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Four ICE offer

ICE We would like to think of our page as an exchange page of experience and information.

SLOGAN Connecting chemical engineers.

VISION Improving the chemical Engineering skills to meet the work environment & to decrease the gap between study and work.

MISSION Gathering information about any chemical engineering fields.

/ IamCheEng /Egy.ICE

OUR HISTORY

9-9-2011 We have founded specialized group for Chemical Engineering jobs for Egyptians "Get a Job"

27-12-2012 We have founded our global Page "I am a Chemical Engineer" serving Chemical Engineers all over the world

11-6-2013 We launched our first magazine named after our page "I am a Chemical Engineer"

18-9-2013 Second edition of our magazine was launched.

22-10-2013 Our first session was in Petroleum Engineering department in Suez under the name "The way to get a job"

30-10-2013 Egy-ICE page was founded as a specialized Chemical Engineering courses page in order to announce our proposed Chemical Engineering Courses.

11-11-2013 Was our first session in Chemical Engineering held in Petroleum Engineering department in Suez

27-12-2013 Third edition of our magazine was launched.

How about a career where the opportunities are endless? Trying not to

sound like an advertisement, I'd like to describe some of the more

common careers pursued with a Chemical Engineering degree. Firstly, if

you're considering studying Chemical Engineering, but you're a little

timid because of the horror stories that you hear, you actually may want to

think about it some more! I've actually heard someone say, "How hard can

it be?" Really hard, but really rewarding too! True, the material involved

in far from easy and some of the concepts take hours (and in some cases

years!) to master, but isn't having this degree worth the effort? I think that

you'll find that it will be. I guess what I'm saying is, if you're serious

about wanting to be a Chemical Engineer, go for it and don't be afraid to

fail (as long as you've done your best). If you're not sure what you want to

do, take some preliminary courses first and then ask some of the current

students what they think so far and compare you're academic merit to

theirs.

Now, once you've got the degree, the fun really starts. I suggest taking the

Fundamentals of Engineering Exam (FE Exam) shortly before or after

graduation. The after 4 or 5 years of industrial work, you can take the

Professional Engineering Exam (PE Exam) and become a Certified

Professional Engineer. Always a good idea to take these exams,

remember, if you don't someone else will and they'll probably get your

job! Speaking of jobs, what kind of work can you do with a Chemical

Engineering degree?

"I love designing equipment, optimizing processes, and performing

financial analyses on these processes."

--DESIGN ENGINEER

"I like to analyze existing processes and suggest changes needed to

increase profitability"

--PROCESS ENGINEER

"I really like designing and performing experiments to test theories and

check the economic impact of plant changes on a small scale"

--RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT ENGINEER

"I'm a people person and I don't like being trapped in one place all of the

time"

--FIELD ENGINEER OR TECHNICAL SALES PERSONNEL

"I want to be a physician"

--MEDICAL SCHOOLS REALLY LIKE CHEMICAL ENGINEERS

"I'm out of school, I'm tired of engineering and I never want to do it

again"

--YOU GRADUATED WITH ONE OF THE MOST DIFFICULT

UNDERGRADUATE DEGREES THAT THERE IS. MAYBE YOU'D

RATHER LOOK INTO BECOMING A FORENSIC CHEMIST OR

AN ENVIRONMENTAL CONSULTANT. WHATEVER YOU

DECIDE TO DO, YOU HAVE A QUALITY EDUCATION THAT NO

ONE CAN TAKE FROM YOU.

A Chemical Engineering degree may not be a free ride through life,

but it does provide a solid base to start a wide variety of careers and

after all, wasn't that you're objective to begin with?

Below you'll find an interview that was completed many years ago (circa

2000) that high schools students have used to help them make their

decision regarding chemical engineering.

Interview with a Chemical Engineer Many students find their way to

in search of a chemical engineer to interview for career research. We

applaud these students and are happy to help in their quest to learn more

about chemical engineering. The following are 17 of the most commonly

asked questions.

Why Become a Chemical Engineer? and Interview

with a Chemical Engineer BY Christopher Haslego Owner and Chief Webmaster www.cheresources.com N

OT

E

1. How did you come to choose this career? Why did

it appeal to you? Actually, as with many college students, I changed my major course of study

during my freshman year. I began college as a computer science major. I

quickly found that computer science just was not for me. I explored the

campus and found a course of study that combined technical thinking with a

topic that had always interested me ..chemistry. As I learned more about

chemical engineering, I just knew it was for me.

2. What kind of training or education did this career require

and what college or university did you attend? The training included a 5 year (sometimes 4 depending on the university that

you attend) academic cirriculum. I attended West Virginia University in

Morgantown, WV. My classes included 4 units of Calculus, at least 6 of

chemistry, some general engineering which included computer programming,

thermodynamics, transport analysis, fluid dynamics, heat transfer, material

and energy balance (2 classes), process control, chemical reaction

engineering, separation technology, and chemical process design just to name

some of the more important classes. However, at a university type setting,

you'll also be required to take classes known as core requirements to make

you a "well rounded individual". Mine included Theatre, Spanish,

Criminology, Political Science, Geology, and Physiology....you get the

picture. You can go to WVU's chemical engineering page at

www.cemr.wvu/~wwwche/ and look under the "Undergraduate program" to

see a complete cirriculum there.

3. Are there any other skills beyond formal training that

someone needs to do this job? Your college training is just the beginning of your education. When you land

your first job, learn how the world works. There are numerous

skills that chemical engineers entering a chemical plant environment just do

not know. You will learn many aspects of the business world, details of the

equipment and process that you work with, and other issues of the

workplace. While the training that you receive in college is extremely

important, say that most people would agree hat on-the-job training is

where they learned the skills that made them a good engineer. These are all

reasons why so hard to land that first job without any experience. In

short, many people will know more than you and will be more productive

much faster.

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

4. How long is a typical work day? What time does

your day end? I begin work at 8:00 A.M. and I generally finish between 5 and 6 P.M. I

should mention that I now work in an office environment. I began my career

in a chemical plant, but the hours where the same. The problem was that it

was not uncommon to receive calls on weekends or late at night if problems

occurred at the plant. I work this schedule five days a week (Monday

through Friday).

5. What is the starting salary or hourly wage for this job? Is

there overtime pay? The starting salary is usually around $45,000 per year but can be as low as

$38,000 or as high as $50,000 per year. Most chemical engineers work on a

fixed salary every two weeks or month. This means that they do not earn

extra money for working more than 40 hours per week. Most employers are

liberal with salary employees. For example, you may work 50 hours one

weeks, and only 35 the next. Usually, say that the yearly average works

out to be near 40 hours per week, but some people prefer to (or are required

to) work more.

6. How can you advance your career as a chemical engineer? The best way for anyone to advance in their career is to separate themselves

from other employees. Stand out, do something great! In general, the best

ways to do this are to earn money for the company by finding ways to

manufacture products cheaper, find unique solutions to complicated

problems, or increase the efficiency of the way that you and others work.

All of these will help the company that you work for perform better. It will

also help you succeed.

7. How much paid vacation time do you receive? I receive two weeks paid vacation, two holidays, and two personal

days. a total of 14 paid days off per year. During my fifth year of

service with my company, receive an additional 5 days per year and

there are further increases the longer that with the company.

Although some companies place restrictions on the number of paid sick

days that one can receive, mine does not. We have a simple policy,

sick, come to (this is not very common and people

appreciate it and it is seldom, if ever, abused).

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

8. Do you have a retirement plan? What is included? My company offer its employees a standard retirement package called a

401K. This allows employees to put money into an account (without being

taxed) to save for retirement. My company automatically contributes 3% of

my salary to this account and I can add up to 14% of my annual salary (up

to $10,000 per year) into the account. My company, additionally, matches

50% of the first 6% that I contribute. Essentially, if I save 6% of my salary,

my company puts in 6% of my salary. overlook the importance of

saving for retirement when you begin your career. Young workers often

begin saving too late and may delay their retirement. This money is later

taxed when it is withdrawn after you retire.

