousandreturnhomesoonPersiansinvadeGreeceagain,GreekforcesholdthemoffinthemountainpassatThermopylae300SpartansheldthemoffwhiletheGreeksranbacktotheirrespectivepoleistoprotectthemTheAtheniansconfrontPersiansonwater,withfleetofsmallships.TheymanagetobeatthematSalamisbecausethePersianscouldnotmaneuverships

AfterPersianWar,200poleiscametogethertoformanalliancecalledtheDelianLeagueMembersoftheleaguewouldpaytaxestobuilduptheLeaguesdefensesforfutureinvasionsHowever,AthenseventuallydominatedtheLeagueanduseditsfundstorebuildAthensandstarttheAthenianGoldenAge

advancementsinarchitecture,philosophy,history,drama,sculpture,andscienceAthenianGoldenAgealsocalledAgeofPericles,fortheAthenianleaderPericleswhoworkedtorebuildAthensbypurchasinggoldandmarbleforsculptures/buildings,buildAtheniannavy,andpayingpeopleforservingintheCouncilof500,alsogaveAssemblypowertoproposeandpasslaws

PericlessFuneralOrationwasafamousspeechpraisingAtheniandemocracyTheParthenonwasafamoustemplededicatedtoAthena,hugeengineering/architecturalachievementPeloponnesianWar

SpartabecameconcernedwithAtheniandomination,createdthePeloponnesianLeagueandcameintoconflictwithAthens/DelianLeagueAthenshadastrongnavy,butSpartahadaninlandlocationSpartahadastrongarmy,butAthenswassurroundedbywallsSpartaburnedallcropfieldssurroundingAthenstoforcethemout,butPericlesconvincedthemtostayandimportcropsfromanearbycitystate,butplaguehitsandSpartawinsthewar

HerodotusandThucydideswerefamoushistorianswhorecordedpasteventsandalsotriedtounderstandthem

Socrateswasafamousphilosopherwhobelievedthattheunquestionedlifeisnotworthliving.Thus,hechallengedpeoplestraditionsandwouldeventuallybeexecutedbecausehewassoannoyingPlatowasastudentofSocratesandrecordedhisfamousconversations.HealsowroteTheRepublicaboutautopiansocietygovernedbyaphilosopherking,themostintelligentpersonintherulingclassAristotleinventedmethodofarguingusinglogic,orreasoningAlexandertheGreatsEmpireGreekpoleisweregreatlyweakenedbyPeloponnesianWar,soKingPhilipofMacedoniasoughttoconquerGreeceHissonAlexanderwasabrilliantmilitarystrategistandhadapowerfulcavalryunit(soldiersonhorses),andthetwowouldconquermostofGreece,exceptSpartaWhenAlexanderassumedthethrone,heinvadedthePersianEmpire.WouldconquerTyre,Egypt,thePersianEmpireandpartsofIndia,createdthelargestempireintheworlduptothatpoint

AlexandertheGreatunitedtheEastandtheWestCulturaldiffusion:Greek,Egyptian,Persian,andIndianculturesblendedintoHellenisticcultureEgyptiancityofAlexandriawasacenterofHellenisticculture,hadtheworldsgreatestlibrarywhichsoughttoowneverydocumenteverpublishedinhumanhistory

ThiswouldattractmanygreatthinkerslikeEuclid,Aristarchus,andArchimedes,hadmanyachievementsinmath,science,andmedicine

Math:Pythagorasandhistheoreminvolvingrighttriangles,EuclidwasknownastheFatherofGeometryandpublishedabookcalledTheElementswithmanygeometricaxiomsScience:AristarchuswasanastronomerwhodeterminedthattheEarthrotatedonitsaxisandrevolvedaroundtheSun,ArchimedesexploredtheprinciplesoftheleverandthepulleyMedicine:HippocrateswasknownastheFatherofWesternMedicineandunderstoodthatdiseaseshadnatural,notsupernatural,causesandalsocomposedtheHippocraticOath,uponwhichdoctorssweartoservepatientsethicallyEmpirewasdividedafterAlexandersdeathintothreesectionsgovernedbyhisleadinggenerals:Greece,governedbyAntigonus,Egypt,governedbyPtolemy,andMesopotamia,governedbySeleucusRomeOntheItalianpeninsula,surroundedbyAlpsandApenninemountains,mostimportantriverwasTiberRiverInearlyages,threegroupsofpeople:Greekcolonistsinsouth,Etruscansinthenorth,andLatins(preRomans)incentralItalyMythologybehindRome:Aeneas,soldierinTrojanwarwhofledTroy,settledinItalyandmarriedLatinprincess,foundedtheRomanpeople(storytoldinTheAeneidbyVirgil).Centurieslater,RomulusandRemus,areprinceswhoarenursedbyashewolfasbabies.Whentheylearnoftheiridentitiesasadults,theychosetobuildacapitalcityalongtheTiberRiver,RomuluskillsRemusforcontrolofthecityandnamesitRomeTheRegalPeriodofRomeisstarted,inwhichRomewasgovernedbykings.

Thekingwaschosenbyacouncilofaristocraticlandowners,theSenateTarquintheProudwasthelastking,wasterriblesotheSenatedrovehimfrompowerandsworetoneverletRomebegovernedbykingagain,createstheRomanRepublicwithelementsofmonarchy,aristocracy,anddemocracyinearlyrepublic,hadaSenate,2consuls,8praetors,andCenturiateAssembly

Romangovernmentlegacies:veto,separationofpower,checks/balances,termlimitshadhugeinfluenceonUSgovernmentTheSenatewouldgiveadvicetotherestofthegovernment,whichwasusuallyfollowed,soSenatewasthemostpowerfulpartofgovernmentCenturiateAssemblywaslegislativepower,dividedintoblocksofcitizenscalledcenturies,andeachcenturycastavoteonlawsandelectedgovernmentofficialsConsulswereexecutiveofficialsandcommandedthearmyandcarriedoutlaws,couldalsovetodecisionsmadebyoneanotherPraetorswerejudicialofficialswhointerpretedthelawAdictatorwasallowedtoserveforhalfayearattherequestoftheSenateduringtimesofcrisisPatricians:peopletracingancestrytomembersoforiginalSenateallotherpeoplewerecalledplebeians

Plebeianswerenotallowedtoserveasconsuls/praetors,andthuscouldntserveonSenatebecauseonehadtoserveasoneoftheformertobeonthelatterPlebeianswerealsogivenfewercenturies(whichmeansfewervotes)inCenturiateAssemblyPlebeiansalsosufferedfromanarbitrarylawnowrittenlawcode

Toprotestlackofrepresentation,plebeiansseceded(separatedfromRome)andcreatedowncitywithplebeianassemblyofelectedofficialscalledTribunesBecauseplebeiansweremajorityofpopulation(aswellasarmy)andtheirabsenceleftRomevulnerable,patriciansagreedtoseveralreforms

TwelveTableswasawrittenlawcodethatwasveryspecific/hadharshpunishmentsallmagistratepositions(consul,etc)wereopentotheplebeians,sotheycouldhavepositioninSenateaswellanallplebeianTribalAssemblywascreated,couldpassownlaws

