roman empire

El i

mpe

rio

rom

ano

EXPOSICIÓN

COMISARIA

María Antonia Colomar Albajar

VICECOMISARIO

Antonio García-Baquero

INVESTIGADORES

León Carlos ÁlvarezRamón María Serrera

CONSEJO ASESOR

Magdalena CanellasBlanca Desantes

COORDINACIÓN

Guiomar de Carlos Boutet

DISEÑO Y DIRECCIÓN DE MONTAJE

Macua & García Ramós

MONTAJE

GPD

SEGUROS

STAI

TRANSPORTES

SIT

MINISTERIO DE CULTURA

MINISTRO

Sr. D. César Antonio Molina

SUBSECRETARIA DEL MINISTERIO DE CULTURA

Sra. Dª. Mª Dolores Carrión

DIRECTOR GENERAL DE BELLAS ARTES

Y BIENES CULTURALES

Sr. D. José Jiménez Jiménez

SUBDIRECTOR GENERAL DE MUSEOS ESTATALES

Sr. D. Santiago Palomero Plaza

DIRECTORA DEL MUSEO ARQUEOLÓGICO NACIONAL

Sra Dª Rubí Sanz Gamo

PATRONATO DEL MUSEO ARQUEOLÓGICO NACIONAL

PRESIDENTE

Sr. D. César Antonio Molina

VOCALES

Sr D. Emilio BotínSra. Dª. Mª Dolores CarriónSra. Dª. Esperanza Aguirre y Gil de BiedmaSr. D. José Alberto Ruiz GallardónSr. D. José Jiménez JiménezSr. D. Carlos Martínez AlonsoSr. D. Santiago Palomero PlazaSra Dª Rubí Sanz GamoSr. D. Juan Alarcón MontoyaSr. D. Rodolfo Martín VillaSr. D. Ricardo Olmos RomeraSr. D. Manuel Bendala GalánSra. Dª. María Eugenia Aubet SemmlerSra. Dª. Elena Bonet RosadoSr. D. José María Blázquez MartínezSr. D. José Luis Álvarez ÁlvarezSr. D. José María Álvarez MartínezSr. D. Germán Delibes CastroSra. Dª. Esther AlmarchaSra. Dª. Dolores Baena

MINISTERIODE EDUCACIÓN,CULTURA Y DEPORTE

SECRETARÍA DE ESTADODE CULTURA

Roma y la herencia de la cultura griega 00Carlos García Gual

Roma y el imperio 00María Antonia Colomar Bujar

Cultura de Roma en el imperio 00León Carlos Álvarez

Catálogo Imperio 00

Comercio 00

Sociedad 00

Arte 00

Bibliografía 00

Glosario 00

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NombreApellidos Apellidos

CARGO

4 el imperio romano

roma y la herencia de la cultura griega 5

the development of law, war, art, literature, architecture, techno-logy and language in the Western world, and its history conti-nues to have a major infl uence on the world today.

MonarchyAccording to legend, Rome was founded on April 21, 753 BC by twin descendants of the Trojan prince Aeneas, Romulus and Re-mus.2 The Latin King Numitor of Alba Longa was ejected from his throne by his cruel brother Amulius and Numitor’s daughter, Rhea Silvia, gave birth to Romulus and Remus.3 Rhea Silvia was a Vestal Virgin who was raped by Mars, making the twins half-divine. The new king feared that Romulus and Remus would take back the throne, so they were to be drowned. A she-wolf (or a shepherd’s wife in some accounts) saved and raised them, and when they were old enough, they returned the throne of Alba Longa to Numitor. The twins then founded their own city, but Romulus killed Remus in a quarrel over which one of them was to reign as the King of Rome. Romulus became the source of the city’s name. As the city was bereft of women, legend says that the Latins invited the Sabines to a festival and stole their unmarried maidens, leading to the integration of the Latins and the Sabines.

Romay la herencia de la cultura griegaCarlos García Gual

History

Civilization that grew from a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula in the 9th century BC to a lar-ge empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea.1 In its twelve cen-turies of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic based on a combination of oligarchy and demo-cracy, to an increasingly autocratic empire. It came to dominate Western Europe and the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea through conquest and assimilation.

The Roman empire went into decline in the 5th century AD. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire, including Hispania, Gaul, and Italy, broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. The eastern part of the empire, governed from Constantinople, survived this crisis, and would live on for another millennium, until its last remains were fi nally annexed by the emerging Otto-man Empire. This eastern, medieval stage of the Empire is usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire by historians.

Roman civilization is often grouped into “classical antiqui-ty” with ancient Greece, a civilization that inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome. Ancient Rome contributed greatly to

6 el imperio romano

The city of Rome grew from settlements around a ford on the river Tiber, a crossroads of traffi c and trade. According to archaeological evidence, the village of Rome was probably foun-ded sometime in the 8th century BC, though it may go back as far as the 10th century BC, by members of the Latin tribe of Italy, on the top of the Palatine Hill. The Etruscans, who had pre-viously settled to the north in Etruria, seem to have established political control in the region by the late 7th century BC, for-ming the aristocratic and monarchial elite. The Etruscans appa-rently lost power in the area by the late 6th century BC, and at this point, the original Latin and Sabine tribes reinvented their government by creating a republic, with much greater restraints on the ability of rulers to exercise power.

RepublicThe Roman Republic was established around 509 BC, according to later writers such as Livy, when the last of the seven kings of Rome, Tarquin the Proud, was deposed, and a system based on annually elected magistrates and various representative as-semblies was established. A constitution set a series of checks and balances, and a separation of powers. The most important magistrates were the two consuls, who together exercised execu-

tive authority in the form of imperium, or military command. The consuls had to work with the senate, which was initially an advisory council of the ranking nobility, or patricians, but grew in size and power over time. Other magistracies in the Republic include praetors, aediles, and quaestors. The magistracies were originally restricted to patricians, but were later opened to com-mon people, or plebeians. Republican voting assemblies inclu-ded the comitia centuriata (centuriate assembly), which voted on matters of war and peace and elected men to the most im-portant offi ces, and the comitia tributa (tribal assembly), which elected less important offi ces.

