information technology for

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY FOR

MANAGEMENT

Chief Editor

Dr. Ihtiram Raza Khan Dept. of Computer Science,

Jamia Hamdard University,

New Delhi.

Co-Editor

Adam A. R. Senior Technology Architect, Infosys Limited.

Kripa-Drishti Publications

Book Title: Information Technology For Management

Author’s: Dr. Rohini Jha, Dr. Shradha Shivani, Mr. Sunit Prasad, Mehtab

Alam, Dr. Ihtiram Raza Khan, Amit Phadikar and Prof. Dr. C. B. Senthil Kumar

1st Edition

ISBN: 978-81-947839-1-6

Published: Oct 2020

Publisher:

Kripa-Drishti Publications

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Near Padmalayas, Pashan- 411021, Pune, Maharashtra, India.

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responsibility for the facts stated, conclusions reached, etc., is entirely that of the author. The publisher is not

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INDEX

1. Telecommuting: Challenges And View Points Of Leadership

Style .................................................................................... 1

2. Bridging The Digital Divide Through Digital India For Effective

E-Governance Leading To Financial Inclusion ............... 18

3. Business 4.0-A New Revolution ...................................... 41

4. Quality Access Control To Provide Security To Data Owners In

Cloud Computing ............................................................. 58

5. Mis In Business ................................................................ 92

Information Technology For Management https://www.kdpublications.in

ISBN: 978-81-947839-1-6

1

1. Telecommuting: Challenges And View Points Of

Leadership Style

Dr. Rohini Jha

BIT Mesra Ranchi.

Dr. Shradha Shivani

BIT Mesra Ranchi.

Abstract:

Recent trend within the modern organization is that they offer employees the

opportunity to work from home. A manager’s role is extremely crucial as,

alongside the resource allocation, his responsibility is to motivate his team

members. This role is challenging once they don't see their team members. The

view of management perspective focuses on the concept of management and

leadership. Management perspective is often facilitated by proper quantitative

and qualitative analytic technique which may measure business performance. The

concept of leadership and management is that the basis of management

perspective is to tune supervisors and managers to extend employee’s

performance. There’s a paradigm shift within the leadership style during this

digital age regarding the way leaders interact with their followers via information

and communication technology since there's a rise in the number of employees

performing from home. Telecommuting is an appointment where employees

work in the office far away from the office premise using a laptop, smart phones,

PDA and other devices. Lack of face to face interaction with colleagues,

subordinates and team members causes a challenge of effective communication.

Telecommuting is additionally related to negative effects like lack of sleep, loss

of private time. At the equivalent time there are advantages like increasing in

productivity, high morale rate, increased flexibility, reduced rate of attrition,

reduced office requirements and reduced percentage. E – Leadership has more

visual interaction with the virtual team. Success of leadership is often achieved

Telecommuting: Challenges And View Points Of Leadership Style

2

by enhancing human skills and getting connected technologically. There’ll be

positive effects of virtual workers if they're taken care of properly through e-

leadership. This chapter highlights the challenges of telecommuting from the

manager’s perspective, as well as the employee’s perspective and possible

outcome expected from workers in telecommuting.

Keywords:

Telecommuting, virtual group, e-leadership, telework

Introduction

Virtual workplace, tele work, offsite work, flexible office is a number of the

terminologies for telecommuting which appears to be very challenging to

employees, mangers and human resource department concerning the way

employees feel about their organization. To gauge the workers satisfaction level

and what they expect from the organization is additionally a challenge when

there's a culture of telework. It's also important to understand how leadership

affects the outcomes of telecommuters. The chapter focuses on how leadership

influences the organizational commitment and job satisfaction of telecommuters.

A telework model is a means which highlights information technology and

logistical challenges associated with telecommuters. Research reveals about

employee's relationship during a traditional office.

Managers' motive is to stay employees satisfied and more productive, which is

applicable to balancing the emotions when employees perform from home. How

telecommuters relate to their organizations with their output is that the area of

research where a really good telework schedule must be designed (Thatcher &

Zhu, 2006). Primarily, the challenges of telework and the role of data Technology

is a point of consideration. The knowledge technology and logistical challenges

of telework are well understood and are primary considerations in designing a


3

successful telework program. The chapter focuses on challenges of organization

when there's no face to face interaction with the workers and a leadership style

adopted within the tele work plan yet achieving employee’s satisfaction and

commitment

Digitalization And Business:

Technology is a buzzword in the present business scenario as there's tremendous

use of the Internet and extranet in business. Organization sees the Internet, cloud,

social media, Internet of things and AI as a requirement to move forward.

Business is using technology not only to chop cost but innovation and creating

market is often the best utilization of technology alongside improving operational

efficiency. Technologies are often used at best when an organization has a strong

culture to upgrade skills of employees and be reoriented towards problem solving

using data analytics and automation. Digital transformation reduces repetitive

work to the minimum cost and time spent on completing work. Digitization helps

provide more data and successively renders intelligence for better deciding.

Organization has got to act accordingly to use the automate business process by

using intelligence and prediction provided by the technology.

The largest component of capital expenditure in the majority of organizations is

the investment in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The IT

managers are developing an effective decision-making model that improves the

decision-making processes.

The advent of ICT has changed the organizational design and employee capability

as well. There is a change in behavior and the capability requirement as the level

of business and market dynamics have reached a higher level. ICT has reshaped

the relationship between suppliers, customers and business partners.


4

Leadership And Digitalization:

Key factors of human resource strategy will be defined by organizational culture,

management practices and several organization structures. Organizational

competence is further defined by conditions of consistency and coherence. The

paper aims to arrive at some guidelines for managers as how to form better

alignment of ICT investments with business requirements

Adoption of ICT depends on what extends the management realizes the

advantages of IT. The value related to the IT adoption is reduced with sound skills

of data gathering and increases the first implementation of IT (Martin and Matlay,

2003). Various studies reveal the impact of ICT on society and human

psychology. Nature of labor and interpersonal relationships are suffering from

technology also resulting in the change in society as elucidated by technological

revolution. Technology has appropriated the role of defining the society. There's

technology development within the domain of data and Communication

Technology. Digital age and digital revolution have identified this historic

development (Negroponte, 1995; McCann ,1997). Information is a crucial

measureable asset. The expansion of the Internet has paved the way for the thanks

to globalization creating a networked society and businesses. New business

models have reshaped the interior organization design and distribution of data as

employees capabilities. There is change in relationship with the business partners

and customers. The direct influence of ICT on work culture and alter in employee

behaviour are identified. The paper focuses on change in employee behaviour.

New technology has led to telecommuting and affected employee performance.

Decision making power has shifted to a lower level due to a new decision network

and new knowledge management techniques (Davenport and Prusak, 1998).

Organizational processes are often optimized through workflow management

tools and a collaborative approach will help in integration (van der Aalst and van

Hee, 1997). This has led to re-engineering of business process which focuses on


5

change in work arrangement which is co-operative supported by a computer

which is additionally concerned with socially organized intended users ( Bannon,

1998).Information Technology has changed labour conditions, relationships and

regulations (Andriessen, 1999). The change in behaviour pattern of employees is

thanks to changing business and market conditions by the intervention of ICT.

ICT has impacted behaviour of employees because the customers are changed

and therefore the work arrangement is also. Customer relationship management

is going to be supported by customer-oriented behavior also as an internal

business process.

In the age of machine learning, robotics, blockchains, and Internet Of Things, the

conventional method of leading organization has become obsolete. Technology

has facilitated employees to figure from home and using video conferencing

applications to attend meeting, perform group work and demanding flexible hours

to figure. There’s a boom in technology which needs new strategies to remain

competitive. Organization focuses on certain steps for a fruitful beautiful

combination of human skill with enhance mechanical efficiency. There's a change

in temperament of employees and sudden pressure is felt in acquiring technology

and being digital. Researchers reveals that the majority of companies are unaware

of the emotions of employees when developing IT plans which are a blend of

intentions of the organization and foresightedness. Companies specialize in e-

readiness and organization structure which can support the future vision of

incorporating digitalization. Companies can face complaints from leaders and

managers and incremental improvement is suggested. Organizational

reengineering strategy should consider the mission, intentions, strategy and

therefore the role played by the corporate towards attaining future outlook. Proper

assessment of the existing state is of prime importance once the future goal is

about which is regarding the comparison of hierarchy from the legacy system

linked with the old structure. In real terms, informal social organization is entirely


6

different from what appears on paper. Organization sometimes is bereft of what's

achieved through collaboration and innovation because they view operation as

one which is organizational chart oriented.

Psychological Effects Of Telecommuting On Employees:

Telecommuting could also be a work arrangement where employees work from

place apart from their conventional offices of organization and use electronic

media and devices to interact with fellow employees for various discussions and

meetings (Bailey & Kurland, 2002; Baruch, 2001; Feldman & Gainey, 1997).

Alternate arrangement of the workplace and fewer face to face interaction results

in psychological distance. Previous research reveals that home is the primary

location for telecommuting (Davis & Polonko, 2001; Hill, Miller, Weiner, &

Colihan, 1998. Some work which may be a component of a typical work place

like various office trips are excluded. Authors have revealed the conceptual

themes related to the psychological process and mechanisms leading to how

telecommuting effects employees (D. G. Allen, Renn, & Griffeth, 2003; Shamir

& Salomon, 1985). Employees have flexibility of choosing location, work

timings and means of labor (e.g., DuBrin, 1991; Standen et al., 1999). Some

autors find telecommuting the way to observe balance between work and family

(e.g., Duxbury, Higgins, & Neufeld, 1998; Raghuram & Wiesenfeld, 2004).

Minimum face to face interaction reduces effective communication between

members of the organization. (Daft & Lengel, 1986). Flexible time has an effect

on objective measures of productivity of employees but has little effect on self-

rating (Baltes et al., 1999)

The widely known benefit associated with telecommuting is Improved

productivity (McCloskey & Igbaria, 2003; Pinsonneault & Boisvert, 2001).

Employees find little interruption when they are involved in doing work from the

remote (Bailey & Kurland, 2002). One of the reasons for increased productivity


7

is increased hours of labor reception because travelling time is saved (Apgar,

1998). Individuals can have customized conducive ambience in which they're

going to work effectively.

It is vital to style the telecommuting work style which offers a facility to attend

meetings and monitor employee’s performance at the same time once they work

away from the conventional organization office (Davenport & Pearlson, 1998;

Kurland & Cooper, 2002). Research reveals that employees view electronic

monitoring as unjust and also leads to negative conseques for organizations

(Alge, 2001; Ambrose & Adler, 2000). Pierce and Newstrom (1980) discussed

that certain things such as preparing each day, going to the office on time and

commuting to work causes stress. Employees can get longer for recreational,

sports and social activities which are the strain busters (Konradt et al., 2003).

Challenges Of Leadership In Telecommuting:

The dynamism of telecommuting has its own set of challenges for managers and

human resource department regarding employee’s satisfaction and the level of

commitment of employees towards the organization. Choosing the best

leadership style can diminish the negative aspects of telecommuting as the

conventional way of leadership is no more applicable at work from home

scenario.

Knowledge of employee’s relationship to their organization helps in designing a

successful telework program. This will help in identifying the best leadership

style and have a positive impact on job satisfaction and employee’s commitment.

Table 1 describes the dimensions identified by Feldman and Gainey (1997) for

designing telework.


8

Table 1. Dimensions of Telework Arrangement (Feldman and Gainey 1997)

Dimensions Arrangement

1. ration 3. Full time or part time

1. Timings 2. Fixed hours or flexible schedule

2. Location 3. Home or satellite offices with other telecommuters.

4. Approach 4. Voluntary or organizationally initiated

The broader organizational context such as co- employees, relation with a

superior is vital along with the individual’s job. Job satisfaction is based on a high

level of interaction and fulfilling personal need is not the only factor (Ting, 1997).

There are other challenges of telecommuting like company culture, legal

consideration, infrastructure, employee isolation and communication

(Manochehri and Pinkerton 2003). These challenges impact employee’s response

and are influenced by the leadership style a manager adopts.

Confinement:

Telecommuters express their state of isolation from work environment as well as

social detachment (Crandall and Gao 2005). Online activities actually are

disrupting the interpersonal relationship which includes meetings, chats and

discussions. The leaders can perceive some problems and some problems are

actual which are invisible which is based on psychological dimensions.

Telecommuters sometimes are deprived of awards and recognition since they are

out of sight and out of mind; promotion opportunities are also compromised, and

they feel they are not treated in a fair manner since social learning is missing.

Components of organizational context include different types of groups,

technologies used, organizational culture and variation in demography (Porter

and McLaughlin 2006). Telecommuting also causes disruption of work-related

identity therefore, organization has to ensure individuals feel themselves part of


9

the organization. Many telecommuters are confused about whether they may

receive an important announcement regarding team issues and promotions and

feel that superiors have a perception that if they can’t see you, they aren’t working

(Abdel-Wahab, 2007). Expectation of performance is machine oriented. How the

employees will accept the assignment voluntarily and follow the supervisor's

order is important as telework may change the employee’s perception with regard

to fairness as managers are not present to judge how accepted the task is in

organizations (Diekmann, Barsness, & Sondak, 2004). Physical and cultural

isolation creates social and psychological problems because there is no

interaction, they are treated differently as they are not on site, always anxious for

promotion and recognition. They employees feel less connected with the

organization and affect the commitment of employees to the organization

(Cooper & Kurland, 2002).

Employee Interaction:

Communication is restricted to sending messages and speech via electronic

media. Telecommuting has changed the social weave and work dynamism, and

there could also be distortion in messages (Robbins, 1989/1998). Transmission is

susceptible to the lack of spontaneous information sharing, messages may get

refined with ambiguity and actual value might decrease (O’Connell, 1988).

Marketers must use electronic media to succeed in target customers and develop

feedback mechanism to watch response. Kotler (1980/1997). Key output of

virtual work depends on trust, identification and communication satisfaction.

Therefore, proper channel selection is of prime importance (Timmerman & Scott,

2006).

Employees Belief And Outcomes: Organizational outcomes like job

performance, job satisfaction and turnover are hooked into employee beliefs,

attitude and behaviour which are documented on individual level factors (Kim,


10

2005). Job satisfaction is a positive emotional state which is an outcome of one’s

job experience and is correlated to the level to which employee is motivated, job

involvement, organizational citizenship behaviour and psychological state (Kim,

2005). Job Descriptive Index was designed to measure satisfaction which focuses

on five sub dimensions: satisfaction with workers, supervision, coworkers, pay

and promotion (Kinicki, Schriesheim, McKee-Ryan, & Carson, 2002).

