DLSCuSSio,iPa/,et.No D96-7

ccnditiur)Sr,fAgt･iculturaユPl,C.ductionillNort,hKoreain1946_49

Ivfits･d.hJkoRjmura

Jlユ1y 1996

ConditionsofAgriclユlturalPro血ctioninNorthKoreain1946-49

MitsuhikoKimura

GraduateSchoolofInternationalCooperationStudies

KobeUniversity

2-1Rokkodai,Nada,Robe,Japan657

E-mail:kmitsu@rose.rokkodai.kobe-u.ac.jp

Jtlly1996

Acknowledgments:Thisworkbene丘tedf110m丘nancialSupportsofMinistry

ofEducationinJapan,ZenkokuGinkoGakujutsuKenkyuShlnkoZaidan,

MatsushitaKokusai Zaidan andILoreaFoundation.Theauthorgreatly

appreciatesassistanceoftheseinstitutions. Alsoheisgratefulfor

encollragementS,COmmentSandassistanceof,tonameafew,ClmngJae-

JOng,K.Weathersby,C,J.Eckel.t,PangSon-ju,HuhSu-γol,V.Pechatnov,K

Odaka,YiTae-glln,F.Goto,Y.Hamaguchi,R.Hagiwara,H,Sakural,Lee

ChongSik,ChongSong-il,M.Yanagihal･a,KoSong-hun,YiChae-un,An

Pyong-jik,YuMyong-ch-01,USNationalArchive,USLibraryofCongress,

YenchlngLibraryatHarvardUnlVerSity,EconomicResearchlnstitllteat

SeoulNatlOnalUniversityandEuktroT■ongilwon.

Abstract

ThispaperdiscussesconditionsofNorthKoreanagncultureafterLiberation

uslnginternaldocumentsofvariousorganizationsinNorth Koreasuchas

theWorkersrParty. Theagncultul･al pohcyofthegovemmentwas

distinctlysociahstfrom thebeginning.Thisgeneratedinefaciencywhile

failingtoovercometheextensivebottleneckinproduction.TheoutputsdidnotIncreaseaSindicatedintheofficialstat,istics.

InMarch1946Pll0VISionalPeoplersCommitteeofNorthKol･ea(found.edon8

Februal･y1946asanactinggovemmentandsucceededbytheGovel.nment

on9September1948;hereafter,PPC)pushedlandreform andofficially

abolishedthelandlord-tenantsystemcontinueddownsincecenturiesago.

Thetenantfarmel･SObtalnedt,hetitletothefal･m landastheresultand

becameTTreeholders", Thiswasfollowedbyareform ofagrlCultul･al

taxatlOn MeanwhilePPCproposedaplanfol･PlantingmalnCropstObe

harvestedinthea.utumnofthatyear(DecisionofPPC,no,7,15March1946,

Kukpryon1988,238-241).Thisplanaimedatthesameplantedareasin

totalasrealizedin1939.Thel･eafter,theFll.StPeople'sEconomicPlanwas

devisedfor1947,followedbytheSecondfol･1948andtheTlllrdfor1949/50.

The rlrSttwoPlanswerevery ambltlOuSin pl.eSCribing agで1Cultural

development;theannual1･ateSOfincreasesintheplantedareasforgrains

andtheiroutputswereset.respectively,atlG.9%and18.6%for1947and

thoseoftheoutputsofgralnSandrawcottonat135%and210.20/ofor1948

(C110SenJijoXenkytlkal1956,64-72).Theplan丘)∫1949/50toneddown

substantiallyinthisrespecL

WhatImpactdidtheseplanshaveonthemanagementofNorthKorean

agriculture?Morespeclfically,didtheplansmerelyactasagLlldeoran

encoul･agementtOthefarmel･SaSaWhole,or,Onthecontl･ary,didtheybind

eachfat.merinspecificmannel･S? Ifthelattel･WasEhecase,itimplleSthat

thebasICPrinclpleinNorthKoreanagriculturalproductlOninthlSperiod

wassetbyplanning,notfI.eeentel･PrlSeaSOftenthought.Idiscussthis

questionfil･Standfurthel･eXplol･eintoconditionsofag1･lCulturalproductlOn

between1946and1949;maintopicsaretaxation,statepurchaseandfactor.S

inpl･Oduction.Theallalysisbelowheavilydl･aWSOntheintel･naldocuments

oftheNorthKoreanadminlSh･atlOn,WhlCllWereCapturedbytheUSlnllitary

duringtheILoreanWallPeriod.

Theproductionplansand

theorganizingofcollectlVefarmwork

Cnl'sl'/Thecollectionofcaptul･edmaterialscontainsalargeamountof

instructlOnS(chl'sl)onfarmingand1.elatedtopicssuch asag1･icultural

taxation,Sentbytheupperlevelsof adlninistrationtothelowerin

KangwonPl･OVince. Col･reSPOndlngl･ePOrtSfll0m thelevelsbelowland

independentdecisiollSandl･eCOl･dsofdisctlSSiononthesametoplCSatVal･10uS

levelsarealsoabundant.Thesedocumentsindicatesel･iousattemptsofthe

2

administrativeOrganstOexecuteplannlnglnagl･1Culture. Specifically.

estal)lishlngProductionplansforeacllfarmel･andorganizingfal.merSinto

groupsfoileach kind offarm work were a maJOl･COnCem Ofthe

adminlStratlOn.AnearlyattemptofI,hem isrevealedintheinstructions

thattheNorthKoreanCommunistPartyKangwonProvlnClalCommittee

dellVeredtoitsdivisionsineachcountyon9Aprl11946:(a)toorganize

"modelfarmersr'intoproductlOnbrlgades,saengsaDtOlgyoh-dae ineach

communityandmobilizeallfarmer.Sforspringtilling,O))tool･ganizethe

commllnltymeetlngS,PとLZdrllOeUZ'andsetupplansforcropraislngand(C)to

notify,OnthebasisOftheproductionplans,thefal･merSlrtheresponsible

output"foreachcrop,thusputtingtheproductionresponsibilitysystem,

saengsaDCh'aeglm-}einoperation(2007/6/16:12114).

EventsLIDRl'njeCountJ,:Theoperationoftheseinstl.uCtionsisdepictedin

detailina工)ecisionofNEWP(NorthKoreanWorkersrPal･ty)Standing

CommitteelnRinjeCountyinKangwonProvinceon20March1947･each

communityandeachindlVidualbeal･SreSPOnSit)ilityforplantingcropsonthe

basュsOftheproductionplans,Icellslnthevillagesdiscussanddeclde

productionplansandexecutethem perfectlybymobilizingtheFarmers'

Unionandtheyalsoorganizethefarmel･Srgathering,nongml'ntaellOe,'Cells

leadeachfal.met.tOSetuphisownproductionplan,andorganlZethe

collectlVeWOl.k gl･OupS,hongdongchagopIPanandful･thermoblllZethe

prodtlCtiongrotlpS,SaengSan-banandthebrlgades,thusovercominglabor

shol･tageSinplanting,p'ajongandtransplantlng,lang(2007/6/1088-89)

OntheprodtlCtlOnreSpOnSlbilitythedocumentsummarizedbelowglVeS

flrStllandinformation.

Title:OntheAgl･iculturalResponslbleOutputsfor1947

I)ateofissue1.16April1947

From.thechalrman,theNl(WPRinjeCountyCommittee

To:thechairman,theNKWPKangwonProvlnCialCommlttee

MalnCOntentS:

TheresponsibleolltPutSaSSlgnedtoRinjeCountyfol･1947:

paddy 30,560sob(a9%increaseovel･theharvestin1946,28,070soll)

coarsegl･ains 37,843sob(a147.6%increaseovel･thehal.Vestln1946,

15,246soIL･).