The Romans gradually subdued the other peoples on the Italian peninsula, including the Etruscans. The last threat to Ro-man hegemony in Italy came when Tarentum, a major Greek colony, enlisted the aid of Pyrrhus of Epirus in 281 BC, but this effort failed as well. The Romans secured their conquests by founding Roman colonies in strategic areas, establishing stable control over the region. In the second half of the 3rd century BC, Rome clashed with Carthage in the fi rst of three Punic Wars. These wars resulted in Rome’s fi rst overseas conquests, of Si-cily and Hispania, and the rise of Rome as a signifi cant imperial power. After defeating the Macedonian and Seleucid Empires in

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the 2nd century BC, the Romans became the dominant people of the Mediterranean Sea.

Foreign dominance led to internal strife. Senators became rich at the provinces’ expense, but soldiers, who were mostly small-scale farmers, were away from home longer and could not maintain their land, and the increased reliance on foreign sla-ves and the growth of latifundia reduced the availability of paid work. Income from war booty, mercantilism in the new provin-ces, and tax farming created new economic opportunities for the wealthy, forming a new class of merchants, the equestrians. The lex Claudia forbade members of the Senate from engaging in commerce, so while the equestrians could theoretically join the Senate, they were severely restricted in terms of political power. The Senate squabbled perpetually, repeatedly blocking important land reforms and refusing to give the equestrian class a larger say in the government. Violent gangs of the urban unemployed, controlled by rival Senators, intimidated the elec-torate through violence. The situation came to a head in the late 2nd century BC under the Gracchi brothers, a pair of tribunes who attempted to pass land reform legislation that would redis-tribute the major patrician landholdings among the plebeians. Both brothers were killed, but the Senate passed some of their

reforms in an attempt to placate the growing unrest of the ple-beian and equestrian classes. The denial of Roman citizenship to allied Italian cities led to the Social War of 91–88 BC. The mi-litary reforms of Gaius Marius resulted in soldiers often having more loyalty to their commander than to the city, and a power-ful general could hold the city and Senate ransom. This led to civil war between Marius and his protegé Sulla, and culminated in Sulla’s dictatorship of 81–79 BC.

In the mid-1st century BC, three men, Julius Caesar, Pom-pey, and Crassus, formed a secret pact—the First Triumvirate—to control the Republic. After Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, a stand-off between Caesar and the Senate led to civil war, with Pompey leading the Senate’s forces. Caesar emerged victorious, and was made dictator for life. In 44 BC, Caesar was assassinated by se-nators who opposed Caesar’s assumption of absolute power and wanted to restore constitutional government, but in the afterma-th a Second Triumvirate, consisting of Caesar’s designated heir, Octavian, and his former supporters, Mark Antony and Lepidus, took power. However, this alliance soon descended into a stru-ggle for dominance. Lepidus was exiled, and when Octavian de-feated Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC, he became the undisputed ruler of Rome.

8 el imperio romano

Elagabalus. This and the increasing infl uence of the army on im-perial succession led to a long period of imperial collapse and external invasions known as the Crisis of the Third Century. The crisis was ended by the more competent rule of Diocletian, who in 293 divided the Empire into an eastern and western half ruled by a tetrarchy of two co-emperors and their two junior colleagues. The various co-rulers of the Empire competed and fought for supremacy for more than half a century. On May 11, 330, Emperor Constantine I fi rmly established Byzantium as the capital of the Roman Empire and renamed it Constantinople. The Empire was permanently divided into the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire) and the Western Roman Empire in 395.

The Western Empire was constantly harassed by barbarian invasions, and the gradual decline of the Roman Empire conti-nued over the centuries. In the 4th century, the westward mi-gration of the Huns caused the Visigoths to seek refuge within the borders of the Roman Empire. In 410, the Visigoths, under the leadership of Alaric I, sacked the city of Rome itself. The Vandals invaded Roman provinces in Gaul, Spain, and northern Africa, and in 455 sacked Rome. On September 4, 476, the Ger-manic chief Odoacer forced the last Roman emperor in the west,

EmpireWith his enemies defeated, Octavian took the name Augustus and assumed almost absolute power, retaining only a pretense of the Republican form of government. His designated succes-sor, Tiberius, took power without serious opposition, establis-hing the Julio-Claudian dynasty, which lasted until the death of Nero in 68. The territorial expansion of what was now the Ro-man Empire continued, and the state remained secure, despite a series of emperors widely viewed as depraved and corrupt (for example, Caligula is argued by some to have been insane and Nero had a reputation for cruelty and being more interested in his private concerns than the affairs of the state). Their rule was followed by the Flavian dynasty. During the reign of the “Five Good Emperors” (96–180), the Empire reached its territorial, economic, and cultural zenith. The state was secure from both internal and external threats, and the Empire prospered during the Pax Romana (“Roman Peace”). With the conquest of Dacia during the reign of Trajan, the Empire reached the peak of its te-rritorial expansion; Rome’s dominion now spanned 2.5 million square miles (6.5 million km2).

The period between 193 and 235 was dominated by the Severan dynasty, and saw several incompetent rulers, such as


Romulus Augustus, to abdicate. Having lasted for approximately 1200 years, the rule of Rome in the West came to an end.

