TRIMESTER IV - HISTORY II

THE DUTCH, FRENCH AND OTHER NON-ENGLISH EAST INDIA COMPANIES

IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT AND THEIR IMPACT

SUBMITTED BY : ADITYA VARDHAN SHARMA 2nd YEAR (B.A. /LL.B.)

I.D. NUMBER : 1952

AUGUST 8, 2013

NATIONAL LAW SCHOOL OF INDIA UNIVERSITY, BANGALORE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………………

2

RESEARCH

METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………………….3

AIMS AND

OBJECTIVES……………………………………………………………………...3

SCOPE AND

LIMITATIONS……………………………………………………………………3

RESEARCH

QUESTIONS……………………………………………………………………...3

SOURCES OF

DATA………………………………………………………………………….4

METHOD OF

WRITING……………………………………………………………………….4

MODE OF CITATION…………………………………………………………………………

4

THE DAWN OF EUROPEAN INTRUSION AND ITS

CAUSES………………………………………..5

THE ROLE OF THE BRITISH……………………………………………………………………

11

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………………………….14

BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………..

.16

1

INTRODUCTION

The Indian subcontinent witnessed many important demographic developments in the period

1500-1800 which had significant consequences in the region. The newest and the most

important catalysts of this change were the Europeans. The story of the circumstances which

brought these foreign groups to the region and the manner in which they became established

is an essential part of the history of the Indian subcontinent. Equally important to this history

is the interaction between the foreign and the native communities which brought innovations

and adaptations in the local society. The most important of these colonial powers were

Britain, the Netherlands, France, and Portugal. While other colonial powers such as Spain,

Denmark, Austria, etc. also tried to establish themselves in the region, their influence was

very limited.1 Their trading relations were restricted to small pockets, and the territories they

could acquire were not very vast either, before being completely wiped out, either by the

more superior colonial powers, or because of other factors.

While the primary reason for their arriving in the Indian subcontinent was the same, that is,

the vast opportunities it provided for trade, the ways adopted by them were fairly different

and the consequences even more so. While some of them enjoyed a highly successful stay in

the region and gained substantially, the others could never establish themselves and were

ultimately forced to give up.2 Nonetheless, this era in the history of the Indian subcontinent is

of paramount importance. While the effect of the British East India Company is the one

which is studied mostly, the role played by the European trading companies is no less

significant. The reason for this emphasis on the British rule is that they survived for a period

which was much longer than the others, and also because the territory they occupied was

much more.3 This paper seeks to analyse this influence of the non – English companies, first

as trading partners and later as colonial powers, by looking at the motives they had in mind

and how they, through their conduct, and through their interaction with the locals and with

one another, shaped the destiny and culture of an entire subcontinent.

1 Andre Gunder Frank, India in the World Economy, 1400 – 1750, 31(30), ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL WEEKLY, 50, 53 (July 27, 1996), available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/4404438 (Last visited on July 25, 2013)2 Sir Richard Evans, Empire in the Pre – Industrial World, available at http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/empire-in-the-pre-industrial-world (Last visited on July 25, 2013)3 Id.

2

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A IMS AND OBJECTIVES:

The paper aims to briefly analyse the impact the various non - English East India companies

had on the Indian subcontinent along with the various causes which led to their arrival and

the approach they adopted in managing their affairs. This is done with the objective of

understanding the role that they played in shaping the history of this region.

SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS:

The paper has been limited to the study of these companies on the subcontinent and to the

reasons which influenced their approach and the purpose of their actions. Their interactions

with other regions have been excluded. The paper primarily deals with the way in which they

carried out trade and colonisation in the region. Their interaction with the British has also

been reflected upon.

The only major limitation is the paucity of information about some of these colonial powers,

since their role was not of much importance in comparison to some of the others.

RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

The following major research questions have been dealt with:

1. What were the causes and circumstances which brought these companies to the Indian

subcontinent?

2. What were the policies adopted by them in conducting their business?

3. What kind of relations did they have with the native societies and what effect did their

interaction with the local population have on the culture of the region?

4. What kind of an impact did they have on the region?

3

S OURCES OF DATA:

Since the topic involved no empirical research, it is sourced entirely from secondary sources

such as books and journal articles.

M ETHOD OF WRITING:

The paper has both descriptive and analytical components to it.

MODE OF CITATION:

The National Law School Guide to Uniform Citation has been followed throughout this

paper.