Pal･ticularlyastotheplantedal.eaSindryfields,theareassul･Veyedin

ordertocletelminethel･eSPOnSibleoutputsfox.eachindividualaI･e4,852

chong-bovis-a-vistheplanneclones7,773cllOng.bo/sowecannotdetermine

3

theresponsibleoutputsfol･eachlndlVidualandhaveagreattrouble.We

l･equeStyOlユtOtake.appropriatemeasurestocoITeCtthis(2007/6/10:77-78)

Asseen,anexcesslVenorminproductionwasasslgnedtothevillagesand,ln

turn,tothefarmersbytheprovincial administration. Theexcesswas

enormousforthecoarsegrains Becausethiswasobviouslytoolarge,the

ProvincialCommitteel･evisedltdownwardlater(25April1947,2007/6/5:22,

2012/8/5:28),TheintentionoftheCommitteeisclear･.toassignfarmersthe

responslbleoutputsgreaterthantheirCapaClty,especiallyformalngrains,

tlluSi.ealizingasmllChproductionlnCl･eaSeaSPOSSible･Fal･merSlladto

followthis.Oncefinaldecisionsweremadeonthegoal,theyweredemanded

tomakefulleffortstosul･PaSSit(6February1947,2012/5/146:50).They

couldexpresscomplaintsabouttheupperdecISionsatacommunitymeeting

orthefarmers一gatheringonlyattherisksofbeingcrltici2.edorworse

punlShedorostracized(13Novembel･1948,2012/5/141:96) Tocontrolthe

planting by indlVidual farmel.a the Committee ol･dered the county

adminlStrationtodlStl･1butetoeachfarmer血e1'n-byolscent,0.saDCh'sl'so(the

documentdirectingproductiontotheindividual)andleadhimto丘11inthe

backofthepapel･theplantedal･ealnhlSfieldforeachcrop(1June1947and

May1947,2007/6/10:44,72).ThecountyadministratlOnWasalsoordered

tomonitorthepl･OCeSSOftillingandplantlnglneachfieldandreportit

regulallly.,FurtheraJOintresponsib111tySystem Wasintl･Oducedsoan

unfulfilledresponsibllityfol･PlantlnginaIll (hamlet)wasborneonanother

J･)I(19.47?,2007/6/10:86).

Inol･ganizingcollectivefarmworkatotalof501productiongroupswere

createdlnRinjeCountyasawholebyllJune1946(2007/6/16:126).They

had23,272nlembersintotal,thuscovel･ingalmostalltheadultreSldentsln

RlnJeCounty,inhabitedbyabout33,000people(2007/6/16:S,1).In

Simjong-l･ilnthiscount,ythel･atiooflnembersoftheFal･merSIUnlOntOtotal

fa1･mhouseholdsreached100%by3April1947andallthesemembel･S,169

malesand166females,wel･eOX･ganizedilltOatotalof18pl･OductlOng110tlPS

and42peopleinto4bl･lgades(2012/5/141:107). Otherthanthese,many

differentgroupswerecl･eatedlnSimJOng-ritoconductspecificfarm work

suchaswee.dingltl'anSPlanting,harvesting,threshingandcan.ylng(1948?,

2012/5/146･87,P2,109)･Adocumenttitledr'TablesonorganlZationofthe

fil･StStageWeedlngandtransplantinggroups"presentedanumberofnarmes

offarmersandwol･kloadforeachofthem inweedingandtl･anSplantlng

(1949?,2012/5/14692;also,50ctobell1946,2012/5/141:141).Workingen

massforproductionofgl･eenmanul･ewasalsoveryfrequentlneachlll'ln

4

Rinje.ForeachklndofthefarmworkabovethecountyofficeSetatime

scheduleandthePeoplesTCommitteeandtheFarmersIUnionineachrI'

mobili2.edthefarmer.Saccordingtothisschedule(16June1948,2012/5/148:

73-74). Topushthis,competitlOnamongCOmmunitiesorgl･OuPSWas

ol･gan121ed(20Aprll1950,2012/5/146:75).

Othez.reg70mSIHowcanotherprovlnCeSbecomparedtoKangwonProvince

inthiscontext? Weal･enotSul･eOfwhatwashappeningintheotherreglOnS,

bllt,becausedecISIOnmakingoftheNortIIKoreanadminlStrationlnthis

periodwashighlycentralized,thephenomenainKangwonabovevel･ylikely

representedthoseinthenation.SomeevidellCeexists.(1)CabinetDecISion

no,10on2February1949pointedoutthatplantingofcropstendedtobe

asslgnedtofal･mel.aHmechanicallyH,･forInstance,quotasOfplantlngCOttOn

seedsimposedonfarmersinvariousareassuchasChunghwaCountyln

SouthPlyonganProvinceandTanch'onandChongpTyongCountyinSouth

flamgyongProvュnce(2005/2/114:2).(1i)PPCAnjuCountyDivislOnlnNorth

PlyonganPl･OVinceordereditsmyondlVisionstosecul･ePlantedal･eaSfol･the

autumnbarleyfor1947and,forthispuL･pose,tomobilizekonB7'ak-won

(agents);itwarnedthemnottoexpandtheplantinginthefieldsunsuitable

forlt,aShadbeendoneinthepreviousyear,inthiscountydetailedplans

wel･eestablishedformobllizlngfarmerstoconducttransplanting;also

manureproductionwasimposedonindividualfarmellSandforthis,chagup

plryOSae12gSanSldalso(thedoctlmentdirectingproductionOfhome-made

fertlli2.er)wasconsh･ucted(2August1949,2006/14/77.1:14,15,17),(iii)A

directionofmanureproductionslmllartothatabovewasissuedinHamju

County,SouthHamgyongProvince(21April1949,2010/1/169:14-15).(1V)

Ontheorgani2.edcollectivefarmworkCabinetDecisionno.10abovestated:

I..inutillZlngthecattle,01'ganizatlOnandmanagementoftheplowingtgroup

(so一g:yon'-ban)waspartiallyIrrational.,.lF]armersconductedcoop占rdtlVe

wol･kwithoutaprlnCipleandhelpedlazyguys".Forexample,IinUhsong

CountylnNorthHamgyongPl･OVlnCe…'l(op.cl't.)

Furthe1.,Wenotean Officialpublication countingsaeDgSan-ban and

tolgydf-daelneachprovュncein1946.InTablelHhefol･mertotaled79,489

andthelatter16,764,eachconsistingof1,274,243and486,318members,

Thesemembersaccountedfoil78.1% and29.8% ofthetotalhouseholds,

respectively.ThlSIndicatessubstantialpl.OgreSSinorganizlngSaengSan-

ban,coveringmostfarmerslnthenation.(Notethatthetotalhouseholds

Includednon-agriculturalaswellasagriculturalhouseholds.) Regionally,

saengsan-banwasoI.ganizedatthehighestrateinSouthP'yonganProv上nce,

5

acentralprovincesurroundingPTyongyang.OnaverageltWasCOmPOSedof

10-30peopleinallbutNorthHamgyongProvince,whiletolByOh-dae13-50

peopleineachprovince.Compal･edwiththeotherl･elatedfigul.eSthe

membersofsaeDgSan-baninNol･thHamgyongtotaledtoosmallinnumbel'

tobet,akenastheyare.

Allinall,thdughnotenoughtoclari& detailsofl'egionalvariations,

documentaryevidenceshowsthatfrom anearlydatein1946Onwardthe

productionasslgnmentSandtheorganizedcollectivefarmworkplayedan

importantroleintheoperationofagrlCultul･alplanningacrossNol･thKorea･

TheagrlCulturaltaxation

TaxatL'onl'nJaw:On10Octobel･theNorthKoreanCommunistPartyadopted

DecisiononProblemswithLandandonthisbasispushedforthemovement,

reducingthel･entOnfarmlandto30%oftheharvests(thesoICalledseven-

thl･eePrinciple).Ontheotherhandthecoloniallandtaxesremainedasthey

wet.e,Whichwel.ePaldincashbyownersoflandlnPl･OPOrtiontotheofficially

setrentalpnCeSOfland.On,27June1946PPCissuedDecislOnOntile

AgriculturalTaxinKind(つecISionno.28,Kt止pryon1988,318-319).ThlS

representedamaJ01･agrlCultul･al reform alongwiththeland.refol･m.It

abollShed.thecolonlallandtaxesandinsteadlnh･oducedhyonmu1-se,taxes

inland,at25%onallgl･ainolユtPutS.Italsostlpulatedthatthereshouldbe

noquasi-taxation,sllCh'ashongch'ul(reqtllSitionorfol･Cedput.Chaseof

grains),which was imposed on Korean fal･merS by the Japanese

adminlStl･ationduringthePacificWal.pel･iod.InMay1947thetaxrate

wasl･evised..(Lawno.24,Kukp'yon1988,379).It.wasdifferentiatedamong

crops:forpaddy,27%(oftheoutput),forgllainsindl･yfields,23%,forcotton,

hemp,tobacco,poppyandhop,23%,forvegetablesingeneralandothercrops

fol･industrialuse,10kgofgl･ainspertan (approximately0.1ha),forthe

vegetablesproducedbyspecificallydesignatedfar.merS,23% ol･20kgof

grainspertan andforfl.uits,25%.Theoutputsf110mShlftingcultivation

weretaxedatloo/oandthosefrom newlyreclaimedfarm landweretax-

exemptforthreeyears.Thetaxonpotatoes,wasallowedtobepaidin

coarsegl･ainsotherthanbeansatafixedconversion'rate(substitutegrains,

taegoE).