The Eastern Empire, by contrast, would suffer a similar fate, though not as drastic. Justinian managed to briefl y recon-quer Northern Africa and Italy, but Byzantine possessions in the West were reduced to southern Italy and Sicily within a few years after Justinian’s death. In the east the Byzantines were threatened by the rise of Islam, whose followers rapidly conque-red territories in Syria and Egypt and soon presented a direct threat to Constantinople. The Byzantines, however, managed to stop Islamic expansion into their lands during the 8th cen-tury, and beginning in the 9th century reclaimed the conquered lands. In 1000 AD the Eastern Empire was at its height: Basileios II reconquered Bulgaria and Armenia, culture and trade fl ouris-hed. However, soon after the expansion was abruptly stopped in 1071 at the Battle of Manzikert. This fi nally lead the empire into a dramatic decline. Several centuries of internal strife and Tur-kic invasions ultimately paved the way for Emperor Alexius I Comnenus to send a call for help to the West in 1095. The West responded with the Crusades, eventually resulting in the Sack of Constantinople by participants in the Fourth Crusade. The con-quest of Constantinople in 1204 would see the fragmentation



12 el imperio romano

of what little remained of the empire into successor states, the ultimate victor being that of Nicaea. After the recapture of Cons-tantinople by imperial forces, the empire was little more than a Greek state confi ned to the Aegean coast. The Eastern Empire came to an end when Mehmed II conquered Constantinople on May 29, 1453.

Society

Life in ancient Rome revolved around the city of Rome, loca-ted on seven hills. The city had a vast number of monumen-tal structures like the Colosseum, the Forum of Trajan and the Pantheon. It had fountains with fresh drinking-water supplied by hundreds of miles of aqueducts, theatres, gymnasiums, bath complexes complete with libraries and shops, marketplaces, and functional sewers. Throughout the territory under the control of ancient Rome, residential architecture ranged from very modest houses to country villas. In the capital city of Rome, there were imperial residences on the elegant Palatine Hill, from which the word palace is derived. The low and middle classes lived in the city center, packed into apartments, which were almost like mo-dern ghettos.

The imperial city of Rome was the largest urban center of its time, with a population of about one million people (about the size of London in the early 19th century, when London was the largest city in the world), with some high-end estimates of 14 million and low-end estimates of 450,000. The public spaces in Rome resounded with such a din of hooves and clatter of iron chariot wheels that Julius Caesar had once proposed a ban on chariot traffi c during the day. Historical estimates indicate that around 20 percent of the population under jurisdiction of an-cient Rome (25–40%, depending the standards used, in Roman Italy) lived in innumerable urban centers, with population of 10,000 and more and several military settlements, a very high rate of urbanization by pre-industrial standards. Most of these centers had a forum and temples and same type of buildings, on a smaller scale, as found in Rome.

GovernmentInitially, Rome was ruled by kings, who were elected from each of Rome’s major tribes in turn. The exact nature of the king’s power is uncertain. He may have held near-absolute power, or may also have merely been the chief executive of the Senate and the people. At least in military matters, the king’s authority (Imperium) was likely absolute. He was also the head of the sta-te religion. In addition to the authority of the King, there were three administrative assemblies: the Senate, which acted as an advisory body for the King; the Comitia Curiata, which could endorse and ratify laws suggested by the King; and the Comi-tia Calata, which was an assembly of the priestly college which could assemble the people in order to bear witness to certain acts, hear proclamations, and declare the feast and holiday sche-dule for the next month.

The class struggles of the Roman Republic resulted in an unusual mixture of democracy and oligarchy. The word republic comes from the Latin res publica which literally translates to public business. Roman laws traditionally could only be passed by a vote of the Popular assembly (Comitia Tributa). Likewise, candidates for public positions had to run for election by the people. However, the Roman Senate represented an oligarchic institution, which acted as an advisory body. In the Republic, the Senate held great authority (auctoritas), but no actual legislative power; it was technically only an advisory council. However, as the Senators were individually very infl uential, it was diffi cult to accomplish anything against the collective will of the Senate. New Senators were chosen from among the most accomplished patricians by Censors (Censura), who could also remove a Sena-tor from his offi ce if he was found “morally corrupt”; a charge that could include bribery or, as under Cato the Elder, embra-cing one’s wife in public. Later, under the reforms of the dictator Sulla, Quaestors were made automatic members of the Senate, though most of his reforms did not survive.

The Republic had no fixed bureaucracy, and collected taxes through the practice of tax farming. Government posi-tions such as quaestor, aedile, or praefect were funded from the offi ce-holder’s private fi nances. In order to prevent any citizen from gaining too much power, new magistrates were elected annually and had to share power with a colleague. For example, under normal conditions, the highest authority was held by two consuls. In an emergency, a temporary dictator could be appo-inted. Throughout the Republic, the administrative system was revised several times to comply with new demands. In the end, it proved ineffi cient for controlling the ever-expanding domi-nion of Rome, contributing to the establishment of the Roman Empire.

In the early Empire, the pretense of a republican form of government was maintained. The Roman Emperor was portra-yed as only a princeps, or “fi rst citizen”, and the Senate gained legislative power and all legal authority previously held by the popular assemblies. However, the rule of the emperors became increasingly autocratic over time, and the Senate was reduced to an advisory body appointed by the emperor. The Empire did not inherit a set bureaucracy from the Republic, since the Repu-blic did not have any permanent governmental structures apart from the Senate. The Emperor appointed assistants and advi-sers, but the state lacked many institutions, such as a centrally planned budget. Some historians have cited this as a signifi cant reason for the decline of the Roman Empire.

The territory of the Empire was divided into provinces. The number of provinces increased with time, both as new territories were conquered and as provinces were divided into smaller units to discourage rebellions by powerful local rulers. Upon the rise of Augustus and the Principate, the provinces were divided into imperial and senatorial provinces, depending on which institu-tion had the right to select the governor. During the Tetrarchy, the provinces of the empire were divided into 12 dioceses, each


headed by a praetor vicarius. The civilian and military authority were separated, with civilian matters still administered by the go-vernor, but with military command transferred to a dux.

On a local level, towns were divided into colonia, colonies composed of former soldiers or members of the Roman under-class, and municipia, towns composed of enfranchised provin-cials. These cities were given constitutions based on the Roman model, with the elected duovirs and aediles serving as magistra-tes, and with the local curia, appointed from men of property for life, serving in an advisory capability, similar to the Senate.