4

THE DAWN OF EUROPEAN INTRUSION AND ITS CAUSES

The history of commercial traffic in the Indian subcontinent goes back at least to the early

centuries of the Christian era.4 Over the centuries, the Indian subcontinent played a crucial

role in the functioning of various trade networks. This was partly because of the geographical

location along with the fact that the region had the capacity to put on the market large

quantities of relatively inexpensive and highly competitive manufactured goods in addition to

a large number of other goods. Apart from this, it also served as a large market for the

products offered by its trading partners. The key role of India can thus be conceptualized on

essentially as one of expansion on the basis of trade in the Indian Ocean.5 All of this changed

subsequent to the arrival of the Portuguese once Vasco Da Gama established direct contact

with India by circumnavigating Africa.

Trading rivalries made the other European powers to the subcontinent soon.

The Netherlands, France, Denmark, and England set up trading posts throughout the region in

the early seventeenth century. After the disintegration of the Mughal Empire in the early

eighteenth century and the subsequent weakening of the Maratha Empire after the third battle

of Panipat, the comparatively weaker and unstable states which came up were open to

manipulation by these Europeans through various dependent "friendly" Indian rulers.6

THE PORTUGUESE :

The Portuguese were the first European colonial power to come to the Indian subcontinent for

the purpose of trade. The closing down of the traditional trading routes in western parts of

Asia by the Ottomans and their rivalry with the Italian states led to the Portuguese search for

an alternate sea route to India.7 With his arrival in the year 1498 at Calicut in Kerala, Vasco

4 Om Prakash, EUROPEAN COLONIAL ENTERPRISE IN PRE – COLONIAL INDIA, Vol. II, Part 5, 2 (Gordon Johnson et al. eds., 1998)5 Robin A. Donkin, BETWEEN EAST AND WEST: THE MOLUCCAS AND THE TRAFFIC IN SPICES UP TO THE ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS, 26 (2003)6 Id.7 Lyle McAlister, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL IN THE NEW WORLD, 1492-1700, 75 (1984)

5

Da Gama became the first Portuguese to make a successful sea voyage to the India

subcontinent. After his arrival in Calicut he obtained permission from the local ruler to trade

in the city. He was received with the traditional hospitality, but his talks with the ruler did not

succeed in producing any definitive results. He requested permission from the ruler to leave

behind a factor, which would take care of the merchandise that he was not able to sell. His

request was turned down, and the king also insisted that Vasco Da Gama should pay customs

duty, just like any other trader. This led to their relation becoming strained.8

Dom Francisco de Almeida was appointed as the first Portuguese viceroy in the year 1502,

and he was succeeded by Dom Alfonzo de Albuquerque in 1509. Albuquerque conquered the

city of Goa in 1510 which had previously been controlled by Muslims. He set up the policy

of marrying Portuguese sailors and soldiers with local Indian girls, and as a consequence,

there was a great miscegenation in Goa and also in other Portuguese territories across Asia.9

Another significant feature of their presence in India was that they vehemently tried to

evangelise and endorse Catholicism. The Jesuits played a fundamental role in the process,

and even to this day, the Catholics of India revere the Jesuit missionary Saint Francis

Xavier.10

A chain of outposts was established by the Portuguese in the early sixteenth century along

India's west coast and on the island of Ceylon. St. Angelo Fort was built at Kannur to guard

their possessions in Northern Malabar region. Goa was their cherished possession and the

seat of the Portuguese viceroy.11 Portugal's Northern provinces included settlements

at Daman, Diu, Baçaim, Salsette, Mumbai and Chaul. The rest of the Northern Province,

except Daman and Diu, was lost to the Marathas in the early eighteenth century.12

THE DUTCH:

The Dutch East India Company or the United East India Company (Vereenigde Oost-

Indische Compagnie, VOC) was a chartered company and was established in the year 1602.13

This was after the first expedition to India, in the year 1595, and a few more which followed

8 Niall Ferguson, EMPIRE, 19 (2004)9 Id.10Stanley Wolpert, A NEW HISTORY OF INDIA, 180 (3rd edn. 1989) 11 Om Prakash, Supra note 4, at 7212 Id.13 George D Winius, Marcus P.M Wink, THE MERCHANT WARRIOR PACIFIED: THE VOC(DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY AND ITS CHANGING POLITICAL ECONOMY IN INDIA), 18 (1991)