Telecommuters have a negative impact on job satisfaction (Cooper & Kurland,

2002). Job satisfaction is more when there's a moderate level of telework (Virick,

DaSilva, & Arrington, 2010). Sort of leadership is a precursor of jobs satisfaction,

and therefore the categories of job satisfaction are job characteristics, role states,

group and organizational characteristics and relationship with the leader Kinicki

et al. (2002).

Organisational commitment is related to developing alignment with

organizational goals and a robust desire to devote time at work on behalf of the

organization (Park, 2004). Satisfying jobs along with conducing environment

plays a really important role for workers to reciprocate in a committed manner to

the organization (Knudsen, Johnson, Martin, & Roman, 2003). Meyer and Allen

(1990) suggested that commitment is reflected in affective, normative and

continuance during which employees with strong affective commitment perform

at a better level. Organizational commitment is applicable to telecommuters due

to physical and cultural isolation from the organization.

Organizational commitment is related to developing alignment with

organizational goals and a robust desire to devote time at work on behalf of the

organization (Park, 2004). Satisfying jobs alongside conducing environment

plays a really important role for workers to reciprocate in committed manner to

the organization (Knudsen, Johnson, Martin, & Roman, 2003). Meyer and Allen

(1990) suggested that commitment is reflected in affective, normative and

continuance during which employees with strong affective commitment perform


11

at a better level. Organizational commitment is applicable to telecommuters due

to physical and cultural isolation from the organization.

Leadership:

Style of leadership changed with the arrival of the 2nd century due to

technological revolution and knowledge revolution which basically emphasized

the study of leaders’ traits (Wren, 1995). Trait and behavior study aren’t

important in the telecommuting context, but a number of the leadership practices

are relevant for managing virtual teams (Malhotra et al., 2007). The 2 viewpoints

of leadership are task oriented and relation oriented. Task oriented is towards

improving the standards and performing within the deadline. Relation oriented

leadership is towards achieving job satisfaction, employee comfort and

improving relations with the superior and colleagues. The contingency model

explains the leadership style for the organization structure which is predicated on

power, position and tasks. Researchers suggested that leaders give cognizance to

task and relation (Denhardt et al., 2002). Study also reveals that leaders are

effective in certain quiet situations which may be very applied in managing

virtual teams. Telecommuters have their own difficulties and wishes, so leaders

need to adopt their best thanks to monitoring teams which may be participative,

supporting and achievement oriented related to setting new goals and expecting

results by establishing standards. Kerr and Jermier (1978), demonstrated that

leader’s behavior is erratic in many situations. Research suggests that in virtual

environment the cognitive and psychological aspect of a leader plays a really

important role in virtual team management. Support, effective communication is

critical success factors for telework (Kowalski and Swanson 2005). Better

communication has the power to vary the attitude and behavior of others to realize

goals and requirements (Hackman & Johnson, 1991). Virtual team’s output

depends on the channel adopted, responsiveness and thoughtfulness of a


12

pacesetter. The extent of trust a manager has for his subordinates features a

positive impact on telecommuters.

Conclusion:

Telecommunication offers several benefits to employees like flexible timings,

time which is spent in commuting is saved and the ability to look after family

simultaneously. From organisation perspective, it reduces infrastructure cost,

maintenance cost and gain more efficient employees (Madlock, 2012). The study

finds that communication between tele workers and manager is straightforward.

Building rapport with the team members in a virtual team is very important

because when trust is developed, an employee starts working for the organisation

with utmost dedication. The leader should talk about employees’ family,

background and problems they are facing in life. Always, if the leaders focus on

task and deadlines, then it will be difficult to manage telecommuters because this

article has identified the psychological dimension of work performance in which

job satisfaction is correlated to job output.

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ISBN: 978-81-947839-1-6

18

2. Bridging The Digital Divide Through Digital India

For Effective E-Governance Leading To Financial

Inclusion

Dr. Rohini Jha

Assistant Professor, Department of Management,

Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi.

Mr. Sunit Prasad

Research Scholar, Department of Management,

Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, India.

Abstract:

E-governance is the rendering of government services and information to the

public using electronic means and is a new pattern over traditional approach. The

issue of illiteracy, poverty and unemployment in India still persist in spite of the

boom in the IT sector such as Internet blue chips, online shopping and nanosecond

email. The chapter is an endeavour to present a few facts about the digital divide

based on the global and the USA perspective. The chapter discusses the

infrastructural bottleneck that exists in India regarding the digital divide that

includes electricity, IT penetration, Internet industry and its enabling policy to

transform India as a knowledge society. India has made several attempts to

overcome the digital divide in the form of e-governance projects. The chapter

investigates the efforts to overcome the digital divide which will lead to financial

literacy and will result in financial inclusion. The chapter examines how after the

launch of the digital India program financial literacy has improved, which is a

critical component in financial inclusion. Much effort has been made towards

increasing the literacy rate through e-governance initiatives by providing digital

infrastructure in rural India.

Key Words: E-Governance, Digital Divide, Access, India, ICTs,

Infrastructure, Financial Inclusion

Bridging The Digital Divide Through Digital India For Effective E-Governance Leading To Financial Inclusion

19

Introduction:

The Information and communication Technology (ICT) is the basis of modern

civilization and has brought changes in the economic and social well-being of

human actions in almost all areas at a faster pace ((Nandi, 2002).ICT facilitates

communication uninterrupted by distance, volume, medium or time, therefore it

reduces the time (Fletcher et al, 2000). ICT has changed the way of doing

business. It can help in transforming the total number of non-bankers into bank

users through a user friendly and low-cost web based channel which will enhance

financial inclusion. The issue of transparency can be solved by ICT easily and

improves the development process of the system (Jesus, 2003). Access and

adoption of technology is very important and a deciding factor to avail the

benefits of technology. Adoption rate in developing countries is much lower than

in the developed world because millions of people in this world are deprived of

access to technology. There is a serious issue of the ‘Digital Divide’ between

those who have access to ICT and those who do not (United

nations,2006).Various research reveals that good governance is not possible

without ICT (Lawrence and Lee, 1999; Leizero, 2000; Pastor et al, 2004; Norris,

2001; Sumanjeet, 2006) .The paper highlights the importance of overcoming

digital divide in India by identifying the barriers of digital divide which will help

in good governance and how the Digital India programme will form a digitally

empowered society .The paper also outlines the status of financial inclusion in

India after the launch of Digital India. There is a digital divide between the rural

and urban India (Dasgupta et al, 2002; Nath, 2001; Singh, 2007; Mahajan, 2003;

Dutta, 2003).

The chapter is concentrated on India and tries to explore the macro aspect of the

digital divide in India. The chapter tries to explore the matter of digital divide

within India. Thus, within the context of this chapter, the digital divide essentially

means the tele-density, mobile and Internet divide between the agricultural and


20

concrete areas. The most objective of the chapter is to review the matter of digital

divide within the Indian context and address the challenges in bridging the gap of

digital divide. It also makes an effort to spot the causes of the digital divide in

India. Furthermore, in the end, an attempt has been made to suggest the policies

to deal with the challenges of bridging the gap of digital divide in India. This

chapter has been divided into five sections. Section 1 deals with the concept of

the digital divide. Section 2 discusses this status of digital divide in India. In

section 3, an effort has been made to review the causes of the digital divide in

India. Section 4 tries to deal with the matter of the digital divide by suggesting

some policy options. Section 5 deals with the concluding remarks. The present

chapter is concentrated on India and tries to explore the macro aspect of the digital

divide in India. The chapter tries to explore the matter of digital divide within

India. Thus, within the context of this chapter, the digital divide essentially means

the tele-density, mobile and Internet divide between the agricultural and concrete

areas. The most objective of this chapter is to review the matter of digital divide

within the Indian context and address the challenges in bridging the gap of digital

divide. The study also makes an attempt to identify the causes of the digital divide

in India. Furthermore, in the end, an attempt has been made to suggest the policies

to deal with the challenges of bridging the gap of digital divide in India. This

chapter has been divided into five sections. Section 1 deals with the concept of

the digital divide. Section 2 discusses this status of digital divide in India. In

section 3, an effort has been made to review the causes of the digital divide in

India. Section 4 tries to deal with the matter of the digital divide by suggesting

some policy options. Section 5 deals with the concluding remarks.

E-Government Definitions:

E-government refers to the delivery of information using digital means to citizens

or business or other agencies in a timely manner and also empowering people

through access to information without bureaucracy. Government interacts with


21

citizens in the form of obtaining information, filings or making payments using

the World Wide Web (Sharma & Gupta, 2003, Sharma, 2004, Sharma, 2006).

Table1 represents the definitions of the e-government of various sources.

Table 1: Definitions Of E-Government Of Various Sources

World Bank “E-Government refers to the use by government agencies of information

technologies (such as Wide Area Networks, the Internet, and mobile

computing) that have the ability to transform relations with citizens,

businesses, and other arms of government. These technologies can serve a

variety of different ends: better delivery of government services to citizens,

improved interactions with business and industry, citizen empowerment

through access to information, or more efficient government management.

The resulting benefits can be less corruption, increased transparency, greater

convenience, revenue growth, and/or cost reductions.”

United

Nations

“E-government is defined as utilizing the Internet and the world-wide-web

for delivering government information and services to citizens.”

Global

Business

Dialogue on

Electronic

Commerce

“Electronic government (hereafter e-Government) refers to a situation in

which administrative, legislative and judicial agencies (including both

central and local governments) digitize their internal and external operations

and utilize networked systems efficiently to realize better quality in the

provision of public services.”

Gartner

Group

“The continuous optimization of service delivery, constituency

participation, and governance by transforming internal and external

relationships through technology, the Internet and new media.”

The use of ICT in governance facilitates greater participation of citizen in

government and the internet is used by politicians and political parties. Therefore,

some authors believe that e-government is a subset of e-governance ((Howard,

2001 and Bannister and Walsh, 2002). There is considerable confusion in

explaining e-governance and e-government. When the focus is on stakeholders


22

outside the organisation, it is e-government whereas e-governance focuses on

administration within the organisation concerned with the utilization of

technology and other resources of the organization.

A broader concept of e-governance deals with all relationship and networks

concerning the usage and application of ICT and e-government. It is a procedural

approach of basic and standard procedure of administration (Sheridan and Riley,

2006). For e- government assessment, the United Nations’ Division for Public

Economics and Public Administration has developed a few indices followed by

UN member countries. Several parameters and indicators are considered which

is summarized in Table 2

Table 2: Parameters And Indicators Developed By United Nations’

Division For Public Economics And Public Administration For E-

Governance Assessment.

Parameters Indicators

1. Web Presence measures

2. Telecommunications infrastructure (capacity of country’s

ICT)

3. Human Capital measures

1.Stages of government

websites

2. a. Internet hosts per 10,000

people

b. Nation’s population online

c. Number of PC Penetration

d. Telephone lines

e. Mobile phones

f. Television per 1000 people

3. a. Human Development

Index

b. Information access Index

c. Urban and Rural

population ratio


23

Table 3: Provides The Indices For The Top 10 Countries With The Denmark

(0.9150) Being The World Leader Followed By Australia (0.9053) And Republic

Of Korea At 3rd Global Position (0.9010).

Table3: United Nations E-Government Survey 2018

E-Government Development Index Top

10 Countries

E-Participation Index Top 11

Countries

Country Index Country Index

Denmark 0.9150 Republic of Korea 1.0000

Australia 0.9053 Denmark 1.0000

Republic of Korea 0.9010 Finland 1.0000

United Kingdom 0.8999 Netherlands 0.9888

Sweden 0.8882 Japan 0.9831

Finland 0.8815 New Zealand 0.9831

Singapore 0.8812 Australia 0.9831

New Zealand 0.8806 Spain 0.9831

France 0.8790 United Kingdom 0.9831

Japan 0.8783 United States of

America

0.9831

(Source: The UN Global E-Government Readiness Report 2018 “From E-

Government to E-inclusion”)

E-Governance: World View And India’s Status.

The United Nations e-Government Survey 2018 finds that citizens are taking

advantage of more advanced e-service delivery, better access to information,

more efficient government management and improved interactions with

governments, primarily as a result of increasing use by the general public sector

of data and technology. Most countries have published an incredible amount of


24

data online, many goings beyond basic websites to supply national portals that

function as a serious start line for users to attach to government services in several

ministries. At an equivalent time, many developing countries got to devote

additional energy to transactional services also because the electronic means of

engaging citizens publicly is a means of consultation and decision-making. A

number of the countries registered a drop in their country ranking vis-à-vis the

UN e-Government survey conducted in the year 2018. A drop in a country’s

ranking may be a reminder of the necessity to devote greater resources to

improving online services and expanding access to telecommunication

infrastructure.

High-income countries enjoy the highest rankings within the e-Government

development index in 2018 as in previous years. Among the highest five countries

within the 2018 United Nations e-Government Survey, Denmark received the

very best score, followed by Australia, Republic of Korea, the UK and Sweden.

The bulk of positions within the top 20 rankings belong to high-income countries,

which isn't surprising since they need the financial resources to develop and

rollout advanced e-Government initiatives, also to create a favourable

environment for citizen engagement and empowerment. Developed countries

have a definite advantage in achieving higher rankings within the survey

(comprising of 95 multiple choice questions), as nearly two-thirds of the load of

the e-Government development index (an index received from the survey

questionnaire) is allocated to the telecommunication infrastructure and human

capital components, which both require long-term investment. For emerging and

developing countries, the challenge is to take a position altogether in three

dimensions – online services, telecommunication infrastructure and education -

to narrow the present digital gap. In other words, having an excellent website does

little in e-service provision if the bulk of individuals within the country cannot

read or write, nor if they need no access to the web.


25

Some developing countries have begun to catch up with higher-income countries

despite these challenges. Bahrain for example, has made significant strides in the

two years since the previous survey, moving up in the rankings to 13th place in

2010 from 42nd place in 2008. UN report 2018 reveals Bahrain is ranked fifth in

Asia and 26th internationally in e-government development efforts. Bahrain’s

recent emphasis on citizen engagement and the electronic provision of

government services has propelled the country into the top 15 in e-Government

development, somewhat closer to Singapore which is among the global leaders

in the provision of electronic and mobile public services. Mobile technology will

become an affordable tool to fill in the digital gap between the developed and

developing countries, given the rapid price decline of mobile products. Emerging

and least-developed countries have already demonstrated that they are capable of

narrowing the digital gap by investing in websites and Web portals and by

applying tools such as tele-centres, kiosks, community centres and other similar

outlets to increase access to the Internet. They are adopting the use of mobile

technology at a fast rate, which will trigger the need to develop more mobile e-

Government services. The private sector in these countries has an opportunity to

work with the government to create and distribute mobile services. The 2018

survey recorded an increase in the use of mobile technology for communication

from Governments to Citizens (G2C), whether it is simple SMS, alert notification

or a full-fledged mobile service.