LawThe roots of the legal principles and practices of the ancient Ro-mans may be traced to the law of the twelve tables (from 449 BC) to the codifi cation of Emperor Justinian I (around 530 AD). Roman law as preserved in Justinian’s codes continued into the Byzantine Empire, and formed the basis of similar codifi ca-tions in continental Western Europe. Roman law continued, in a broader sense, to be applied throughout most of Europe until the end of the 17th century.

The major divisions of the law of ancient Rome, as contai-ned within the Justinian and Theodosian law codes, consisted of Ius Civile, Ius Gentium, and Ius Naturale. The Ius Civile (“Citi-zen law”) was the body of common laws that applied to Roman citizens. The Praetores Urbani (sg. Praetor Urbanus) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citizens. The Ius Gentium (“Law of nations”) was the body of common laws that applied to foreigners, and their dealings with Roman citizens. The Praetores Peregrini (sg. Praetor Peregrinus) were the individuals who had jurisdiction over cases involving citi-zens and foreigners. Ius Naturale encompassed natural law, the body of laws that were considered common to all being.

EconomyAncient Rome commanded a vast area of land, with tremendo-us natural and human resources. As such, Rome’s economy re-mained focused on agriculture and trade. Agricultural free trade changed the Italian landscape, and by the 1st century BC, vast grape and olive estates had supplanted the yeoman farmers, who were unable to match the imported grain price. The an-nexation of Egypt, Sicily and Tunisia in North Africa provided



late Republic, the economy was largely dependent on slave labor for both skilled and unskilled work. Slaves are estimated to have constituted around 20% of the Roman Empire’s population at this time and 40% in the city of Rome. Only in the Roman Empi-re, when the conquests stopped and the prices of slaves increased, did hired labor become more economical than slave ownership.

Although barter was used in ancient Rome, and often used in tax collection, Rome had a very developed coinage system, with brass, bronze, and precious metal coins in circulation throughout the Empire and beyond—some have even been dis-covered in India. Before the 3rd century BC, copper was traded by weight, measured in unmarked lumps, across central Italy. The original copper coins (as) had a face value of one Roman pound of copper, but weighed less. Thus, Roman money’s utility as a unit of exchange consistently exceeded its intrinsic value as metal. After Nero began debasing the silver denarius, its legal value was an estimated one-third greater than its intrinsic.

Horses were too expensive, and other pack animals too slow, for mass trade on the Roman roads, which connected mi-litary posts rather than markets, and were rarely designed for wheels. As a result, there was little transport of commodities between Roman regions until the rise of Roman maritime tra-

a continuous supply of grains. In turn, olive oil and wine were Italy’s main exports. Two-tier crop rotation was practiced, but farm productivity was overall low, around 1 ton per hectare.

Industrial and manufacturing activities were smaller. The largest such activity were the mining and quarrying of stones, which provided basic construction materials for the buildings of that period. In manufacturing, production was on a relatively small scale, and generally consisted of workshops and small fac-tories that employed at most dozens of workers. However, some brick factories employed hundreds of workers.

Some economic historians (like Peter Temin) argue that the economy of the Early Roman Empire was a market economy and one of the most advanced agricultural economies to have existed (in terms of productivity, urbanization and development of capital markets), comparable to the most advanced economies of the world before the Industrial Revolution, namely the eco-nomies of 18th century England and 17th century Netherlands. There were markets for every type of good, for land, for cargo ships; there was even an insurance market.

The economy of the early Republic was largely based on smallholding and paid labor. However, foreign wars and con-quests made slaves increasingly cheap and plentiful, and by the





A class division originally based on military service beca-me more important. Membership of these classes was deter-mined periodically by the Censors, according to property. The wealthiest were the Senatorial class, who dominated politics and command of the army. Next came the equestrians (equites, so-metimes translated “knights”), originally those who could afford a warhorse, who formed a powerful mercantile class. Several further classes, originally based on what military equipment their members could afford, followed, with the proletarii, citi-zens who had no property at all, at the bottom. Before the re-forms of Marius they were ineligible for military service and are often described as being just barely above freed slaves in terms of wealth and prestige.

Voting power in the Republic was dependent on class. Citi-zens were enrolled in voting “tribes”, but the tribes of the richer classes had fewer members than the poorer ones, all the prole-tarii being enrolled in a single tribe. Voting was done in class order and stopped as soon as a majority of the tribes had been reached, so the poorer classes were often unable even to cast their votes.

Allied foreign cities were often given the Latin Right, an in-termediary level between full citizens and foreigners (peregrini),

de in the 2nd century BC. During that period, a trading vessel took less than a month to complete a trip from Gades to Alexan-dria via Ostia, spanning the entire length of the Mediterranean. Transport by sea was around 60 times cheaper than by land, so the volume for such trips was much larger.

Class structureRoman society is largley viewed as hierarchical, with slaves (servi) at the bottom, freedmen (liberti) above them, and free-born citizens (cives) at the top. Free citizens were themselves also divided by class. The broadest, and earliest, division was between the patricians, who could trace their ancestry to one of the 100 Patriarchs at the founding of the city, and the plebeians, who could not. This became less important in the later Republic, as some plebeian families became wealthy and entered politics, and some patrician families fell on hard times. Anyone, patri-cian or plebeian, who could count a consul as his ancestor was a noble (nobilis); a man who was the fi rst of his family to hold the consulship, such as Marius or Cicero, was known as a novus homo (“new man”) and ennobled his descendants. Patrician an-cestry, however, still conferred considerable prestige, and many religious offi ces remained restricted to patricians.


which gave their citizens rights under Roman law and allowed their leading magistrates to become full Roman citizens. Whi-le there were varying degrees of Latin rights, the main divi-sion was between those con suffrage (“with vote”; enrolled in a Roman tribe and able to take part in the comitia tributa) and sans suffrage (“without vote”; unable to take part in Roman po-litics). Some of Rome’s Italian allies were given full citizenship after the Social War of 91–88 BC, and full Roman citizenship was extended to all free-born men in the Empire by Caracalla in 212. Women shared some basic rights with their male counter-parts, but were not fully regarded as citizens and were thus not allowed to vote or participate in politics.