In1946and1947manysupplemental･ydecisionsandordlnanCeSWere

announcedlnconnectionwithllyOnmu1-se Forexample,Ordinanceonthe

Extraol.dlnaryAccountofFoodGrainManagementwasissuedon12August

6

1946(DecISIOnnO.94,Eukp'yon1988,340-341).Thisputtheresponsibllity

oneachProvincialPeoplesTCommitteeforestabllShingthebudgetfor

JByonmul-se(thecollectionandexpenditureprogram)bytheendofOctober

inthepreviousyear.AnothellOne,RegulationonCollectionofHyoDmtLI-se,

consistlngOf35articles,decidedproceduresofcollectionofthetaxateach

stageofadmlnistration,plユttingrequlrementSOnthepeoplesrcommitteesin

myontosubmltreportsdallyandthoselnhunevery丘vedays(RegtllatlOnat

FoodGralnPolicyDepartment,no.2,1June1947,Kukp'yon1988,383-387).

Taxatl'onl'DPZ.aCtl'ceI Untilnownocloseexaminationhasbeenmadeof

thistaxatlOninpractice.Onemightassumethatbecausetaxbasewasgross

outputs,notincomeandthel･atewasnat,thistaxationwassimple,andeasy

topractice.Infact,howevel･,thel･eWeremanydifficultiesandcomplexitiesinvolvedinit.

First,North Korean farmerswerenotcooperativewith thetax

adminlStration TheytriedtoevadeLyonmu1-5ewhenevertheycould.

Thisisnotsurprising.Theywerenoexceptiontotherulethatnooneis

willingtopaytaxes Alsomanyofthem failedtounderstandwhythey

couldnotretainalloftheiroutputsastheywerelibel･atedfromJapanese

colonialruleandalsofromthebondofthelandlord(theCentralCommlttee

ofDemocratlCYouthUnlOn,6November1946,2005/5/53ll;RinjeCotlnty,

July?1946,2007/6/16･.130).Thisisendorsedbytherepeatedattemptsof

theadministrationtomakethefarmel･SacknowledgethenecessltyOf

hJ′ぴコmu1-sefornationbuildingandthedlfferencebetweenthlStaxandthe

Japanesehongch'ttl(Ⅹukp'yon1988,345,･Hyonmu1-5eSonjonYogang,1946?,

2012/5/148:154).

ThefarmerscultivatingtheirownfarmlandsincethecolonlalperlOdhad

amoresubstantialreasonforevadinghyonmu1-se Asidefromthe1943145

periodwhenthecolonialadministl･ationrequlSitionedalargeamountofl･1Ce

andballley･theagrlCulturaltaxationwasnotheavyfortheKoreanown.er

farmersingeneralinthelatecolonialperiod.Thelandtaxesbecamemuch

smallerlnValueinrelationtothetotalagrlCulturalotltputSintile1930S

thaninthe1910swhenltWasCreated.Seat.lSt,icsshowedthattheland

taxesintotalwel･e1.9-4.1%ofthetotalvalueoftheagricultul.aloutputsin

the 1934-40pel･10d (Government-Genel･al1944,64,354-6,376,386).

Addingtheagriculturalincometaxestothelandtaxesincreasedtheoverall

1936(jbl'd.). Becausealargepartoftheincometaxesabovefellonbig

7

outputsfellconsiderably below 25% in tbe late 1930S. Thus the

introductionofLyonmu1-seputthesefallmerS,Whoaccountedfor25%ofthe

tot.al NorthKoreanfal'merSin1942(Government-Genel'al 1944,42),ata

disadvantage, Thesameapplledtotheformel･Pal･towner-Parttenant

farmers(23%ofthetotalfarmel･SLl'bId.),dependingonthesizeofthefarm

landeach hadownedbefol･e1946.Thefarmel･Sengaglngln Shifting

cultivation(4.5%ofthetotalfarmers:1bI'd.)werealsoputatadisadvantage

becausetheyhadhardlypaidlandtaxesduringthecolonial period･The

Increasedtaxbul.denafford.edthesefal･merSaStrongmotivefortheevasion.

DeliveringpoorqualityproductsasLyonmu1-sewasacommonwayoftax

evasion. Also,becausethetaxstandardwassetbyweight,Stllffing

productsnotdriedormlXinggravelinthedeliverybagthrove.Toprevent

thistheadministrationhadtomakecloseinspectionoftheproductscollected

ashyonmLtl-se(forinstance,1nStl･uCtionsofPlyongyangCityOfficeon16

September1949,2005/7/58:75). Thiscomplexityarosefrom thevery

natureofhyonmu1-se,ataxinkind.

Theshortcomingofthistaxationappearedinother乱leasaSwell,A

largenumberofstrawbagsand.ropeswel･eneededfordelivel･y.Before1945

theywel.e,mainlyproducedinricecl･OPPingal･eaSintheSouth,andthe

NorthreliedheavilyonthesupplyfromtheSouth.Thissupplywascutin

1945･Therea氏eZ･theadmlnistrationtl.iedtoboostdomesticproductionby

asslgnlngPrOductlOnquotatOeachfal･meraSitdidtoincl･eaSePlantingof

maincrPPS･YetllaWStrawWasinsho上.iSupplyandpoorinqualityinthe

NorthsotheoutputsdldnotIncreaseaSPlanned.Transportlngandstol･lng

wereanotherheavytaskoftheadministl･ationbecausehel･e,too,Shol･tage

wasacute-thecapacityOftheseservicesfellfallShol･tOfovel･alldemand(Pak

19甲8,chap･.1)･. Inaddltion,theadministl･ationhadtowatchstllffed

deliverybagsITlthewal･ehousesandopenfieldsclosely,tokeepthemfl･Om

raidersornatural.depreclation.InRinjeCountyln1947allnightshiftwas

implemelltedtogual･dthewaI･ellOuSeS(5JaIlual･y,2007/6/10･.125).The

penaltyfortheraid幸平gWasVeryheavy-evencapitalpunishmentwas

lrPpOSed(Decisionno 46･22July1946,Iくukpryon 1988･326;alsoseeI)ecisiononControlofStol･edStateGrainFoods,2February1947,1rbld.,

374-376).

Howtoassess放e｣らaryest.̀TaxassessmentwasamaJOl･SOul･CeOfconfllCt

anddistrustbetweenthetaxadlnlnistrat,ionandthefarmers.Todetel･mlne

thetaxamountforeachcl･OP fol.eachfarmel･thecommitteeforharvest

assessment,S【Lllakp'LfnJODg WlWOnhoewascreatedin each }･1･ Two

8

componentswereinvolvedlnassessmentOftheharvest:Plantedareasin

totalandaverageoutputovertheseareas.usuallyindicatedbyyieldpertan.

Thecommitteewasinstructedtomeasureeachrigorously.Fol.instance,the

People'sCommitteeinAnjuCountyissuedNonBTan9-mulP'ajongMyonjok

Sllt'aeC払osaYogaDg(TheBasicPrlnCipleinSurveyingPlantedAreasof

Crops)(23May1947,2006/14/74:9-15).ThisassignedthecommltteetO

measuretheplantedareabywalkingactualstepsandnottomissanypiece

ofplantedareas,eventhatinfootpathsbetweenfields.Intotalcalculation

kanjaD9-mUl(in-betweencrops)wasincludedfullywhensomecropwas

plantedtogetherwithmaizeinthesamefields,thusdouble-Countingthe

plantedareasintotal.Facingsuchastrictpolicy,farmersdevisedexcuses

forundel･I･atlngtheplantingareaswhiletrylngtOhidetheiractualplanting

(23August1947,2007/6/10:7August1947,2006/ll/83:12).

Inassesslngyieldpertan,thecommltteeWasSupposedtoapply

pyongae-bopinheritedfrom Japaneseadministration,thatis,cuttlnga

maturedheadofthecropgrownina■1standal･d丘eldH,whichwouldrepl･eSent

thewholefieldintermsoftheprospectsofhai.vests,andcountinggralnSlnit.

Thismethodmeanttoincreaseaccul･aCyOftheassessmentofyield.

However,theyieldassessedbythismethodlargelydependedonselectlOnOf

the standard field and this could be done arbitrarily.The upper

adminiStratlOnrepeatedlyisstledinstructionstoapplythismethodstrictly

whileimposing.heavypenalty-atermof5yearimprlSOnmentatmaXlmum-

foral･bitl･aryassessment(DecIS10nOftheCentralCommitteeoftheFarmers'

UnlOnin1949,2012/5/146･94;PPCDecislOnnO.46,22July1946,Kukp■yon

1988,326).Thissuggeststha.tonmanyoccasionspyoDgae-bopwasamere

formalityifpracticedatall,tlluSfailingtoenhancecl･edibilltyOftheharvest

assessment.IndeedaDecislOnOftheFarmers'UnionlnSohwa-myonin

Rln)eCountyrevealed.rlFromatechnicalviewpoint,plantedaZ･easlol.]yields

pertanforeachgrainwel･enotactuallysurveyedbut｣らyonmu1-3ewas

assessedonthedesksoi.eatagriculturalconditionscouldnotbeAppreciated

andfairnesslackedintheimpositionlofjzyonmu1-se]oneachfarmer."(5

October1946,2012/5141:141.)