6

had proved to be highly successful. The then States-General of the Netherlands setup the

company with the purpose of avoiding internal conflict and granted it a monopoly for

carrying out colonial activities, for a period of 21 years in Asia.14 It is considered to be the

first multi-national corporation in History. Not only was the company given a monopoly but

was also given powers of signing treaties in the name of the republic, of waging wars and was

also given the rights to administer conquered territories.15

As per statistics, the Dutch East India Company was ahead of all of its competitors in the

Asian trade. The company sent almost one million European workers to Asia for trading

between 1602 and 1796. As per accounts, four thousand seven hundred and eighty five ships

were used, and for their efforts they achieved more than two and a half million tonnes of

Asian products. In contrast, the rest of the European powers combined were able to send only

eight hundred and eighty thousand (approx.) people to Asia between 1500 and 179516, and the

fleet of the English East India Company, the Dutch East India Company's closest rival, was,

by a huge margin, second to its total traffic and had two thousand seven hundred and ninety

ships and a mere twenty per cent the tonnage of products carried by their Dutch rivals. The

Dutch enjoyed huge profits from their spice monopoly throughout most of the seventeenth

and early eighteenth century.17

Set up in the year 1602, for the purpose of profiting from the Malukan spice trade, the Dutch

East India Company established their capital in the city of Batavia (Jakarta) after conquering

it.18 In the initial phases of European expansion, it can undoubtedly be said that the Dutch had

taken a huge initial lead. Over the next couple of centuries, the Dutch took over other ports as

trading bases and protected their interests by capturing the surrounding territory.

THE FRENCH:

14 The Dutch East India Company(VOC) 1602-1799, available at http://entoen.nu/voc/en (Last visited on July 27, 2013)15 Id.16 Engel Sluiter, Dutch Maritime Power and the Colonial Status Quo, 1585-1681, 11(1), PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW, 29, 34 (March 1942) available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/3632996 (Last visited on July 27, 2013)17 Id.18 Winius, Wink, Supra note 13 at 43

7

The French East India Company was founded in the year 1664 for competing with the Dutch

and the British East India Companies. This business enterprise was the idea of Jean Baptiste

Colbert. Francois Caron was the first director of the company, who had worked for the

Dutch/United East India Company for almost thirty years. The Company set up its ports in

the nearby islands of Bourbon and Ile-de-France.19 The French East India Company managed

to establish itself in India by the year 1719 but was on the verge of bankruptcy and was

approaching closure. As many as eighty seven percent of the shareholders of the defunct

company had withdrawn from the enterprise. However, in the same year the company

decided to merge with the other French trading companies, which were expanding under John

Law, and formed the Compagnie Perpetuelle des Indes. In 1723, it became an independent

enterprise.20

The French capitalised on the declining Mughal rule in India. They started interfering in the

political affairs so as to build up their rule. From 1741, under the leadership of Joseph

Francois Dupleix they pursued an aggressive policy against the Indians as well as the

English. Their time in power came to an end when they were defeated by Robert Clive.21

Financial instability did not allow them to continue their rule and the company had to be

abolished in the year 1769, twenty years prior to the French revolution. However, numerous

trading ports such as Pondicherry and Chandernagore remained under the French rule till

1949.22

THE DANISH EAST INDIA COMPANY:

The Dansk Ostindiske Kompagni chartered by King Christian IV in the year 1616 woed its

origin to the initiative of two emigrants from the Netherlands. The influence of the Dutch

East India Company was also quite evident in the company’s charter, valid for the first twelve

years. The capital resources available to the company were however very limited and

inadequate from the very beginning and it had to rely on continued state support to sustain

itself, even in the very limited way that it did. From around 1630 onwards, Christian IV

19 Burton Stein, THE HISTORY OF INDIA, 107 (1998)20 French East India Company, available at http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/219044/French-East-India-Company (Last visited on July 30, 2013)21 French Possessions in the South (January 28, 2009), available at http://www.indianetzone.com/10/french_east_india_company.htm (Last visited on July 30, 2013)22 J. P Daughton, AN EMPIRE DIVIDED: RELIGION, REPUBLICANISM AND THE MAKING OF FRENCH COLONIALISM, 236 (2006)