The 2018 survey found that some countries are increasingly active in seeking

customer satisfaction through online polls, blogs, surveys and other means. This

means that a growing number of nations have recognized the importance of

citizen feedback via the Internet and are taking advantage of social networking

tools to make better websites and Web portals. Emerging and developing

countries have yet to fill the digital gap. The developing countries that have

channeled more investment to telecommunications infrastructure, education and


26

online services could compete with developed countries and in some cases, even

score higher. Mexico experienced the foremost significant drop in global

rankings. It fell by 27 positions from the 2008 Survey to the 2018 Survey and is

currently ranked 64th globally. The degeneration of Mexico’s e-Government is

especially attributed to the much lower score for online services. Among all the

national portals of the developing countries, India has the very best ranking portal

with the very best online services score. It's the foremost e-services and tools for

citizen engagement. A number of the developing countries who improved their

rankings are Iraq, Oman, Saudi Arabia and Turkey, while a couple of them who

dropped significantly in their rankings are Azerbaijan, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon

and Syria. India has improved by seventeen positions from its ranking of 113rd

in the 2008 survey to 96th in the 2018 survey. It's vastly improved its online

services however the transactional services offered as a part of NeGP still must

be further implemented and improved.

Notable climbers within the online services provision to citizens are Bahrain,

Chile, Colombia, Singapore and, therefore, the UK, which have joined the

world’s top performers in online service development. Only a couple of countries

are ready to offer many transactional services online at this point. However,

countries with the very best scores offer a good range of integrated transactional

e-services that cater to several segments of society. They need comprehensive

back office integration systems and secure networks on which these e-services

operate, giving citizens security and confidence. The US, the Republic of Korea

and Canada are the highest three countries in terms of transactional opportunities.

The developing countries are well-represented within the top 10 with four

countries: Bahrain, Chile, Colombia and Israel. Least developed countries don't

have any real e-services, nor are they providing citizens with transactional

opportunities. The overwhelming majority of the sites surveyed primarily contain

e-information and therefore the beginning stages of citizen engagement with polls


27

and feedback forms. The highest two positions among the fewest developed

countries within the online service assessment visited Bangladesh and Angola.

Action Plans In India:

There is transparency in the governance process by the changed government

using electronic means. E-governance has made the government citizen centric

by facilitating easy government services and allowing greater public access of

information which is a new way of public administration to promote more

efficient and cost-effective government. Governance is a wider term which covers

the states Institutional management, decision-making processes, implementation

capacity and the relationship between government officials and the public e-

governance is caused by the use of ICT by the government. Therefore, e-

government can be viewed as a subset of e-governance and focuses largely on

improving administrative efficiency and reducing administrative corruption

(Bhatnagar, S., 2004).

Government of India has launched a number of initiatives during the year 2003-

2007.National e-governance Action plan for implementation was approved by the

government of India. The plan provided inspiration and provides impetus for the

future growth of e-governance within the country. In this plan the standard of

speed and implementation of procurement procedures for IT services to the

citizens through a single window was incorporated. To utilize the complete

potential of personal sector investment efforts were made to market and develop

public private partnerships to utilize the complete potential of personal sector

investments and the endeavour towards connectivity was extended up to the block

level within the states. Alongside the action plan adoption of data Technology

Act, 2000 by the Government of India to supply legal framework to facilitate

electronic transaction was introduced, establishment of National Taskforce of

data Technology and software Development in May 1998, development of centre


28

of e-governance to disseminate the simplest practices within the area of e-

governance to be used by the central and government act as a nodal centre to

supply general information on e-governance. Therefore, to form e-government a

reality in India, NeGP plan was launched in 2006 with a vision to form

government services available to all or any citizens.

Digital India:

Digital India program was set in motion by the honourable Prime Minister, Mr.

Narendra Modi on 2nd July 2015 aiming towards Universal digital literacy,

delivering government services digitally and development of secure digital

infrastructure. All the developing countries are feeling the challenge to prove

them globally. So, getting connected globally and upgrading yourself with the

latest technology is of prime importance. Though opportunities for growth of

India have been created by visionaries of India, they found that citizen

participation is important in meeting the challenges the country is facing

regarding digital divide, skill divide and financial inclusion. Digital literacy is the

ability to understand and use the information in multiple formats from a wide

range when it is presented on computers. Digital literacy involves the knowledge

skill and attitude to effectively navigate, critically evaluate create or adapt

information using a range of digital technologies (Seattle, G., 2014).

The digital India program has been envisioned by the ministry of communications

and IT, ministry of rural development, ministry of human resource development,

ministry of health et al. to vary India into a digitally empowered society and

knowledge economy. Digital India program has facilitated Preparing India for

knowledge domain transformation and delivering good governance to citizens by

coordinated and synchronized engagements and taking the nation forward

digitally and economically.


29

Digital India aims at a universal digital literacy. All digital resources are

universally accessible, all government documents/certificates to be available on

the cloud. Availability of digital resources/services in the local language.

Collaborative digital platforms for participative governance.

Digital India has improved the job opportunities at its launch and has made a hit

of the more than 4 lakh crore investment. With the largest number of IT

professionals and very large MSME (Micro, small and Medium) sector, still India

has the highest import category of electronic goods because it has not developed

its capabilities to manufacture in this sector. The aim of making the net zero

import will be accomplished by Make in India and Digital India programme to

step up manufacturing and increasing domestic demand Digital India (Ministry

of Electronics & Information Technology, Government of India, 2016)

The roadblocks in the way of its success are digital illiteracy, poor infrastructure,

low internet speed, connecting 250000 villages gram panchayat through National

Optical Fibre, lack of coordination among various department, issues related to

taxation, digital gap between urban and rural India and fear of cyber-crime and

breach of privacy is the determinant in the adoption of digital technologies. High-

speed internet in India is at the 105th position in the world in average internet

speed. Digital India program had the objective of connecting rural areas with

high speed internet network and improving digital literacy.

Digital India program has benefitted India in making all government services

available to people of the country through common service delivery points and

enabling inclusive growth through easy access to education, healthcare and

government services to all citizens of the country. Also ensures transparency

because data is available online and accessible to citizens. It can also boost GDP

growth. World Bank report presents that 10% increase in mobile and broadband

penetration increases per capita GDP by 0.81% and 1.31% respectively in


30

developing countries. Table 4 depicts the challenges being faced in the Digital

India program

Table 4: Challenges Of Digital India

• Creating Awareness

• Connectivity with each and every village

• Delayed infrastructure development

• 80 Lacs hotspots to reach global level

• Poor private participation

• Non-availability of digital services in local languages

• Fear of cyber crime

Status Of Financial Inclusion In India:

Financial inclusion in India has been under continuous growth since

independence. The efforts of the government of India are tremendous to reach the

unbanked population of the country which lies around 21% of the world’s and

67% of south Asia’s unbanked population (Patel, 2016). Major steps taken to

enhance inclusion are Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (2014), Pradhan Mantri

Jeevan Jyoti Beema Yojana, Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana, Atal

Pension Yojana and Digital India program (2015) for digitalized access. Financial

inclusion is defined as “the process of ensuring access to financial services and

timely and adequate credit where needed by vulnerable groups such as weaker

sections and low-income groups at an affordable cost”, by Dr. C. Rangarajan

(Prasad and Jha, 2018). India has come up with a much-diversified banking

sector. Overall performance of the banking sector has witnessed a credit boom.

The credit-GDP was 35.5% in 2000, and after almost a decade in the year 2013,

it has increased by 15.5% (Barua et al. 2016). India has achieved developed


31

financial structure which is summarized in Table 5 but is not successful in

accomplishing the needs of the unbanked population.

Bank Type Name Number of

Branches

Commercial

Banks

Public sector banks

(26)

Private sector banks

(20)

Foreign banks (43)

Regional rural banks

(64)

Local area banks (4)

State bank of India

Associate banks

Nationalized banks

Other public sector

banks

old private sector banks

New private sector

banks

Branch mode of

presence

Limited area of

operation

Limited area of

operation

14,699

5,482

52,480

1

6,047

9,522

332

Cooperative

Banks

Urban co-operative

banks

Rural cooperatives

Multi state urban

cooperative banks

Single state urban

cooperative banks

Short term

State cooperative banks

District central

cooperative banks

Primary agriculture

cooperative societies

Long term

State cooperative

agriculture and rural

development banks

Primary cooperative

agriculture and rural

development banks

43

1,563

92,834

31

371

92,432

717

20

697

Microfinance

Institutions

There are 52 MFIs

that have either

received or applied

for registration from

Arohan, Bandhan, BSS,

Cashpor, Disha, Equitas,

ESAF, GramaVidiyal

10,553


32

Bank Type Name Number of

Branches

the Reserve Bank of

India as of June

2015. They

constitute over 90%

of total micro

finance industry

business in the

country.

(Source: Barua et al. 2016)

Proximity, convenience and security acts as major limitations in the path of full

financial access (Patel, 2016) which could be easily overcome by the

digitalization programs. The nine pillars of digital India program (Figure 1) have

helped in achieving the targets of IT based banking services across the nation.

Table 6: Highlights Of Telecom Subscription Data As On

31st October 2016

Particulars Wireless Wireline Total (Wireless+

Wireline)

Total Telephone Subscribers (Million) 1,078.42 24.52 1.102.94

Net addition in October 2016 (Million) 28.68 0.02 28.7

Monthly growth rate 2.73% 0.10% 2.67%

Urban Telephone Subscribers (Million) 621.77 20.61 642.37

https://www.omicsonline.org/publication-images/business-economics-nine-pillars-digital-india-9-338-g001.png


33

Particulars Wireless Wireline Total (Wireless+

Wireline)

Net addition in October 2016 (Million) 17.96 0.03 18

Monthly growth rate 2.97% 0.17% 2.88%

Rural Telephone Subscribers (Million) 456.66 3.91 460.57

Net addition in October 2016 (Million) 10.72 -0.01 10.71

Monthly growth rate 2.40% -0.26% 2.38%

Overall Tele-density 84.34 1.92 86.25

Urban Tele-density 155.35 5.15 160.5

Rural Tele-density 51.98 0.45 52.43

Share of urban subscribers 57.66% 84.04% 58.24%

Share of rural subscribers 42.34% 15.96% 41.76%

Broadband subscribers (Million) 200.49 17.93 218.42

(Jhamb, A. and Aggrawal, S. 2018)

Various digitalization platforms will eradicate the issues related to non-

maintenance of Non-frill accounts. Under PMJDY and MGNREGA scheme

government has opened zero balance NFAs to enhance rural financial inclusion

but most of the accounts remain dormant due to insufficient usage knowledge

related to the account and high operational transaction cost charged by banks.

Both the issues can be resolved by digitizing the banking services.

Digital India Program: Steps Towards Success:

Rural unbanked population prefer using post offices for keeping their funds.

Through digital India program over 12,000 branches are connected digitally and

very soon it will operate cashless (Luvy, 2018).

Cashless transactions of various e-governance projects have increased

tremendously in just 1 year by 3.42 billion (3.53 billion in 2014 and 6.95 billion

in 2015) (Luvy, 2018).


34

Barriers Of Digital Divide And Initiatives In India:

There is a huge impact on economic, political, social and cultural lives by PCs

and the Internet (Castells 2001). It is not only important to realize the change

brought by the technology but also the means of diffusion of technology (OECD

2000, 2001; NTIA 1999, 2000, 2002). There is difference in access across the

population. The term “digital divide” also to refer to the inequality of access to

digital resources and services (Paul 2002). Digital divide is also interpreted as a

gap between those who have physical access to technology, and the skills and

resources also required to use it.

There are barriers to the digital divide in the Indian context like low literacy rates,

education system and language. The literacy rate has improved by 9.2% as per

Population census of India 2011 (India Online 2011). Literacy rate in 2001 was

65.38% and increased to 74.04% in 2011. There is a increase in literacy rate but

when compared to the urban and rural area the difference between the literacy

rates seems to be the major stumbling block in the digital divide.

In India 216 mother tongues are clubbed into 114 languages (Mallikarjun, B

2004). The inseparable barrier to Information Technology is the Indians not

speaking English because basic knowledge of English is required to operate the

widely accepted operating system (Keniston, 2002). The step towards

diminishing the digital divide is the introduction of technological aspect content

right from school level but in India the number of children pursuing secondary

education gets reduced to those who take up an undergraduate course (Yajnik,

2005). Right from the 1st standard, information technology is introduced in the

syllabus.

Since there is a difference in literacy rate between the urban and rural India, the

Government of India had already taken steps to harness IT in the agriculture like

KISAN Call centers set up by the ministry of agriculture on January 21,2004


35

which extend help to the farmers community across the country. The agriculture

graduate expert can be contacted by farmers through phone calls and the queries

are also recorded on holidays and responded by post. This is a step to bridge the

gap between the information resource and the user. Lifelines India, a mobile

phone-based information services where farmers retrieve a recorded reply is

another initiative which has proved very effective in educating rural users to use

technology to ask for advice and learn to move towards the improvement of their

community. Gyandoot is a rural Information network which caters to the

everyday needs of the masses. It is the first project in the Dhar District of Madhya

Pradesh which has the highest percentage of tribes and forest.

Conclusion:

Information and Communication Technology requires multipronged approach to

bridge the digital divide as it cannot be a secluded component. Better IT

infrastructure which facilitates the digital literacy among the masses will diminish

the gap. There is an improvement in quality, effectiveness and efficiency with e-

governance as several measures taken by the Government of India have improved

the literacy rate in several districts and villages where people are very poor.

All government departments have come up with websites with information and

are interfaces for the citizens. India’s partial success with e-governance is due to

lack of Internet infrastructure, high cost of access, lack of awareness and low

digital literacy concluding mass financial exclusion. Building institutional

capacity and implementing a sound e-governance policy will help to get a better

hold of e-governance. Digitized banking platform is the only way to include

people across the country due to its low-cost operability and accessibility.

Financial inclusion through digitized platforms will be a great success if the

Digital India program makes its way to reach the target.