StatepurchaseoffarmprodllCtS-SOngCh′ulandsumae

StatepurchaseofgralnSWasinitiatedaftel.theautumnharvestln1945

(Sahoekwahak-won1981,403).ThiswascalledRyanggOhSongcL'ulUndong

(theMovementforDedicatingFoodGrains)anddevelopedlnCOnneCtionwith

themovement.reduclngtherentonfarm landmentionedabove.On20

9

August1946,PPCofrlCial1yanll.0unCedplansfol.StatePul･Chaseofgrains(Decisionno63,lLukp●yon1988,343-344).ThisPurchase,sLLmaeWastObe

conductedincashorlnbartertl.adewith.Salt,chemicalfertllizer,cotton

cloths,matchesandotherindustrlalproducts.TheNorthKoreanConsumersCooperativeassumedtheresponsibilityforthistl･ade.

InprlnCIPle,farmel･SIvoluntaryparticipationwasabasisforboth

songd'ulandsumae,becauseforclblepurchaseoffarmproductswasbanned

by上)ecISIOnO

nAgriculturalTaxlnKindabove.Yet,infact,thestate

purchasewasenforcedonfarmel･Sfromthebeginnlng.Thiswasadmltted

officially,"lSongdl'叫waspal･tlallydistortedinitsoperation...andwas

carrledoutforcibly,withoutpayingprices.ll(Sahoekwahak-won1981,404.)

OnsLtmaein1946.PPCstated:".,.thoughthepullChaseofgrainsrbytheNorthKoreanCopsumersLCooperative]issupposedtobeconductedonabasisoffarmers'voluntaryEParticIPation,theCooperativeiscurrently

pushingitinfozIClbleandbureaucraticmanners,e.g.,assigningquotato

eachfarmhousehold.rThl

SisaserlOuSel･rOr.rl(DecISionno.140,26

December1946,Kukpryon1988,i3621364.)Ful.ther,PPCdlSClosedthat

■■becauseofthel⊃ureaucraticwayofdoing.only8%oftheplannedpurchasehasbeenrealized.sincet,heprogramwasstartedamonthagoITand

eypntuallyadoptedthefollowingspecificdecislOnS(1'bjd･)こ(a)thechairmanforeachoftheProvincialPeople-SCommltteeSmustCallmeetlngSOf

chairmenforthevariousorganlZationsatlowerlevelsby10January1947

anddevelopthistaskofptlrChaseonanabsolutelyvoluntal･ybasis,l･eSOl･tingtopatrioticconsclOuSneSSOffarmersandconnectingitwlththeFull

MobillZationMovementfortheStateFoundationThought,KonかkSasangC冶'ong-dongwonUndonBT,O))theheadsoftheIndustryBureau,theCommerceBurequandtheFinanceBureauassumetheresponsibilityfor

supplyingtotheCooperativetheindtlStrialproductstotl･adeby30December

whlletheheadoftheTl.anSpOl･tationBul･eaudoesthesamefortransporting

Prosecutors'OfflCeandthePublic01.derBureauassumetheresponsibilityformonitoringthlStaskandcapturingthosewhoopposeitol･buyupthe

goods.ThesedecisionsexpressedadeterminationOfthecentralauthority

toaccomplishtheplannedpul･Chaseofgrains.Aftel･1946,contrarytothedecision(a)above,forciblesumaeIncreasedas

theadministrationstl･engthenedrationsoffoodgrainstononagrlCultural

householdsincitiesandvlllages.FarmersWeredemandecltosellextra

productsfirsttOthestate.InRinJeCountytheadministrationStressedthe

necessityofplLyOkyoyoku,i.e.,tl･adingfel･tilizerwlthgrainsandpushedit

lO

(4May1949,2012/5/141.'54).InKumhwaCountyin1950theadmlnistratlOn

wasinstructedtopropelpl'ryohyoyokasplanned(2012/5/153:24).

Sumaewasnotlimitedtograins.Raw cotton;silkwormsandstl･aW

productswereImportantitemsforsとtmaeSincetheearlyperiod. In

particularsumaeofstrawpl'Oductswasindispensablefo1･theadministl･ation

becausetheywereusedforbaggingandcarrylngindustrialproductssuchas

chemicalfertili乞eraSWellasfarm products. Inalaterperiodsumae

expandedinvarlety,includlngmeat,Skinsandevenediblewildplantsand

usedrubberandmetalproducts(13September1949,2005/7/58:59;30May

1949,2012/5/148:49).After1949farmershadquotasofmeatimposedtlPOn

themaccordingtotheacreageofthelrCultivatedland(forpaddyfields95kg

perchongbo,fordryfields5kgpel･cjzongbo,CabinetDecisionno.189,22

December1949,2005/2/114:159).

Theenforcementofsumaeimpliesthatthetermsoftradewere

unfavol･ableforfal･mel･Sbycomparisonwiththetradeinthemarket.This

addedtotaxburdenstofarmel･S,raisingratesoftaxesongrainsAbove231

27%oftotaloutputs.

Totaldeductionsfromgrainoutputs

Statl'stl'calrecpydsandothe).eTイdence:Whatamountsintotalwerethen

deductedfrom grain otltPutSfol･hyonmu1-seand s【1mae? Table131:浪

reproducesfromDecisionno63totalamountsofgrainstObeput.Chasedin

eachprovinceln1946andcompal.eSthem withthecorrespondlngOfrlCial

statisticsongl･ainoutputs.TheplallnedpurcllaSeOfriceaccountedfor54%

oftotaloutputsinallNorthKorea.Regionally,itdifferedsigni丘cantly.

ThehlghestpercentagewasinNorthHamgyong,10.2,whilethelowestwas

lnKangwon,4.2.Forcoarsegrainsthepercentagewashigherthanthatfor

ricelnallbutNorthHamgyong;ovel･allitwas10.2.Thusaccordingtothe

planssIZmaeincl･eaSedtotaldeductionsfromoutputsofriceto29-35%and.

thosefrom outputsofcoarsegrainsto33-38%in1946.Slhcetheofficial

statisticsontotalgrainoutputswere,aswillbedisdussedlater,blaSedwhile

alltheplannedpurchaselnaynO t･havebeenmateriallZed,thefigul.eSabove

donotaccuratelyindicatel･ealcleductionsforLyonmu1-5eandsLtmaea･om

theoutputs,Howevel･,theyal･eSuggestiveofthestatepolicyofcollec'ting

30%ormoreoftotalgrainoutputsthrough thetaxationandthepul.Chase.

RecordsoftaxationinsomereglOnSrevealmoreonthispoint.

(i)SonchlonCounty,NorthP'yonganPl･OVince

iFl

ReportsofN壬こWPI)emocraticYouthUnionlnNam一myoninSonchronCountycontainedvariousdataonindlVidualfarmer.らproduclnggI.ainsin

19.46:thenalneOfthellOtlSeholdhead,areasofpaddyanddry丘elds,hal･VeStS,theamou,ntsofLyonJn【t1-se,thesizeofthehousehold,consumption

athome,seedsused,surplusandsumaeandalsofertilizerquota.TAblelSJ

summarizesthedataonJhyonmu1-5eandsumae.Init,first,theoutputs

weretaxedatdif6erentrates,exceedlng25%inmostcases.CoarsegralnS

wereTngene,raユtaxedathlgherratesthanrice･Somehouseholdspaidas

muchas90-100%oftheoutputsintaxes.Second,manyhouseholdshad

someamountofsLtmaeimposeduponthem･Forsome,thequotawasquitelarge-whencombinedwithllyODmuIISe,morethan60%ofl･iceoutputswerededucted.(ll)Tonghung-ri,Yonp'0-myon,HamjuCounty,SわuthHamgyongProvinceAfileofdocumentsproducedbythePeoplersCommltteeinTonghung-rl