9. Does the job have medical or dental benefits? Is it full

coverage or is there a deductible or co-payment? I have both medical and dental benefits. With the cost of healthcare, very

few companies offer coverage. I pay (very little) for these insurance

plans and my employer pays the remaining amount. Most dental work is

covered at 80% (check-ups and an annual x-ray are covered at 100%). I

have a small co-pay for hospital and doctor visits, but under normal

circumstances I have to visit my Primary Care Physician (PCP) and

coordinate my care with her. To avoid the circus that healthcare has

become .try to stay healthy :)

10. What are three things that you enjoy about your job? I enjoy most everything about my job! I work as a design engineer for a

company that supplies heat transfer equipment to the chemical industry. I

also do some marketing and sales work as well. I guess I enjoy the

following the most:

a. The independent work environment (no one looking over my shoulder)

b. Knowing that directly responsible for helping my company to

succeed

c. Being able to travel anywhere in the US at any time that I choose

11. What are some things that you do not enjoy? I spend a lot of time on the phone, which really is not my favorite thing to

be doing, but important nonetheless. Sometimes, it can be hard to

accomplish goals because of the channels that you have to work

through this can be frustrating.

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

12. How long have you been working in this occupation?

How long do you expect to remain in this field? If you are

going to make a change, why? been in my current position for two years now. I also working for

another company for a year. I made the change because I really did not feel

comfortable with my last employers. They did not encourage

thinking at all. Creativity was not encouraged for fear that an idea may not

work. This is not a good environment for a young engineer. I made the

change and glad that I did ever since. My current employer goes out of

their way to encourage new ideas and a better company because of it.

13. How much of a demand do you see for this occupation in

the future? When I graduated from college in 1998, there was a great demand for

chemical engineers. Naturally demand goes up and down depending on the

economy and how many people graduate each year. Generally, say that

there is always a need for good chemical engineers. Chemical engineers can

perform many different functions. Probably why you hear of many

chemical engineers who are out of work.

14. What high school classes are good for preparing to become

a chemical engineer? This is an easy question. While the classes are free, take as much math and

science as you possibly can. They will only prepare you better for college

and give you an advantage over your peers who will probably be very

intelligent.

15. What advice would you give to someone considering this

occupation? Be ready to work hard to get through college. get discouraged. If at

all possible, DO AN INTERNSHIP, DO AN INTERSHIP, DO AN

INTERSHIP. An internship will give you an opportunity to get some

experience before you graduate. The field is very rewarding and you most

likely will never have to worry about finding a job for the rest of your life.

Instead, only worry will be finding a job that you enjoy.

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

16. Where are job for chemical engineers available (rural,

urban)? Most chemical plants are found in rural areas, so to begin career, you

may find yourself in a remote area. After you gain some valuable

experience, you may consider a bit of a career change and may be able to

land a good job in a more urban area (this is pretty much what I did). My

first job was in rural South Carolina and now I reside in beautiful

Richmond, VA.

17. Did you specialize in any topic in particular? In school, I emphasized polymers (plastics) in my studies. This helped get

me my first job in a polymer plant. Now I concentrate on heat transfer (one

topic in chemical engineering).

18. How does chemistry enter into your profession? For example: As a chemical engineer, you may have to separate water and

benzene sometime....you had better know how the two interact chemically

before you start. Do you know if they are miscible in one another?

"Miscible" is a term used to describe two liquids that mix thoroughly....like

water and alcohol. But water and oil are "Immiscible" in that the oil "floats

on top of the water"......this is just one example of how chemistry is very

important to a chemical engineer. If you're going to be responsible for

moving, separating, and reacting chemicals...you better know about the

chemicals and how they react to one another first! Some of the chemical

knowledge will also come with experience. For example, if someone were

to ask you how to remove caffeine from coffee beans, what would you

recommend? Experience tells me that there are two basic, industrially

accepted methods. One uses a solvent known as methyl chloride and the

other uses carbon dioxide under extremely high pressure (supercritical

carbon dioxide). The use of methyl chloride is an older method and requires

additional precautions because methyl chloride is poisonous so one must be

sure that is does not contaminate the coffee. Using supercritical carbon

dioxide requires more expensive equipment, but the risk on contamination is

no longer there because carbon dioxide is not poisonous to humans. Using

carbon dioxide to decaffeinate coffee has been advertised as "natural

decaffeination".

Interview with a Chemical Engineer

CAVITATION AND NPSH IN CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS

Cavitation is the formation and collapse of vapor bubbles in a liquid. Bubble formation occurs at a point where the pressure is less than the vapor pressure, and bubble collapse or implosion occurs at a point where the pressure is increased to the vapor pressure. Figure 1 shows vapor pressure temperature characteristics. This phenomenon can also occur with ship propellers and in other hydraulic systems such as bypass orifices and throttle valves situations where an increase in velocity with resulting decrease in pressure can reduce pressure below the liquid vapor pressure.

CAVITATION EFFECTS

BUBBLE FORMATION PHASE

Flow is reduced as the liquid is displaced by vapor, and mechanical imbalance occurs as the impeller passages are partially filled with lighter vapors. This results in vibration and shaft deflection, eventually resulting in bearing failures, packing or seal leakage, and shaft breakage. In multi-stage pumps this can cause loss of thrust balance and thrust bearing failures.

BUBBLE COLLAPSE PHASE

1. Mechanical damage occurs as the imploding bubbles remove segments of impeller material.

2. Noise and vibration result from the implosion. Noise that sounds like gravel

warning of cavitation.

NET POSITIVE SUCTION HEAD

When designing a pumping system and selecting a pump, one must thoroughly evaluate net positive suction head (NPSH) to prevent cavitation. A proper analysis involves both the net positive suction heads available in the system (NPSHA) and the net positive suction head required by the pump (NPSHR). NPSHA is the measurement or calculation of the absolute pressure above the vapor pressure at the pump suction flange. Figure 2 illustrates methods of calculating NPSHA for various suction systems. Since friction in the suction pipe is a common negative component of NPSHA, the value of NPSHA will always decrease with flow. NPSHA must be calculated to a stated reference elevation, such as the foundation on which the pump is to be mounted. NPSHR is always referenced to the pump impeller center line It is a measure of the pressure drop as the liquid travels from the pump suction flange along the inlet to the pump impeller. This loss is due primarily to friction and turbulence.

Turbulence loss is extremely high at low flow and then decreases with flow to the best efficiency point. Friction loss increases with increased flow. As a result, the internal pump losses will be high at low flow, dropping at generally 20 30% of the best efficiency flow, then increasing with flow. The complex subject of turbulence and NPSHR at low flow is best left to another discussion. Figure 3 shows the pressure profile across a typical pump at a fixed flow condition. The pressure decrease from point B to point D is the NPSHR for the pump at the stated flow. The pump manufacturer determines the actual NPSHR for each pump over its complete operating range by a series of tests. The detailed test procedure is described in the Hydraulic Institute Test Standard 1988 Centrifugal Pumps 1.6. Industry has agreed on a 3% head reduction at constant flow as the standard value to establish NPSHR. Figure 4 shows typical results of a series of NPSHR tests. The pump system designer must understand that the published NPSHR data established above are based on a 3% head reduction. Under these conditions the pump is cavitating. At the normal operating point the NPSHA must exceed the NPSHR by a sufficient margin to eliminate the 3% head drop and the resulting cavitation. The NPSHA margin

required will vary with pump design and other factors, and the exact margin cannot be precisely predicted. For most applications the NPSHA will exceed the NPSHR by a significant amount, and the NPSH margin is not a consideration. For those applications where the NPSHA is close to the NPSHR (2 3 feet), users should consult the pump manufacturer and the two should agree on a suitable NPSH margin. In these deliberations, factors such as liquid characteristic, minimum and normal NPSHA, and normal operating flow must be considered.

SUCTION SPECIFIC SPEED

The concept of suction specific speed (Ss) must be considered by the pump designer, pump application engineer, and the system designed to ensure a cavitation- free pump with high reliability and the ability to operate over a wide flow range.