8

owned around half of the shares of the company. But that was not good enough, and the

company went into liquidation in 1650. A second East India Company chartered in 1670

lasted until 1729 and engaged partly in the smuggling trade in spices from Borneo and in the

illicit trade with Manila. The Danish Asiatic Company, chartered in 1732, did much better

than its predecessors, but was focussed mainly on China trade. The Asian trade, except that

with China, was declared free in 1772 and private Danish enterprise also came to play a role,

to a certain extent, in the trade between India and Denmark. But the Danish involvement in

Indo – European trade was never particularly significant, except perhaps during the so called

golden age between 1780 and 1807.23

THE GENOESE COMPANY:

The only other East India Company to be constituted in the first half of the seventeenth

century was the Genoese Compagnia Genovese delle Indie Orientali founded in 1647. Dutch

merchants Willem and Hendrick Meulman together with their associate Jakob van den

Heuvel actively participated in the floating of this company. But the venture really came to

nothing and there is no evidence of any ships being sent to India.24

THE OSTEND, THE SWEDISH AND OTHER MINOR COMPANIES:

The eighteenth century witnessed the establishment of the East India companies in several

other European countries. By far the most interesting of these were the Ostend and the

Swedish. Basically, these units were no more than covers for the groups of merchants of

various European nationalities come together to get around the monopoly privileges of the

great East India companies. The Ostend Company, which was a conglomerate of Dutch, Irish,

Danish and Flemish interloping interests, was chartered by the Habsburg emperor Charles VI

at Vienna in 1722, though voyages to the east had been organized by this group from as early

as 1713 when the Austrian administration had been established in the Netherlands, Perceiving

a threat to their respective monopoly privileges, both the Dutch and the English put pressure

on the emperor through their respective governments to have the enterprise withdrawn. Since

23 Om Prakash, Supra note 4 at 7824 European Exploration and Conquest, available at http://college.cengage.com/history/west/mckay/western_society/9e/chapters/chapter15.html (Last visited on July 31, 2013)

9

the emperor needed the Anglo-Dutch support against Spain to secure for his daughter the

succession to all his dominions, the strategy worked. The Ostend Company was suspended in

1727 and abolished in 1731.25

Several of the merchants involved with the Ostend Company transferred their capital to the

Danish Asiatic Company of 1732. Others joined up with Scotsmen Hugh and Collin

Campbell and the Goteberg merchant Henry Koenig and had a Swedish East India Company

chartered in 1731. But as in the case of the Danish Asiatic Company, the Swedish East India

Company was principally preoccupied with the China trade rather than with the trade to

India. The only ports visited by the Swedish were Bengal and Surat.26

A brief mention can also be made of the Prussian ‘Bengal’ Company chartered in 1754 abd

based at Emden, an imperial company established at Trieste in the 1770s and the Phillipine

Company of the 1780s representing the Spanish attempt to enter Indian trade. The Prussian

company had been founded by the English country captains and company servants at Calcutta

for remitting funds illicitly to Europe. The imperial East India Company of Trieste financed

voyages from Ostend, Leghorn, Trieste and other European ports during the 1770s, but went

into bankruptcy in 1782 – 83. Recognizing the impossibility of stopping such ventures, the

English even supplied goods itself to the Philippine Company. Quantitatively speaking

however, the trading activities of all these companies certainly added up to very little.27

25 George Edmundson, Ostend Company, 20 (1911), ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA, 35626 The Swedish East India Company, available at http://www.soic.se/en/our-story/the-swedish-east-india-company-soic/ (Last visited on August 2, 2013)27 Om Prakash, Supra note 4 at 81

10

ROLE OF THE BRITISH

THE BRITISH – DUTCH RIVALRY :

Towards the end of the sixteenth century, The Netherlands and England began challenging

the Portuguese trade monopoly in Asia, by forming their respective private joint - stock

companies. The Dutch East India Company was chartered in 1602 and the English East India

Company was chartered in 1600. The purpose was to carry on the lucrative spice trade, and

they focused their efforts on the productive areas, that is, the Indonesian archipelago,

especially the Spice Islands, and on the Indian subcontinent as an important market for trade.