RomewouldcometoconquertheentireMediterraneanworld,calledtheMediterraneanSeaMareNostrumorOurSeaTheirculturewasinfluencedbytheEtruscansandGreeksthattheyconquered

Etruscanarchesandalphabet,gladiatorfightswasadaptedfromEtruscansbloodsacrificestodeadGreekpillars,metalcoincurrency,andreligion

PunicWars:CarthagewasPhoeniciancityinNorthAfricaandwasdominantinMediterraneanbeforeRomeTheSecondPunicWar:famousCarthaginiangeneralHannibalinvadedRomefromthenorthbycrossingtheAlps,broughtmanyelephantsandthousandsofsoldiers.ItseemedasthoughHannibalandCarthagewouldwin,butRomangeneralScipioturnedtideofwarbyinvadingCarthageanddefeatedHannibal

Duetoexpansionoftrade,newclassofwealthyplebeianmerchantschallengedpatricianlandownersSmallplebeianlandownerswereforcedtoselltheirpropertytopatricianlandownersbecausetheirlandwouldfallindisrepairwhiletheywerefightinginwars,andpatricianswouldalsouseslavelabortoincreaseprofitsfurtherthisangeredplebeiansTofixthis,TribuneTiberiusGracchuslimitedthelandacitizencouldownandredistributedtheleftoverstopoor

However,hedidthisbybypassingbothSenateandCenturiateAssembly.Becauseofthis,SenaterespondedtohisunconstitutionalactionswithviolencebymurderinghimLaterhisbrotherGaiusGracchuswaselectedTribune,andalsoopposedSenatewasalsokilledThisusageofviolencebytheSenatebecamecommoningovernment

FirstTriumvirate:allianceofthreeleaderstoreturnpowertotheTribunesandTribalAssemblyconsistedofCrassus,Pompey,andCaesar

CaesarledawarinGaulthatwasnotmandatedbytheSenateandaddedFrancetoRomanRepublicSenatewasbecomingconcernedthatCaesarwastoopowerfulPompeyalsoalignedwithSenateWhentheSenateorderedCaesartodisbandhisarmyandreturntoRomeunarmed,hecrossedtheRubiconRiverintoRomewithhisarmy,defyingtheSenateandessentiallyinvadingRomeAfteracivilwarbetweenCaesarandPompey,PompeyescapedtoEgypt,wherePtolemyXIIIandCleopatrawerecompetingforthethrone.PtolemyXIIIkilledhiminhopesofwinningCaesarssupport.Instead,CaesargotangryandsupportedCleopatrasascensiontothethrone.Thetwohadachild,CaesarionCaesarthenwentouttoeliminatetherestofthesupportersofPompeyandbecametheunchallengedleaderofRomeandestablishedhimselfasalifelongdictatorOutraged,theSenateassassinatedCaesar(seeabovefortheabolitionofRomeslastkingTarquinandSenateusingviolenceagainstopposition)

TheplebeianswereangeredbythemurderofCaesar,whomhadhelpedthemgreatlyMarkAntony,oneofCaesarsclosestallies,hadaspeechthatpraisedCaesarathisfuneralandreadhiswill,whichstatedthatallofCaesarsmoneywouldbedistributedtoRomancitizens,andthatOctavian(hisgreatnephewwhomheonlymetonce),notCaesarion,wouldbehisheirSecondTriumvirate:allianceamongLepidus,MarkAntony,andOctavian.TheyassumeddictatorshipandhunteddownallofCaesarsopponentsandhisassassins

Duringstruggleforpower,MarkAntony(whowasmarriedtoOctavianssisterasapoliticalmarriage)divorcedwithhiswifeandmarriedCleopatra.TheythendeclaredthatCaesarionwasthetrueheirofCaesar,whichwasadirectchallengetoOctavianslegitimacyOctavianrespondedthatAntonywascollaboratingwithEgyptandwantedtoconquerRometobecomeaking.Thisledtoashortwarbetweenthetwo,whichOctavianwon.HeincorporatedEgyptintoRomeandtooktotalcontrolofRome,andalsotookonthenameAugustus,orexaltedone

AugustusallowedallthetraditionalelementsofRomangovernmenttocontinue,buttheyallhadtohavehisconsenttopasslawsandholdmeetings.Thus,thebeginningofhisreignmarkedtheendoftheRomanRepublicandthebeginningoftheRomanEmpirePaxRomanawasRomesGoldenAgewithflourishingtradeandachievementsinarchitecture,engineering,artandliterature

Literature:VirgilcomposedAeneid,Ovidpublishedmanycontroversialpoems,LivycompiledhistoryoftheRepublicandTacituswrotethehistoryoftheEmpireArchitecture/engineering:arch,dome,aqueducts,usedconcreteArt:wasformorerealisticthanGreek,usedbasrelief(elevatedimagesfromflatblockofstone),mosaics,andfrescoes/murals

RomanEmpirewasconnectedwithroads,hadcommoncurrency,andcontrolledtheMediterraneansea,facilitatingtradeHadacivilservicesystemsimilartoChinas,inwhichgovernmentpositionswerefilledbypeoplewithhighesttestscores.ThisallowedRometothriveevenunderbademperors

GoodemperorsincludedTrajanandHadrian(whobuilttheHadriansWallinBritain)BademperorsincludedCaligula,Nero,andCommodus(whoserulebroughttheendofPaxRomana)

LegaciesofthePaxRomanaincludeClassicCivilization(GrecoRomanculture),language(LatininfluencedmanyotherRomancelanguagesandwastheofficiallanguageofCatholicChurch)andlaw/legalconceptsincludingequalitybeforethelaw,innocentuntilprovenguilty,andrighttoconfrontaccusers(**MOSTOFTENASKEDONEXAMS)PersecutionofJewishandChristiansubjectsbeganemperorsdemandedthattheyberecognizedasgods,butmonotheistsrefusedtoworshipthem(seebelowsection:Christianity)FallofRomeThedeclineofRomehappenedovercenturiesmanytheoriesastohowithappened

Socialproblems:populationdeclinecausedbywaranddisease,declineinmorals,upperclassesbecamecorruptanddevotedtoluxuryPoliticalproblems:oppressivegovernment,increasedgovernmentcorruption(manyemperorsbecamegreedyandcareless),internalpowerstrugglesanddivisionofempireMilitaryproblems:poorlytrainedsoldiers,mostsoldierswereforeignmercenarieswhowerenotloyaltoempire,seriesofGermanicinvasionsEconomicproblems:increaseintaxestosupportarmyandbureaucracy,inflation,heavyrelianceuponslavelabor(resultsinfewerjobsforcitizensaswellaslackofmotivationtoinventnewtechnology)

DiocletianwasanemperorwhothoughtthatRomewascrumblingbecause1)traitorsweretryingtooverthrowthegovernmentand2)theempirewastoolargetogovern

targetedChristians,whorefusedtoacceptthedivinityoftheemperordividedtheempireintoaWesternandEasternRomanEmpire