The system designer should also calculate the system suction specific speed by substituting design flow rate

pump speed N is generally determined by the head or pressure required in the system. For a low maintenance pump system, Designers and most user specifications require, or prefer, S2 values below 10,000 to 12,000. However, as indicated above, the pump Ss is dictated to a great extent by the system conditions, design flow, head, and the NPSHA. Figures 5 and 6 are plots of S2 versus flow in gpm for various NPSHA or NPSHR at 3,500 and 1,750 rpm. Similar plots can be made for other common pump speeds. Using curves from Figure 5 and Figure 6 allows the system designer to design the system S2, i.e., for a system requiring a 3,500 rpm pump with 20 feet of NPSHA, the maximum flow must be limited to 1,000 gpm if the maximum Ss is to be maintained at 12,000. Various options are available, such as reducing the head to allow 1,750 rpm (Figure 7). This would allow flows to 4,000 gpm with 20 feet of NPSHA. It is important for the pump user to understand how critical the system design requirements are to the selection of a reliable, trouble-free pump. Matching the system and pump

characteristics is a must. Frequently, more attention is paid to the discharge side. Yet it is well known that most pump performance problems are caused by problems on the suction side. Figure 7 is a typical plot of the suction and discharge systems. It is important that points A, B, and C be well established and understood. A is the normal operating point. B is the maximum flow for cavitation-free operation. C is the minimum stable flow, which is dictated by the suction specific speed. As a general rule, the higher the suction specific speed, the higher the minimum stable flow capacity will be. If a pump is always operated at its best efficiency point, a high value of Ss will not create problems. However, if the pump is to be operated at reduced flow, then the Ss value must be given careful consideration.

REFERENCES

1. Goulds Pump Manual.

2. Durco Pump Engineering Manual.

3. Hydraulic Institute Test Standards1988 Centrifugal Pumps 1.6.

OPERATING & MAINTENANCE INFORMATION FOR HEAT EXCHANGERS LOCATION

The heat exchanger should be located in a clean, open area, where it is easily accessible for

inspection, service and repair. Allowance should be made for the clearance required to remove the

tube bundle.

PIPING

Long radius elbows should be used in place of standard elbows wherever possible, because of their

superior flow characteristics. Liberal use of shut off valves is recommended to enable inspection

and service.

INSTALLATION

1. To move or lift the heat exchanger, place a sling around the unit's inlet and outlet

connections. Verify that all equipment, including the sling, is certified to handle the total

weight of the heat exchanger. Carefully lift to piping site. Avoid slinging at the bolted gasket

head joint area.

2. Install unit level and square so pipe connections can be made without force. During

installation and operation, unit should be adequately supported to prevent settling that could

cause piping strains.

3. Provide sufficient clearance at channel end for removal and replacement of tube bundle.

(Minimum clearance = one length of the shell)

4. Provide positive shutoff valves and by-pass to permit both shell and tubeside to be shut off for

inspection and service.

5. After installation and prior to startup all head flange bolts should be re-tightened.

OPERATION

Start up - Open cold side first; then start hot side fluid slowly to gradually bring unit to operating condition. Bring unit from ambient temperature up to operating temperature gradually. Do not introduce hot or cold fluids suddenly. This could damage the unit and void the warranty.

Shut down - Always close off flow of hot fluid first.

Important - Never admit hot fluid suddenly when unit is empty or cold. Do not shock with cold water when unit is hot.

Gasket Creep is inherent to most gasket joints, and retorquing is required. The greater the operating temperature and pressure the greater the problem can become. It is imperative that the head bolts be torqued after installation, after initial startup, and inspected seasonally to be sure the bolts are torqued correctly.

The bolts should be torqued incrementally to 30%, 60%, and then to 100% of the appropriate value in Figure 1. They should be torqued in the sequential order of the appropriate pattern in Figure 2

Vacuum Measurement Units (Aliens vs. Humans)

I was once captured by aliens and transported to their home planet, which rotates around the star, Sirus.

"Earthling," asked their many-eyed leader, "Explain how sub-atmospheric pressures are quantified on the 3rd planet from your home star/'

"Well, it's kinda complicated

"Yes! Yes! We know. That is why we have brought you here.

So we may gain insight and achieve understanding. Speak now Earthling, or die."

"Oka. It's like this. In America, we use the system of inches of Hg vacuum, This is how it works:

At sea level, atmospheric pressure is zero inches of Hg. And full vacuum is 30 inches of Hg.

At a higher elevation, like Denver, atmospheric pressure is zero inches of Hg. And full vacuum is 28 inches of Hg.

Thus, a vacuum of 26 inches of Hg

at my home in New Orleans (at sea level), is the same pressure as 24 inches of Hg in Denver. Both are four inches of Hg above a pressure of absolute zero."

The multi-eyed green aliens glared at me with disbelief and hostility.

"Okay. Don't get angry," I said. "We've got a simpler system of measurement too. It's based on mm of Hg. There are 25.4 mm per inch. Here is the alternate method:

In Denver, zero mm of Hg is full vacuum. And atmospheric pressure is 709 mm of Hg.

Thus a vacuum either in Denver or New Orleans of 102 mm of Hg is the same pressure.

And this 102 mm of Hg is the same pressure as 26 inches of Hg vacuum at sea level in New Orleans and 24 inches of Hg in Denver/'

"Creature from the blue planet, we think the 'mm of Hg/ is best," the hostile alien said.

"I agree. But we have other systems as well. For example:

Minus 13 psig at sea level is the same as 26 inches of Hg or 102 mm of Hg.

Minus 12 psig in Denver is the same as 24 inches of Hg, or 102 mm of Hg."

My captors turned from green to brown, just like the lizards in my backyard. What did this signify?

"And then we have another system," I continued to explain.

"Minus 0.5 BARG at sea level is equal to 380 mm of Hg, or 15 inches of Hg vacuum, or minus7.5 psig.

'At a higher elevation, in Denver, 0.5 BARG is equal..."

"Stop, Earthling!" screamed my captors.

"And then there are inches of water vacuum used at smaller

vacuums. And then there are inches of water draft used in fired heaters. Also, shall I explain negative kpa and millibars of vacuum?" I continued.

"No earth creature," intoned the many-eyed commander.

"Go home in peace. We have decided not to invade your blue planet. It's too complicated."

For me, I avoid all these complications. I make all my measurements with my digital pressure gauge, which reads in mm of Hg and needs no correction for elevation. I also carry out all calculations in mm of Hg, and would advise the reader to do the same.

"Earthman," they said, "The environment of this planet is so degraded, it will not be habitable by intelligent life forms for a minimum of another 128 solar cycles. It's not worth our trouble to invade."

And then they were gone, without actually inquiring about our vacuum systems. However, you may find the following Tables helpful.

Incidentally, I made up the part about my being captured by aliens and then transported to their home planet. The truth is that once they realized how complicated all of this stuff was, they released me almost immediately

Source

Troubleshooting Vacuum Systems Steam Turbine Surface Condensers and Refinery Vacuum Towers

Authored by Norman P. Lieberman

Overview of Biogas Digesters

Contents 1. Introduction.

2. Raw material for the biogas plant (Substrates).

3. Advantages and disadvantages in producing biogas.

i. Advantages.

ii. Disadvantages.

4. Digester design.

i. The Floating Drum digester design.

ii. The Fixed Dome digester design.

iii. The Flexible Bag digester design.

5. Operating the Digester.

6. Portable Bio-digester.

7. Biogas experimental data.

i. Size of the digester.

ii. Value equivalent of biogas with other energy sources.

iii. Heating value of biogas.

iv. Composition of Biogas.

v. Gas Yields and Methane Contents for Various Substrates.

List of Figures:

Figure (1): The Floating Drum Digester Design.

Figure (2): The fixed dome design.

Figure (3): The Flexible Bag Design.

Figure (4): The Portable Design.

List of Tables:

Table (1): Biogas is composed of the following

Table (2): Gas yields and methane contents for various substrates at the end of a 10-20 day retention time at a process temperature of roughly 30C.

Overview of Biogas Digesters

1. Introduction:

There is world-wide interest in biogas production, and research is undertaken and equipment manufactured in very many tropical countries.

Biogas is a combustible mixture of methane (50 - 70%) and carbon dioxide, with traces of hydrogen sulphide and water. This gaseous mixture is formed naturally. It is produced spontaneously in the rumens of cows. It is also given off from the bottom of some marshes and lakes, and from rubbish dumps. It is formed by the process of anaerobic digestion, in which micro-organisms break down organic material in the absence of oxygen.

This process has been used to treat sewage waste for over 100 years. The energy crises of the 1970s stimulated the construction of digesters, particularly in India and China, where there was already a committed interest in the process. Since the late 80s, a great interest has developed in many countries, partly because of

the fuel-wood crisis and partly because of the improved technology available.