36

India is a developing nation and Digital India is a platform for the growth of

people digitally. In order to beat the objectives of e-governance and acclaim

success it is important to adopt preventive measures regarding privacy and

security of information to promote more inclusive growth otherwise the results

of success will not be overwhelming. Lessons can be learned from the world

leaders in e-governance, like Australia, which is focusing on standardization of

data, interoperability in e-governance and offering more services for effective e-

delivery. Digital India has given form to better connectivity and with a vision to

transform India into a digitally empowered society has offered a mere

technological opportunity. Digital India aims to make the best future for every

citizen though it is facing many barriers. Today the urban and semi-urban lifestyle

has virtually changed the lifestyles. In the rural areas various successful e-

governance initiatives, new IT infrastructure and new projects for rural

development give hope to lessen the digital divide. Many technologies are

developed for the literate class, but the technologies had to be availed by the

masses provided they are digital literate. It is a real challenge to connect a million

rural populace to the knowledge economics is a task ahead.

Policies are also coming up to establish safe and secured digitized platforms.

Proper cyber law infrastructure will boost citizen confidence by the protection of

data in electronic documents, digital signatures and minimizing cyber-crime.

Cyber literacy is expected from policy makers and bureaucrats. There are over

forty countries which provide the right to access state held information. It is

recognized that politics will be affected by the Internet which keeps people

informed and helps in making choices based on a variety of information.


37

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& Democracy in the Information Age, 7 (2/3) pp115

2. Barua, A., Kathuria, R. and Malik, N. (2016). The Status of Financial

Inclusion, Regulation and Education in India.

https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/183034/adbi-wp568.pdf

(accessed 29 Jun 2019).

3. Bhatnagar Subhash (2004), e-government from vision to implementation, sage

publications, New Delhi.

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ISBN: 978-81-947839-1-6

41

3. Business 4.0-A New Revolution

Mehtab Alam and Dr. Ihtiram Raza Khan

Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi.

Abstract:

As a new business is established or founded, it exercises a carefully crafted

business model which describes a number of internal business processes, work

architecture, production ways, profit maximization techniques, fraud detection

and many other techniques. The core of the business model depends on

determining the way in which the business delivers value to the customers,

attracts customers to buy the services, and then converting it into profits. The

intent of profit or loss reflects the assumption of the management about the

requirements and needs of the customers. The key reason for any business to excel

and flourish is to pin point how to fulfil the needs and demands of the consumers.

In this paper, we will discuss about the latest business model, Business 4.0 in

depth and look at its future prospective.

Keywords:

Business 4.0, business model

1. Introduction:

The vast and fast developments in the global economy has completely altered the

relationship between the customers and the suppliers. The advancement in the

field of communication and computing technology and the easy availability of

tech devices has led to the introduction of the latest business model, namely,

Business 4.0. Business are becoming more and more customer centric [1], with

on demand supply and distribution facilities, by anticipating the customers need,

collecting feedback from customers, giving the facility to test the item before

Business 4.0-A New Revolution

42

purchasing, providing better customer service etc. Such developments require

modification in the traditional business model.

These new conditions have tempted the businesses to not only address customer

needs and demands, but to provide new and improved products and services to

them [2]. Without a robust business model, developers, pioneers will fail to

deliver value or profit from their innovation and technologies. A good business

model illuminates the logic and delivers data, facts and other evidences that

portray how the business is creating and delivering value for money to the

customers. It defines the revenue, cost and profit models of the business [3].

Figure 1 illustrates the elements of a business model that needs to be determined

or carved upon before establishing a business. The prime step for any business

model is to select technologies and features that the management need to embed

in the product or service. Next step is to determine the benefits the customer will

get on using the product. Next step for the management is to identify the market

segments that is to be target for the product sale. Further, the management needs

to check and enlist all the available income streams. Next the management needs

to design and implement mechanisms to capture value in the market and with the

consumers.

Figure1: Different Elements Of A Business Model.


43

2. Traditional Business Model:

Business models illustrate how a business creates and delivers value to the

customer and then transform all the payments into profits [4] [5]. It also embodies

the organisational and financial architecture of the business [6]. It is a required

feature of retail where the consumers have a choice, bears a transaction cost, and

there is heterogeneity amid consumers and the producers, and there is a

competition between different producers of service providers. Technological

innovations are the most important factors for necessitating business models and

its updating. It helps in bringing new discoveries to the market and in quenching

the needs of the customers. New or updated business models can themselves

imitate a new innovation. In this section we discuss a few traditional business

models.

2.1 A Few Traditional Types Of Business Models:

We will discuss a few standard business models now. Business owners can

structure their business model to include some required or beneficial features of

one or more models in their final business model to reap more benefits in their

business.

2.1.1 Manufacturer:

Manufacturer business model makes use of raw materials to create a product they

wish to sell. The business model may involve the assembly of pre manufactured

parts of a machine or a new product, such as automobile manufacturing. A

business can directly sell the final products directly to the consumers. This is

called business-to-consumers model. Another method can be deploying some

other business to do the sales work. This is known as business-to-business model.

Bulk manufacturing business sell their products to retailers, which further sell the

products to the consumers [7].


44

2.1.2 Distributor:

A distributor is a business model which purchases the product directly from the

manufacturing company. The distributors then would resale the products directly

to the end users or to a retailor. They can be thought of as a middle point between

the manufacturer and the end users. This business model has the challenge of

setting the price that will give profit to them and at the same time be lucrative to

the users. They have to set effective promotion strategies for strong sales since

the competition can be aggressive in some businesses [8].

2.1.3 Retailer:

A retailer business model purchases the products from a distributor. It further

sells the products directly to the end users. Grocery stores, clothing stores,

departmental stores are a few examples of retailers. These models can deploy

independent shops operated by single entity or nationwide chains. They can also

deploy their business as an online business. Online retail model can be in a

standalone online model or an online model selling from a physical location.

Retailers also face competition from other retailers that offer similar products [9].

2.1.4 Franchise:

A franchise business model can combine any of the above stated models. These

models are setup to provide sales or production for a unique service or product.

Franchisee is the sole selector of the business model who owns the franchise. The

owner can reap a number of benefits from a franchise since most of the business

process and rules are already set in place. At the same time this means that the

model is less flexible [10].


45

2.2 Need For A Better Model:

With the widespread acceptance of technology, Internet of things, connected

devices, cloud computing, automation and the vision of smart cities, smart

healthcare, smart security systems and many other smart paradigms, it is now

time to make the business industry smarter. The demise of a popular but

unsustainable business model now seems inevitable [11]. Significant

transformations in the way the products and services are being produced is the

next step in the business model. All of this will be possible with the help of above-

mentioned technologies and digitization.

3. Business 4.0:

Business 4.0 is a concept of leadership framework, which will help end users and

customers leverage digital technologies like computers and handheld devices to

address their growth and transformation agendas. It will provide an integrated and

holistic framework to help the customers address their issues and concerns and

focus on their growth in an agile manner. Digital opportunity is a global

phenomenon as these new technologies are becoming more and more acceptable

on the business enterprise table [12].

3.1 Business Behaviour:

Business 4.0 is a term introduced and coined by TCS. It is a framework of how

business work or behave that will optimize and make use of the digital technology

to gain advantage in creating customer value. As per TCS, there are four different

business behaviours of the leaders of the digital era that will help fabricate the

digital technologies [12] [13].


46

3.1.1 Creating Exponential Value:

Digital technologies have overwritten the traditional concepts of value creations

and have presented new and bright opportunities of delivering value to the end

users and customers. Technologies like Big Data, IoT and AI allows linking and

cross-selling of the different products and services which makes it easy and

assertive for businesses to look beyond increasing values and pre-defined revenue

opportunities.

3.1.2 Driving Mass Personalization:

Digital technologies are helping and enabling the businesses to deliver

customization at a huge scale. Big data tools and data analytics allow a singular

view of customer demands. It also allows nearly infinite scope of segmentations

across a number of variables. AI and IoT solutions can help us drive user

personalization at a large scale. Technologies like 3D printing can easily turn the

production process upside down by starting with the most basic customer

requirements.

3.1.3 Leveraging Ecosystems:

Digital technologies are variously expanding the boundaries of the industries and

the landscape of the competition. Businesses across many industries are working

together to deliver greater value and services to the customer. API, analytics and

the various digital platforms have taken the group collaboration to a new level.

3.1.4 Embracing Risk:

Digital technologies have enabled the businesses to gain new levels of agility and

flexibility in embracing the risks. Adaptation of digital means requires large-scale

restructuring and transformations to the processes as well as the business model.

Digital technologies have also created an environment that promises high returns


47

on the risks taken. Maximization of digital technologies advantages for

businesses, the management needs to think big and focus on the betterment of the

customer, and ways of providing better and futuristic services and products.

3.2 Technology Pillars:

Technology pillars are the pillars on which the business 4.0 paradigm rests upon.

Overall, four technologies have been identified on whom the paradigm can be

handled upon [12].

Figure 2: Business 4.0, Technology Pillars

3.2.1 Agile:

Recently agile has completely transformed the alignment of business and

Information Technology (IT). Simple meaning of the term agile means to move

quickly. Agile is all about producing good quality, working software in quick

time. Agile transformations help businesses to respond faster and with better

results to the customers and competitors. It helps in becoming leaner and


48

innovative. It also helps in taking calculated and well-informed risks which would

help in gaining profits [14].

3.2.2 Automation:

With the power of data analytics and AI, technology applications can monitor the

production and delivery of the products and services. They can also control it. It

will help in getting unmatched returns. Machine First approach gives the

flexibility to humans to move away from everyday repetitive tasks by giving the

machines the rights to make decisions without involvement of humans. In this

way, humans can focus their attention on areas where human intelligence is

required [15].

3.2.3 Intelligent:

Techniques like data science, cognitive capabilities and Natural Language

Processing (NLP) help the machines to understand and act autonomously and

independently. This allows the machines to be automated for the tasks prescribed

for them, saving time, energy, resources and at the same time increasing

efficiency. All these autonomous solutions have taken the human capabilities to

unforeseen levels [16].

3.2.4 Cloud:

Cloud is the hub of processing and data storage. It provides shared resources and

services which can be used over the internet, on demand and as per requirements.

These services are flexible, scalable, and available 24X7. They allow computing

capabilities to enterprises and businesses anytime, anywhere and support a large

number of platforms [17].


49

3.3 The Age Of Abundance:

Digital technology has completely reshaped the traditional concept of static and

limited resource availability. Earlier humans used to work with limited resources

and they had to bring out the best from those limited resources. But now,

enterprises and businesses can harness resources in abundance. This is the key

enabler of Business 4.0. The three basic building blocks of growth of business

can be the following [12].

3.3.1 Talent:

Digital technology has allowed enterprises and businesses access to abundant

talent at all levels of expertise. Technologies such as cloud, automation and

analytics has made it possible to gain unscaled resources, powered mobility to

users, social and global access and platform economy. The availability of

abundant resources has helped businesses come up with innovative and futuristic

business models [18].

3.3.2 Capital:

Innovation is at its prime in this world of digital technology and developing it

into commercial scale has become easier. Governments and big enterprises are

eyeing and helping start-ups with brilliant minds and ideas. Technologies

facilitate proofs of concepts and pilots at a smaller scale with limited capital

requirements before increasing them [19].

3.3.3 Capabilities:

With the availability of cloud services, the enterprises and businesses are no

longer tied to limited in-house resources and capabilities. They are interested in

developing partnerships with ecosystems big or large businesses, service


50

providers, suppliers, their competitors and even start-ups. APIs allow them access

to functional capabilities such as GPS, e-tailing and payment systems [20].

4. Business 4.0 At Work:

Business 4.0 is all about embracing technology. Industries and businesses are now

often using combinations of behavioural changes to sell products or services.

Let’s look at some of the most prominent success factors of some international

businesses in their success strategies [12].

4.1 Google’s Exponential Value Growth:

Google when it was launched was a simple search engine. It took queries and

displayed results. Its services were free for its users. Then after some time, many

people from around the world started using google service on a daily basis which

in turn gave google a huge userbase. First it started paid search for its users and

then launched Google ad words to earn profits [21]. In a very short span of time,

it became an integral hub for advertising and marketing. It started tracking its

users’ behaviour and used it to generate leads for other businesses. Further it

leveraged user data for the GPS services. It also started providing free email

service, and then introduced commercial use as well. Due to its data processing

and analytic abilities, it was able to introduce a large number of products and

services and grew to a $1 trillion company in no time [22].

4.2 Amazon:

When other businesses were still figuring how to use enormous data, Amazon

was busy using advanced analytics to drive personalization on the masses. The

traditional market segments at the time were gender, age and income. Whereas

amazon made a segment of one and started to break it up further. Automation,

analytics and AI were used to male customizations on a large scale. If a user


51

purchases a mobile phone, they will start getting offers to buy covers for the

phone. It will display what the user searched the last time they visited the website

to drive more sales. These advanced technologies allowed amazon to increase

customer value and made it the worlds largest e-commerce marketplace and the

most valuable public company [23].

4.3 Uber:

Uber is a business that provides transport service to its users but uber itself does

not own a single vehicle. It operates by leveraging ecosystem of third-party

vehicle owners. They used digital technology to change the way the users perform

their day to day commutes. The app used to buy the services uses GPS to connect

the user/rider with the vehicle drivers. It further adds a payment gateway to give

quick and secure payment option. Dynamic pricing is also a functionality that

benefits both riders and drives [24].

4.4 Netflix:

Netflix started as an online video store in 1998. In 2007 it launched its unique

video streaming service. Finally, it launched its original programming business

in 2011. They were able to launch these services because they used technology

to read user preferences and likes and dislikes. In 2008, they completed moved

their services to the cloud, which in turn provided them with the speed that the

streaming services need and the scalability as it was expanding to different

geographical regions. The switch to the cloud helped them gain an exponential

rise in streaming hours. The moves were well timed and even better managed. Its

subscriber base grew from a 25 million to 125 million in a few years [25].

5. Relation With Industry 4.0: Industry 4.0 [26] is the main driver for Business

4.0. With the fourth industrial revolution the next business revolution was not far

behind. Everyone nowadays is talking about sustainability, which can only be


52

realized with efficient use of the available resources and services. Industry 4.0

and Business 4.0 are the key enablers for human sustainability. According to

Forbes report, “what has been available to us through each of the three preceding

stages of our industrial revolution has been limited by what business could offer

during each period with the tools at its disposal. That's now changing for the

fourth time". So, we can say that the Industry 4.0 is providing business 4.0 with

a new set of tools to work with. Businesses are creating value in ways never used

before. The social systems are also adapting, evolving and reacting to the same

for better or worse. Technologies are allowing businesses to bridge the last mile

and last minute of the connectivity chain. Value is now being driven by

simplicity, convenience, connectivity, immediacy and many other experimental

focused offerings. The society is adjusting, adapting and reacting and trying to

advance what we have to work with and to live with it [27].