ConstantinereunitedempireunderoneleaderandmovedcapitalfromRometoByzantiumintheeasternpartofRome,whichherenamedConstantinople.HealsopassedtheEdictofMilanandheldtheCouncilofNicaea(seebelow,section:Christianity)TheodosiusthenmadeChristianitytheofficialreligionofRomeandbannedpolytheism,whichthenturnedthetablesuponthepolytheists,whowouldnowbecomepersecuted.Theseattemptsfailedtosavetheempire,andGermanicinvaders(e.g.,Visigoths,Ostrogoths,Franks,Angles,Saxons)beganattackingwesternempireinanefforttofleefromtheHuns,whowereledbyAttilaInAD476,thecityofRomewasconqueredbytheOstrogoths.TheWesternRomanEmpirecollapsed,buttheEasternhalfwouldliveon,renamedtheByzantineEmpireByzantineEmpireEasternRomesurvivedbecauseofitslocationthecapitalConstantinoplewaseasiertodefendanditwasahubofEuropean,African,andAsiantradeByzantineEmpirealsocalledNewRomebecauseitpreservedGrecoRomanculture,keepingthepolitics,law,engineering,entertainment,andreligionJustinianwasthemostfamousemperor

preservedRomanlawthroughtheJustinianCodebuilt3hugewallsaroundcity,whichwouldstanduntiltheOttomanEmpiresMehmedIIusedcannonstoknockthemdownbuilttheHagiaSophia,afamouschurchwithalargedomeontopkeptRomantraditionofbreadandcircusesandbuiltahippodromeforchariotracing

Christianreligionwasslightlychanged,splitintoOrthodoxChurch,whichdidnotseethePopeastheleader

ChristianityRomehadruledoverJudea,resultinginpeopleinJerusalemplanningarevolution.TheybelievedthatamessiahwouldleadtheJewishpeopletoindependenceTheybelievedthismessiahwasamannamedJesus,whowasapopularpreacherDespitethathewaslargelyaspacifist,theRomanswereafraidhewouldleadarevoltandexecutedhimTheapostles(followersofJesus)spreadhisteachingsandwereanothersectofJudaismChristianitybecameanindependentreligionwhenPaultookthemessageofJesusbeyondJudea,andtaughtnonJewishpeoplesthereligionChristianitybecamewidespreadquicklyfortwomainreasons:

thePaxRomanaprovidedroadsandsecurity,makingtravelsafeformissionaries.AcommonlanguagethroughouttheempirealsomadecommunicatingthemessageeasythereligionpromisedthatGodloveseveryone,nomattertheirwealth/status,andhadablissfulafterlife.ThiswasverydifferentfromtheRomanreligion,inwhichthegodswereapatheticofpeoplesproblems,onlygrantedwishesinexchangeforhugesacrificesoffood,andtheafterlifewasadrearyplace

Romeinsistedthattheiremperorwasagod,andshouldbeworshippedassuch.However,monotheistsrefusedtoaccepttheemperorasagod,oranyoftheotherRomangods

atthistime,theRomanEmpirewasbeginningtofall.ManyRomansbelieveditwasbecausethegodswereabandoningthembecausemonotheistsrefusedtoacceptthem,sotheybegantopersecuteJewishandChristianpeople.Christianswhowerekilledwerenamedmartyrs

ThetworeligionsseparatedevenfurtheraftertheGreatJewishRevolt,afterwhichRomansforcedallJewstoleaveJerusaleminaneventcalledtheDiaspora.ChristiansthentriedtoappeasetheRomansbydevelopinganantiSemiticmindsetandarguedthatJesuswouldcreateaheavenlykingdom,butonearththeleaderwasstilltheemperor

thiswouldstillfailbecauseChristiansstillrefusedtorecognizedivinityofemperorUndertheRomanemperorDiocletian,ChristianpersecutionincreasedgreatlyEmperorConstantinebelievedhesawtheimageofacrossintheskybeforeanimportantbattle,andorderedthatthecrossshouldbeinscribedonthesoldiersshields.Theywon,andheattributedthevictorytotheChristiangod.Heremainedpolytheistic,butpassedmanyreformsinfavorofChristianity

wouldpasstheEdictofMilan,whichformallyapprovedofChristianityandendedallChristianpersecutionsetouttoformalizeChristiandoctrineandgaveland/moneytoChristianChurchheldtheCouncilofNicaea,ameetinginwhichtheNewTestamentwascompiledaswellwastheNiceneCreedstatingthatJesuswasagod

EmperorTheodosiusmadeChristianitytheofficialreligionofRome,makingpolytheismillegalIslamandtheIslamicEmpiresTheSoutheastAsia,ortheMiddleEast,isalsoknownasthecrossroadsoftheworldbecauseitiswhereEurope,Asia,andAfricameet.Assuch,itwasacenterofculturaldiffusionandIslamspreadquicklyTheArabianPeninsulawasdominatedbydesert,theoriginalArabnomadswerecalledBedouinsandwerefiercetribalpastoralists.However,coastalregionscouldsupportagriculture,andmanytradingcenterswereonthecoast.OnesuchcitywasMecca,whichwasalsoaplaceofreligiouspilgrimageThereligionIslamoriginatedontheArabianPeninsula,betweentheRedSeaandPersianGulf

Muhammadtaughtthattherewasonlyonegod,Allah,andAllahwasthesamegodasinJudaismandChristianity.HealsotaughtthathewasthelastprophetofAllahHisteachingsbecameknownasIslam,orsubmissiontothewillofAllah.ThefollowerswerecalledMuslims,oronewhohassubmittedQuran(sometimespelledKoran)istheholybookofIslam,containingtherevelationsofAllahandincludedeverythingaboutthereligion,fromdaytodayconducttoJudgmentDaySunnawastheMuhammadsexamplethroughhiswordsanddeedsandguidesMuslimsHadithrecordedthewordsanddeedsofMuhammadTheguidanceoftheQuranandSunnaareassembledintoabodyoflawcalledShariaTheFivePillarsaredutiesuniversaltoallMuslims

Thefirstpillarisastatementoffaith,proclaimingThereisnoGodbutAllah,andMuhammadisthemessengerofAllahSecondpillarisprayingfivetimesaday,facingthedirectionofMeccaThirdisalmsgiving,ordonatingasmallpercentage(2.5%)ofonessalarytothepoorFourthisfastingduringtheholymonthofRamadan,whichhelpscultivatediscipline,focusonAllah,andempathyforthepoorFifthisthehajj,orreligiouspilgrimagetoMecca.There,onewalksaroundtheKaaba,ashrinededicatedtoAllah,seventimesandperformsotherrituals

Jihad=struggle.Lesserjihadwasstruggleagainstnonbelievers,greaterjihadwasinternalstruggleAfterMuhammadsdeath,theMuslimcommunitydecidedtoelectasuccessor,orcaliph.ThefirstfourcaliphsareknownastheFourRightlyGuidedCaliphsandexpandedtheMuslimstatethroughoutAsia,Africa,andpartsofEurope3reasonsforsuccessfulexpansion:

fiercearmybecauseofBedouinsmilitaristicsocietytheircompetitors,ByzantineandPersianempires,weregettingweakertheyhadastrongdesiretospreadtheirfaith(lesserjihad)