Includedtwosheet.sofpapermal･ked"kLlJ{pF′′(strictlyconfidential),arecord

ontheresult

s,oftheaut.umnharvestln1948.ThesesheetsmentlOned

namesof18farmel'Sand,foreachfarmer,partyaffiliations,al.eaSOfpaddy

anddryfields,harvestsofgl･ains,th白amountsofjzyonmLL1-5eandothel･bul･dens,fees,quantity.ofloanedfel･tili2ierandshortremal･ks.Sumaewas

not,recordeddistinctly.Thoughnotclarlfiedint,hedoculnent,thefeeswere

pl･Obablychargedforin･igationservices(seediscusslOnbelow).Tf孟鵬tl'4i

summal･i2:eStheburdensofthet.axesandthefeest,oindivldualfarmers.Init

taxesexceeded25%ofthetotalOutputsfor16farmel･Sandtheexcesswas

ovel:5pelt.Centagepointsfol･halfofthem.Thefees･1･angedfrom3.5%to8.2%

oftheou､tputs.ThehighestI.ateOfthetaxesandthefeescombinedwas

about40%oftheoutputswhilethelowestslightlyfellbelow30%.(ill)RlnjefoufltyAstatistical1･ePOrtOfNXWPlnRinjeCountyln1946Showedthati.iceand

coarsegrFlpSProducedlneachmyonlnthlScountyWel'ebothtaxedalmost

exactlyat25%,implyingthatthetaxationagreedwlththeI)ecislOn甲挑lbj

5,!A):HMeanwhlleT.ablet5-,B･expressesadvancementofsumae･On29

Novembe.I,thechall･manfoilRinjeCountyDivisionOfNKWPl･ePOl･tedtothe

chairmanfol.KangwonPl･OVinceDivISionofNKWPthathehadconsulted

relevantorgansanddecldedtosetquotaofsLLmaeat3,09030klntotalHe

atthesametimeannouncedhis(letermlnedintentiontoaccompllShthis

quotabytheendof1946,However,actualpurchasedidnotproceed

quickly;accordingtoanotherreportonly227SOLwaspurchasedby3

December.Itseemsthattheplanneclpul･Chasewasdecreasedto1,095sob

by10December.Thisplanwascompletedbytheendoftheyeal･.Thus

12

Sumaeincreasedtotaldeductionsfromotttputsofriceto28.1%andthoseof

coarsegrainsto30,0%.

ThestatisticsinSonchronCountyandTonghung-riabovewereproduced

accol･dingtotheinstl･uCtionsoftheupperadministl.ationtoconveybasic

informationontheeconomyofIndividualfarmers Someofthem were

writteninquitecoallSeletterswhileinconsistencyexistedamongthefigures.

Somefigures,Suchasthemaxlmum90-100%rateofLyonmuI-seュnSonchron,

Seentooextraordinarytobereal.Thusmoreanalysisisneededtoclarify

whatexactlythestatisticsaboveimplied Still,thebasicfeaturesinthem

aresuggestlVe,thatis,nrst,deductlOnSforムyonmLLl-SelnPercentageOfthe

totaloutputsdifFel･edsignificantlyamongvillagesorlndlvidualsandsecond,

totaldeductionsfb∫thetaxandqllaSi-taxcombinedgenerallyreached30-

40%oftheoutputsandratesevenhigherthanthiswerenotunusual.

Though thelandl･eformdrasticallyreducedthedisparityofassetholdings

betweenlandlol･dsandfarmers,ltdidnotwipeOutthedifferencesinfat.m

economy,whlChlargelydependedonthesizeandcomposltlOnOffamlly,land

productlVityalldtheacreageoflandundercultivation,amongindividuals.

Aninter-vlllageorl･eglOnaldispallltyOffarmeconomywasalsosubstantial.

ThisdifferentlatedindlVidualS,villagesorl･eglOnSintaxability. Poor

farmerscouldhavepaidonlyamlnlmumamountOftaxes.Ontheotherhand

somefarmersweredoingwell,havlngalal･gel･taxability.Forthesefarmers

theactualtaxandqtlaSl-taxbllrdentendedtoもecomeheavier

Theover-assessmentofharvestswascommonasameansofheavier

taxation,asdefectorsfromtheN01･thtotheSouthinthisperiodtestifiedon

manyoccasions(forInstance,Kukp'yon1979-81).Iftheharvestsofrice

wel･eOVel･-aSSeSSedby40%,thispusheduptotaldeductionsforhyoDmL71-se

to38%(27%xIA)ofthehal･VeStS.Intheplainareaswheretaxabilitywas

hlgher,PPCorderedthelocaladministrationtodevelopH1the血dvementfor

stlrpaSSlngtheplansforLyonmLL1-se"(Decisionno.120,26Novemberlb46,

2006/ll/83:16).Suchmovementp110bablyledtotheovel･-aSSeS､smentofthe

harvestsinfertilelands.Also,sumae,taegokandoth占I.taxesandfeeswere

usedtoincreasedeductlOnSf110m grainoutputsevenfurther. Taegokwas

imposedonfarmersandpl･aCticallybecameadditionaltaxesongrains.In

1949thetaxofficeinChung-kuinPryongyangordel･editsdivISIOnSlnrL'to

collectLyonmu1-seonvegetal)1esinbeansbecausemol･ebeanswerenee(led

lnfactoriesformanufactul･eOfsoysauce(19Novembel･1949,2005/7/58:103).

Othertaxesandfeeswel･edivel･Se･inkind/andfal･lnerShadtogiveupgl･alnS

theyproducedtopayfol･them,this'multiplledtheil･dissatisfactionwiththe

13

taxad.ministratlOn(22May1946,2005/4/45=7;alsoIGm 1979,vo13,16)IIITigationfeeswereapparentlyhigherthantheothel･S,InSeptember1946

all the irrigation facilities were national121ed and thereafter the

administl･ationchargedthefeesforthell･Service.CabinetDecisionno.54put

thefeeat200kgperchongbo(26October1948,2005/2/114:31).Thiswas

equivalenttobrownll1CeO･106sobpertan(assumingthatthefeewasindicatedinpaddy),.adding3.015.3%totaxburdensinthefieldthatwould

produce2.013.530kpertan.

FromthispointofviewitiSunllkelythattheratesofLyonmul-sereported

inRinJeindicatedl･ealtaxburdenstothefarmers.Itismorereasonableto

assumethattilelegalratesforLyonmu1-seinthestatisticsweremadeup

justforrepol･tingwhereastheactualrateswerehigher,toavarylngdegree

foreachindividual.IndeedanInstructionSentbyPeoples'Conmitteein

KangwonProvincetoitscountydivisionspointedoutthatbecausehyoLZmu1-

sewasImposedmechanically,aspl･eSCribedlntheblldget,itsburdenln

practicedifferedamongregionsorfarmersinitsjurisdiction(27June1947,

2007/6/10:18;alsoKimandYi1990).

SEE.tePOllCyrDocumentsshowthatthecentl･aladminlStl･atlOntrledtocollectfrom theproduceraslal･geanamountOffarmproductsaspossible The

ofGcialpublicatlOnCitedabovedescribed:"InNol･thandSoutllHamgyOng

Provincesfal･merSre-SurVeyedthe1945harvestsandthereafte1･conveneda

generalcommunlty meetingandextensively developed astrugglefor

dedicatingallthe?rest[offoodgrains],leaving3LBP5chak(500g)perday

herpersonforthemselves],-.gathel･ingedlblewildgrassesandcharon

sl-ngTyO(natul･alfood),上lmsmakingupfol･theshortage.''(Sahoekwahak-

won1981,403,) Simi1al･ly,aninstl.uCtionoftheCentl･al Committeeof

DemocraticYouthUnionissuedon6November1946st,abed."Evel･ymembel･

Shouldbecomeapropagandistwhopublicizesminimizinghomeconsumption

asfallaS75%aftel･hyonmlt1-seispaid.isconcerned...andaccordlngtOthe

statepolicy【heshouldleadfal.merS]tosellthe･pol･tlOnatltheill]disposalto

theConsume1･SCooperative."(20,05/5/53:12.)InthesameyearPPCadopted

DecreeonControlofFoodConsulnPtionSaving(Kukp!yon1988,3541355).In

itfarmel･SWere demanded to saveon food consumption.Thereaftel･ち

instructionswel･ei.ePeatedlyissuedbytheadminlStrat10natVaT10uSlevels

thatfarmersshouldnotindulgeinwastefulconsumptionoffood..Inl･eality

mostfal･merSdidnothavemucllsSurPlusfood;Someevencouldnotsupport

themselves.ThoselnSt.ruCt,ionsi.eneCtedthefactthat.thefarmel･Sresist,ed

theadministratlOnbyeatingupthestockoffoodgrainsbeforeitwas

14

reqlユisitionea.

I)espitethisaustel･efoodpolicy,however,Weshouldnotassumethatthe

consumptionoffoodgl.aimswasunlfol.mlycuttoaminimumlevelfol･ever.y

farmer.Theabilityoftheadmlnistrationwastoolow tomonltOilallthe

harvestsandtl･adepl･Ofitsandtocheckthetaxevasionofwell-to-dofarmers.

Specifically,duringthisperiodpowerstrugglecontinuedbothinthecentral

andthelocaladmlnistl･ationandthisincreasedconfusionandinefficiencyin

thetaxadministration.Alsofavol.itlSm,COrruPtionandabuseofauthority

existed.Forinstance,thosewhowel･eClosetothelocalpowercentercould

havelュadavarietyofprlVilegesincludingin丘)rmaltaxexemptlOnthatwere

unavallabletothosewhowereisolatedfromlt..