6. Steps To Achieve Sustainable Business Model:

Most businesses, earlier, did not possess any knowledge of sustainable

development. From a deeper perspective, a sustainable business is the one which

promises equal growth for business finances, environment and social factors. The

path to achieving sustainability is not easy. In this section we list a few ways

which will help businesses and enterprises to shape a more sustainable future for

themselves and the community [28].

1. Building Businesses On Belief:

It is possible to change everything about a business baring the core belief.

Developing a business on one’s beliefs is nothing but generating value to the

business. The modern business is totally dependent on the beliefs of the

management. Belief should be consistent, and one should work upon your beliefs

and derive value.


53

2. Embracing The Changes:

When there are changes in the business environment either you act fast and adapt

to the situation or don’t change with the situation. If you access the situation

correctly and perform the switch, you can be the biggest, boldest and on the right

track. But if you access the situation wring and do not make the switch, then you

may be the closest to extinction. One may have a brilliant idea, but a brilliant idea

today may not be worth in a few months’ time. So, businesses should find ways

to take the ideas to the market quickly.

3. Developing Business Value Propositions:

Every business should have a crucial marketing tactics which acts as a catalyst

for value, in reference to client needs and problems. So, if the business process

doesn’t get the schedule and planning right and it loses the touch with the value

preposition, then our business can get completely failed. We should never lose

sight of the fact that the purpose of the business is to push value for the customers.

The focus should be on creating high business value and high capabilities which

will help the user.

4. Growth And Comfort Don’t Co-Exist:

Today, things are changing very fast. Everyone today is trying to shift to the

technological perspectives. If a business wants to grow, it needs to come out of

its comfort zone and play in the open, since, competition in the market is at the

highest. Banking industry is growing, everybody now a days is a retailer,

everyone is selling and manufacturing mobiles. Furthermore, businesses should

have the main focus on delivering values to the users in innovative ways.


54

5. Excelling In A Particular Area:

It is an ecosystem of businesses today. It is not that one business is delivering

products to all the users at every place. If you are not a part of the ecosystem, then

your business is limiting itself. As the time passes on, the business will drift

towards difficulty. One business can be a part of a number of ecosystems. And

one’s contribution in each ecosystem should be significant. One should always

look at how things work to drive the incremental value.

6. Constant Reinvention:

For a business it is very important to constantly reinvent what you do and

reimaging the way you do business, but the core belief of the complete system

should be retained. It is so because the employees, the clients and the partners

need a strong belief to work with you and for you.

7. Conclusion:

It is hard to remember that smartphones have only been with us for over a decade,

or the internet only really got going in the last 20 years. AI has been around for

decades, but its only since the advent of smarter computers powered chips with

faster processing, that it has become mainstream. Sensor technology has

propelled the Internet of Things. In business 4.0, automation, robotics, AI, cloud

computing and other technologies are changing the way business are conducted.

Now, man and machines are working in tandem and more closely than ever. The

technology powered by machine learning will in the near future emulate the

workings and patterns of the human brain. Smart robots will work alongside

humans, not to replace them but to augment their capabilities. Smart technologies

will make Business 4.0 more sustainable and efficient in the near future.


55

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integrative assessment of children’s self-regulatory capabilities: New

applications of digital technology. Clinical child and family psychology

review, 22(1), 90-103.

21. Geddes, B. (2014). Advanced Google AdWords. John Wiley & Sons.


57

22. https://www.theverge.com/2020/1/16/21069458/google-alphabet-trillion-

dollar-market-cap-apple-microsoft

23. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/01/07/amazon-passes-microsoft-market-value-

becomes-largest.html

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can win over regulators. Harvard business review, 13(10), 24-28.

25. Gomez-Uribe, C. A., & Hunt, N. (2015). The Netflix recommender system:

Algorithms, business value, and innovation. ACM Transactions on

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driving-social-and-industry-upheaval/#4a3d43c134c4

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ISBN: 978-81-947839-1-6

58

4. Quality Access Control To Provide Security To Data

Owners In Cloud Computing

Amit Phadikar

Dept. of Information Technology,

MCKV Institute of Engineering, Liluah, Howrah, India.

Abstract:

The present chapter attempts to develop two quality access control schemes using

region of interest (ROI) coding of an image and lifting. In the first algorithm,

quality access control for ROI is presented using K-means clustering, and data

hiding. The scheme uses two types of dithers for efficient data embedding. The

embedded watermark is removed completely by reversible process that leads to

greater improvement in quality. In the second algorithm, a quality access control

scheme is described with ROI coding functionality in compressed domain. In this

algorithm, a data modulation based scheme is used for quality access control of

ROI at various qualities of gray scale image. The detailed wavelets coefficients

that lie within the area of ROI are modulated by a key supplied by the user/owner.

Those operations collectively are called here as passive data hiding and the

necessary information are encrypted in the form of a secret key which is used at

the time of decoding. Experimental results show that the work provides a

reference solution to the critical problem of cloud security.

Keywords:

Quality Access Control, Data Hiding, Passive Data Hiding, QIM, ROI, Wavelet,

Foreground, K-mean clustering.

1. Introduction:

Cloud computing is a set of services that are given to a client over a network

(mainly over Internet) on a rent basis. The clients also have the capability to

Quality Access Control To Provide Security To Data Owners In Cloud Computing

59

rescale their service as per their requirements. Normally, cloud computing

services are distributed by a third-party provider who possesses the

infrastructure/resources. It offers various advantages like scalability, resilience,

flexibility, efficiency and outsourcing non-core activities. As a result, it offers a

pioneering business model for organizations to accept IT services without direct

investment. Despite the potential gains achieved from the cloud computing, the

organizations are slow in accepting it due to security issues and challenges

associated with it. Security is one of the major concerns that hinder the growth

of cloud. Access control technique may find its usage to provide a kind of

security either to deny fully or to allow partial accessing of the digital content.

Research in access control is now in its very early stage. Scrambling,

cryptography and visual cryptography are the few widely used methods adopted

either to deny or partial accessing of the media. Digital data hiding, although

originally developed for copyright protection, ownership verification and

authentication are now being used for access control due to commercial or

security reasons. In literature, active data hiding (popularly known as

watermarking) is commonly used for former class of applications while the latter

purpose is served by passive data hiding methods. Passive data hiding is a

technique used for media identification where it is expected that signal distortions

caused due to data hiding can be reverted by the authorized user to enjoy the full

quality. Manipulation in the image for controlling its access to the different

categories of users is generally guided by the content of the original image.

Access control may find an important application in 5th generation mobile

communication system where billing is expected to be performed based on the

fulfillment of degree of quality of services (QoS).

The majority of the conventional discrete wavelet transform (DWT) and discrete

cosine transform (DCT) based access control schemes reported in the literature

suffer form few shortcomings: (1) protection of region-of-interest (ROI) is not


60

taken into consideration during access control. It is to be noted that ROI of an

image remains untouched from modification during many applications like

coding and compression in order to preserve its essential value or importance.

However, with reverse argument this image feature may be modified if the

process is reversible leading to its application in access control. (2) The other

shortcoming is high computation complexity that makes the algorithms

unsuitable for faster implementation. It is reported in the literature that compared

to DCT (discrete cosine transforms), conventional DWT (discrete wavelet

transforms) has less computational cost. But in the case of an image having large

size, it is still a problem when DWT applied to a whole image. The issue becomes

important as many algorithms in recent times demanded real time implementation

for which hardware realization becomes a viable alternative. Lifting scheme is an

effective method to improve the computation speed of conventional DWT as well

for digital design. Integer wavelets transform (lifting) allows to construct lossless

wavelet transform, which is important for quality access control scheme. On the

other hand, though 80 % of image and video data are still available in DCT

compressed form but future generation relies on DWT based coding technique.

So, development of cost-effective access control for DWT coded image and video

become an important research issue.

The present chapter attempts to develop two quality access control scheme using

ROI coding of an image by applying lifting based discrete wavelet transformation

(DWT). Lifting technique is used to achieve lower computational complexity. In

the first algorithm, quality access control for region of interest (ROI) is presented

using K-means clustering, Lifting and data hiding. The scheme uses two types of

dithers for efficient data embedding. The 1st type of dither is used to randomize

quantization error, thereby preventing large-scale patterns that are more

objectionable than uncorrelated noise. The 2nd dither is used for detecting

reliable watermark. The decoded watermark can also be removed completely by


61

the reversible process that leads to greater improvement in quality. In the second

algorithm, an access control technique is described with region of interest (ROI)

coding functionality in compressed domain. In this algorithm, a data modulation-

based scheme is used for quality access control of ROI at various qualities of gray

scale image. The detailed DWT coefficients that lie within the area of ROI in an

image are modulated by a key supplied by the user/owner. Those operations

collectively are called here as passive data hiding in the DWT coefficients and

the necessary information are encrypted in the form of a secret key which is used

at the time of decoding. The experimental results show that the work provides a

reference solution to the critical problem of cloud security. The related works are

outlined in the next section.

2. Related Work:

This section briefly reviews few access control methods of digital images and

video signals reported in the literature. Imaizumi et al. [1] offered a new private-

key encryption for JPEG 2000 code streams for flexible access control of layers,

resolution levels and color components. Authors pointed out that conventional

access control schemes generally used several keys to control image quality.

However, their work used only one master key for both data management and

delivery. At the same time, different key generated by the master key can be

delivered to the user permitted to access at different quality. Fujiyoshi et al. [2]

proposed a similar type of hierarchical encryption scheme for composite

multimedia content that enabled versatile access control. The scheme had only

one master key and delivered one key to the user. The scheme can keep all the

objects in a particular medium in encrypted form and simultaneously decrypts

several objects in other media using unusable keys. Moreover, the scheme

supports multiple images with scalabilities by numbering keys. The above

cryptographic approaches that are used for access control are usually complex in

nature. Moreover, an error in a cipher text may lead to partially or totally failed


62

in decryption. In broadcast environment, with large volume of data exchange,

error in transmission may occur from time to time and retransmission is not

allowed, leading to a serious problem [3]. To overcome the above problem, Liu

et al. [4] proposed a computationally efficient, secure, selective encryption

scheme for JPEG-2000 images without decreasing the compressibility of JPEG-

2000 coding. The scheme used a secret key and a mapping function to generate a

private initial table to encrypt the selected DWT code blocks in the entropy

coding stage of JPEG-2000 coding scheme.

Won et al. [5] proposed a conditional access control to protect scalable video

coding (SVC) bit stream by encryption in the network abstraction layer (NAL).

Besides this conditional access control mechanism, key management was also

proposed. Wen et al. [6] introduced a technique to perform selective encryption

and spatial/frequency shuffling of compressed MPEG-4 video content in wireless

channel. The simulation results indicate that by selective encryption and

shuffling, a good trade-off can be made among complexity, security and bit rate

overhead. Wang et al. [7] offered a transparent scrambling technique, where the

image degradation is varied according to parameter control. Authors claimed that

the technique had low computation complexity since the scrambling technique

was applied only on INTRA macro blocks of MPEG-2 stream that had little

influence on the output bit rate. Kingston et al. [8] proposed a crypto-compression

scheme based on cascading of Radon projection which enables fast encryption of

large amount of digital data. Standard encryption techniques, such as advanced

encryption standard (AES), data encryption standard (DES), or 3DES can be

applied to encrypt very small percentages of high-resolution images. As the

proposed scheme used standard encryption, and only transmits uncorrelated data

along with the encrypted part, this technique took benefit of the security related

to the chosen encryption standard.


63

Zaidee et al. [9] proposed two new scrambling techniques, which can be applied

selectively i.e. apply either one or both. The techniques are called combined-

reverse-and-normal-direction (CRND) zigzag and quantized blocks permutation

(QBP) scrambling. Authors claimed that the scrambling techniques were easy to

implement and by combining both the techniques, the scrambled image had

higher resistance to spatial plain-text attack. Roche et al [10] presented a new

approach based on iterated function system coding (IFSC) that provides both

compression and hierarchical access control for images at various resolution

levels. Since the protection mechanism was integrated with IFSC, specific

properties of images were taken into account in the design of the access control

mechanism as opposed to a general encryption algorithm. Thus, instead of the

whole encoded image, only key parameters of the IFS code need to be encrypted

that ultimately reduces the computation load. Kankahalli et al. [11] proposed an

access control scheme of video using joint lightweight encryption and

compression. The goal was achieved by selective bit scrambling, block shuffling

and block rotation of the transformed coefficients and motion vectors. Bertino et

al. [12] proposed a novel approach to support multilevel access control in video

databases that combined video database indexing mechanism with a hierarchical

organization of visual concepts (i.e. video database indexing units), so that

different classes of users could access different video elements or even the same

video element with different quality levels according to their permissions.

Next three sections will discuss about basic principles and key features of lifting

based DWT, K-mean image clustering and QIM data hiding. Those tools and

techniques are used in the proposed accesses control scheme.

3. Basic Principles And Key Features Of Lifting Based DWT:

The lifting scheme is a technique for both designing fast wavelets and performing

the discrete wavelet transform. The technique was introduced by Wim Sweldens.


64

The discrete wavelet transform applies several filters separately to the same

signal. In contrast to that, for the lifting scheme the signal is divided like a zipper.

Then a series of convolution-accumulate operations across the divided signals is

applied. Generally speaking, lifting scheme includes three steps that are splitting,

prediction and update. The basic idea of lifting is described here briefly [13]:

Split: The original signal is divided into two disjoint subsets. Although any

disjoint split is possible, the scheme splits the original data set x[n] into xe[n]=

x[2n], the even indexed points and xo[n]= x[2n+1], the odd indexed points.

Predict: The wavelet coefficients d[n] are generated as an error in predicting

xo[n] from xe[n] using prediction operator P.

d[n] = xo[n]-P(xe[n]) (1)

Update: xe[n] and d[n] are combined to obtain scaling coefficients c[n] that

represent a coarse approximation to the original signal x[n]. This is accomplished

by applying an update operator U to the wavelet coefficients and adding the result

to xe[n]:

c[n]=xe[n]+ U(d[n]) (2)

These three steps form a lifting stage. Iteration of the lifting stage on the output

c[n] creates the complete set of DWT scaling and wavelet coefficients cj[n] and

dj[n]. At each scale, the scheme weights the cj[n] and dj[n] with ke and ko,

respectively as shown in Fig. 1. This normalizes the energy of the underlying

scaling and wavelet functions.


65

Fig. 1: Lifting Steps.