ConqueredpolytheistshadtoconverttoIslamorbeexecuted,butconqueredJewsorChristiansweretoleratedbecauseitwasbelievedtheyworshippedthesamegod

theycalledthemPeoplesoftheBookbecauseofthissharedgodAfterdeathofMuhammad,peoplessplitupforwhotofollowascaliph

thosewhofollowedtheUmayyadswerecalledSunnithosewhofollowedAli,adescendantofMuhammad,werecalledShiathesetwosectsofIslamwouldhavemanywarsagainstoneanother

TheUmayyaddynastywaslateroverthrownbytheAbbasidsoneUmayyadprinceescapedandestablishedastateinSpain,whichwaspreviouslyownedbyagroup

ofNorthAfricanMuslimscalledMoors

KingswerecalledshahsTheAbbasidsexpandedpowerinNorthAfricaandMiddleEast,setcapitalinBaghdadMuslimempirereachedGoldenAgewithmanycontributions

developedalgebraachievementsinastronomy,inventedtheastrolabe,devicemeasuringlatitudeusingstars,whichwouldlaterfacilitateAgeofExploration

bankingsystem,usedchecksmadebooks,calligraphywasbeautifulwriting,theLibrariesofCordobaandHouseofWisdomheldthousandsoftextsandpreservedGreekandRomanliterature

AbbasidcaliphatewasconqueredbythePersianEmpirelatertheSeljukTurkscapturedBaghdadSeljukTurksadoptedIslamandcreatedahugeempire

StartedattackingByzantineEmpireandgainedcontrolofJerusalemCatholicattemptstorecaptureJerusalemledtoTheCrusades(seeMedievalAges)

MongolscapturedBaghdadandmuchofempireOttomanTurksStartedunderOsman,whobuiltanIslamicstateexpandedverysuccessfullyduetouseofcannonsandgunssoldiersofIslamwerecalledghazisMehmedIIusedcannonstodestroywallsprotectingConstantineturnedHagiaSophiaintoamosqueandrenamedcityIstanbulSelimtheGrimexpandedintoPersiaandcameintoconflictthetheShiaSafavidslivingthereorderedexecutionofallShialivinginOttomanterritorywhiletheSafavidShahorderedexecutionofallSunnilivinginPersiaSuleymantheMagnificentledOttomanEmpireintopeak

expandedtoNorthAfricaandEuropewithsoldierscalledJanissaries(Christiansthatweredrafted,convertedtoIslam,andtrainedtofight)SuleymanisalsocalledtheLawgiverforcreatingalawcodeliterature,math,science,andarchitectureflourishedMosqueofSuleymanisbuilt

MughalsdescendantsofTurksandMongols,gainedcontrolofIndiaalotofviolencebetweentheMuslimsandlocalHindusAkbartheGreatledMughalempiretopeak,wasknowntobeaverytolerantleader.Heallowedreligiousfreedom,appointedHindustoworkingovernment,abolishedthejizyataxonnonMuslims,andmarriedmanyHinduwomenShahJahanbuilttheTajmahalasatombforhiswifeshowscombinationofHinduandMuslimarchitectureAurangzebwastheoppositeofAkbar,wasveryintolerantofothers.Hereinstatedthejizyatax,dismissedallHindusfromgovernment,anddestroyedHindumonuments.ThisledtothefalloftheMughalsTheMiddleAgesAfterfallofRome,WesternEuropesplitintoseveralsmallkingdomswithnocentralleaderThethreepillarsoftheMiddleAgeswere

TheclassicalheritageofRomeCustomsofGermanictribe**ChristianityandlifeundertheCatholicChurch**

Feudalisminwhichakingdivideduphisterritoryintolandscalledfiefsandgavethemtovassals,whowouldinturnbeloyaltohimandoffermilitaryservice.Thevassalswhoownedthelandswerecalledlords,andtheywoulddividetheirlandandgivethemtoknights,cavalrymenwhoweretopromiseprotectiontothelords(theywouldbevassalstothelords)

Despitethefactthatknightsweresupposedtobeloyalandchivalrous,manyofthemwerecorrupt,violent,impulsive,anddestructive.ClergytriedtofixthemusingCodeofChivalry(didntwork)Serfswereaclassofpeasantsthatwerelegallyboundtotheirlordsproperty

Manorialism:amanorwasthelandthatthelordownedpeasants,inexchangeforlabor,weregivenprotection,andcouldlivetheirentirelivestherebecausethemanorswereselfsufficient.ThisselfsufficiencyalsoledtodeclineoftradeduringtheMedievalAge

AlmostallpeasantswereilliteratelifeexpectancywasshortduetointenselaborandunhygieniclifestyleTitheswereataxgiventotheChurch,about10%ofwageCharlestheHammerMarteldrovebackSpanishMuslims,slowedMuslimexpansionandwasregardedasahero,popularizedtheCarolingianFamilyCharlemagneexpandedkingdomofFranksundertheCarolingiandynasty,andlaunchedtheCarolingianRenaissance,inwhichhehiredscholarstoteachscholarshowtospeak/readLatinandcopymoreeditionsoftheBibleHewascrownedRomanemperorbyapope

ThisshowedsuperiorityoftheChurchoverkingsiftheycouldhavethepowertocrownemperors,theycoulddethronethemaswell

TreatyofVerdundividedtheCarolingianEmpireintothreeseparatekingdomsresultedinemperorsnolongerhavinganypoweroverkingsTheChurchThediversepeoplesoftheMiddleAgeswereunitedbytheChurchInitially,kingsweresupposedtotakeoversecular(nonreligious)mattersandtheChurchwouldonlyrulepeoplereligiouslybuttherewasaconstantstruggleofpowerbetweenChurchandStateChurchexpandedpoliticalpowerthroughcoronationandcanonlaw

Coronation:claimedtherighttocrownkingsandemperors(seeabove)Canonlaw:legalandjudicialsystemthatallChristiansweresubjecttoclergywouldconducttrialsanddetermineverdictsofthosewhobrokecanonlawsExcommunicationwasacommonpunishment:personwasdeniedsacraments,whichareritualsnecessarytogotoHeavenpersonwasessentiallycondemnedtohellInterdictionwasmassexcommunicationwholepopulationwasexcommunicated

ExampleofChurchhavingpoweroverstatePopeexcommunicatesKingHenryIV,andHenryIVwentallthewaytoRometobegforgivenessTheReconquistawasanattempttodriveallMuslimsoutofSpainTheInquisitionidentifiedheretics(peoplenotChristiansorhaddifferentbeliefsthanwhatChurchtaught)throughtheusageoftortureandexecutionhadtrialsbyordealChurchexpandedeconomicpowerthroughtithes(seeabove)andsimony

Simony:sellingChurchpositionsresultedinthewealthy(andoftenunholy)gettinghighpositionsinChurchChurchwasabletofundelaboratechurchesstyleofarchitecturecalledGothic

StatetriedusinglayinvestituretogainpoweroverChurchpracticeinwhichsecularleadersappointedChurchofficials,wasafailedattemptKingHenryIIofEnglandwouldintroduceatrialbyjuryandcommonlawtoreducepowerofChurchTheCrusadesSeriesofholywarsagainstIslamicempireStartedwhenByzantineemperoraskedPopeUrbanIIforhelpdefendingempireagainstSeljukTurks**ReasonsfortheCrusades:

TakebackcontrolofJerusalem,whichwasunderMuslimcontrol

ProtectChristianreligionSomebelieveditcouldtriggertheSecondComingofJesusWantedtoreunitetheCatholicandOrthodoxchurches(separationcalledTheGreatSchism)PopeUrbanIIpromisedallCrusaderstheywouldautomaticallygotoHeavencalledplenaryindulgenceThiswasespeciallyattractivetosinfulknightsKingswantedtogetridofdisloyalandviolentknightsUnderprimogeniture,theeldestsononlywouldinheritlandwasanopportunityforyoungersonstoacquiremorelandMerchantshopedtogaincontroloflandalongSilkRoad,thuscuttingouttheMuslimmiddlemen

ResultsoftheCrusadesEuropeanstradedmorewithAsiaexposedtothegreatwealthAsiahadandwantedtofindnewtraderoutestoit(startedAgeofExploration)StrengthenedkingsbecausemostvassalsdiedfeudalismdeclinedandmorecentralizedstatesappearedIncreasedhostilitybetweenCatholicsandOrthodoxaswellasbetweenChristians,Muslims,andJews

TheCommercialRevolutionwastheexpansionoftradeasaresultoftheCrusadestownsgrewandbecamecentersoftrade,banksownedbyJewsweresetupbecauseChristianscouldnotloanmoney,andnewclassofpeoplecalledBurghersarose,orpeoplewhobecamewealthynotfromlandownership,buttradeKingJohnofEnglandwasatyrannicalkingwhomanagedtoplaceallofEnglandunderaninterdict,ignoredrightssetbycommonlaw,raisedtaxestofinancewars,andlosthugepiecesofterritoryfromwarslost.NoblesforcedhimtosigntheMagnaCarta,whichgreatlylimitedthepowerofthekingAssemblycalledParliamentalsolimitedpowerofEnglishkingPapalSchismwasaneventwheretherewerethreepopesatthesametime,eachonetryingtoexcommunicateeachotherandtryingtoassumeauthority

thisledtopeoplequestioningpapalinfallibility,andthattheywerenotledbyGodaspopesclaimedReformerslikeJohnWycliffeandJanHusbeganopenlyaccusingChurchofcorruptionandclaimedthattheBiblewastheultimatesourceofreligiousauthorityBubonicPlaguebeganinAsiaandspreadtoEuropethroughtraderoutes,carriedbydiseasedratsandfacilitatedbyunsanitaryandcrowdedtownsResultedin:

ChurchaccusedJewsandhereticsforcausingdisease,manywereexecutedManypeoplelostfaithinbothGodandChurchGodforallowingittohappen,ChurchfornotbeingabletostopitWeakenedfeudalism,becausemostofthelaborersdied

HundredYearsWarwasastrugglefortheFrenchthroneKingofEnglandfoughtFrenchnobilityforcontrolofFrance

Feudalismwascompletelyreplacedbynationstates,aspeoplebegantoassociatethemselvesmorewiththeirnationratherthantheChurchMarkedendofMiddleAges

TheVikingsTribesofpeoplelivinginScandinavia(Norway,Sweden,Denmark,Finland).Areawasdenselyforested(almostcompletelyunfarmable)withharshwinters,surroundedbyseas

Vikingsbecameexpertsailors,usedveryswiftboatsthatallowedthemtoquicklyattackanareaandescapewithincrediblespeedTheywereverybrutalwarriorsalsolootedbecausetheyneededfoodWhenclimatebecamewarmer,theybegansettlingdown/farmingconvertedtoChristianityandsetupsettlementsinEuropelikeNormandyPlayedimportantroleinNorthernTradeArc,primarycarrierofgoodsbetweenwestandeast

suppliedtheAbbasidEmpirewithSlavicslavesmighthavebeeninvolvedinSilkRoad

TheRenaissanceRenaissancemeansrebirthclassicGreekandRomancultureisrevivedCAUSESOFRENAISSANCEISIMPORTANTFOREXAM

BeganinItaly,wheremanycitieswere,becauseincitiespeoplewithdiverseskillsmetandideaswerespreadquickly.ItalywasalsothecenteroftheCommercialRevolution,sothereweremanywealthybankersandmerchantswhofundedartists,calledpatronsOnefamouspatronfamilywastheMedicifamilywerepatronsforDonatello,daVinci,andMichelangeloItalianscouldalsogetinspirationfromtheRomanruinsthatsurroundedthemandLatintextspreservedbyItalianmonks.Inaddition,manyByzantinescholarstraveledtoRomeafterthefallofConstantinople

NewphilosophycalledHumanismbelievedinfocusingonthiscurrentlife,andhappinesscouldbeachievedinthisworldthroughthoughtandaction.Theybelievedinlearningfromthepastandstudiedethics

ThisgreatlycontrastedfromMedievalphilosophiesthathumansweresinfulanddeservedtosufferMedievalartlackedperspectiveandproportion,andthesubjectswerereligiousandfullyclothedRenaissancearthadproperperspectiveandproportionthroughtheuseofavanishingpoint.Thesubjectswerealsosecularaswellasreligious,andwouldoftenbeportrayednudeItalianRenaissance:ArtistsDonatellocreatedthefirstnudesculpturesincetheClassicalperiodMichelangelowasapainter,sculptor,andarchitectbestknownforpaintingtheSistineChapel,lifelikesculptures,anddesignedthedomeofSt.PetersBasilicaLeonardodaVinciwasapainterandinventorbestknownforthepaintingsMonaLisaandTheLastSupperaswellasideasforwarmachinesRaphaelwasbestknownforpaintingTheSchoolofAthensItalianRenaissance:WritersFrancescoPetrarchwascalledthefatherofRenaissanceHumanism,mostfamousworksarehundredsofsonnetsabouthisloveLauraandalsowroteOnIllustriousMen,takingmoralexamplesfromhistoricalfiguresGiovanniBoccacciowrotetheDecameron,abookof100shortstoriesthatchallengedMedievalbeliefsNiccoloMachiavelliwroteThePrince,whichwasapoliticalguidebookonhowarulercouldgainandkeeppowerusingcutthroattacticsanddeceivinghissubjectstheendsjustifythemeansNorthernRenaissancepatronsweremostoftenkingsAlbrechtDurerwasafamouswoodengraverHansHolbeinpaintedrealisticportraitsoftheEnglishroyalfamily,includingCharlesVIIIChristinedePizanwasawriterwhowroteTheBookoftheCityofLadies,whichsupportededucationforwomen

FrancoisRabelaiswroteGargantuaandPantagruel,abouttwogiantswhoaresymbolsforhumansWilliamShakespearewasafamousHumanistplaywright,manyofhisplayscelebratedGreekorRomanhistory.HisplaysexploredthehumanmindandencouragedtheaudiencetolearnlessonstoapplytotheirownlivesThomasMorewasanauthorwhotriedtocombineHumanismwithChristianity.InthebookUtopia,hecriticizedtheEnglishgovernmentfornotupholdingChristianlaws(executioneventhoughGodtellspeopletonotkill)aswellastheChurchsunholyandselfishpriestswhodressedinfancyclothesDesideriusErasmuswasaHumanistwhocriticizedthecorruptionoftheChristianChurchinThePraiseofFolly,andpointsoutallthewrongdoingsofthepopesScientificRevolutionScholarsbegantochallengetheteachingsofancientphilosophersandtheCatholicChurchCausesoftherevolutionwere