In order to promote the construction and use of digesters at the household or village level, therefore, it is important that there exists:

At least one national supplier of equipment suitable for running on biogas lighting, heating, refrigerators, incubators etc.

The availability of credit facilities, on good terms. This usually requires government backing.

2. Raw material for the biogas plant (Substrates):

Substrates are biodegradable materials, which can be used for biogas production. The substrates, which can be loaded to the biogas digester, are the following:

Animal Wastes: chicken dung, hog, cattle, goat manure.

Household Wastes: night soil and kitchen refuse

Crop Residues: corn stalks, rice straws, banana leaves, corncobs, peanut hulls, cogon and bagasse, water Lilly and grass cuttings.

Industrial Wastes: distillery slops, coconut water, filter pressed cake, banana and pineapple peelings, Bottling wastes, fish wastes and meat processing wastes.

3. Advantages and disadvantages in producing biogas:

I There are many advantages in producing biogas:

The gas can be used for cooking, lighting, heating and running refrigerators, incubators and engines. Small tractors have been run from biogas, though the gas cylinder must be transported by the tractor on a trailer.

It is produced from waste materials.

The effluent from the process makes an excellent fertilizer. The nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus present in the feed are made into a form more easily

absorbed by the plants, and the fibrous nature of the slurry makes it a good soil conditioner.

If human feces are used, it may lead to an improvement in sanitation, and therefore health.

It leads to less deforestation, if biogas is used in place of fuel-wood.

An anaerobic digester uses relatively simple technology.

Small digesters can be made from locally available materials using locally available skills.

Ii The disadvantages, however, are:

The digester must be designed and constructed to a high standard.

Some skill is required in its operation.

Even a small-scale household sized digester is too costly for many people.

The effluent is in the form of liquid slurry, which requires particular equipment to transport it to and spread it on the fields.

4. Digester design

There are three widely used basic designs, each of which can be modified in the light of local conditions and experience. They are:

1. The floating drum digester, from India.

2. The fixed dome digester, from China.

3. The flexible bag digester, from Taiwan.

These digesters are essentially cylindrical or partially spherical in design. Such shapes are stronger, and can be more easily sealed and made water and gas tight than can a shape with corners. Concrete and brick are the best materials for construction.

I The Floating Drum digester design:

The slurry is kept in a cylindrical pit in the ground. The pit is usually lined with bricks, similar to a dug water well. The soil around the pit supports the brick walls.

The gas is collected in a cylindrical steel drum that floats inverted in the slurry. As the quantity of gas builds

up, the drum floats higher in the liquid. As gas is used, the drum sinks back down. If the drum becomes full the gas bubbles out around the sides and is lost to the air. The drum is usually made from mild steel sheet, welded around a light frame made of welded steel angle bars. These bars serve a second function - the drum is rotated by hand and the bars stir up the surface of the slurry, preventing the formation of a solid layer, or crust, of indigestible matter. If this layer were allowed to form, then there would be a serious pressure build-up of gas beneath it.

The drum is held in place by a central guide rod, which ensures that the drum is free to rotate and does not jam against the walls of the digester while moving up and down.

The major criticism of this design has been of its cost (up to 35% of total expenditure) and the durability of the steel drum, the biogas slurry is corrosive to the steel.

However, if the drum is conditioned properly initially and painted annually, it should last a long time. Some drums have been reported to have lifetimes greater than 30 years, while those that are poorly maintained will not last more than five.

Figure (1): The Floating Drum Digester Design.

Ii The Fixed Dome digester design:

This type consists of an underground pit lined with brick or concrete with a dome shaped cover, also made from brick or concrete. The cover is fixed and held in place by earth (about 1m3) piled over the top to resist the pressure of the gas inside. A second pit, the slurry reservoir, is built above and to the side of the digester. As gas is given off it collects in the dome and displaces some of the slurry into the reservoir. As gas is used the slurry flows back into the digester to replace it.

The reservoir is built from brick or stone masonry. The gas is taken out form the center of the dome, via a pipe which is supported by a small masonry turret. Access to the digester pit during building, and also if the pit needs cleaning, is through the slurry reservoir and outlet. The gas pressure inside a typical dome plant can be as high as 1000 mm of water and can exert a force of several tons upward from under the dome.

The main problem with the dome design is that concrete and brick masonry are porous to biogas unless they are carefully sealed. In China, a cement and lime plaster is used inside the dome, although it is possible to use polymer based paints such as vinyl emulsion. However, epoxy and polyurethane paints cannot be applied in a confined space since the fumes are toxic to painters as well as to micro-organisms.

Figure (2): The fixed dome design.

Iii The Flexible Bag digester design:

This design uses a long cylindrical bag made of plastic supported in a trench lined with masonry, concrete or compacted sand or mud. The slurry fills the lower two-thirds of the bag and the gas collects above it. As the biogas is used, the bag collapses.

The original rubber material used to make the bag was not very durable. However, the introduction of a new material known as red mud plastic (RMP) has proved to be much stronger and resistant to sunlight. Red mud plastic is made from PVC and a filler material which is a by-product of aluminum lining. Ten year lifetimes are claimed.

The major problem is the removal of the gas. A flexible PVC pipe coupling is welded to the top of the bag but it must be capable of moving when the bag inflates and deflates. There are reports of gas leakages at this point.

One of the attractions of this design is that its weight and compressibility mean that it can be more easily transported to more remote locations. However, the plastic is rather vulnerable to attack by children, goats, birds and so on. Although it can be repaired, the necessary facilities may not always be available locally.

Figure (3): The Flexible Bag Design.

5. Operating the Digester:

Household scale digesters are usually run on a batch system. This requires two digesters. The first is filled, and gas output increases, peaks and then, as it begins to decline, the second is filled and brought on-line. The alternative is to feed a larger digester once a day, with a corresponding quantity being withdrawn.

The feed must be chopped into small pieces. The process is improved if the Substrates are mixed with cow slurry, which is rich in the micro-organisms needed for digestion. The ratio of substrates to cattle dung depends upon the availability of cattle dung and the size of the digester, but amounts as small as 2% cattle dung are effective. A lot will depend on the particular experience in a location. Solid waste must be mixed with water before being put into the digester, possibly as much as 10 parts water to 1 of solids.

The optimum temperature of operation is between 30 and 35 degrees centigrade. Some people say that 38 is optimum. If the temperature drops significantly, digestion will slow down, or even stop altogether. The digestion

process can also be stopped altogether if the micro-organisms are killed by certain chemicals such as antibiotics, disinfectants, detergents and pesticides.

6. Portable Bio-digester:

Biogas Digester is a physical structure whose main function is to provide anaerobic condition (without the presence of air) within it. This structure when loaded by biodegradable materials especially manure will produce biogas. It is also known as bioreactor or anaerobic reactor.

The mini biogas digester is just equipped with all the required materials that are square, welding, riveting and fastening method to joint all the part. This mini biogas digester also equipped with rollers to make it more portability and make it to be friendlier to the user. The body of this mini biogas digester is designed to decrease it weight as light as possible to increase its portability characteristic and its volume of the body also designed to get the bigger size as possible but still suit with it characteristic of portability and the mini size.

Even though it is in mini size, the process stills same as the larger size digester which is to produce methane gas to be used to replace cooking gas as the example, and all the function still can operate like usual but the volume is limited. The process of developing this digester is still considering the suitable to the user and its ergonomic factor.

Figure (4): The Portable Design.

7. Biogas experimental data:

I Size of the digester:

A typical size for a household is between 5 and 10 cubic meters. The following data might help in the decision about size.

Approximate gas consumption:

Cooking 250 liters per person per day.

Lighting 120 to 150 liters per hour per lamp.

Engine fuel 750 liters per kWh power.

Fermentation time:

In hot, tropical countries 30-40 days.

In hot regions which only cool slightly in winter 40-60 days.

More temperate climates, with significantly cooler winters 60-90 days.

Ii Value equivalent of biogas with other energy sources:

1 kilogram LPG = 0.45 cubic meter biogas.

1 liter gasoline = 0.54 cubic meter biogas.

1 liter diesel fuel = 0.52 cubic meter biogas.

1 kilowatt hr. electricity = 1.0 cubic meter biogas.