The lifting steps are easily inverted even if P and U are nonlinear, space-varying,

or noninvertible. Rearranging Eq. (1) and (2) we have

xe[n]=c[n]-U(d[n]), xo[n]=d[n]+ P(xe[n]) (3)

The original signal will be perfectly reconstructed as long as the same P and U

are chosen for the forward and inverse transforms. The inverse lifting stage is

shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: Typical Inverse Lifting Steps.

Lifting scheme has several advantages over classical wavelet based transform and

are described below [14].

• Easy to understand and implement.

• Faster (×2, but still O (n), where n is the length of signal).

• Inverse transform is easier to find.

• Inverse transform has exactly the same complexity as the forward transform.

• Transforms signals with an arbitrary length (need not be 2n, where n is length

of signal)

• Requires less amount of memory.

• All wavelet filters can be implemented using the lifting scheme.

• Simple extensions to an integer transform possible.


66

4. Basic Principles And Key Features Of K-Mean Image Clustering:

The basis objective of the clustering technique is to divide the data points of the

feature space into a number of groups so that a predefined set of criteria are

satisfied. Given the number of classes, K-means algorithm finds the clusters

through an iterative procedure that minimize intra-class distances. Suppose

number of classes which the given data belong to is K. then the algorithm may be

described as follows [15]:

Step 1: Choose first K different feature vectors as K different cluster centers c0

(0), c1 (0) , …, ck-1

(0), where K is the number of classes and the superscript denotes

the iteration number.

Step 2: At r-th iteration for each of the feature vectors, assign feature vector {fi}

to cluster Ck if

d(fi, ck (r-1))=min {d (fi, cj

(r-1)}

(4)

for j=0,1,...., k-1 where ‘d’ is a distance measure, or Euclidean distance.

Step 3: New cluster centers are computed by minimizing intra-class distances. If

ck (r) is the centre of Ck at r-th iteration, this is calculated by minimizing

( )

2r= -i∈i

f cf

Dk kCk

(5)

for k=0,1,2,…k-1. The cluster centre obtained by minimizing Dk in Eq. (5) is the

mean value of feature vectors belonging to Ck at r-th iteration, i.e.

( )( ) k

1

k

r

k ri ck

cn

= f (6)


67

where ( )r

kn is the number of feature vectors assigned to Ck at r-th iteration.

Step 4: if ( ) ( )1r r

k k

−c c for all k, that means there are insignificant or no changes in

cluster centres, then the algorithm is terminated, else from Step 2. Cluster thus

obtained have minimum intra-class distance for a given set of feature vectors and

number of classes.

5. Basic Principles And Key Features Of QIM Data Hiding:

The process of mapping a large (possibly infinite) set of values to a much smaller

set is called quantization. Since quantization reduces the number of distinct

symbols that have to be coded, it is central to many lossy compression schemes.

Dither quantization (or dither modulation) is a special case of quantization index

modulation (QIM) for self noise suppression. Dither quantizers are quantizer

ensembles where the quantization cell and reconstruction points of every

quantizer in the ensemble are shifted versions of some base quantizer Q having

step size ∆. The shift is given by a dither vector d. The encoding and the decoding

processes (assuming binary coding) can be expressed as follows [16]:

Encoder:

𝑥′ = 𝑄∆(𝑥 + 𝑑(𝑚)) − 𝑑(𝑚) 𝑚 ∈ {0,1} (7)

where x, m and 𝑥′ are the host signal, embedded information and the composite

signal, respectively.

Decoder:

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑚 = 𝑄∆(𝑦 + 𝑑(𝑚)) − 𝑑(𝑚) − 𝑦 𝑚 = 0,1 (8)


68

and 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 {𝑏𝑖𝑡 0 𝑖𝑓 |𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡0| < |𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡1|

𝑏𝑖𝑡 1 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒 (9)

where y is the received distorted watermarked signal (𝑥′). The next two sections

will discuss the propose quality access control schemes.

6. Quality Access Control Of Uncompressed Gray Scale Image:

In this scheme, the objective of watermark encoding is the insertion of watermark

in the foreground part of the image, so that the watermarked image has little or

low commercial value. On the other hand, the objective of the decoding scheme

is the elimination of watermark from the watermarked image by authorized user

to get better quality of image [17].

6.1 Watermark Encoding:

The block diagram representation of the proposed encoding scheme is shown in

Fig. 3. The encoding process is performed in different steps as follows:

Fig. 3: Block Diagram Of Watermark Process: Encoder.

Step 1: K-mean Image Segmentation: K-mean clustering algorithm is applied

on the host image to get a binary mask (M) that represents the foreground of the

image. Fig. 4 (a) and (b) show one such test image and the generated mask using

the K-mean clustering algorithms, respectively.


69

Fig. 4: Test Image (A); Generated Binary Mask (B).

Step 2: Image Transformation: n-level lifting wavelet transform (LWT) is

performed on the original image and the binary mask generated in Step 1.

Step 3: Generation of Watermark: Depending on the number of coefficients

found in the LL (low-low) subband that are within the foreground area, a binary

sequence of random bits is generated using a secret key K. Those random bits

are worked as a watermark and are inserted into different subbands using

following steps.

Step 4: Coefficients Selection Criteria for One Bit of Watermark

Embedding: One bit of watermark (W ) is inserted into different energy level so

that it can be resists against low and high pass filtering. Moreover, in case of

scalable decoding if only high-energy subbands are sent to the decoder,

watermark can be detected efficiently from those subbands without waiting for

the others. The scheme selects the entire high-high(HH) subband, as this

component contains both of the characteristics of horizontal and vertical

component. Fig. 5 shows the group of selected coefficients (G) for one bit of

watermark insertion when the image is decomposed using 4-level LWT. In the

case of 4-level decomposition of an image, total 88 coefficients (G) (four

coefficients from LL4, HL4, LH4, HH4 each, four coefficients from HH3, 16

coefficients from HH2 and 64 coefficients from HH1) are selected for one bit of

watermark insertion.


70

Fig. 5: Selected Coefficients For One Bit Of Watermark Embedding.

Step 5: Selection of Step Size (∆b): The step size (∆b) depends on the band to

which the watermark is embedded. The step size ( Δb) for subband ‘b’ is calculated

using Eq. 10, which is the quantization step size used for standard JPEG 2000

[18].

μR -ε bb bΔ = 2 1+b 11

2

(10)

where, Rb is the nominal dynamic range of subband b. The symbols εb and µb are

the number of bits allotted to the exponent and mantissa of the subband’s

coefficients.

Step 6: Generation of Binary Dither for Each Subband: In this scheme, two

types of dithers are used for efficient data embedding. The first type of dither is

used to randomize quantization error, thereby preventing large-scale patterns

such as contouring that are more objectionable than uncorrelated noise. The

dither is generated pseudo ramomly as follows.

( )( ) ( )... ( ) 0.5* /1 2

d rand L rand L rand L k km k= + + − (11)


71

The symbol ‘ L ’ is the number of coefficients that are considered for one bit data

embedding i.e. 88. It is seen from experimentation that the value of k=4 is enough

for generating acceptable dm that can randomize quantization error. Whereas, the

second category of dither is used for watermark bit embedding to achieve better

quality access control of foreground area of an image and is generated as follows.

Let the number of LWT coefficient(s) for a particular category be denoted by L.

For coefficient(s) in category ‘ b ’, two dither sequences, with length L, are

generated pseudo randomly using a key as follows:

( ), (0) ( ) / 2b q b bd key= − 0 1q L − (12)

, ,

,

, ,

(0) / 2 (0) 0(1)

(0) / 2 (0) 0

b q b b q

b q

b q b b q

d if dd

d if d

+ = −

(13)

where, ( )key is a random number generator and is the round function. The

sequences , (0)b qd and

, (1)b qd are used, respectively, for embedding the bit 0 and bit

1.

Step 7: Watermark Insertion: The bits of the permuted watermark W are now

embedded into the LWT coefficients of different subbands. The q-th watermarked

LWT coefficient qS corresponding to a category ‘b’ obtained as follows:

,

,

, (0) ( , ) 0

, (1) ( , ) 1

q m b b q

q

q m b b q

Q X d d if W i jS

Q X d d if W i j

+ − ==

+ + =

(14)

where, qX is the original q-th LWT coefficient, Q is a uniform quantizer (and

dequantizer) with step b , for category ‘b’. After watermark embedding, inverse

LWT (iLWT) is applied and the watermarked image is formed.


72

6.2 Watermark Decoding:

The proposed watermarking method is a blind scheme in the sense that the

decoding process does not require the original/host image, but only required the

foreground mask (M). The block diagram for watermark decoding scheme is

shown in Fig. 6. The steps for watermark decoding scheme are described as

follows:

Fig. 6: Block Diagram Of Watermark Process: Decoder.

Step 1: Steps 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 of watermark encoding, are performed on the

watermarked or possibly distorted watermarked image. The same step size (Δ) is

selected for respective category of block that was used at the time of encoding.

Step 2: Watermark Bit Extraction: The detection method uses the principal of

minimum distance decoding to determine which quantizer has been used at the

encoder side. A watermark bit (W (i, j) is decoded by examining the group of

coefficients (G) of different subbands (Fig. 5) that are lies in the foreground area

of the image using the following rule.

( )1

0

( (0), ) (0)L

q bq b bq q

q

Q Y d d Y−

=

= + − − (15a)

( )1

0

( (1), ) (1)L

q bq b bq q

q

B Q Y d d Y−

=

= − + − (15b)


73

where, qY is the q-th LWT coefficient (possibly distorted) of the received signal

for category ‘b’. The watermark bit ( , )W i j corresponding to a group of selected

coefficients (G) is now decoded using the following rule.

0 ( , )

1

if A BW i j

otherwise

=

(16)

Step 3: Removal of Watermark for Access Control: The embedded watermark

is suppressed to get better quality of image using following rule.

,

,

(0) ( , ) 0

(1) ( , ) 1

q b q

q

q b q

Y d if W i jY

Y d if W i j

+ = =

− =

(17)

where, qY is the host signal after watermark elimination. Then inverse LWT

(iLWT) is applied to get relatively high quality of the image.

Step 4: Decision of Watermark Existence: The scheme calculate the

normalized cross correlation (NCC) between the original watermark (W) and the

decoded watermark (W ) in order to make a decision for a given watermark to

exist or not. The normalized cross correlation is defined as:

( )

=

i jji

i jjiji

W

WW

NCC2

ˆ

(18)

where, ,i jW and

,ˆ

i jW are the original and the decoded watermark bits, respectively

at ( ,i j )th position.

7. Quality Access Control Of Compressed Gray Scale Image:

The proposed access control scheme consists of two modules, namely, image

encoding and image decoding [19]. The encoding module basically performs

compression, modulation and symbol encoding while the decoding module does


74

the reverse operations i.e. symbol decoding, demodulation and decompression.

The detailed block diagram representation of the image encoding, and image

decoding are shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8, respectively.

Fig. 7: Block Diagram Of Quality Access Control: Encoding Process.

Fig. 8: Block Diagram Of Quality Access Control: Decoding Process.

7.1 Image Encoding Process:

The image encoding process consists of the following steps:

Step 1: Image Pre-processing: The pixel values of the original image are level

shifted by subtracting 2m-1, where ‘m’ is the number of bits required to represent

the gray level of the image.

Step 2: Image Transformation: n-level LWT is performed on the original image

and on the binary mask supplied by the owner/user.

Step 3: ROI Coding: Depending on the mask supplied by the user, ROI is

calculated using generic ROI mask generation method, which is used in

JPEG2000.


75

Step 4: Quantization of Wavelet Coefficients: Each of the transform

coefficients ab (u, v) of subband ‘b’, which lies outside of the ROI, is quantized

to the value qb (u, v) using the following rule [20].

𝑞𝑏(𝑢, 𝑣) = 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛(𝑎𝑏(𝑢, 𝑣) ⌊|𝑎𝑏 (𝑢,𝑣)|

∆𝑏⌋ (19)

Step 5: Owner/User Define Key and its Significance: Owner/user of the image

has to give a master key (K) of length ‘L’ bit to the system, which implies the

number of level of wavelet subbands coefficients to be considered and the type

of modulation to be performed on all detail subbands coefficients which are

within the ROI. Fig. 9 shows the key where ‘k’ number of MSB (i.e. bit 2 L-1 to

2L- k) represent the number of levels of the detail subbands to be modulated. The

rest of the bits in the key are used to denote the type of modulation to be

performed on the coefficients, which lie in the ROI.

Fig. 9: L Bit Binary Key Used For Modulation.

Step 6: ROI Coefficients Modulation: Depending on the key (‘K’) supplied by

the owner, the respective level of modulation is determined. The coefficients that

lie in the area of ROI are modulated pseudo randomly according to the locally

generated key based on ‘K ’. The modulation is described by the following rule:

Xe= (-1)*X (20)

where, X and Xe are the quantized LWT coefficients, before and after modulation.


76

Step 7: Symbol Encoding: For efficient storage and transmission, all resulting

coefficients (both within ROI and non-ROI) are Arithmetic and Huffman coded

and the secret key ‘K’ is padded at the end of the bit sequence.

7.2 Image Decoding Process:

The decoding process is just reverse to that of the encoding process where the

input is the modulated compressed bit sequence. The steps for decoding process

are described below.

Step 1: Key Extraction and Symbol Decoding: Key (K) is extracted from the

end of the bit sequence and then both Huffman and Arithmetic decoding is done

on the rest of the bits, to get the modulated quantized LWT coefficient.

Step 2: Separation of Coefficients into ROI and Non-ROI: Using the

knowledge of the mask, LWT coefficients are separated into two group i.e. ROI

and non-ROI coefficients.

Step 3: ROI Coefficients Demodulation: Depending on the key extracted, the

number of level to be demodulated is determined. The coefficients, which are

within the ROI, are demodulated pseudo randomly according to locally generated

key based on ‘K ’. The demodulation is described by the following rule.

Xe1= (-1)* Xe (21)

where, X e and X e1 are the quantized LWT coefficient before and after

demodulation.

Step 4: Inverse Transformation: The image is reconstructed by performing the

operations such as dequantization (only on the coefficients which are outside of

the ROI), inverse LWT and inverse level shifting on the resulted quantized

coefficients.


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8. Performance Evaluation:

The performance of the proposed algorithms are evaluated over a large number

of benchmark images [21][22] including eight popular test images: Cameraman,

Lifting body, Airplane, Terraux, Lena, Pepper, Baboon, and F161 as shown in

Fig. 10. All of the test images are of size (256×256), 8 bit/pixel gray scale image.