RenaissanceandReformationencouragededucationandquestioningoftraditionsAgeofExplorationnecessitatedbetternavigationalinstrumentsandalsoresultedindiscoveriesofcompletelydifferentwaysoflifePrintingpressspreadnewideasquickly

BegantousethescientificmethodandexperimentationtoarriveupontheoriesFrancisBaconandReneDescartessetforthinductiveanddeductivereasoning

Shiftfromgeocentricmodelofuniversetoheliocentric:itwasaradicalchangethatchallengedChurchteachingsandrequiredshowedhowpeoplepublishedtheirideas,andthenotherswouldexpandoffthem

GeocentricmodelwasfirstproposedbyclassicalGreekthinkerslikeAristotle,andthensupportedbytheChurchbecauseitmadeitseemmorelikeEarthwasGodsspecialcreationCopernicusstudiedthemovementoftheplanetsandrealizedthatthegeocentricmodeldidntexplaintheplanetarymovementscompletely,andrevivedAristarchussheliocentricmodelpublishedOntheRevolutionsoftheHeavenlyBodiesTychoBrahewasinspiredbybookandcompiledmassiveamountsofdataaboutplanetarymovementJohannesKeplerthenusedBrahesdatatofinalizetheheliocentricmodel,andfoundthatplanetshadanellipticalorbit(insteadofperfectcircles)

GalileoGalileibuiltatelescopeandfoundimperfectionsincelestialbodies(moonhascraters,sunhasspots)andpublishedworkinStarryMessengeralsosupportedheliocentricmodel

theChurchwasoutragedandwereafraidpeoplewouldbeginquestioningtheirauthority,andforcedGalileotorecanthissupportforheliocentricmodelunderthreatoftorture

IsaacNewtondevelopedhisthreelawsofmotionandalawofgravitation,whichheusedtoexplainKeplerslawsofplanetarymotionTheReformationatimewhenmanygroupsofpeoplewouldopenlyrefusetoaccepttheauthorityofthepope,andformtheirownsectsofChristianity

often,thesourceofauthorityinthesereligionswouldbetheBibleImportanttonotethatthesecriticismsoftheChurchwerenothingnew,butwiththeinventionoftheprintingpress,theideascouldreachmorepeople,andliteracyrateswereincreasing,allowingpeopletointerprettheBibleforthemselvesCausesoftheReformation:

political:kingsdislikedhavingtobowdowntothepope,andweregladtosupportanymovementthatwouldweakenthepapacy

economic:merchantsdislikedhavingtopaytaxestobothkingsandpopes,andiftheirnationbrokeawayfromtheChurch,theywouldnolongerhavetopaytithestotheChurchreligious:spiritualprestigeofthepopewasgreatlyreducedbytheGreatPapalSchism

mostpopesweresinfulandmoreinvolvedwithsecularmattersmanyhadchildren,securedtheirpositionwithbribesorpoisoningopponents,andlivedlivesofgreatluxurybecausebishopsgottheirpositionsbysimony,theywerealsoveryunconcernedwithreligiousmattersonebishopspenthisentirecareerofalmost30yearswagingwarbutneverconductedaserviceserviceswereseveralhourslong,spokeninLatin,andpriestsstoodbehindawoodscreenbecausetheybelievedpeasantshouldntbeallowedtowitnessthedivinityofthemass.Assuch,peopleatchurchspentseveralhoursstandingandstaringatawoodscreen,notunderstandinganythingpriestsweresometimesdrunkards,gamblers,andfatheredchildren.TheywerealsoilliterateandcouldntreadtheBibleassuch,theyoftenmadeupprayers.Thisledtopeoplequestioningiftheprayerswereeffectivewhenreadbysinners,ornotevenactualprayersatall.TheChurchsfailuretostoptheBlackDeathalsocalledintoquestionwhetherornotGodrefusedtoanswertheprayersofthecorruptandsinfulandallowedtheplaguetopersist

MartinLutherwasamonkwhowastroubledthathecouldneverdoenoughgoodworkstopleaseGodandearnsalvation.Hethenreasonedthathumanbeingsaresosinfulthattherewasnothingthattheycoulddotoearnsalvation,butGodwassomercifulthatHeprovidedsalvation

Peoplearesavednotbygoodworks,butbyfaithaloneFriarTetzelsoldindulgencestofundthebuildingofacathedral.Theseindulgencescouldbeboughttoforgivesinsthathadnotbeenconfessedornotyetcommitted,andbuyingindulgenceswouldsupposedlyreducetheamountoftimeyouorarelativehadtospendinpurgatorybeforegoingtoHeavenToprotest,MartinLuthernailed95Thesestolocalchurchdoor,criticizingChurchpracticesEdictofWorms:declarationmadebyHolyRomanEmpirestatingthatLutherwasahereticanddemandedarrestManyGermanprinceshelpedLutherhide/escapegotintocivilwarwithotherHolyRomanEmpirestatesaboutreligionPeaceofAugsbergwassigned,allowingeachprincetochoosereligion,CatholicismorProtestantism.LuthersProtestantteachingswerecalledLutheranismAnglicanismInEngland,KingHenryVIIIseparatedfromChurchaftertheydidntapproveofhisdivorceKingEdwardwasveryyoung,andmostofhisadvisorsweredevoutProtestantsQueenMarywasextremeCatholic,executedmanyProtestantsandearnednicknameBloodyMaryQueenElizabethreturnedEnglandtoProtestantismandestablishedtheAnglicanChurch,combiningelementsofProtestantandCatholicpractices

gotintowarwithCatholicSpain,defeatedtheSpanishArmadaCalvinismJohnCalvinbelievedinpredestinationthatinthebeginning,whenGodcreatedeverything,hedeterminedwhowouldgointoHeavenandwhowouldnotSalvationensuredthatapersonwouldperformgoodworksthus,apersonwhowaspredestinedtogotoHeavenwouldbefaithfulanddevoutCalvinistsinScotlandwerecalledPresbyterians,inFrancewerecalledHuguenots

ThousandsofHuguenotsweremassacredduringtheSt.BartholomewsDayMassacre

CounterReformationChurchtriedtoreformitself,butintheendwouldmostlyreaffirmitsrulesIgnatiusofLoyolaledtheJesuits,andwouldfoundCatholicschoolsthroughoutEuropeandtaughtCatholictheologytostudents,alsosentmissionariesaroundtheworldRevivalofInquisitionandcreationofIndexofForbiddenBookstoremoveheretics

BiblewasincludedontheIndexsopeoplecouldntread/interpretBibleanymoreOverall,ProtestantReformationgreatlyreducedpowerofChurchandledtoabsolutemonarchyTheAgeofExplorationCausesofAgeofExploration:CrusadesgaveEuropeansaccesstoAsiantechnologiesliketheastrolabeandcompass,helpednavigationCrusaderscomingbacktoldstoriesofadventure,amazingwealth,andinnumerableMuslimsthusEuropeanssoughttoexploretheworldforglory,god,andgold