The close proximity of Amsterdam and London across the North Sea, coupled with the pre-

existing intense rivalry between the Netherlands and England, inevitably caused conflict

between the two companies, with the Dutch gaining the advantage in the Moluccas after the

English withdrawal in 1622, but the English enjoyed more success in the Indian subcontinent,

after the establishment of their factory at Surat in 1613.28

The Netherlands' more organized financial system and the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the

seventeenth century made the Dutch the dominant naval and trading power. Conflicts ceased

after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, which had led to the Dutch prince William of

Orange ascending the English throne, which brought peace between England and the

Netherlands. A deal between the two left the more prized spice trade of the Indonesian

archipelago in the hands of the Dutch and the English got the textiles industry of India, but

soon, textiles overtook spices in profitability, and thus by 1720, the English company had

surpassed the Dutch in terms of sales. The English East India Company then shifted its focus

to Fort St. George from Surat—a hub of the spice trade network.29

ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY:

At one point, India could have been a French Colony. Subsequent to the fall of the mighty

Vijayanagara Empire in the year 1565, South India had become a hunting-ground for

European adventurers. Even the Mughal Emperor Akbar, who was a contemporary of Queen 28 Douglas A. Irwin, Mercantilism as Strategic Trade Policy: The Anglo Dutch Rivalry for the East India Trade, 99, 6, JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY, 1296, 1297 (1991), available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/2937731(Last visited on August 3, 2013)29 Om Prakash, Supra note 4 at 162

11

Elizabeth I, who had given a charter to the British East India Company for trading - could not

extend his empire to the whole of South India. After the Portuguese, the English, the Dutch

and the French adventurers started coming to the Indian subcontinent.30

Following the establishment of the English East India Company, the French did the same.

The French made a trading company and in the year 1668 established a factory at Surat.

Indian subcontinent was in a state of turmoil at the time. Neither the Mughals, nor the

Marathas could establish their superiority in the Southern part of the region. The Nayakas of

Madurai who formerly were vassals of Vijayanagar declared independence with the decline

of the Vijayanagar Empire, but failed in managing the coastal areas and as a consequence, the

Danes, the Dutch, the Portuguese, the English and the French easily established themselves

and then used the local rulers to their advantage.31

Conflicts amongst the foreign empires began to erupt causing the driving out of the Dutch

and the Danes. Francis Martin recaptured Pondicherry from the Dutch in 1701 and built a fort

there, though it was not comparable to the English Fort St. George in Madras.

The French also acquired Karaikal, a small territory on the east coast, about a hundred

kilometres from Pondicherry, which was surrounded by the district of Tanjavur district,

Tamil Nadu, also not far away from the Danish settlement Tranquebar or Tarangambadi -

from the ruler of Tanjavur. The English tried to capture Karaikal in 1746 with the help of the

Raja of Tanjavur, but the French fended off this attempt. Meanwhile, the French established

themselves in Mahe, a small city on the western coast near Tellicherry, a small fort and

village close to Kakinada, and Chandranagore, which was an important place for the French

on the Ganges and surrounded by Bengal. While Chandranagore merged with the rest of

India, Karaikal, Pondicherry, Mahe and Yanam together remained a French Territory. 

Joseph Francis Dupleix finally attacked and took over Fort St. George in Madras in 1746.

The French flag was raised and there was a massive celebration in Pondicherry. The British

made an attempt to recapture Pondicherry in 1768 but failed. India could have gone French at

that time because the French supremacy was well established but destiny had something

30 French Possessions in South India (January 28, 2009), available at http://www.indianetzone.com/21/the_french_possessions_south.htm (Last visited on July 30, 2013)31 Kate Marsh, INDIA IN THE FRENCH IMAGINATION: PERIPHERAL VOICES, 61 (2009)

12

different in store because the fate of the subcontinent was all decided in Europe among the

warring English, Spanish and French. It was decided by Treaty of Aix -La-Chapelle, between

the English and French that Chennai would be geiven back to the English and the French

should withdraw to Pondicherry. In return, Louisveille in Cananda was surrendered by the

French.32

Dupleix was not happy with this and so he decided to aid the local rulers in their fight against

the English, but was ultimately confined to Pondicherry by Robert Clive by the Treaty of

Paris. During the Seven Years War between England and France, the English beat the French,

and Pondicherry, the capital of the French in India, was captured in 1761. Since the French

felt that they could make more profits from trading in the West Indies, the company soon lost

government support. The monopoly it had over French trade with India also ended in 1769,

and the company ailed until its departure during the French Revolution in 1789. In the later

18th century France and Britain struggled for supremacy through Indian rulers and also by

military intervention. Tipu Sultan’s defeat in 1799 further marginalised the French influence.