FamilyThe basic units of Roman society were households and families. Households included the head (usually the father) of the house-hold, paterfamilias (father of the family), his wife, children, and other relatives. In the upper classes, slaves and servants were also part of the household. The head of the household had great power (patria potestas, “father’s power”) over those living with him: He could force marriage (usually for money) and divorce, sell his chil-dren into slavery, claim his dependents’ property as his own, and

even had the right to kill family members (though this last right apparently ceased to be exercised after the 1st century BC).

A man was not considered a paterfamilias, nor could he truly hold property, while his own father lived. During the early period of Rome’s history, a daughter, when she married, fell under the control (manus) of the paterfamilias of her husband’s household, although by the late Republic this fell out of fashion, as a woman could choose to continue recognizing her father’s family as her true family. However, as Romans reckoned descent through the male line, any children she had would belong to her husband’s fa-mily.

Groups of related households formed a family (gens). Fa-milies were based on blood ties (or adoption), but were also political and economic alliances. Especially during the Roman Republic, some powerful families, or Gentes Maiores, came to dominate political life.

Ancient Roman marriage was often regarded more as a fi -nancial and political alliance than as a romantic association, es-pecially in the upper classes. Fathers usually began seeking hus-bands for their daughters when they reached an age between twelve and fourteen. The husband was almost always older than the bride. While upper class girls married very young, there


is evidence that lower class women often married in their late teens or early twenties.

EducationIn the early Republic, there were no public schools, so boys were taught to read and write by their parents, or by educated slaves, called paedagogi, usually of Greek origin. The primary aim of education during this period was to train young men in agricul-ture, warfare, Roman traditions, and public affairs. Young boys learnt much about civic life by accompanying their fathers to religious and political functions, including the Senate for the sons of nobles. The sons of nobles were apprenticed to a pro-minent political fi gure at the age of 16, and campaigned with the army from the age of 17 (this system would still be in use among some noble families well into the imperial era). Educatio-nal practices were modifi ed following the conquest of the Helle-nistic kingdoms in the 3rd century BC and the resulting Greek infl uence, although it should be noted that Roman educational practices were still signifi cantly different from Greek ones. If their parents could afford it, boys and some girls at the age of 7 were sent to a private school outside the home called a ludus, where a teacher (called a litterator or a magister ludi, and often

Gue magnisl utpat lor am, quisi etue endrem qui blamet ipit lortincipit vent ver adigna adit dion

Gue magnisl utpat lor am, quisi blaore etue endrem qui ipit lortincipit vent ver adigna dion

Gue magnisl lor am, quisi blaore endrem qui blamet ipit vent adigna adit dion



the offi cial language of the Byzantine government. The expan-sion of the Roman Empire spread Latin throughout Europe, and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectized in different lo-cations, gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages.

Although Latin is an extinct language with very few remai-ning fl uent speakers, it remains in use in many ways, such as through Ecclesiastical Latin, the traditional language of the Ro-man Catholic Church and the offi cial language of the Vatican City. Additionally, even after fading from common usage Latin maintained a role as western Europe’s lingua franca, an interna-tional language of academia and diplomacy. Although eventua-lly supplanted in this respect by French in the 19th century and English in the 20th, Latin continues to see heavy use in religio-us, legal, and scientifi c terminology—it has been estimated that 80% of all scholarly English words derive directly or indirectly from Latin.

ReligionArchaic Roman religion, at least concerning the gods, was made up not of written narratives, but rather of complex interrelations between gods and humans. Unlike in Greek mythology, the gods were not personifi ed, but were vaguely-defi ned sacred spirits called numina. Romans also believed that every person, place or thing had its own genius, or divine soul. During the Roman Republic, Roman religion was organized under a strict system of priestly offi ces, which were held by men of senatorial rank. The College of Pontifi ces was uppermost body in this hierarchy, and its chief priest, the Pontifex Maximus, was the head of the state religion. Flamens took care of the cults of various gods, while augurs were trusted with taking the auspices. The sacred king took on the religious responsibilities of the deposed kings. In the Roman empire, emperors were held to be gods, and the formalized imperial cult became increasingly prominent.

As contact with the Greeks increased, the old Roman gods became increasingly associated with Greek gods. Thus, Jupiter was perceived to be the same deity as Zeus, Mars became associa-ted with Ares, and Neptune with Poseidon. The Roman gods also assumed the attributes and mythologies of these Greek gods. The transferral of anthropomorphic qualities to Roman Gods, and the prevalence of Greek philosophy among well-educated Romans,

of Greek origin) taught them basic reading, writing, arithmetic, and sometimes Greek, until the age of 11. Beginning at age 12, students went to secondary schools, where the teacher (now ca-lled a grammaticus) taught them about Greek and Roman litera-ture. At the age of 16, some students went on to rhetoric school (where the teacher, almost always Greek, was called a rhetor). Education at this level prepared students for legal careers, and required that the students memorize the laws of Rome. Pupils went to school every day, except religious festivals and market days. There were also summer holidays.