Glory:wantedanadventure,aswellasfamethatwouldaccompanybeingsuccessfulexplorerGod:wouldtrytospreadChristianityasmuchaspossible,competingwiththeIslamicreligion.SpanishconquistadorswouldreadadecreecalledtheRequirementotothenatives,forcingthemtoconvertGold:wantedtofindnewdirecttraderoutestoAsia

PortugalsPrinceHenrytheNavigatorbuiltanavigationschoolPortuguesetriedtogotoAsiabysailingaroundAfricanumerousvoyagesweretakentomapoutwesterncoastofAfrica

BartolomeuDiaswasthefirsttolocatethesoutherntipofAfricaVascodaGamawasthefirsttosailaroundsoutherntipofAfricaandtoAsia

SpanishtriedtofinddirectroutetoAsiabysailingwestChristopherColumbustriedtheoryanddiscoveredtheexistenceoftheAmericasTheAmericaswereinitiallythoughtofasanobstacletoAsiaFerdinandMagellanandhiscrewsailedaroundtheAmericasandcircumnavigatedtheglobehowever,voyagewassolongthatpeopledecideditwasnotpracticaltosailwest

EuropeanssoonrecognizedtheAmericasasasourceofwealthandsetupcolonies,SpainandPortugalwereespeciallycompetitive

TreatyofTordesillasdividedworldinhalfandallottedoneportiontoPortugalandtheothertoSpainHernandoCortesandFranciscoPizarroconqueredtheAztecandIncanEmpire,respectively

partofthereasonwasbecauseofmoreadvancedtechnologyandtheusageofhorsesandwardogsthegreatestreasonforsuccesswasEuropeandiseaseswipingoutthenativepopulation,makingthecivilizationsmucheasiertoconquer

Encomiendasystem:pieceoflandgiventoSpanishcolonist,andcolonistwouldbegiventherightstoallthenativeslivingthere.Thenativeswouldoftenbeslaughteredbrutallyorenslaved.

BartolomedeLasCasascriticizedtheencomiendasystemandhelpeditsabolitionhowever,lossofNativeAmericanlabornecessitatedAfricanslaves

ColumbianExchange:globaltransferoffood,plants,andanimal.Resultedin:cornandpotatoes(aswellasmanyothercrops)introducedtoEurope,leadingtohugepopulationboostdiseaseslikesmallpoxwipedoutmillionsofNatives,whodidnothaveanimmunitytothem

AgeofAbsolutismWascharacterizedbylargekingdomsruledbypowerfulmonarchsMonarchshadabsolutepower,claimingthattheyweregiventhedivinerightofkings,inwhichGodapprovesoftheirruleandkingscarryoutthewillofGod

verysimilartoMandateofHeaveninChinaweakenedpowerofnoblestoincreasetheirownpower

createdbureaucracywithclosealliesinsteadoflordshadstandingarmystaffedbynonnobles,nolongerneededlordsprotection

BalanceofPower:differentrulingfamilieswantedtokeepeachotherfromhavingtoomuchpower,determinedwhoalliedwithwhominwarsHapsburgfamilywasoneofthegreatestabsolutistdynasties,controllinglandinHolyRome,Netherlands,andSpain+itscoloniesinAmericaSpainPhillipIIledSpain,gainedgreatwealthfromcoloniesinAmericaandfundedgoldenageofSpanishartandliteratureUsedwealthtobuildWesternEuropesgreatestarmy/navy,usedtodefendCatholicismIncreaseofgoldfromAmericasledtorapidinflation,pricesincreasedgreatly,andgovernmentlostalotofmoneytoforeigncountriesbecausetheirproductswerecheaperPhilipIIneededtoraisemoneyfromtaxes,butnobleswereexemptfromtaxes,thepoorhadnomoneytogive,andthemiddleclass,largelycomprisedofJews/Muslims,weredrivenoutduringtheInquisition.Asaresult,hehadtotaxtheDutchNetherlandsDespisedPhilipIIstaxesandrevoltedHugebattlesbetweentheDutchProtestantsandSpanishCatholicsIntheend,wontheirindependenceandestablishedUnitedProvincesofNetherlands,arepublicBecamehugetradingpower,involvedinsilk/spicetradewealthgeneratedalsofundedartsFranceRuledbytheBourbonfamilyHenryIVpassedtheEdictofNantesallowingHuguenotstoworshipfreely,beararmsandfortifytheirtownsCardinalRichelieu,advisorforaking,increasedpowerofBourbonbytakingawayHuguenotsrightstobeararmsandfortifytowns,destroyednoblescastles,andemployednonnoblescalledintendantstogovernmentpositionsJeanBaptisteColbert,aneconomicadvisor,developedmercantilismtheorythatholdsthatcountryshouldpreventwealthfromleavingcountryasmuchaspossiblebyestablishingfavourablebalanceoftradecountryexportsmorethanimportsLouisXIViscalledhimselftheSunKingbecausehewassopowerful.

completelyrevokedEdictofNantesforcednoblestoliveathispalaceandbecomehisservantsbuilttheVersailles,largestpalaceinEuropeatthetimefundedplaywrightsandstarredinhisownplayprotectedkingdomfromHapsburgRingbyinvadingNetherlandsandHolyRome

LeagueofAugsburgwasanallianceofHolyRomanEmpire,Spain,England,andUPNtocounterFranceandbalancepowerWarofSpanishSuccessionresultedinFrancelosingallcoloniesinCanadatoEngland

CentralEuropeReligiousdivisionasaresultofPeaceofAugsburgledto30YearsWarbetweenCatholicFerdinandIIofHolyRomeandtheProtestantBohemiansBourbonfamilyassistedProtestantstobalancepoweragainsttheHapsburgsMariaTheresarulerofofAustria(Hapsburgs)FredericktheGreatrulerofPrussia(Hohenzollerns)RussiaPreviously,MongolshadtakenoverRussiaandkeptRussiansfrommodernizingPetertheGreatoftheRomanovDynastywesternizedRussiaafterhetravelledabroadandsawwealthyEuropeankingdomsWasespeciallyinfluencedbytheByzantineEmpirefollowedOrthodoxchurchandusedByzantinearchitectureForcedeveryonetoadoptwesternstylesofdressCreatedaWindowtotheWestbysecuringlandaroundBalticSeafortradeConstructednewcapitalinSt.PetersburgEnglandabsolutismwaslargelyinhibitedbyParliamentandMagnaCartaJamesItriedtobeabsolutemonarch,usedCourtofStarChamberwhichignoredtraditionoftrialbyjuryCharlesIwasforcedtosignPetitionofRighttoreaffirmprinciplesinMagnaCarta/commonlaw,andthenignoreditCivilwarbetweenParliamentandnoblesParliamentwasledbyOliverCromwelldefeatedandabolishedmonarchyandbecameanabsoluterulerhimselfAfterwards,monarchywasreinstatedTheGloriousRevolutionwasbloodlessoverthrowofanotherbadkingnewrulersrecognizedParliamentandbecameaconstitutionalmonarchyAfricaDiverselandscapecoastshaveveryfewharbors/portsSaharaDesertinthenorth,KalahariDesertinsouth