The present study uses Peak-Signal-to-Noise-Ratio (PSNR) [20] and Mean–

Structure-Similarity Index-Measure (MSSIM) [23] as a distortion measure for the

watermarked image under inspection with respect to the original image.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

(e) (f) (g) (h)

Fig. 10: Test images. (a) Cameraman, (b) Lifting body, (c) Airplane, (d)

Terraux, (e) Lena, (f) Pepper, (g) Baboon, (h) F161.

8.1 Performance Evaluation Of Uncompressed Gray Scale Image:

8.1.1 Visibility Measure:

Table 1 illustrates PSNR and MSSIM before and after decoding process for four

test images and Fig. 11 shows the generated mask using K-mean clustering


78

technique for various test image. A normal user without the knowledge of the key

can view lower quality images with PSNR as shown in column 2 of Table 1.

However, a user with a valid key can decode a superior quality image with PSNR

shown in 5th column. Fig. 12 show the watermarked image after embedding

watermark and Fig. 14 are the same after removing of watermark from the

watermarked images. Fig. 13 shows the embedded regions for various test

images.

Table1: PSNR And MSSIM Before And After Decoding Process.

Before Decoding After Decoding

Name of Image PSNR (dB) MSSIM NCC PSNR (dB) MSSIM

Cameraman 27.53 0.85 1 41.31 0.98

Lifting body 31.68 0.93 1 43.07 0.99

Airplane 34.97 0.97 1 49.35 1.00

Terraux 28.57 0.93 1 39.02 1.00

.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig.11: Generated foreground using K-mean clustering (a) Cameraman, (b)

Lifting body, (c) Airplane, (d) Terraux.


79

(P: 27.53; M: 0.85) (P: 31.68; M: 0.93) (P: 34.97; M: 0.97) (P: 28.57; M: 0.93)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 12: Watermarked images (a) Cameraman, (b) Lifting body, (c)

Airplane, (d) Terraux. (P, M) above each image represents the PSNR (in dB)

and MSSIM values of the image.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 13: The embedded regions. (a) Cameraman, (b) Lifting body, (c)

Airplane, (d) Terraux.

(P: 41.31; M: 0.98) (P: 43.07; M: 0.99) (P: 49.35; M: 1.00) (P:39.02;M:1.00)

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 14: Decoded images after removing embedded watermark. (a)

Cameraman, (b) Lifting body, (c) Airplane, (d) Terraux. (P, M) above each

image represents the PSNR (in dB) and MSSIM values of the image.


80

Table 2: Results Of Test Image ‘Lena’ With Different Attacks.

Strength

PSNR

Before

Deco.

MSSIM

Before

Deco.

PSNR

After

Deco.

MSSIM

After

Deco.

NCC

Median Filtering

(3×3) 26.32 0.80 24.45 0.73 0.90

Mean Filtering

(3×3) 24.84 0.79 23.32 0.71 0.65

High pass Filtering

1.8 19.62 0.78 20.00 0.82 1.00

Down & Up Sampling

0.90 28.22 0.85 26.37 0.80 1.00

0.75 27.27 0.87 25.33 0.77 1.00

Histogram Equalization

18.69 0.73 19.08 0.77 1.00

Dynamic Range Change

[50- 200] 19.41 0.79 19.11 0.77 1.00

Salt & Pepper Noise

0.001 27.58 0.84 32.26 0.92 1.00

0.005 25.36 0.76 27.54 0.84 1.00

0.009 23.72 0.70 25.02 0.76 1.00

Speckle Noise

0.001 27.73 0.74 32.66 0.82 1.00

0.005 25.52 0.56 27.78 0.64 1.00

0.009 24.09 0.49 25.62 0.56 1.00

Gaussian Noise

0.001 19.75 0.32 20.09 0.33 1.00

0.005 19.74 0.32 20.07 0.33 1.00

0.009 19.64 0.32 19.96 0.33 1.00

8.1.2 Robustness Test:

The robustness of the proposed access control scheme is tested, after applying

some typical signal processing attacks, such as filtering, sampling, histogram

equalization, various noise addition, dynamic range change, and lossy JPEG


81

compression. The term robustness implies here the ability of quality access

control through self-noise suppression after various signal processing operations.

It is to be noted that these signal processing operations are quite common for

storage and transmission. Robustness against such operations is essential as it is

expected that an un-authorized user may distort the watermarked images so that

the user having valid commercial agreement may not avail better quality of the

images. The experimental results are shown in Table 2. It can be seen that our

algorithm can successfully resist attacks like median and mean filtering, high pass

filtering of mask size (3×3) each, sampling, histogram equalization and JPEG

compression with quality factor 50.

Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 show the improvement of quality in terms of PSNR and

MSSIM after lossy JPEG compression. It is seen from the Fig. 15 and Fig. 16 that

even the JPEG quality factor down to 50, the scheme still can extract the

watermark correctly and based on the extracted watermark the scheme suppress

watermark, that results in the improvement of the quality. Fig. 17 shows the NCC

values for JPEG compression with different quality factors. Fig. 17 suggests that

the scheme can detect the presence of watermark even the JPEG quality factor

down to 30.

Fig. 15: Improvement of quality in PSNR (dB) due to decoding for lossy

JPEG compression operation.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10025

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

34

35

Quality Factor

PS

NR

(dB

)

Before

After


82

Fig. 16: Improvement of quality in MSSIM due to decoding for lossy JPEG

compression operation.

8.2 Performance Evaluation Of Compressed Gray Scale Image:

The present scheme decomposes the test images into 3-Level during our

experimentation (see Fig.18(c)). Fig. 18(e) shows the decoded ‘Lena’ image

(PSNR: 36.03, MSSIM: 0.93, bit rate 2.52 bits/pixel, compression ratio 3.17: 1),

without quality access control mechanism. Table 3 lists the bit rate, compression

ratio, and PSNR and MSSIM values for other test images.

Table 3: Results Of Images Without Quality Control Mechanism.

Name of

image

Bit rate (Bits /

pixel)

Compression

Ratio

PSNR

(dB)

MSSIM

Pepper 2.48 3.23: 1 35.28 0.90

Babbon 2.96 2.71: 1 28.07 0.87

F161 2.59 3.09: 1 35.59 0.94

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000.5

0.55

0.6

0.65

0.7

0.75

0.8

0.85

0.9

0.95

1

JPEG Quality Factor

MS

SIM

Before

After


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Fig. 17: Results Of Robustness For Lossy JPEG Compression Operation.

8.2.1 Test With Key Having Different Level Of Detail Subband Modulation:

In the present scheme, the first two MSB of the key (K) represents the number of

levels of detailed subbands used for modulation. Table 4 represents the respective

type of modulation corresponding to each combination.

Table 4: List Of Different Level Of Subband Modulated For Experiment.

First Two MSB Of The Key Type Of Modulation Of Coefficients In

ROI

00 No modulation

01 Only detail coefficient of Level-1 Case-1

10 Detail coefficient of Level-1 and 2 Case-2

11 Detail coefficient of Level-1, 2 and 3 Case-3

Figs. (18(f), 18(h), 18(j)) and (18(g), 18(i), 18(k)): show the ‘Lena’ image, if ROI

is decoded without and with the true key respectively for the different cases as

mentioned above. It is seen that in all cases decoded ROI of ‘Lena’ images with

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 1000

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Quality Factor

NC

C


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the true key are of ultimate quality and images without the proper key produce a

lower level of quality. In other words, images of Figs. 18(f), 18(h), and 18(j) will

be available to all users but images of Figs. 18(g), 18(i), 18(k) will only be

available to the true users who have subscription agreement.

Table 5 lists the bit rate, compression ratio, PSNR and MSSIM values for various

test images under different cases. Results show that in all test cases, modulation

process do not increase any bit rate and is reverted completely so that full quality

restoration of ROI in the inspected images is achieved.

Fig 18(l) shows the ‘Lena’ image if it is decomposed by 4-Level lifting

transformation and all of the detail subband coefficients of ROI are modulated by

the key. Figs. 18(m)-18(p) show the decoded images, if the coefficients of ROI

for different level of detail subbands are demodulated by the true key.

Table 5: Results Of Images For Different Test Cases If Decoded Without

And With The True Key.

Cases Name of image Lena Pepper Baboon F161

Case-

1

Without key PSNR (dB) 33.94 33.12 26.21 32.87

MSSIM 0.90 0.86 0.80 0.92

Bit

rate(bit/pixel)

2.53 2.48 2.96 2.59

Compression

ratio

3.17: 1 3.23: 1 2.71: 1 3.08: 1

With key PSNR (dB) 36.03 35.28 28.07 35.58

MSSIM 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.94

Without

key

PSNR (dB) 30.59 30.62 24.87 28.75

MSSIM 0.85 0.82 0.73 0.88


85

Cases Name of image Lena Pepper Baboon F161

Case-

2

Bit

rate(bit/pixel)

2.52 2.48 2.95 2.59

Compression

ratio

3.17: 1 3.23: 1 2.70: 1 3.09: 1

With key PSNR (dB) 36.03 35.28 28.07 35.58

MSSIM 0.93 0.90 0.874 0.94

Case-

3

Without key PSNR (dB) 26.62 27.23 23.89 24.94

MSSIM 0.79 0.78 0.69 0.82

Bit

rate(bit/pixel)

2.52 2.48 2.95 2.59

Compression

ratio

3.17: 1 3.23: 1 2.71: 1 3.09: 1

With key PSNR (dB) 36.03 35.28 28.07 35.58

MSSIM 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.94

8.2.2 Having No Knowledge Of Key: Author also studied the scheme under the

consideration that if a user has no knowledge (brute force attacker) of the key and

attempts to decode the entire detail subbands of the image with a random key.

Figs. 18(q) -18(t) show the respective images if the ROI of the picture is decoded

using a random key. It is seen that in all cases the quality of ROI of the decoded

picture is of poor quality than the picture if decoded by the true key. It means that

only authentic user can avail better quality of the original one.

8.2.3 Computational Complexity: Author also examines the time that is taken

in one whole procedure of encoding and decoding for quality access control of

image to depict the computational complexity. It is known that the computational

load of conventional DCT and DWT are of O(n.log n) and O(n), respectively


86

having a signal of length ‘n’. Feig [21] also pointed out, that it only takes 54

multiplications to compute DCT for a block of size (8×8), unlike wavelet

calculation depends upon the length of the filter used, which is at least one

multiplication per coefficients. As all the previous access control schemes are

based on conventional DWT or DCT, which required high computational load.

Our scheme is based on lifting-base DWT method that is two times faster (though

complexity is O (n)) and requires less amount of memory. So, the scheme is

efficient for real-time implementation of quality access control scheme.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

(f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

(k) (l) (m) (n) (o)


87

(p) (q) (r) (s) (t)

Fig. 18: (a) Original image, (b) Binary mask, (c) 3-Scale LWT of original image

(a), (d) 3-Scale LWT of binary mask (b) , (e) Decoded image without quality

control scheme, (f) & (g): Quality accesses control for Case-1, (f) Decoded image

without key, (g) Decoded image with the true key, (h) & (i): Quality access

control for Case-2, (h) Decoded image without key, (i) Decoded image with the

true key, (j) & (k): Quality access control for Case-3, (j) Decoded image without

key, (k) Decoded image with the true key, (l)– (p): Results when original image

goes through 4-Scale LWT and all detail subbands are modulated,

(l) Decoded image without key (PSNR=23.86, MSSIM=0.74), (m) Output when

detail coefficients of Level-1 are decoded with true key (PSNR=24.02,

MSSIM=0.76), (n) Output when detail coefficients of Level-1 and 2 are decoded

with true key (PSNR=24.57,MSSIM=0.79) , (o) Output when detail coefficients

of Level-1, 2 and 3 are decoded with true key (PSNR=26.62, MSSIM= 0.85) , (p)

Output when detail coefficients of Level-1, 2, 3 and 4 are decoded with true key

(PSNR=34.10, MSSIM 0.91). (q)-(t): Results if “Lena” image is decoded by

different false (random) key (for Case-3), (q): decoded image with false key (1st

try) (PSNR-26.72 dB, MSSIM-0.79),(r): Decoded image with false key (2nd try)

(PSNR-26.71 dB, MSSIM-0.79), (s): Decoded image with false key (3rd try)

(PSNR-26.67 dB, MSSIM-0.79),(t): decoded image with false key (4th try)

(PSNR-26.74 dB,MSSIM-0.79).


88

9. Conclusion And Scope Of Future Works:

The present chapter attempts to develop two quality access control scheme using

ROI coding of an image by applying lifting based discrete wavelet transformation

(DWT). In the 1st algorithm, a data hiding scheme is proposed for quality access

control of foreground of an image using K-mean clustering. The scheme uses

two categories of dither. The experimental results show that the uses of two

different dithers improve the performance of the proposed scheme. The

experimental results also show that the scheme is not only robust against various

image processing operations but also a secured scheme. Only the user with the

correct key can generate the true dither and can get better (40.73%) quality of the

decoded picture. The work can be extended to video signal where foreground is

very important due to large amount of redundant data.

In the 2nd algorithm, a passive data-hiding scheme in compressed domain is

proposed using lifting-base DWT. The method may be used as an access control

of ROI at various qualities of an image. Experimental results show that valid users

having full knowledge of the key can restore the ROI, where all other users can

access the ROI to a certain level. The scheme is simple, fast, cost effective and

easy to implement. All these characteristics make the scheme a possible solution

for digital right management. Future work will be concentrated on real time VLSI

implementation of the scheme for image and video signal.

References:

1. Imaizumi, S., Watanabe, O., Fujiyoshi, M., & Kiya, H. (2005). Generalized

hierarchical encryption of JPEG 2000 code streams for access control. In Proc.

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Italy.


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2. Fujiyoshi, M., Saitou, W., Watanabe, O., & Kiya, H. (2006). Hierarchical

encryption of multimedia contents for access control. In Proc. of IEEE

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USA.

3. Xu, X., Dexter, S., & Eskicioglu, A.M. (2004). A hybrid scheme for

encryption and watermarking. IS&T/SPIE Symposium Electronic Imaging

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4. Liu, J. L. (2006). Efficient selective encryption for JPEG 2000 images using

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5. Won, Y.G., Bae, T. M. & Ro, Y.M. (2006). Scalable protection and access

control in full scalable video coding, LNCS, 4283, 407-421.

6. Wen, J.G., Severa, M., Zeng, W., Luttrell, M.H., & Jin, W. (2002). A format-

compliant configurable encryption framework for access control of video.

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– 557.

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8. Kingston, A., Colosimo, S., Campisi, P., & Autrusseau, F. (2007). Lossless

image compression and selective encryption using a discreteradon transform.