Culture

Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the ancient Greeks. In architecture and sculpture, the continuity between Greek models and Roman imitations are apparent. The chief Ro-man contributions to architecture were the arch, and the dome it made possible. While much Roman sculpture was derivative of Greek models, and all deeply indebted to Greek techniques, the Roman character made portraiture the strongest and most original aspect of Roman sculpture. Strongly characterized portrait busts like the surviving portrait bust of Cato the Elder display a clearly envisioned, strongly individual character, not an idealized type such as are typically found in Greek portrait sculptures.Rome has also had a tremendous impact on Western cultures following it. Its signifi cance is perhaps best refl ected in its en-durance and infl uence, as is seen in the longevity and lasting importance of works of Virgil and Ovid. Additionally telling are the many aspects of Classical culture that have been incorpora-ted into the cultures of those states rising from the ashes of the Roman Empire. Latin, the empire’s primary language, remains used in religion, science, and law. Christianity was adopted by the offi cial culture in the later 4th century; its triumph over rival offi cially sanctioned cults, of Mithras,

LanguageThe native language of the Romans was Latin, an Italic langua-ge the grammar of which relies little on word order, conveying meaning through a system of affi xes attached to word stems. Its alphabet was based on the Etruscan alphabet, which was in turn based on the Greek alphabet. Although surviving Latin litera-ture consists almost entirely of Classical Latin, an artifi cial and highly stylized and polished literary language from the 1st cen-tury BC, the actual spoken language of the Roman Empire was Vulgar Latin, which signifi cantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar and vocabulary, and eventually in pronunciation.

While Latin remained the main written language of the Roman Empire, Greek came to be the language spoken by the well-educated elite, as most of the literature studied by Romans was written in Greek. In the eastern half of the Roman Empire, which later became the Byzantine Empire, Latin was never able to replace Greek, and after the death of Justinian Greek became



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La estatua de Isis-Fortuna, muy bien conservada, fue hallada en 1885 –junto con las obras que se describen a continuación– en una pequeña capilla doméstica dedicada al culto de Isis perteneciente a una domus situada en la actual Via Giovanni Lanza, en el Esquilino. La imagen de la divinidad estaba situada en una hornacina principal del larario que, casi intacto cuando fue descubierto, tenía la forma de un edículo con tímpano en el frontón y una altura de poco más de tres metros. Construido en mampostería de ladrillos, su interior estaba dividido en repisas y marcos de estuco a los lados que albergaban las estatuillas dedicadas a divinidades de orígenes pdiferentes; su interior y exterior estaban revestidos con losas marmóreas, mientras que una pequeña bóveda pintada de rojo hacía las veces de cubierpta. El suelo estaba pavimentpado pcon mármoles policromos. La pequeña capilla, adosada a la muralla perimetral de un patio descubierto pertene-ciente con toda probabilidad a una rica domus de la época constantiniana, estaba reservada a los miembros de la familia que vivían en la casa, devotos no solamente de Isis sino, en términos más generales, de un culto de carácter sincretista confi rmado por la presencia de otras numerosas divinidades dentro y fuera del larario. Desde una apertura situada junto al edículo sagrado se descendía, por medio de dos tramos de esca-lera, a un ambiente hipogeo de mampostería dedicado al culto de Mitra. Éste estaba formado por un único espacio dentro del cual se halló, sobre una especie de ménsula de mármol, un relieve con la representación de Mitra Tauróctono. Del mismo lugar proceden las estatuillas de los dadóforos, también en la exposición. Según una hipótesis (Ensoli, en la bibliografía), el mitreo subterráneo estaba relacionado ritualmente con la pequeña capilla dedicada a Isis. Este culto, meramente femenino, habría sido practicado por las mujeres, mientras que el culto de Mitra estaría reservado a los hombres. Tanto el larario como el mitreo han sido datados en la época constantiniana, aunque todas las obras halladas dentro sean más antiguas: de hecho, para la decoración de los dos lugares de culto se empleaban imágenes recicladas de otros lugares, tanto que en algunos casos las estatuillas muestran signos de antiguas restauraciones. Para el reconocimiento de los numerosos materiales hallados se han podido utilizar algunos valiosos diseños de la pequeña capilla realiza-dos por el pintor Luigi Ronci en el momento del descubrimiento.

Precisamente de la Isis egipcia son la diadema y el bpasileion colocados eyncima de la cabeza, mien-tras que los atributos de la diosa remiten a la Tyche-Fortuna: en la mano izquierda sujeta una cornucopia colmada de frutas, mientras con la mano derecha aguanta un timón apoyado en el globo y entre los dedos sostiene un ramo de espigas y fl ores. La cornucopia es símbolo de la fertilidad de la tierra, mientras que el timón y el globo aluden al destino y a la mutabilidad de las suertes humanas. Se trata de prerrogativas que concuerdan bien con las de la diosa egipcia Isis, considerada señora del destino y dispensadora de bienestar. Parece ser que esta asimilación entre las dos divinidades, documentada en el mundo griego, sobre todo en Creta y Delos, en Italia gozó de una cierta difusión, especialmente en Campania. Su iconografía se formuló en el período helenístico tardío sobre un prototipo clasicista. Para la época romana se conocen algunas ré-plicas, certifi cadas sobre todo en el siglo II d. C., datación que también se puede atribuir a nuestra escultura basándonos en algunos aspectos técnicos y estilísticos. serena guglielmi

BIBLIOGRAFÍA

VISCONTI 1885Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38. Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38.

Estatua de Isis-Fortuna 122(Fortuna/Iside da S. Martino ai Monti)

H. mediados siglo II d. C.Mármol pentélicoEscultura146 cmVia Giovanni Lanza, Esquilino, RomaRoma, Musei Capitolini, Centrale Montemartini (MC 928)

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Hallado en Roma, procede de un viñedo en los aledaños de Santa Cro-ce in Gerusalemme. Donado a los Musei Capitolini por Benedicto XIV entre los años 1742 y 1744. marina bertoletti

BIBLIOGRAFÍA

STUART JONES 1912Henry Stuart Jones, A Catalogue of the Ancient Sculptures preserved in the Municipal Collections of Rome. The Sculptures of the Museo Capitolino, Oxford, 1912, p. 156, n.º 42, tab. 35.