Iii Heating value of biogas:

The heating value of Biogas is 950 1050 BTU/ft3 or 20 Mega joules per cubic meter. It has an ignition

temperature in the range of 650 degrees to 750 degrees Celsius.

Iv Composition of biogas:

Table (1): Biogas is composed of the following

Iiv Gas Yields and Methane Contents for Various Substrates:

Table (2): Gas yields and methane contents for various substrates at the end of a 10-20 day retention time at a process temperature of roughly 30C.

Substance Symbol Percentage

Methane CH4 50 70%

Carbon

Dioxide

CO2 30 40%

Hydrogen H2 5 10%

Nitrogen N2 1 2%

Water

Vapor

H2O 0.3%

Hydrogen

Sulphide

H2S Traces

Substrate Gas yield (l/kg VS*) Methane content (%) Pig manure 340 550 65 70 Cow manure 90 310 65

Poultry droppings 310 620 60 Horse manure 200 300 N/A Sheep manure 90 310 N/A Barnyard dung 175 280 N/A Wheat straw 200 300 50 60

Rye straw 200 300 59 Barley straw 250 300 59 Oats straw 290 310 59 Corn straw 380 460 59 Rape straw 200 N/A Rice straw 170 280 N/A

Rice seed coat 105 N/A Flax 360 59

Hemp 360 59 Grass 280 550 70

Elephant grass 430 560 60 Cane trash (bagasse) 165 N/A

Broom 405 N/A Reed 170 N/A Clover 430 490 N/A

Vegetables residue 330 360 N/A Potato tops/greens 280 490 N/A

Field/sugar beet greens 400 - 500 N/A Sunflower leaves 300 59 Agricultural waste 310 430 60 70

Seeds 620 N/A Peanut shells 365 N/A Fallen leaves 210 290 58

Water hyacinth 375 N/A Algae 420 500 63

Sewage sludge 310 740 N/A * VS = Total volatile solids, e.g. ca. 9% of total liquid manure mass for cows.

Renewable Energy Renewable energy is energy which comes from natural resources such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, and geothermal heat, which are renewable (naturally replenished). In 2008, about 19% of global final energy consumption came from renewables, with 13% coming from traditional biomass, which is mainly used for heating, and 3.2% from hydroelectricity. New renewables (small hydro, modern biomass, wind, solar, geothermal, and biofuels) accounted for another 2.7% and are growing very rapidly. The share of renewables in electricity generation is around 18%, with 15% of global electricity coming from hydroelectricity and 3% from new renewables.

Wind power is growing at the rate of 30% annually, with a worldwide installed capacity of 158 gigawatts (GW) in 2009, and is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States. At the end of 2009, cumulative global photovoltaic (PV) installations surpassed 21 GW and PV power stations are popular in Germany and Spain. Solar thermal power stations

operate in the USA and Spain, and the largest of these is the 354 megawatt (MW) SEGS power plant in the Mojave Desert. The world's largest geothermal power installation is The Geysers in California, with a rated capacity of 750 MW. Brazil has one of the largest renewable energy programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and ethanol now provides 18% of the country's automotive fuel. Ethanol fuel is also widely available in the USA.

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas, where energy is often crucial in human development. Globally, an estimated 3 million households get power from small solar PV systems. Micro-hydro systems configured into village-scale or county-scale mini-grids serve many areas. More than 30 million rural households get lighting and cooking from biogas made in household-scale digesters. Biomass cookstoves are used by 160 million households.

Climate change concerns, coupled with high oil prices, peak oil, and increasing government support, are driving increasing renewable energy legislation, incentives and commercialization. New government spending, regulation and policies helped the industry weather the global financial crisis better than many other sectors.

Renewable energy flows involve natural phenomena such as sunlight, wind, tides, plant growth, and geothermal heat, as the International Energy Agency explains:

Renewable energy is derived from natural processes that are replenished constantly. In its various forms, it derives directly from the sun, or from heat generated deep within the earth. Included in the definition is electricity and heat generated from solar, wind, ocean, hydropower, biomass, geothermal resources, and biofuels and hydrogen derived from renewable resources.

Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct

areas: power generation, hot water/ space heating, transport fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services:

Power generation. Renewable energy provides 18 percent of total electricity generation worldwide. Renewable power generators are spread across many countries, and wind power alone already provides a significant share of electricity in some areas: for example, 14 percent in the U.S. state of Iowa, 40 percent in the northern German state of Schleswig-Holstein, and 20 percent in Denmark. Some countries get most of their power from renewables, including Iceland (100 percent), Brazil (85 percent), Austria (62 percent), New Zealand (65 percent), and Sweden (54 percent).

Heating. Solar hot water makes an important contribution in many countries, most notably in China, which now has 70 percent of the global total (180 GWth). Most of these systems are installed on multi-family apartment buildings and meet a portion of the hot water needs of an estimated 50 60 million households in China. Worldwide, total installed solar water heating systems meet a portion of the water heating needs of over 70 million households. The use of biomass for heating continues to grow as well. In Sweden, national use of biomass energy has surpassed that of oil. Direct geothermal for heating is also growing rapidly.

Transport fuels. Renewable biofuels have contributed to a significant decline in oil consumption in the United States since 2006. The 93 billion liters of biofuels produced worldwide in 2009 displaced the equivalent of an estimated 68 billion liters of gasoline, equal to about 5 percent of world gasoline production

Mainstream forms of renewable energy

Wind power

Airflows can be used to run wind turbines. Modern wind turbines range from around 600 kW to 5 MW of rated power, although turbines with rated output of 1.5 3 MW have become the most common for commercial use; the power output of a turbine is a function of the cube of the wind speed, so as wind speed increases, power output increases dramatically. Areas where winds are stronger and more constant, such as offshore and high altitude sites, are preferred locations for wind farms. Typical capacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the range in particularly favourable sites.

Globally, the long-term technical potential of wind energy is believed to be five times total current global energy production, or 40 times current electricity demand. This could require large amounts of land to be used for wind turbines, particularly in areas of higher wind resources. Offshore resources experience mean wind speeds of ~90% greater than that of land, so offshore resources could contribute substantially more energy.

Wind power is renewable and produces no greenhouse gases during operation, such as carbon dioxide and methane.

Hydropower

Grand Coulee Dam is a hydroelectric gravity dam on the Columbia River in the U.S. state of Washington. The dam supplies four power stations with an installed capacity of 6,809 MW and is the largest electric power-producing facility in the United States.

Energy in water can be harnessed and used. Since water is about 800 times denser than air, even a slow flowing stream of water, or moderate sea swell, can yield considerable amounts of energy. There are many forms of water energy:

Hydroelectric energy is a term usually reserved for large-scale hydroelectric dams. Examples are the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State and the

Akosombo Dam in Ghana.

Micro hydro systems are hydroelectric power installations that typically produce up to 100 kW of power. They are often used in water rich areas as a remote-area power supply (RAPS). There are many of these installations around the world, including several delivering around 50 kW in the Solomon Islands.

Damless hydro systems derive kinetic energy from rivers and oceans without using a dam.

Ocean energy describes all the technologies to harness energy from the ocean and the sea. This includes marine current power, ocean thermal energy conversion, and tidal power.

Solar energy

Monocryst-

alline

solar cell.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grand_Coulee_Dam.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Klassieren.jpg

Solar energy is the energy derived from the sun through the form of solar radiation. Solar powered electrical generation relies on photovoltaics and heat engines. A partial list of other solar applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, daylighting, solar hot water, solar cooking, and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.

Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy. Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.

Biomass

Biomass (plant material) is a renewable energy source because the energy it contains comes from the sun. Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture the sun's energy. When the plants are burned, they release the sun's

energy they contain. In this way, biomass functions as a sort of natural battery for storing solar energy. As long as biomass is produced sustainably, with only as much used as is grown, the battery will last indefinitely.

In general there are two main approaches to using plants for energy production: growing plants specifically for energy use, and using the residues from plants that are used for other things. The best approaches vary from region to region according to climate, soils and geography.

Biofuel

Information on pump regarding ethanol fuel blend up to 10%, California.

Liquid biofuel is usually either bioalcohol such as bioethanol or an oil such as biodiesel.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EthanolPetrol.jpg

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermenting the sugar components of plant materials and it is made mostly from sugar and starch crops. With advanced technology being developed, cellulosic biomass, such as trees and grasses, are also used as feedstocks for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil.

Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled greases. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe.

Biofuels provided 1.8% of the world's transport fuel in 2008.

Geothermal energy

Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland

Geothermal energy is energy obtained by tapping the heat of the earth itself, both from kilometers deep into the Earth's crust in some places of the globe or from some meters in geothermal heat pump in all the places of the planet . It is expensive to build a power station but operating costs are low resulting in low energy costs for suitable sites. Ultimately, this energy derives from heat in the Earth's core.

Three types of power plants are used to generate power from geothermal energy: dry steam, flash, and binary. Dry steam plants take steam out of fractures in the ground and use it to directly drive a turbine that spins a generator. Flash plants take hot water, usually at temperatures over 200 C, out of the ground, and allows it to boil as it rises to the surface then separates the steam phase in steam/water separators and then runs the steam through a turbine.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Krafla_Geothermal_Station.jpg

In binary plants, the hot water flows through heat exchangers, boiling an organic fluid that spins the turbine. The condensed steam and remaining geothermal fluid from all three types of plants are injected back into the hot rock to pick up more heat.

The geothermal energy from the core of the Earth is closer to the surface in some areas than in others. Where hot underground steam or water can be tapped and brought to the surface it may be used to generate electricity. Such geothermal power sources exist in certain geologically unstable parts of the world such as Chile, Iceland, New Zealand, United States, the Philippines and Italy. The two most prominent areas for this in the United States are in the Yellowstone basin and in northern California. Iceland produced 170 MW geothermal power and heated 86% of all houses in the year 2000 through geothermal energy. Some 8000 MW of capacity is operational in total.

There is also the potential to generate geothermal energy from hot dry rocks. Holes at least 3 km deep are drilled into the earth. Some of these holes pump water into the earth, while other holes

pump hot water out. The heat resource consists of hot underground radiogenic granite rocks, which heat up when there is enough sediment between the rock and the earths surface. Several companies in Australia are exploring this technology.

Renewable energy commercialization

Growth of renewables

During the five-years from the end of 2004 through 2009, worldwide renewable energy capacity grew at rates of 10 60 percent annually for many technologies. For wind power and many other renewable technologies, growth accelerated in 2009 relative to the previous four years. More wind power capacity was added during 2009 than any other renewable technology. However, grid-connected PV increased the fastest of all renewables technologies, with a 60-percent annual average growth rate for the five-year period.

Economic trends

All forms of energy are expensive, but as time progresses, renewable energy generally gets cheaper, while fossil fuels generally get more expensive. Al Gore has explained that renewable energy technologies are declining in price for three main reasons:

First, once the renewable infrastructure is built, the fuel is free forever. Unlike carbon-based fuels, the wind and the sun and the earth itself provide fuel that is free, in amounts that are effectively limitless.

Second, while fossil fuel technologies are more mature, renewable energy technologies are being rapidly improved. So innovation and ingenuity give us the ability to constantly increase the efficiency of renewable energy and continually reduce its cost.

Selected renewable energy indicators

Selected global indicators 2007 2008 2009

Investment in new renewable capacity (annual) 104 130 150 billion USD

Existing renewables power capacity,

including large-scale hydro 1,070 1,140 1,230 GWe

Existing renewables power capacity,

excluding large hydro 240 280 305 GWe

Wind power capacity (existing) 94 121 159 GWe

Solar PV capacity (grid-connected) 7.6 13.5 21 GWe

Solar hot water capacity 126 149 180 GWth

Ethanol production (annual) 50 69 76 billion liters

Biodiesel production (annual) 10 15 17 billion liters

Countries with policy targets for renewable

energy use 68 75 85

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Gore

Third, once the world makes a clear commitment to shifting toward renewable energy, the volume of production will itself sharply reduce the cost of each windmill and each solar panel, while adding yet more incentives for additional research and development to further speed up the innovation process.

Wind power market

Wind power: worldwide installed capacity 1996-2008

At the end of 2009, worldwide wind farm capacity was 157,900 MW, representing an increase of 31 percent during the year, and wind power supplied some 1.3% of global electricity consumption. Wind power accounts for approximately 19% of electricity use in Denmark, 9% in Spain and Portugal, and 6% in Germany and the Republic of Ireland. The United States is an important growth area and installed U.S. wind power capacity reached 25,170 MW at the end of 2008. As of November 2010, the Roscoe Wind Farm (781 MW) is the world's largest wind farm.

As of September 2010, the Thanet Offshore Wind Project in United Kingdom is the largest offshore wind farm in the world at 300 MW, followed by Horns Rev II (209 MW) in Denmark. The United Kingdom is the world's leading generator of offshore wind power, followed by Denmark.

New generation of solar thermal plants

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WorldWindPower.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PS20andPS10.jpg

Large solar thermal power stations include the 354 megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems power plant in the USA, Solnova Solar Power Station (Spain, 150 MW), Andasol solar power station (Spain, 100 MW), Nevada Solar One (USA, 64 MW), PS20 solar power tower (Spain, 20 MW), and the PS10 solar power tower (Spain, 11 MW).

The solar thermal power industry is growing rapidly with 1.2 GW under construction as of April 2009 and another 13.9 GW announced globally through 2014. Spain is the epicenter of solar thermal power development with 22 projects for 1,037 MW under construction, all of which are projected to come online by the end of 2010. In the United States, 5,600 MW of solar thermal power projects have been announced. In developing countries, three World Bank projects for integrated solar thermal/combined-cycle gas-turbine power plants in Egypt, Mexico, and Morocco have been approved.

Photovoltaic market

40 MW PV Array installed in Waldpolenz, Germany

Photovoltaic production has been increasing by an average of some 20 percent each year since 2002, making it a fast-growing energy technology. At the end of 2009, the cumulative global PV installations surpassed 21,000 megawatts.

As of November 2010, the largest photovoltaic (PV) power plants in the world are the Finsterwalde Solar Park (Germany, 80.7 MW), Sarnia Photovoltaic Power Plant (Canada, 80 MW), Olmedilla Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 60 MW), the Strasskirchen Solar Park (Germany, 54 MW), the Lieberose Photovoltaic Park (Germany, 53 MW), and the Puertollano Photovoltaic Park (Spain, 50 MW). Many of these plants are integrated with agriculture and some use innovative tracking systems that follow the sun's daily path across the sky to generate more electricity than conventional fixed-mounted systems. There are no fuel costs or emissions during operation of the power stations.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Juwi_PV_Field.jpg

Topaz Solar Farm is a proposed 550 MW solar photovoltaic power plant which is to be built northwest of California Valley in the USA at a cost of over $1 billion. High Plains Ranch is a proposed 250 MW solar photovoltaic power plant which is to be built on the Carrizo Plain, northwest of California Valley.

However, when it comes to renewable energy systems and PV, it is not just large systems that matter. Building-integrated photovoltaics or "onsite" PV systems use existing land and structures and generate power close to where it is consumed.

Use of ethanol for transportation

E95 trial bus operating in So Paulo, Brazil.

Since the 1970s, Brazil has had an ethanol fuel program which has allowed the country to become the world's second largest producer of ethanol (after the United States) and the world's

program uses modern equipment and cheap sugar cane as feedstock, and the residual cane-waste (bagasse) is used to process heat and power. There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. By the end of 2008 there were 35,000 filling stations throughout Brazil with at least one ethanol pump.

Nearly all the gasoline sold in the United States today is mixed with 10 percent ethanol, a mix known as E10, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM are among the automobile

-trucks, and minivans that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads. The challenge is to expand the market for biofuels beyond the farm states where they have been most popular to date. Flex-fuel vehicles are assisting in this transition because they allow drivers to choose different fuels based on price and availability. The Energy Policy Act of 2005, which calls for 7.5

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bunda_do_%C3%B4nibus_de_etanol.jpg

billion gallons of biofuels to be used annually by 2012, will also help to expand the market.

Geothermal energy commercialization

The West Ford Flat power plant is one of 22 power plants at The Geysers.