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San Antonio, TX, USA.

9. Zaidee, A.A., Fazdliana, S., & Adznan, B.J., (2006). Content access control

for JPEG images using CRND zigzag scanning and QBP. In Proc. of the Sixth

IEEE International Conference on Computer and Information Technology

(pp. 146 – 146), Seoul, Korea.

10. Roche, S., Dugelay J. L., & Molva, R. (1996). Multi-resolution access control

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11. Kankahalli, M.S., & Guan, T. (2002). Compressed domain

scrambler/descrambler for digital video. IEEE Transactions on Consumer

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12. Bertino, E., Fan, J., Ferrari, E., Hacid, M.S., Elmagarmid, A.K., & Zhu, X.

(2003). A hierarchical access control model for video database systems. ACM

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Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, (pp. 1513-1516) Seattle, WA.

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using lifting scheme. Technical Report ITA-Wavelets Report WP 1.1,

Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Department of Computer Science, Belgium.

15. Chanda, B., & Majumdar, D. D. (2000). Digital image processing and

analysis. New Delhi, Prentice-Hall of India Private Limited.

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of provably good methods for digital watermarking and information

embedding. IEEE Trans. of Information Theory, 47(4), 1423-1443.

17. Phadikar, A., & Maity, S.P. (2010) Quality access control of foregrounds of

an image using QIM data hiding. In Proc. of the Int. Conf. on Intelligent

Human Computer Interaction (pp. 303-309), Alahabad, India.

18. Christopoulos, C., Skodras, A., & Ebrahimi, T. (2000). The JPEG 2000 still

image coding system: an overview. IEEE Transactions on Consumer

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120-127), Orissa, India.


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20. Gonzalez, R.C., Woods R. E., & Eddins, S. L., (2005). Digital Image

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21. Image database. http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/fapp2/watermarking, 2010.

22. Image database.

http://www.petitcolas.net/fabien/watermarking/image_database/index.html,

2010.

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quality assessment: from error measurement to structural similarity. IEEE

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http://www.petitcolas.net/fabien/watermarking/image_database/index.html


ISBN: 978-81-947839-1-6

92

5. Mis In Business

Prof. Dr. C. B. Senthil Kumar

Head, of the Department Commerce,

Dr. M. G. R. Educational and Research Institute University,

Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

Abstract:

The word MIS is the discipline focused on combining computer systems with an

organization's goals. Management Information Systems (MIS) .Due to its

information technology capabilities, the role of management information systems

is defined and analyzed. The process of information technology and its effect on

top management in an enterprise organization, with a focus on automated

decision making, is clarified.

There are discussed MIS limits and challenges and a series of six

recommendations to improve MIS productivity in IT processes. The creation and

management of IT resources aid managers and employees in carrying out any

tasks related to information processing. In particular, MIS and business processes

act as instruments for gathering business data and generating reports.

Keywords:

Information Systems, Transactional Processing Systems, TPS, Management

Information Systems, MIS,

Applications of MIS:

With computers as omnipresent as they are today, there is almost no large

organisation which does not rely extensively on their IT systems.

However, MIS has been invaluable in a variety of unique fields.

Mis In Business

93

1. Strategy Support :

Although computers do not build business strategies alone, they can enable

management to understand the impacts of their strategies. To convert data into

information which is useful for decision-making, MIS systems can be used. In

the preparation, monitoring and execution of the policy, computers will provide

financial statements and performance reports. MIS systems are useful for

gathering unmanageable quantities of data into consistent reports that would

otherwise be generally worthless for decision-makers. Through analysing these

studies, lawmakers would be able to detect patterns and trends not seen had the

raw data been manually consulted. These raw data can also be used by MIS

systems to conduct simulations – hypothetical scenarios which address a number

of 'what if' issues regarding strategy changes. MIS systems can, for example,

forecast the impact on sales of a commodity by adjusting prices. These DSS

(Decision Support Systems) allow decision making within an undertaking to be

more knowledgeable than without MIS systems would be possible.

2. Data Processing:

In addition to allowing large quantities of business information to be obtained,

the MIS systems often save precious time for employee use. If business

information had previously to be managed for filing and review, a data processor

can now be quickly and conveniently entered to a computer so that the

organization as a whole can make better decisions and reflexes.

Management by Objectives:

While MIS systems are very important in producing statistical reports and data

analysis, they can also be used as a tool for Objective Management (MBO). MBO

is a management mechanism in which managers and subordinates agree on a

range of goals that are supposed to be accomplished by the subordinate in a given

Mis In Business

94

timeframe. The goals are set using the SMART ratio, that is, the goals are precise,

observable, accepted, practical and timely.

These targets are structured to include a collection of main performance metrics

from which a organization can measure an employee or project 's performance.

A continuous monitoring of progress is necessary for the success of any MBO

goal. It can be extremely helpful to use a MIS system to monitor this performance.

Since all SMART goals are observable by definition, management reports to be

analyzed by decision-makers will be produced.

Benefits of MIS:

The MIS sector can provide companies in any industry with various benefits.

Expert organizations such as the MIS Institute and peer reviews such as MIS

Quarterly also identify and report on new ways in which MIS is used to achieve

corporate goals.

Core Competencies:

Each market-leading firm has at least one core ability – a feature that is better

than its competition. It is possible to drive the market forward by creating an

exceptional management information system in the business. MIS program

provide the requisite tools for a deeper understanding of the business and the

organization itself.

Enhance Supply Chain Management:

Enhanced documentation of company processes eventually results in more

advanced manufacturing. The ability to enhance the supply-chain management,

from everything from inventory procured, to manufacturing and delivery of the

finished product, comes from better knowledge on the production process.

Mis In Business

95

Quick Reflexes:

Increased capacity to respond to shifts of the market can be an indication of

improved supply chain management. Better MIS systems allow a company to

adapt more rapidly to the environment , allowing it to drive forward the

competition and to deliver a better service and a larger piece of pastry.

More information on MIS can be found in the MIS and the MIS manual of the

US Treasury and the Social Services Department of Connecticut for example an

organizational MIS division can be found.

MIS Design Process:

Implications Of The Project:

1. To The Organization:

This project assists management in constantly tracking the ongoing project

process. It also assists them in evaluating their efficiency, managing their

resources and making decisions.

The steadily changing challenges facing the management and organizations,

varied management styles and ever-present requirements provide a demanding

Mis In Business

96

environment for computer-based information systems. MIS uses computer

technology to assist and optimize knowledge and decision-making for its

managers. In the young computer industry, the style of management is evolving.

Managers use identical data at all stages. Operational managers need timely,

reliable, comprehensive, internal and historical data. High-level managers need

aggregated data, both externally and internally, both future-oriented and

historical. Without viable data management software an efficient MIS cannot be

developed. These methods have usually not been available before. Moreover,

until two decades before DBMS technology was used successfully by most

organizations. The efficient management of data resources of an enterprise is an

essential key to a successful MIS.

2. Role Of The Database In An Organization:

An organization is historically seen as three levels of pyramid functioning at the

bottom, mid- and strategic planning and management policy-making activities in

top management. Data concerning the organization, activities, strategy and the

environment is contained in the Corporate Databank.

3. State Of Database Management In Organizations:

There are evolving, diversified and sometimes unspecified needs of organizations

and managers, which must be addressed. In addition to these, there are external

pressure on federal tax authorities, federal security agencies and lawmakers to

implement private protection laws. Internal and external forces also enable

organizations to manage their data resources.

Data is and must be handled as an essential resource in an enterprise. An

important component of an information management system is the organizational

database. Data care has lagged behind the development of machinery and

Mis In Business

97

programming technology of the four components of a data processing system.

The approach of a database requires a company to focus on data as a valuable

resource. Data is distinct from the applications and programmes that use it.

Data and Information:

Data refers to any facts collected from observations , questionnaires or measuring

of persons, objects and locations. Data may be true contexts and figures. False

contexts and figures like trash are useless, which no one needs. If a company uses

false information, it can be wrong or can not resolve a problem. Sometimes we

call data raw because it is unused or unfit for users.

When information is collected, classified, organized, linked or interpreted in a

context to give meaning, it becomes information. There are activities that

transform data into information, and the process is known for these activities. In

short, information means processed data outputs. Users can therefore use it. For

instance, in the last year, a management require a chart of the total sales of each

product. Because summarized data are needed for planning sales (the diagram

information is easier and faster to understand than raw data of each product). For

example, each student is graded by teachers using the overall scores. The data

and information are shown in Figure 1.

Data and Information ( Laudon and Laudon, 2004: 99)

Input Processing, Classify,

Arrange And Calculate

Output

Data Process

Information

Feedback

Mis In Business

98

The process is the process of converting data into the information requested. In

technology, computers (both hardware and software) do these procedures

quickly. A suitable computer programme can be selected for use. Many computer

programmes like word processing, tablets and database management systems are

available. Data and information are organized and manipulated. The process tasks

include five activities known as 5Cs.

1. Capture. Originally, this processing gets information through IT instruments

such as a mouse, a keyboard and barcode reader. Simplify, at the original point

it's input data. The selection of IT input tools depends on the information

and/or commands collected and their shape.

2. Transport. By using IT tools like a screen, printer, speaker and monitor, this

treatment shows most helpful information. Simplify, output data. Output data.

The choice of IT output tools is based on user needs.

3. Create. This processing uses IT tools such as CPU and RAM to create new

information. This is the main process in 5Cs. This is done by software

execution from the central processing unit ( CPU) and all other hardware

devices interact with each other. The RAM or internal memory temporarily

stores working information, on-the-go software applications and operating

system.

4. Cradling. For a later time this processing is using IT tools as hard disc, CD-

ROM, and DVD to store information. The data that users can modify or

remove is stored indefinitely. The choice of IT storage tools depends on the

need for the user to update and to size details.

5. Communicating. This processing distributes information through IT

instruments such as a modem, satellite and a digital pager to other individuals

or to another location. It affects telecommunications infrastructure when we

talk about communications. A computer network is one of them. It connects

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at least two computers to share information, applications, devices and/or

processing power.

The information’s attributes comprise of accuracy and verification, completeness,

timeliness and relevance.

1. Accuracy and Verification. The knowledge gathered must be based on

evidence using techniques such as observations , questionnaires and

measurements. The expectation can offer wrong details. If the facts are

collected, the implementation or consumer requirements are properly

addressed. An executive, for example, needs decisions to be taken. If

information is inaccurate, harm may occur to an organization. Knowledge

must have references, so it can track users. Users would actually be secure in

using information if they know the information sources.

2. Completeness. The details must be obtained by users. In particular, managers

need completed decision-making information.

3. Timeliness. You always need to refresh, not obsolete the best details. For the

present case, therefore, users should apply it. In particular, businesses need

updated competition data. Competition data. Any business enterprise could be

adversely affected by the outdated data.

4. Relevance. The information collected must be connected to the behaviors of

users. Overloaded knowledge must not be accessed from users.

Trade contests have not been intensive in the past. He took a decision and then

an executive could wait for enough details. Knowledge is currently recognized as

an organization's valuable property. It can preserve competitiveness of the

company. When a business receives information correctly and efficiently, the

executive may determine or solve a problem quickly and precisely. The company

would then be able to compete intensively.

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Information Systems:

A system is a collection of elements interactive to serve a function by working as

a community. A system can be made up of individuals, machines, equipment ,

materials and processes for the same purpose. A supply chain system for example

has a function to supply end consumers with goods.

A supply chain system (Schroeder, 2000:181)

Device components consist of objects that are tangible, immaturable and

individual. Materials, vehicles , equipment, warehouses, inventory, suppliers,

computers, managers, processes, staff, views, relationship, and consumers may

be included in the distribution chain. They all work together to achieve the same

goal.

Now, we conclude that an information system involves all components that start

from the collection of data, insertion of data, storage dates, processing of data,

storage of information, distributing and displaying information according to

requirements of the users. Today, computer-based information systems. They

therefore contain applications and computer hardware. In consequence,

computers are information management instruments. Data and information can

be easily stored, processed and transmitted. Therefore, there are 6 components in

an information system. Hardware , software, telecom, people, procedures, data or

information are available.

Suppliers Suppliers Factories Warehouses Retailers Customers

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5. Management Information Systems (MIS) to an Organization:

Organizations are currently conscious of the value of knowledge as a property. It

can give organizations added value. It allows companies to continue to compete

intensively. Organizations also need management information. In particular,

knowledge should be a system for executing organizations' added value. By

systematically gathering, each company should handle information.

Subsequently, information will be submitted, retrieved and analyzed.

Organizations use information technology (IT) for information management

because of most information in organizations. The research used to handle

information is being used in information technology. Both software, including

computers, wires, magnetic taps, CDs, control systems, operating systems,

application software, signal etc. they are equally compatible. The systematization

of information technology in organizations , particularly computer base. Users

can then implement knowledge rapidly and easily. Data may be processed by

information technology to be needed for information and information to be sent /

received.

In order to handle functions such as interpersonal roles, informative roles and

decisional function, management information systems ( MIS) are using a

computer base for handling information in an organization. MIS compound of

informatics and administration theories. These theories construct structures and

the use of programmes. User and software (computer) integrated systems are

usually MIS with the objective of providing running, handling and decision-

making information for organizations. Computer hardware and software are used

for these systems. In addition, MIS is used to collect and cumulate data for the

collection and arrangement of information from various both internal and external

sources. Managers or consumers should then qualify for decision-making and

other management.

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References:

1. G. Satyanarayana Reddy, Rallabandi Srinivasu, Srikanth Reddy

Rikkula, VudaSreenivasa Rao, “Management Information System to help

managers for providing decision making in an organization,” in International

Journal of Reviews in Computing,2009

2. Gabriel, Justin Mgbechi Odinioha, Management Information Systems and

Corporate Decision-Making : A literature Review, The International Journal

of Management, Vol.2 Issue 3,July,2013

3. Srinivas Nowduri,” Management information systems and business

decision making review, analysis, and recommendations”, Journal of

Management and Marketing Research

4. Predrag Ranisavljević, Tanja Spasić, Ivana Mladenović-Ranisavljević,

“Management Information Systems and Decision-Making Process in

Enterprise” , Economics Management Information Technology, Vol.

1,No. 2, 2012.

5. Allen, B., Heurtebise, A., & Turnbull, J. (2010). Improving Information

Access. Business Management US. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from

http://www.busmanagement.com/article/Improving-information-access/

6. Jahangir, K. (2005). Improving organizational best practice with information

systems. Knowledge Management Review. Retrieved October 2, 2010 from

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa5362/is_200501/ai_n21371132/

information technology for

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