ArapidincreaseinprodllCtion?

Koreabetween1944and1949 AfterLibel･ationtheoutputsdfallkindsof

grainscombinedgrewsharply,by40%in3years,Bothlandproductivltyand

plantedareasincreased,thefわrmerpushlnguptlletotaloutptltSby133%

andthelattel･by26.5%.WasthlSgrowthreal?

Alal･geincreaseinoutputsoftenlhappehswhentheproductionstal･tSfrom

avel･ylowleveL Onemaytakethegrowthpaboveasanexamleofthis

becausetheoutputslntotalin1946fellconsidel･ablybelowthoseln1944.

YetthestatisticalbaseistoofragiletosustainthlSView.Somepl･Oblems

standout As shownlnl運.5'blさを;6eBミ･yieldofricepel･tanln1946-9aver.a.gen

1,52sob.Thiswashlgherthantheaverageyield,1.46sob,during1936140,

whenoutptltSOfl･lCereachedapeakunderJapaneseprule･Suchahighyield

isveryunlikelytohavebeenachievedlnaChaoticdecolonizingpel･iod.

Furthel･,thepublishedstatisticsabovedonotagl.eeWiththeunpublished

ones,whlCh,presentedinlTableて必above,werecompiledeal･lierandcirculated

only amongthigh-1･ankingofrlCialS. Underlyingthiswere■lstl･uCtur;1"

problemswithconstl･uCtingstatistics. First,asdlSCuSbedeal･11er,the

taxationinkindtendedtodlStOl･ttheofficialevaluationoft'otaloutputs.

Second,thesharpconfl･OntationwiththeSouthgavetheNorthKorean

governmentastrongmotivetoexaggerateitsachievementinagrlCultul'alas

wellasIndustrialdevelopment.Third,thisgovernmentconstantlysuffered

fl･Om inaccurateol･falsel･ePOrtSOnPlantedal･eaSandharvestsofval･10uS

cl･OpSfromtheregionaladministration(forinstance,CabinetDecisionno弓o

above).Inaccuracyseemstohavebeen1111aVOidal⊃1esillCeunitsmeasuring

15

theoutputswerenotstandard.lZedlnSurveysineachvillages.Speci丘cally

theoutputofricewasexpressedlnPaddylnSOmeSurveysWhereasinbrown

rlCe′ナnothers;alsoLama(straw bags)･sobandkilogramswereusedrandomlytoindicateit

lnsho.rttheofncialstatisticsdonotaffordusacorrectideaofwhat

happenedtoNorthKoreanagrlCulturalproductlOninthisperiod.Forthis

weneedtoexamineconditionsoftllisprodllCtionclosely,especlallyonthe

basュsOfdoctlmentarymaterials.

Laborforceandfez･tl111'zerIGivennatullalconditions,basicteChnlqueSand

thestockofsupportingin丘･astructul･e,agrlCultural Outputsdependonthe

quantityandqualltyOfinputs:arableland,labor,machinesOrlnStl.umentS

andlntel･medlateProductssuchasseedsandfertili2,el･.InKoreathel･eWere

increasingconst1･aintsonsomeoftheinplltSabovetowal･dtheendofthe

colonialperiod.,Malefal･mel･SWeremObili21edforthelndllStrlallZationand

cattlewagrequisitionedandshlPPedtoJapan･Thiscausedshortagesln

laborandcattleforfal･mLlng･ MoreseriollSWasaShortageofchemical

fel･tllizel･; Thel･e Was an industry producing nitrogenous fel'tillZer

specificallyamlで0Ⅰ中msulfateinKol'ea(ChosenChissool'ChosonChilsoCo･

inHungnam)butitscapacitywastoosmalltomeetthetotaldomestic

demand. SupplyofpllOSPhatefertilizerdecreasedafterthemid11930s

becausetheJapaneseEmpirealmosttotallydependedonfol･elgnPhosphate

andtlliseventually,stoppedcomingtoJapan･

A氏erLiberatlOnapartOf.thelndustrlallaborforceretul.nedtofarmsand

alsoKoreantmlgrantSinManchuriacamebacktoNorth Kol･ea.ThlS

increasedstockoffarmlaborforce.Ontheot,hellhandJapaneseagrlCultural

engineersleft. Thelandl･efol･mCausedexodusofval･10uSgroupsOfpeopleto

theSouth,includingskilledowne1.-Cultivators. Comparisonofstatistics

between1944and1946showsthatinhabitantsincountieslnfournorthern

proylnCeS,thatIS･､Nol'th andSollth P'yongan.and.North and South

Hよmgypn,ど,decreased,slightly lnltOtal(fl･Om 5,502･000 to 5,391,000;Government-Genprall944,10:15,83;Hal1im Taehakkyo1994,20-29)･

Though thisisnotapl･00fbecausestatisticalel･rOl･SWerePl･Obablyslgnificant

in1946,itsugge!tsthatonbalancedecolonizationdi血nothaveasubstantial

effectonthestockoflabol.fol･CeaS,afactorinagrlCultul･alproduction･

Supplycondltionsofchemicalfertilizerdidnotimproveaftel･1945.Thel･e

w早sPracticallynodomesticfactoryproductionofphosphateandpotash･

Ol叫putsofammonium sulfateincreasedfrom･117,500tonsin1946to

324,200tonsln1949,accol'dingtotheofficialstatlStics(NTIS1960,31)･

16

Yettheoutputsin1949werestillsmallerthanthosein1944(437,600tons:1'bI'd.).EventhoughtherewerenoshiprrientsoftheseproductstotheSouthandJapanafter1945theoutputsweretoosmallforNorth Koreanfarmersasawhole.Inaddition,theproducedammoniumsulfatewasnotdeliveredtoeachvillageattheappropriatetimebecauseoftheshol･tageOfcarrybagsandlackoftransportation(3Decembel･1947,2012/5/148:51;lGm1979,vol.5,216),Therewasanotherprol〕lem,Thefertilizerdeliveredtothevillagewasnot,fullyusedbyfarmerseventhoughshol･tageWasfeltbyeveryone,As.mentionedabovefarmershadtosellgrainstothestatetogetthechemlCalfertllizer.SomefarmershadnoextragrainstogiveupwhllesomeothersdidnotwIShtoaccepttheunfavorabletel･msOftrade(Rinje,1949?,2012/5/141:42;Tonghung-ri,January1949,2010/1/169:12;Ⅰ(umhwa,April1950,2012/5/153L24) Inanyeventconventionalfel･tilizel.aSuchascompostandgreenandhumanmanureweremuchmoreimportantforthefarmers.ThesefertilizerswereprodtlCedbyfarmersthemselves,usingnatul.almaterialsinandoffthefields,solaborinputsoffarmersdeterminedthetotalamountoftheseproducts.Thisleadsustoanotherquestiononconditionsofthepost-colonialagrlCulturalgl･OWth:didNorthKoreanfat.merSWOrkharderafterLiberat,ionthanbefore?

morkl'Dg｣らgJ･del?I UptonowmanyhaveassertedthattheformertJenantfarmersworkedhal･derunderthenewregimebecausetheybecamer'thelordoflandrlfort,herlrSttimeln壬(oreanhistoryandwereassul･edofobtainingalltheirproductsafterpaylngthetaxesatthefixedratesJtseemstruethatthetenantfarmersexultedwhentheyweregrantedthetitletothefarmla,ndasaresultofthelandreform.Yet.lmPOl･tantly,thistitlewasactuallyquiteweak. ThefarmerswereStl･ictlyprohibitedfrom selling;leaslngOrmortgagingthel･edistrlbutedlandtoanyone,bytheLandRefol･m Act(Article10,Kukpryon1988,230-231).IftheybecameincapableofcultlVatlngthelandorstoppedengaginginfarmlngforsomereason,theyhadtoretul.nt,helandtothestateThatlandwasthenredistributedt(～otherpfarmers.ThisImpliedthattheprlVatePropertyrightwaspractlCallynotestablishedtotheredlStllibutedland TheownershlPWasineffecttransferredtothestate,andthefarmerswereonlyaffordedtherlghttocultivatetheland(Kin1959,8;IGmtlraandChung1995).ThusthelandreformdidnotradicallychangethepositionOffal･merSlnlandownel･ShlpanditwouldnotllaVetakenlongforthemtonoticethlSfact,Atthesametimetheywerenoteel.Lainthateventhisweaktitlewouldbesecuredlnthefutul･e;thenewregimeWasunstableasyetandthelleWasmuchrumorthatthelandwouldbei.eCaPtured

17

I.｢

byformel･landlordssupportedbyUSandSouthKoreanforces.JMeanwhile,

asdiscusseclabove,abusewasfrequentintaxationandsumae.Farmers

withoutclosetieswiththeauthoritywouldhavefearedthatifdetect,edextra

amountsoftheoutputswouldbeheavilytaxedorotherwiseforcedtosellto

thestateataverylowprice.ThedisposaloffarmersoftheirownProducts

wasIndeedseverelylimited.