The International Geothermal Association (IGA) has reported that 10,715 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power in 24 countries is online, which is expected to generate 67,246 GWh of electricity in 2010. This represents a 20% increase in geothermal power online capacity since 2005. IGA projects this will grow to 18,500 MW by 2015, due to the large number of projects presently under consideration, often in areas previously

assumed to have little exploitable resource.

In 2010, the United States led the world in geothermal electricity production with 3,086 MW of installed capacity from 77 power plants; the largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California. The Philippines follows the US as the second highest producer of geothermal power in the world, with 1,904 MW of capacity online; geothermal power makes up approximately 18% of the country's electricity generation.

Geothermal (ground source) heat pumps represented an estimated 30 GWth of installed capacity at the end of 2008, with other direct uses of geothermal heat (i.e., for space heating, agricultural drying and other uses) reaching an estimated 15 GWth. As of 2008, at least 76 countries use direct geothermal energy in some form.

Wave farms expansion

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:West_Ford_Flat_Geothermal_Cooling_Tower.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pelamis_Wellenkraftwerk_Portugal_3.JPG

One of 3 Pelamis Wave Energy Converters in the harbor of Peniche, Portugal

Portugal now has the world's first commercial wave farm, the Agucadoura Wave Park, officially opened in September 2008. The farm uses three Pelamis P-750 machines generating 2.25 MW. Initial costs are put at 8.5 million. A second phase of the project is now planned to increase the installed capacity to 21MW using a further 25 Pelamis machines.]

Funding for a wave farm in Scotland was announced in February, 2007 by the Scottish Government, at a cost of over 4 million pounds, as part of a UK13 million funding packages for ocean power in Scotland. The farm will be the world's largest with a capacity of 3MW generated by four Pelamis machines.

Developing country markets

Renewable energy can be particularly suitable for developing countries. In rural and remote areas, transmission and distribution of energy generated from fossil fuels can be difficult and expensive. Producing renewable energy locally can offer a viable alternative.

Biomass cookstoves are used by 40

stoves are being manufactured in factories and workshops worldwide, and more than 160 million households now use them. More than 30 million rural households get lighting and cooking from biogas made in household-scale digesters. An estimated 3 million households get power from small solar PV systems. Micro-hydro systems configured into village-scale or county-scale mini-grids serve many areas.

Kenya is the world leader in the number of solar power systems installed per capita. More than 30,000 very small solar panels, each producing 12 to 30 watts, are sold in Kenya annually.

Renewable energy projects in many developing countries have demonstrated that renewable energy can directly contribute to poverty alleviation by providing the energy needed for creating businesses and employment. Renewable energy technologies can also make indirect contributions to alleviating poverty by providing energy for cooking, space heating, and lighting. Renewable energy can also contribute to education, by providing electricity to schools.

Industry and policy trends

Global renewable energy investment growth (1995-2007)

Global revenues for solar photovoltaics, wind power, and biofuels expanded from $76 billion in 2007 to $115 billion in 2008. New global investments in clean energy technologies expanded by 4.7 percent from $148 billion in 2007 to $155 billion in 2008. U.S. President Barack Obama's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 includes more than $70 billion in direct spending and tax credits for clean energy and associated transportation programs. Clean Edge suggests that the commercialization of clean energy will help countries around the world pull out of the current economic malaise. Leading renewable energy companies include First Solar, Gamesa, GE Energy, Q-Cells,

Sharp Solar, Siemens, SunOpta, Suntech, and Vestas.

The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) is an intergovernmental organization for promoting the adoption of renewable energy worldwide. It aims to provide concrete policy advice and facilitate capacity building and technology transfer. IRENA was formed on January 26, 2009, by 75 countries signing the charter of IRENA. As of March 2010, IRENA has 143 member states who all are considered as founding members, of which 14 have also ratified the statute.

Renewable energy policy targets exist in some 73 countries around the world, and public policies to promote renewable energy use have become more common in recent years. At least 64 countries have some type of policy to promote renewable power generation. Mandates for solar hot water in new construction are becoming more common at both national and local levels. Mandates for blending biofuels into vehicle fuels have been enacted in 17 countries.

New and emerging renewable energy technologies

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New and emerging renewable energy technologies are still under development and include cellulosic ethanol, hot-dry-rock geothermal power, and ocean energy. These technologies are not yet widely demonstrated or have limited commercialization. Many are on the horizon and may have potential comparable to other renewable energy technologies, but still depend on attracting sufficient attention and research, development and demonstration (RD&D) funding.

Cellulosic ethanol

Companies such as Iogen, Broin, and Abengoa are building refineries that can process biomass and turn it into ethanol, while companies such as Diversa, Novozymes, and Dyadic are producing enzymes which could enable a cellulosic ethanol future. The shift from food crop feedstocks to waste residues and native grasses offers significant opportunities for a range of players, from farmers to biotechnology firms, and from project developers to investors.

Selected Commercial Cellulosic Ethanol Plants in the U.S.

(Operational or under construction)

Company Location Feedstock

Abengoa Bioenergy Hugoton, KS Wheat straw

BlueFire Ethanol Irvine, CA Multiple sources

Gulf Coast Energy Mossy Head, FL Wood waste

Mascoma Lansing, MI Wood

POET LLC Emmetsburg, IA Corn cobs

Range Fuels Treutlen County, GA Wood waste

SunOpta Little Falls, MN Wood chips

Xethanol Auburndale, FL Citrus peels

Ocean energy

Systems to harvest utility-scale electrical power from ocean waves have recently been gaining momentum as a viable technology. The potential for this technology is considered promising, especially on west-facing coasts with latitudes between 40 and 60 degrees:

In the United Kingdom, for example, the Carbon Trust recently estimated the extent of the economically viable offshore resource at 55 TWh per year, about 14% of current national demand. Across Europe, the technologically achievable resource has been estimated to be at least 280 TWh per year. In 2003, the U.S. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) estimated the viable resource in the United States at 255 TWh per year (6% of demand).

The world's first commercial tidal power station was installed in 2007 in the narrows of Strangford Lough in Ireland. The 1.2 megawatt underwater tidal electricity generator, part of Northern Ireland's Environment & Renewable Energy Fund scheme, takes advantage of the fast tidal flow (up to 4 metres per second) in the lough. Although the generator is powerful enough to power a

thousand homes, the turbine has minimal environmental impact, as it is almost entirely submerged, and the rotors pose no danger to wildlife as they turn quite slowly.

Ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the temperature difference that exists between deep and shallow waters to run a heat engine.

Enhanced Geothermal Systems

Enhanced geothermal system 1:Reservoir 2:Pump house 3:Heat exchanger 4:Turbine hall 5:Production well 6:Injection well 7:Hot water to district heating 8:Porous sediments 9:Observation well 10:Crystalline bedrock

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Enhanced Geothermal Systems are a new type of geothermal power technologies that do not require natural convective hydrothermal resources. The vast majority of geothermal energy within drilling reach is in dry and non-porous rock. EGS technologies "enhance" and/or create geothermal resources in this "hot dry rock (HDR)" through hydraulic stimulation.

EGS / HDR technologies, like hydrothermal geothermal, are expected to be baseload resources which produce power 24 hours a day like a fossil plant. Distinct from hydrothermal, HDR / EGS may be feasible anywhere in the world, depending on the economic limits of drill depth. Good locations are over deep granite covered by a thick (3 5 km) layer of insulating sediments which slow heat loss.

There are HDR and EGS systems currently being developed and tested in France, Australia, Japan, Germany, the U.S. and Switzerland. The largest EGS project in the world is a 25 megawatt demonstration plant currently being developed in the Cooper Basin, Australia. The Cooper Basin has the potential to generate 5,000 10,000 MW.

Nanotechnology thin-film solar panels

Solar power panels that use nanotechnology, which can create circuits out of individual silicon molecules, may cost half as much as traditional photovoltaic cells, according to executives and investors involved in developing the products. Nanosolar has secured more than $100 million from investors to build a factory for nanotechnology thin-film solar panels.

Renewable energy debate

Renewable electricity production, from sources such as wind power and solar power, is sometimes criticized for being variable or intermittent. However, the International Energy Agency has stated that deployment of renewable technologies usually increases the diversity of electricity sources and, through local generation, contributes to the flexibility of the system and its resistance to central shocks.

There have been "not in my back yard" (NIMBY) concerns relating to the visual and other impacts of some wind farms, with local residents sometimes fighting or blocking construction. In the USA, the Massachusetts Cape Wind project was delayed for years partly because of aesthetic concerns.