SaharaisexpandingintotheSahelregioninprocesscalleddesertificationRainforestsnearequatorNorthandsouthcoastsaremostdenselypopulated,butmostpeopleliveinSavannah,hugegrassyplainNokwasfirstcivilization,producedironandhadtradingcenterDjenneDjenoBantudescendedfromNokandmigratedacrossAfrica,sharedlanguage,slashandburnagriculture,andironworkingReligionwasmostlyanimism,buttherewereMusliminfluencesfromNorthAfricaAksumwascivilizationbyRedSea,hadGoldenAgeduetotradingonRedSeaculturaldiffusionfromtradeshownbyleaderEzanaconvertingtoChristianityThreeempiresGhana,Mali,andSonghaigainedgreatwealthfromGoldSaltTransSaharantrade,withMuslimBerbermerchantscrossingSaharadesertoncamelswithloadsofsalttoexchangeforgoldGhanaprovidedsafeandfairmarketsfortrade,whichgreatlyincreasedtrade

soldierstoprotecttravellingmerchantsofficialscheckedmerchantsscalestomakesurewerebalancedfairly

GhanakingscontrolledgoldonthemarketandhadownershipofallgoldinkingdomtopreventdecreaseinvalueIslambroughttoGhanafromtradewithBerbersMaliEmpireafterGhanaMansaMusafromMaliwasaMuslimwhowenttoMeccaandputMaliontheMap

whilegoingonhajj,MansaMusastoppedatCairoanddistributedsomuchgoldthatvalueofgolddecreasedinEgyptandEuropeancartographersbegantodrawMaliontheirmapswhenhecameback,heturnedcityTimbuktuintocenterofIslamicworship/learning

IbnBattutawasanexplorercomparedtoMarcoPolowhovisitedMaliSonghaiEmpirehadMuslimrulersAfterSonghai,WestAfricadevolvedintoseveralcitystatesthatcompetedfiercelywithoneanotherBegantradewithEuropeanscapturedPOWsandsoldintoslaveryinexchangeforguns,startedTransAtlanticSlaveTrade

AfricanslaveswereinhighdemandforlaborinthecoloniesNativeAmericanslavesdiedeasilyfromEuropeandiseases,butAfricanshaddevelopedimmunity(seesection:AgeofExploration)

BantupeoplewhomigratedtoeastcoaststartedchainoftradingcitiesthatengagedinactivetradewithArabia,India,andChinaUsedthemonsoonwindstosailfromIndiatoKilwa(southernmosttradingcity)summermonsoonwindspushedboatsnorth,whilewintermonsoonpushedboatssouthResultedinculturaldiffusionIslamspreadtoEastAfricaandmanymosqueswerebuilt,ArabiclanguageblendedwithnativetocreateSwahililanguageWhenPortugalroundedtipofAfrica,theyconqueredmanytradingcities

TheAmericasTheearliestAmericanscrossedtheBeringiaLandBridge,orlandthatwasexposedintheBeringStraitduringaniceageTheywerehuntergathererswhoweresimplyfollowinganimals,andhadnoideatheyweremigratingtoanothercontinentWhentheydiscoveredagriculture,theirstaplecropsweresquash,beans,andmaizeThefirstMesoamericancivilizationwastheOlmeccivilization,theirculturewouldgreatlyinfluencelatercivilizations,andassuchtheywerecalledtheMotherCulture

landonthecoast,manyswamps/jungles,abundantresourcesbuiltcentersoftradeandreligion,residentialareas,pyramidssculptedgiantstoneheadsthatwereeitherpoliticalleaders,priests,orballgameplayers,alsohadhalfhumanandjaguarsculptures

TheMayansTheMayansettledontheYucatanPeninsula,wasanadvancedcivilizationofmanycitystatesManytemplesandpyramids,liketheKukulcanPyramidatChichenItzaBelievedthatthegodsneedbloodtoliveandthussacrificeswerecommon

Hadceremonialballgame,whichwasbelievedtoensurerainandthesuntoriselosersofthegame(usuallyPOWs)weresacrificedtothegodsMayankingswouldalsoparticipateinbloodlettingpulledaropelacedwiththornsthroughtheirtongue

Hadanincrediblycomplexandaccuratecalendarsystem.Eachdaywasassociatedwithadifferentgodcarryingthesun,andMayanswouldplanactions(marriage,plantingcrops)basedonthegodcarryingthesunthatday

couldbeusedtopredictsolarandlunareclipsesMathematiciansdevelopedbasetwentynumbersystemandconceptofzeroAdvancedwrittenlanguage,800glyphsCodex(pl.codices):stoneandbarkpaperbookallbutthreecodicesweredestroyedbySpanishMayamayhavecollapsedduetofamine,civilwarleavingthemdefenselesstoinvaders,orcitizensrebellingAztecEmpireValleyofMexicohadfertilesoilandmanylakes,inCentralMexicoBuiltcapitalcityTenochtitlanonanislandinLakeTexcocoBuiltchinampasforfarmingfloatinggardensbuiltonthelake,toincreasefarmablelandHumansacrificeswereacentralpartofreligion,believedwasnecessaryforsuntorise

estimatedthattensofthousandsofpeopleweresacrificedeveryyearattheGreatTemplewagedwarsolelyforgettingmorePOWstosacrificeconqueredareaswereforcedtopayatribute,orelsetheAztecwoulddestroythevillageandsacrificealltheinhabitantsQuetzalcoatlwasthegodoflightandgood,wasbelievedtoeventuallyarriveandusherageofpeach

HernandoCorteskillsEmperorMontezumaandconquerstheAztecempirewithaidofsmallpoxdiseaseIncanEmpireIntheAndesMountainssoilwaspoor,littlefarmingsurfaceadaptedbyusingterracefarming,orcarvingoutstepsintothemountainstocreateflatsurfacesBelievedtheirkingwasdescendedfromthesungodHumansacrificewasnotascommonasAztecEmpireTempleoftheSunwasthemostsacredShrineUnderEmperorPachacuti,empireexpandedtoinclude2500miles,16millionpeople

createdabureaucracytogovernhugeareastandardizedschoolsystemandusedsinglespokenlanguagehugesystemofroadsandfootbridgesutilizedsocialismgovernmentcontrolswhatisproducedandbywhomusedrecordkeepingsystemofknottedstringsknotsrepresentsnumberssystemofmessengerssimilartotheAmericanPonyExpress(minustheponies)

FranciscoPizarrokidnapsandthenkillsEmperorAtalhualpa,andtakesovertheIncanEmpire

MiscellaneousKeyConcepts/ConnectionsTheworldsfirstcivilizationsstartedaroundrivervalleys,wherefarmingwaspossible,liketheFertileCrescent,Egypt,India,andChinaWhenlawcodeswerewrittendown,theywereunchangeable:CodeofHammurabi(Babylon),Draconianlaw(Greece),SuleymantheGreatslawcode,thePillarsofAsoka(MauryanEmpire),theTwelveTables(Rome)TheIndoEuropeansstartedinthesteppelandoftheCaucasusMountains,thenmigratedtomanydifferentplaces.TheHittiteswenttoAnatolia,theAryanswenttoIndia,theMycenaeansandDorianswenttotheBalkanPeninsulaRoadswereusedtoconnectvastempires:Rome,HanDynastyChina,Persian,GuptanImportantcitiesoftradewereestablishednearbodiesofwater:Tyre,Rome,Mogadishu