MOSS 1989C. F. Moss, Roman marble tables (diss. Princeton University 1988), I-IV, Ann Arbor,

Pie de mesa 148(Trapezoforo in alabastro con fi gura di leone)

Escultura, alabastro argelinoAltura: 90 cm. Anchura: 20 cm. Profundidad: 25 cmRomaFinal siglo II d. C.Centrale Montemartini (Musei Capitolini, Roma) (mc 324)

Al igual que CAT. 137, esta estatuilla hallada en el mitreo de la domus Via Giovanni Lanza representa a Cautopates, dadóforo de Mitra, carac-terizado por el atributo de la antorcha bajada. No obstante, esta réplica es menos exacta desde el punto de vista estilístico, ya que parece más evidente el uso del trépano en los pliegues de la ropa. Por lo tanto, para este segundo ejemplar se ha propuesto una datación más baja.

La presencia en el mitreo de la domus de dos estatuillas de Cau-topates en lugar de la tradicional asociación de Cautes y Cautopates se debió con toda probabilidad a la difi cultad que tuvo la familia que habitaba la casa para encontrar las obras relativas al culto de Mitra. serena guglielmi

BIBLIOGRAFÍA

VISCONTI 1885Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 56-57.

Estatuilla de Cautopates 131(Statuetta di Cautopates. Materiale del Larario di S. Martino ai Monti)

Siglo II-III d. C.Mármol blanco de grano fi noEscultura25 cmVia Giovanni Lanza, Esquilino, RomaRoma, Musei Capitolini, Centrale Montemartini (MC 2985)

imperio 27

La cupa fue un monumento fu-nerario muy utilizado en Bar-cino. Se trata de un bloque de piedra de forma semicilíndrica, vaciado parcialmente para guar-dar los restos del difunto, que se colocaba sobre un pedestal. En la cara frontal una cartela epigrá-fica recordaba al finado, al que también se ofrecían libaciones en un agujero practicado en la parte posterior. En los laterales aparece a menudo grabada una roseta ca-racterística de los devotos de Isis o, en este caso, una asci ae o ha-cha que indica un ritual protec-tor del enterramiento. Las cupae eran propias de las clases bajas, libertos o esclavos y también de las clases medias artesanales. te-

resa carreras rossell

BIBLIOGRAFÍA


La cupa fue un monumento fune-rario muy utilizado en Barcino. Se trata de un bloque de piedra de forma semicilíndrica, vaciado par-cialmente para guardar los restos del difunto, que se colocaba sobre un pedestal. En la cara frontal una cartela epigráfi ca recordaba al fi -nado, al que también se ofrecían libaciones en un agujero practi-cado en la parte posterior. En los laterales aparece a menudo gra-bada una roseta característica de los devotos de Isis o, en este caso, una asci ae o hacha que indica un ritual protector del enterramien-to. Las cupae eran propias de las clases bajas, libertos o esclavos y también de las clases medias arte-sanales. teresa carreras rossell

BIBLIOGRAFÍA




Sextercio 486Final siglo II d. C.Piedra arenisca de Montjuïc56 x 103 x 59 cmCalle dels Banys, BarcelonaBarcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (9557)

Presenta una inscripción grabada que ha sido estudiada y publicada por Fabre, Mayer y Rodá, y cuya lectura y transcripción es:

D(is) M(anibus)FAVSTINVLAECONSERVAESECUNDN<V>SF(aciendum) C(uravit)

La cupa fue un monumento funerario muy utilizado en Bar-cino. Se trata de un bloque de piedra de forma semicilíndrica, vaciado parcialmente para guar-dar los restos del difunto, que se colocaba sobre un pedestal. En la cara frontal una cartela epigráfi ca recordaba al fi nado, al que también se ofrecían liba-ciones en un agujero practicado en la parte posterior. En los late-rales aparece a menudo grabada una roseta característica de los devotos de Isis o, en este caso, una asci ae o hacha que indica un ritual protector del enterra-miento. Las cupae eran propias de las clases bajas, libertos o es-clavos y también de las clases medias artesanales. teresa ca-

rreras rossell

Antoniniano 487Final siglo II d. C.Piedra arenisca de Montjuïc56 x 103 x 59 cmCalle dels Banys, BarcelonaBarcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (9557)

Aureliano 488Final siglo II d. C.Piedra arenisca de Montjuïc56 x 103 x 59 cmCalle dels Banys, BarcelonaBarcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (9557)


Denario 489Final siglo II d. C.Piedra arenisca de Montjuïc56 x 103 x 59 cmCalle dels Banys, BarcelonaBarcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (9557)




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Hallado en Roma, procede de un viñedo en los aledaños de Santa Cro-ce in Gerusalemme. Donado a los Musei Capitolini por Benedicto XIV entre los años 1742 y 1744.Hallado en Roma, procede de un viñedo en los aledaños de Santa Cro-ce in Gerusalemme. Donado a los Musei Capitolini por Benedicto XIV entre los años 1742 y 1744.Hallado en Roma, procede de un viñedo en los aledaños de Santa Cro-ce in Gerusalemme. Donado a los Musei Capitolini por Benedicto XIV entre los años 1742 y 1744.Hallado en Roma, procede de un viñedo en los aledaños de Santa Cro-ce in Gerusalemme. Donado a los Musei Capitolini por Benedicto XIV entre los años 1742 y 1744.La cupa fue un monumento funerario muy utilizado en Barcino. Se trata de un bloque de piedra de forma semicilíndrica, vaciado parcial-mente para guardar los restos del difunto, que se colocaba sobre un pedestal. marina bertoletti

BIBLIOGRAFÍA


MOSS 1989C. F. Moss, Roman marble tables (diss. Princeton University 1988), I-IV, Ann Arbor,



BIBLIOGRAFÍA







A los dioses Manes, a Faustinulae, su coesclava muy meceredora, Secundino hizo hacer (este monumento funerario).