Theseobservationsarouseconsiderabledoubtsaboutthevalidityofthe

assertionabove,ThereisyetanotherreasonforreJeCtlngit.Theincreasein

thecollectivefarmworkblullredtheconnectiol1betweenthelaborinputsof

eacllfarmerandhispl･1Vaterewardatthetimeofhal.Vest,.Interestingly,

someadministl.atOrSinRlnjeCountyrecognizedthattheol.gani2.ed.collective

farm workwas.detrimental toc丘Iangbalsong (Creativity)ofindividual

farmers(16April1947,2007/6/10:24-25).Onthisbasis.theylSSlledan

lnStl･uCtiontobanaforcibleorganizationoftheproductiongroup()'bld.).

Later,in1949,theFal･mel･S'UnioninRinjeCountyadoptedaDecisionbased

on.the.samerecognitionastheinstructionabove,whichcontainedthe

followingspeci丘cdecisions:toLratlOnalizedisoz.dell1yorganizedproduction

groups,thusencoul･agingfal･merSformol･eProduction,tOabolishthefarming

methodbasedoncollectiveworkwhileleadingfarmerstoaccomplishthell･

task by their own work and to eradicate phenomena ofpuLwa

(deceptiveness)andnat'ae(laziness)andleadthefarmerstobecomektzllo

nongml'n(industriousfarmers)whowouldmakeaneffortforrichcultured

life(29JaTluary1949,2012/5/141:69).Theseinstructions,however,didnot

repl･eSentamajortrendofthepolicyformulatedattheuppera(lm1nistl.ation.

Thedocumental･yreCOl･dabove･suggeststhatthefal･mersasawholedid

notworkhardel･OutOfpatriotism orpublicinterestdespitethel･ePeated.

appealofthestate.Nordidthepl･Oductionl･eSPOnSibilitysystemwol･k.In

generaleitherpllblicinterestorcompulsioncannottakeaplaceofprivate

InterestlnenhanFlngtheIntensityorefFlCiencyoflabor.Ⅰtdoesnotseem

thatNol･th Eor甲n,farmel'Smadean exception tothisrule･ Indeed

documentaryeyidenceisrichoffol.mallSmandlackofdlSCipllneandinterest

lnfarlnWOrkamongthem.Typically,asCabinetDecisionno.10in1948

stated,rllfarlnel.SWere]notinterestedinproducingcompost-thereal･emany

examplesinvarlOuSreglOnSOfputtingunmatul･edgreenmanurelnthe五eld

orleavingrawstrawasitis."thotlgheverypleCeOffarmlandmustbetilled

deeplylnOrdel10galngoodharvesttherearetendenciesinmanyreglOnS

towardtillingshallow.oronlyhalfol･evennOtlllingatallbutddingonly

planting.‖(20q5/2/114:ll.)

18

Otherdl'sadvantageS/Therewel･edisadvantagesforagriculturalproduction

inotllerareasaSWelLCablnetDecISionno.29revealedshortagesofgoods

plowshares,improvedsicklesandotherimplementswereinshol･tSupplyso

thatthereisnotalittletroublewithincreaslngagriculturalprodtiction.‥In

1949Supplyofinsecticidemetonly53.3%oftotalrequll･ements.Moreover…

Insecticidewasmanufacturedaftertheappropriatetimeforitsusepassed...

P]ecausetheq-ユicklimewasputinstrawbagsitwasforthemostpart

damagedandbecameunusable,■■(7February1950,2012/6/137:28.) In

additionseedsnotonlyfellshol･tOfrequirementsbutalsotendedto

deterioratelnquallty(Anjll.2AtlguSt1947,2006/14/77.ll.18;Cabinet

Decisionno.10above).A negatlVeimpactofdecolonizationonfarming

shouldbenotedhere Itarosefi10mCutl0ffofstlPPlyofJapanesefinished

andsemi一丘nlShedindustrialprodlユCtS,COllapseoftradenetworksustainedI)y

Japanesemerchantsandinstitutionsandexpulsionoflandlol･dswhoalso

playedaroleinpl･OVidingforfarming,suchasagrlCulturalimplements,

intermediategoodsandfood.sJntheshortrunneithertheNorthKorean

administrationnortheSovietcouldfullymakeupthesupplygapcreatedbydecolonlZation.

Anyremal･kableadvantages?IWeretherethennoadvantagesinagrlCultural

productioninthisperiod? Onemaynotetwofactors:foreignassistanceand

constructionofin.lgatiom Theseadvantages,however,Cannotbehighly

appreciated.TheSovietdispatchedagriculturalenglneerStONorthKorea

onlylnlimitednumbel･S.Mol･eOVertheirknowledgeandexperienceswerenot

veryusefulforNol･thKoreanagrlCulturaldevelopmentbecauseitscondltions

largelyqiffel･edfromthoseinSovietUnion.Materialassistancewashal.diy

extendedtotheagrlCulturalsectorlnNorthKorealnthisperiod.Onthe

otherhandtheconstructionofin･lgationwasactivelypushedbythe

governmentafterLiberation.Thisexpandedtotalpaddyfields.Yetitdid

notincreasetotalarablelandasmuchbecausetheexpandedpaddy丘elds

partly resulted from conversion from dl･y fields. Furthel･forthis

undertaking(andalsoforconstructionofroads,bl.idges,docksandother

publicl⊃uildingssuchasschools)alargenumbel･Offarmel･SWeremObili2.ed

andthisdeprivedthemoftlmeandenel･gyforfarming(fol･Instance,riparlan

workonPotlongRiver,19October1946,2005/5/53:16).

Inst上m,tOOtlrpresentknowledgewecanll〇七indicateexactlyatwhatrate

grainoutputsintotalgl･eWaftel･1945.Howevel･,thereisgoodl･eaSOntO19

believethattheygrewmuchmoreslowlythantheofficialstatistlCSindlCated･

ThoughpositivegrowthwaslikelylnView oftheinitial low levelof

production,thehigh growth.l･ateintheofficialpubllCationswasmost

probablyafiction.Areasonablehypothesisisthatplantedareasincl･eaSed

lal･gelybecausethegovernmentfol･Cedfarmerstoaccomplishalltheplanned

plantlng.Thiscouldhavebeendoneatasubstantialsacrliiceofyieldper

tan,glVenthatinputsoflaborandotherfactorsdidnotincreaseln

pl･OPOrt10ntOtheincl･eaSedplantedareas_Supposethattheyielddropped

byl0%between1946and1949whiletheplantedareasincreasedasshown

inthest.at,ist,ics.ThislmPliesthatt,hegl.alnOutputsintotalincreasedby

only16%in3years,not40%asannouncedofflClauy.Inthisconnectionwe

notethatin1949thegralnOutputsintotaldroppedilltheofficialstatistlds.

Thegovernmentexplalnedthatthiswasduetodrotlght,butwhatactually

ll甲Penedisunknown･Alsothereasonwhytheplansfol'agricultural

proquctionfor1949/50becamesoconsel･Vativeisunclear.Dldstatistical

dlSCrep.anCybecometoolargetobeIgnored?OrdldtheprecedlngambltlOuS

planscauseanyseriousProblems?Thisisyettobeexamined･

Conclusion

ThoughtherewereconfllCtingideasonformulatingandimplementlng

agl･lCultul･alpolicywlthlntheNol･thKoreanadministrationafterAugust

1945,thesel･iesofagnculturalreformsconductedwel･edistinctlysociallSt.

They.aimedatbuildingsocialistagriculture,chal･aCterizedbyplannlng-theproductiontarget,collectivewol･kandpricecontl･01,whilesuppresslng

capltallStelements,specl五Callydiscl･etionoffarmersinfallmingandprofit

making The llterature has exaggel･ated tllell･achievement.The

governmentfailedtoovercomeInefficiencyinthecollectivefarmworkand

thetaxationinkilldandanextensivebottleneckinagl･lCulturalprocluction.