However, residents in other areas have been more positive and there are many examples of community wind farm developments. According to a town councilor, the overwhelming majority of locals believe that the Ardrossan Wind Farm in Scotland has enhanced the area.

Renewable energy in Egypt

Since the 1970s, Egypt has had a policy on use of renewable energy resources. In early 1980s, a renewable energy strategy was formulated by the

as an integral part of national energy planning. The strategy has been revised in the light of the projections for possible new renewable energy technologies and application options, the available financing sources and investment opportunities in the field.

target to meet 20% of electrical energy demand from renewable energy resources by the year 2020, including about 12% from wind power, hydro power with additional contributions from other renewable applications.

have been among the fastest growing in the world, the country is acting to

reverse the trend with the help of the recently established Clean Technology Fund aimed at scaling up low-carbon technologies and energy efficiency. Egypt is among the first countries to tap the $5.2 billion fund currently supported by eight governments, managed by the World Bank, and administered through the World Bank Group and other multilateral development banks. Egypt plans to use $300 million in concessional financing from the fund, blended with financing from the World Bank Group, the African Development Bank, bilateral development agencies, private sector and other sources to spur wind power development and introduce clean transport options enabling the country to meet its

target of 20 percent of energy from renewable sources by 2020. Under business-as-usual conditions, Egypt could face a 50 percent increase in greenhouse gas emissions from 2007 levels in the electricity sector alone. Electricity and transport contribute over 70 percent of the greenhouse gas emissions in the country.

But Egypt considered a leader in the region on renewable energy and energy efficiency hopes to change that scenario by realizing a 7200 MW wind power capacity by 2020, cutting vehicle emissions in heavily populated regions through improved public transportation systems and making industry more energy efficient. Egypt is also a participant in a proposed CTF co-financed regional programme to scale up concentrating solar power plants in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). From a global perspective, it is critical that the best solar resources are used for solar scale-up and MENA region offers this opportunity, says Jonathan Walters, transport and energy manager for the

Africa region. Egypt is piloting a small scale concentrating power plant with support from the Global Environment Facility and Japan Bank for International Cooperation. Wind Power

winds in the Gulf of Suez suggest Egypt

Walters.

The government and partners such as IFC of the World Bank Group have already financed 400 megawatts of wind-energy capacity. Another 600 megawatts of projects are in the pipeline and expect to start in the next two to four years. But further development has so far been constrained by lack of infrastructure. For that reason, the government plans to use $100-$120 million in Clean Technology Fund money to co-finance a high-capacity transmission system from the wind farms in the Gulf of Suez to serve heavily populated areas such as Cairo.

Without CTF financing, such infrastructure development could be delayed three to five years, according to the CTF Investment Plan for Egypt.

-changing for -

financing from the Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs) that include World Bank, the African Development Bank and the IFC. Putting $300 million of concessional financing into the mix overall is quite a significant subsidy for investments that have a substantial impact on reducing greenhouse gas emissions

Eng. Abdel RahmanNational Renewable Energy Agency (NREA), says the CTF will alleviate some of the financial burden of higher renewable energy prices, especially in light of current low prices of oil.

developing countries with a serious plan to expand renewable energy, and it is even more effective in these times of

Rahman.

are still backing the renewable energy plans they set forth. It also supports availing infrastructures, such as transmission lines that make scaling up of RE possible, and gives confidence to investors to invest in RE in the region Urban Transport Likewise, CTF funds, combined with World Bank financing, will accelerate

light rail and bus rapid transit development expected to accommodate 5 million passengers daily in Greater Cairo.

area and account for 20 million motorized person trips a day and about 13 million tons of CO2 a year. The economic and environmental costs of the

congestion have been considerable, says Walters. To alleviate traffic and reduce CO2 emissions by about 1.5 million tons a year, the government is planning six new bus rapid transit corridors in Cairo, and light rail transit to connect Cairo with fast-growing suburbs. The plan also calls for replacing 613 old and polluting public minibuses with 1,310 large clean technology buses. In 1986, Egypt established the New & Renewable Energy Authority (NREA) to act as the national focal point for expanding efforts to develop and introduce renewable energy technologies on a commercial scale together with implementation of related energy conservation programmes.

1. What are the field operator roles? Monitoring & inspection of all rotating equipments for any abnormalities like abnormal sound, checking lube oil levels, motor load (Amps), suction & discharge pressures, suction strainers DP (If DP gauge available, normally for compressors suction strainers will be provided with DP gauges) etc. and if any abnormalities are found informs to panel operator to raise the work order.

Monitoring & inspection of all instruments, checking all the control valves for any hunting, gland leak, instrument air leak etc. comparing the local gauge reading with respective transmitters and if there is any deviation or abnormalities, informs to panel operator to raise the work order.

Check the plant thoroughly and records readings.

Collecting samples and send to laboratory for analysis, based on the results adjusting the parameters, like adjusting the chemical doings (for example steam drum BFW PH: 9 to 10, TSS: 0 to 6 mg/l, Phosphate: 5 to 10mg/l, Silica: 0 to 0.3 mg/l).

Prepares equipment for maintenance and re-commission when completed.

Undertakes minor maintenance like providing 1for any purging or draining, topping up the lubricating oils for pumps and housekeeping etc.

Monitors chemical inventory levels and adding dosing chemicals as required to the system.

Responds to emergency situations as a team member and follows the emergency procedures.

Undertakes minor troubleshooting like stabilizing the flame by adjusting the air to burners, back flushing the strainers if required, de-chocking the sample points, if the control valve is hunting taking the control valve on hand jack, if control valve not having hand jack than slowly open the control valve bypass and isolated the control valve U/S & D/S valve and hand over to maintenance (controlling the flow by adjusting the bypass valve) etc. all trouble shootings will be done by communicating to panel and following panel instructions.

Co-ordination with various maintenance departments such as mechanical, instruments and electrical in carrying out maintenance activities.

Participates in planned plant shut down procedures preparations, like preparing isolation list, blind list and equipment hand over procedure. Responsible for smooth shut down and start up of the plant.

2. Why permit is required to carry out any work? Permit is required to carry out the job safely and to eliminate all near misses and incidents.

Work scope will be clearly described in the permit and all the hazards involved in that job will be clearly identified and all the necessary control measures will be taken in advance before starting the job and job can be performed in safe manner.

Before starting the job all the hazards involved in that job and all the necessary control measures will be discussed with performing party and with the work group, so that all the necessary precautions will be taken in advance to protect people, environment and equipment from potential hazards.

With permit we can Control the work starting time and work completing time.

3. Before opening the permit what are the things to be checked?

Read the job description which is written in the permit and understand the job scope.

Check for the permit validity and the issuing authority signature (Supervisor).

Check for all the isolations and safety precautions mentioned in the permit.

Inform to panel operator about the job and get the clearance from him.

Ensure all isolations are in place and all the safety precautions mentioned in the permit are followed ( Equipment isolation, de-pressurization, purging, gas testing, if it is a hot work ensure surrounding about 10 to 15 meters area is free of combustible gasses & liquids, for hot work water hose, fire extinguisher and continues gas monitoring is required. Also safety watch is required for continues monitoring the work.

Ensure supporting documents (Job Safety Analysis (JSA), Isolation list, blind list, Material Safety Data sheet (MSDS) etc, are attached along with the permit as per the permit requirements.

Read the Job Safety Analysis (JSA) which is attached along with the permit and inform the performing part to follow all the precautions mentioned in the JSA. For all the permits JSA will be attached (JSA is a mandatory supporting document for all kind of permits).

Ask the performing party (maintenance person who is going to perform the job) to explain the job scope, nearest master points, and inform performing party to conduct tool box talk for his work group about the identified hazards and control measures.

4. Types of work permits: We are having three types of permits, those are hot work permit, cold work permit and confined space permit.

Cold work permit. Cold Work is any work activity that does not involve a source of ignition. For example: -, bolting and unbolting of pipeline and vessel flanges using hand tools (if pneumatic tools are used than it comes under hot work), removal of electrical and instrument equipment which has been already de-energized (For electrical isolation or de-isolation hot work permit is required), manual excavations to a depth of less than 1.2 meters (If jack hamm