Antoniniano 487Final siglo II d. C.Piedra arenisca de Montjuïc56 x 103 x 59 cmCalle dels Banys, BarcelonaBarcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (9557)



imperio 31

La cupa fue un monumento fune-rario muy utilizado en Barcino. Se trata de un bloque de piedra de forma semicilíndrica, vaciado par-cialmente para guardar los restos del difunto, que se colocaba sobre un pedestal. En la cara frontal una cartela epigráfi ca recordaba al fi -nado, al que también se ofrecían libaciones en un agujero practi-cado en la parte posterior. En los laterales aparece a menudo gra-bada una roseta característica de los devotos de Isis o, en este caso, una asci ae o hacha que indica un ritual protector del enterramien-to. Las cupae eran propias de las clases bajas, libertos o esclavos y también de las clases medias arte-sanales. teresa carreras rossell

BIBLIOGRAFÍA




Hallado en Roma, procede de un viñedo en los aledaños de Santa Cro-ce in Gerusalemme. Donado a los Musei Capitolini por Benedicto XIV entre los años 1742 y 1744. marina bertoletti

BIBLIOGRAFÍA


MOSS 1989

Estatuilla de Cautopates 131(Statuetta di Cautopates. Materiale del Larario di S. Martino ai Monti)

Siglo II-III d. C.Mármol blanco de grano fi noEscultura25 cmVia Giovanni Lanza, Esquilino, RomaRoma, Musei Capitolini, Centrale Montemartini (MC 2985)

Aureliano 488Final siglo II d. C.Piedra arenisca de Montjuïc56 x 103 x 59 cmCalle dels Banys, BarcelonaBarcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (9557)


Denario 489Final siglo II d. C.Piedra arenisca de Montjuïc56 x 103 x 59 cmCalle dels Banys, BarcelonaBarcelona, Museu d’Arqueologia de Catalunya (9557)




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La estatua de Isis-Fortuna, muy bien conservada, fue hallada en 1885 –junto con las obras que se describen a continuación– en una pequeña capilla doméstica dedicada al culto de Isis perteneciente a una domus situada en la actual Via Giovanni Lanza, en el Esquilino. La imagen de la divinidad estaba situada en una hornacina principal del larario que, casi intacto cuando fue descubierto, tenía la forma de un edículo con tímpano en el frontón y una altura de poco más de tres metros. Construido en mampostería de ladrillos, su interior estaba dividido en repisas y marcos de estuco a los lados que albergaban las estatuillas dedicadas a divinidades de orígenes pdiferentes; su interior y exterior estaban revestidos con losas marmóreas, mientras que una pequeña bóveda pintada de rojo hacía las veces de cubierpta. El suelo estaba pa-vimentpado pcon mármoles policromos. La pequeña capilla, adosada a la muralla perimetral de un patio descubierto perteneciente con toda probabilidad a una rica domus de la época constantiniana, estaba re-servada a los miembros de la familia que vivían en la casa, devotos no solamente de Isis sino, en términos más generales, de un culto de ca-rácter sincretista confi rmado por la presencia de otras numerosas divi-nidades dentro y fuera del larario. Desde una apertura situada junto al edículo sagrado se descendía, por medio de dos tramos de escalera, a un ambiente hipogeo de mampostería dedicado al culto de Mitra. Éste estaba formado por un único espacio dentro del cual se halló, sobre una especie de ménsula de mármol, un relieve con la representación de Mitra Tauróctono. Del mismo lugar proceden las estatuillas de los dadóforos, también en la exposición. Según una hipótesis (Ensoli, en la bibliografía), el mitreo subterráneo estaba relacionado ritualmente con la pequeña capilla dedicada a Isis. Este culto, meramente femeni-no, habría sido practicado por las mujeres, mientras que el culto de Mitra estaría reservado a los hombres.

BIBLIOGRAFÍA


ENSOLI 1993Serena Ensoli, “Le sculture del larario di S. Martino ai Monti. Un contesto recuperato” en BCom, 1993, pp. 221- 243 (con bibliografía precedente).

Estatua de Isis-Fortuna 122(Fortuna/Iside da S. Martino ai Monti)

H. mediados siglo II d. C.Mármol pentélicoEscultura146 cmVia Giovanni Lanza, Esquilino, RomaRoma, Musei Capitolini, Centrale Montemartini (MC 928)


Hallado en Roma, procede de un viñedo en los aledaños de Santa Cro-ce in Gerusalemme. Donado a los Musei Capitolini por Benedicto XIV entre los años 1742 y 1744.La cupa fue un monumento funerario muy utilizado en Barcino. Se trata de un bloque de piedra de forma semicilíndrica, vaciado parcial-mente para guardar los restos del difunto, que se colocaba sobre un pedestal. marina bertoletti

BIBLIOGRAFÍA







A los dioses Manes, a Faustinulae, su coesclava muy meceredora, Secundino hizo hacer (este monumento funerario).

La cupa fue un monumento funerario muy utilizado en Barcino. Se trata de un bloque de piedra de forma semicilíndrica, vaciado parcial-mente para guardar los restos del difunto, que se colocaba sobre un pedestal. En la cara frontal una cartela epigráfi ca recordaba al fi nado, al que también se ofrecían libaciones en un agujero practicado en la parte posterior. En los laterales aparece a menudo grabada una roseta característica de los devotos de Isis o, en este caso, una asci ae o ha-cha que indica un ritual protector del enterramiento. Las cupae eran propias de las clases bajas, libertos o esclavos y también de las clases medias artesanales. teresa carreras rossell

Bibliografía










VISCONTI 1885Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38.

Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38.
















VISCONTI 1885Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38. Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en











bibliografía 39







VISCONTI 1885Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38. Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino

presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38.













ENSOLI 1993Serena Ensoli, “Le sculture del larario di S. Martino ai Monti. Un contesto

recuperato” en BCom, 1993, pp. 221- 243 (con bibliografía precedente).





VISCONTI 1885Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en BCom, 1885, pp. 27- 38. Carlo Lodovico Visconti, “Del Larario e del mitreo scoperti nell’Esquilino presso la chiesa di S. Martino ai Monti” en


roman empire

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