This was followed by a swift expansion of British power through the subcontinent in the

early nineteenth century and by the middle of the century, the British had by this time gained

either direct or indirect authority over almost all of India.33

32 Sidney J. Owen, Francois Joseph Dupleix, 1(4) THE ENGLISH HISTORICAL REVIEW, 699, 705 (1886), available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/546725 (last visited on August 3, 2013)33 L. S Sutherland, The English East India Company and the Peace of Paris, 62, 243, THE ENGLISH HISTORICAL REVIEW, 179, 187 (1947) available at http://www.jstor.org/stable/555285 (Last visited on August 5, 2013)

13

CONCLUSION

Most of the Europeans who came to India benefited from their trading relations with the India

subcontinent. While most of these companies had initially come with the purpose of trading

to India, the political instability which prevailed during that time and later, gave them an

opportunity to transform themselves into colonial powers, and they took it with both hands.

This was not uniform though, in the sense that only a few could make this leap and not the

others. The reasons for this were not limited to only the Indian subcontinent, but the bigger

reason was that the political conditions in their countries were not that stable.

Also, it can be seen that most of these companies tried to establish relations with the local

rulers in order to establish themselves in the subcontinent and often it was also seen that they

tried to manipulate these local rulers so as to eliminate the competition to which existed

because of the other European powers being present simultaneously. The biggest example of

the same is the way in which Tipu Sultan was manipulated by the French against the British.

Also, it can be seen that almost all of these companies were at conflict with each other but

mostly it was the British who crossed their paths and they, both by use of force, or by

negotiations, gradually eliminated the others and consolidated their position as the biggest

power in the Indian subcontinent.

The Europeans have undoubtedly played a very significant role in the history of the

subcontinent, and mostly, the subcontinent ended up at a loss. And there is no way that the

pros and cons of the same can be equated. As Arundhati Roy says, equating pros and cons of

colonisation would be similar to comparing the pros and cons of rape, that is, the colonised

inevitably end up losing and the coloniser always stands to gain.

14

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BOOKS:

Lyle McAlister, SPAIN AND PORTUGAL IN THE NEW WORLD, 1492-1700 (1984)

Om Prakash, EUROPEAN COLONIAL ENTERPRISE IN PRE – COLONIAL INDIA, Vol. II,

Part 5, (1998)

Robin A. Donkin, BETWEEN EAST AND WEST: THE MOLUCCAS AND THE TRAFFIC IN

SPICES UP TO THE ARRIVAL OF EUROPEANS (2003)

Niall Ferguson, EMPIRE (2004)

Stanley Wolpert, A NEW HISTORY OF INDIA, 180 (3rd edn. 1989)

George D Winius, Marcus P.M Wink, THE MERCHANT WARRIOR PACIFIED: THE

VOC(DUTCH EAST INDIA COMPANY AND ITS CHANGING POLITICAL ECONOMY IN

INDIA), (1991)

Burton Stein, THE HISTORY OF INDIA (1998)

J. P Daughton, AN EMPIRE DIVIDED: RELIGION, REPUBLICANISM AND THE MAKING OF FRENCH COLONIALISM (2006)

Kate Marsh, INDIA IN THE FRENCH IMAGINATION: PERIPHERAL VOICES (2009)

A RTICLES:

Andre Gunder Frank, India in the World Economy, 1400 – 1750, 31(30), ECONOMIC

AND POLITICAL WEEKLY (1996)

Sir Richard Evans, Empire in the Pre – Industrial World

The Dutch East India Company(VOC) 1602-1799

Engel Sluiter, Dutch Maritime Power and the Colonial Status Quo, 1585-1681, 11(1),

PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW (1942)

French East India Company

French Possessions in the South

European Exploration and Conquest

George Edmundson, Ostend Company, 20 (1911), ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

The Swedish East India Company

15

Douglas A. Irwin, Mercantilism as Strategic Trade Policy: The Anglo Dutch Rivalry

for the East India Trade, 99, 6, JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY (1991)

Sidney J. Owen, Francois Joseph Dupleix, 1(4) THE ENGLISH HISTORICAL REVIEW

(1886)

L. S Sutherland, The English East India Company and the Peace of Paris, 62, 243,

THE ENGLISH HISTORICAL REVIEW (1947)

16