As 乱resultagnCulttlraloutputsintotaldidnotinch.easeaSPlanned:Aftel･

theKoreanvfal･endedthesociallStPOlicywaspushedful･thel･andthe

agrlCultul･alcollectivizationbasedoncollectlVeOWnerShipandlaboroffal･m

wol･kerswasi.ea.l12.edacrossNorthKoreabythelate1950S.Inthelongrun

thecollectivi2.edagrlCultul･ehasfallenlnStagnation,andeventuz111yin

dlSaStel･,butfc'rthegovernmentthlSSyStemlhashadamarkedadvantage

becauseitenabledthegovel･nmenttOtakefullcont-roloffoodgrainsand

otheroutputspl･Oducedbyfarmers.Thiscouldbynomeansbeachieved

undel･theoldsystem. ''I

FinallytwopワintsshouldbenotedFlrSt,COlonlallegacy･TheoperatlOnOf20

theagricultul･alplanninginthlSPeriodwasingreatmeasureanextenslOnOfwhattlleJapanesecolonialadministrationwaspursuingtowardtheendofitsrule.From thelate1930Sonthecolonialgovernmentemphasi2.edplanningofagl･iclllturalproductionwhilestrengtheningcontrolofprlCeSanddistributionoftheproducts. TllepI･Oductionta)･getwassetforeachcommunityandfurtherforeachfarmer(forinstance,C鮎senNokal'ho15(5),1941,62-67). Atthefinalstagetheproduction responsibility wasintroduced(1'bl'd,,16(ll),1942,83-84;(12),55-57).AlsothecollectiveworkgroupwasorganlZedforeachkindoffarmwork AfterthecollapseofthecolonialregimetheNorthKoreanadministrationfullyusedtheseideasandtechniquesforitsownplanning.Mostlocaladministratol･Shavingtheknowledgeandexperiencesremainedinofficeandworkedforit(butnotverylongbecallSemanyOfthem eitherdefectedorwereexpelledastheovertul･ningoflocalpowerrelationsp110Ceeded).Thelegacywasremal･kable.Second,thepurposeoftileheavytaxation.WhydidtheadminlStl･ationtl･y

tocollectalargequantityoffoodgrainsfromfarmel･S?WasthegovernmentnotestablishedtopromotetheInterestOfthepeople? Simply,thegovernmentgaveprlqritytolndustl･lalizationandexpansionofmilitaryandpoliceandforthisPul･pOSeSacrificedtheinterestsoffarmers.This,again,remindsusofwhattheJapanesehaddoneattheendoftheirrule.AlsotheSovietMllitaryrequisitionedgreatamountsoffarm productsdil･eCtlyorindirectlyfrom farmel･S,especiallyill1945146(Hagiwara 1994,62-67;Weathersby1996;fortheSovietrequisitionofwheatinRinJein1946,2007/6/16:88),Fulldiscussionofthispoint～exactlyforwhatandtowhatextentthegovernmentusedtheagrlCulturalsectorasaresoul･Cebaseintheeconomy-isessentialtounderstandingthebasICCharacteroftheNorthI(oreanreglmeafterLlberation.Thisisanagendaforfuturework.

21

totalhouseholdsin1946 r

. SaeDSang-ban Tolgyok-dae F.Total

,A.No.of B.No.of･C. D.No.of E.No.of households

groups members B/F groups members (TOOO)

Province (■000) (%) (-000)

S.p-yongan 13,258 261.3 98.7 2,498 115.6 26i.8

(19.7) (46.3)

N.P■yongan 17,865 303･7 87･3 2,938 153･8 347･8

(17.0) (52.4)

Hwanghae 9,518 262.3" 82.8 4,686 12613 316･9

(27.6) (27.0)

Kangwon 10,635 207.9 92.8 2,135 29A 224.1

(19.6) (13.8)

S.Hamgyong 20,965 213.8

(10.2)

N.Hamgyong 7.248 25.2

(3.5)

Tota1 79,489 1,274.2

(16.0)

74.0 2,272 30,3 289.0

(13.4)

13.9 2,235 30.9 181.4

(13.8)

78.1 16,764 486.3 1,631.5

(29.0)

Note:TotalhouseholdsdonotincludethoseresidinginPlyongyang.Inside

theparenthesesinColumnsBandEareB/A(averagesizeofsaensaDg-ban)

andE/D(averagesi2:eOftolgyok-dae),respectively.

Sources:Sahoekwahak-won(1981,360);HallimTaehakkyo(1994,20).

22

Table 2 AmotlntSOftheplanneds ta tep urchaseandtotaloutpu ts ofgralnSin 1946

(-000M T )

A m ountsof

P lannedpllrCllaSe Total ou tplltS

R ice (% ) Coarse grains(% ) Rice C oarsegra in s

ProvlnCe

S.P■yon gan

N.P■yongan

Hwanghae

Rangwon

S.Hamgyong

N.Hamgyong

Total

12.4 (5.7)

15.4(6.5)

16.0(5.0)

5.2(4.2)

8.0(4.2)

3.0(10.2)

18.6 (9.0)

23,1(10.0)

24.0(12.7)

7.8(12.7)

12.0(8.4)

4.5(8.6)

218.8 205.9

238.1 230.8

317.9 188.3

124.0 61.5

187.3 143.5

29.4 52.3

60.0(5.4) 90.0(10.2) 1,115.6 882.2

Notesl.Riceinpaddy. Insidethepal.enthesesistheproportiontototal

outputsI

Sources..PPCDecisionno.63(Kukp'yon1988,343);1946nyondoPukcLosoD

IDm1-nKyongT'eT'onBye-ChIj,inPLLkhanKyong7'eT'onBgyeCjZaryOjlb1946-

1948(HallimTaehakkyo1994,35-36).

23

Table3 TaxratesandgTalnPurchasequotainSonch-OnCountyin1946

Codeof

No.of Taxratesin: Quot,aof

households Rice Coarse purchase

listea grains

(%)

reports

A 27 33 33150 *

B 82 27 50165 n.a.

C 26 25-43 35-55 aboutbal一asmuch

D 27 24-32 20-33

E 80 25 25

F 2 7 27-40 30-100

G 4 1 30-33 15-45

H 39 28-38 25-90

Ⅰ 38 25 27-35

astaxinrice

n.a.

10_20%oftaxinrice

l1.a.

slightly smallerthantaxinrice

★★ .

abouthalfasmuchastax

inrice&greaterthantax

.incoarsegl･ains

J 40 30-40 30-40 n.a.

K 58 28-38 28-50 811ghtlysmallerthantaxinrice

100

150

38

50

-90

25.45

25

25■3

40

.382837

☆

33■

25

25一

25一

舶

3533

44

47

44

L

M

N

o

p

almostasmuchastaxinrice

almostasmuchastaxinrice☆★

11.a.

n.a.

Notes:Thenamesofn',tongorpuz.akreferredtoineachreportareasfollows.

ReportA Yonsan,G Sangch'on,H Musong,K andL Ryongdong,M

Nukch'on,0f'uyang,PTaeri,氏SamsongdongNeadongandSKop●O.Tlle

otherrepol･tSCarrynOnamesOfitonthehead.

n.a,IndicatesnoentryoffigulleS.'InRepol･tA,figul･eSOntaxinkindare

exactlyrepeatedforquotaofgl.aimpurchase, Becausedoublingthese

figul･eSOftenexceedslOO%oftheharvestonindividualfarms,theycannotbe

takentoindicatethequota. '*Pul･Chasequotaisexpl･eSSedintuwhereas

taxinriceinkBma,SOrelativeweightofthetwocannotbecalculated.★★☆

24

TaxinriceisexpressedintuwhilethellarVeStOfriceinLama.

Source:2005/4/25.

25

Table4 Numbersoffarmhouseholdsclassifledaccol.dingtotaxandother

burdensaspercentageofharvestslnTonghung-ri

Taxinkind Fees Tot,al

(incl.taegoR)

(%) (%) (%)

20-25.9 1 3.5-4.9 6 28-32.9 2

26-30.9 8 5.0-6.9 9 33-37.9 10

31-35.9 8 7.0-8.2 2 38142.0 5

Note:Theoriginaldocumentisnotdated(possiblyinJantlary1949).

Source･2010/1/169:10-ll.

26

Table5 Harvest,taxinkindandgl･ainpurchasequotainRinjeCountyin1946

A,HarvestandtaxinkindclassifiedbymyonHarveSt Taxinkind

(fOOOson) (loo°son).,1IT･On

gralnS gTalnSRinje 4.29 4.10 1.00 1.03

(23.3) (25.2)Nan 1.41 1.75 0.38 0.48

(27.3) (26.1)Puk 3.53 2.91 0.90 0.71

(25.5) (24.2)Sohwa 4.91 4,03 1.25 0.98

(25.5) (24.3)Total 14,14 12.79 3.53 3.17

(25.0) (24.8)

B.Gl･ainpurchasequotaaftertheautumnhal.Vest

PlannedpurcllaSe ActtlalpurcllaSe(son) L(solr)

Rice Coarse Total RICe Coarse TotalAsor grains grainsNov.29 980 2,110 3,090 n.a. n.a. n.a.Dec.3 n.a. n.a. n.a. 128 100 227Dec.10 ma. n.a. 1,095 205 210 415Dec,24 624 471 1.095 207 688 895Dec.31 624 471 1,095 438 663 1,095

Note:InsldeparenthesesinPanelAisthepel･CentageOftaxinkindtoharvest,.

Source:2007/6/10

27

Tal⊃le6 0frlCialStatistics.Ongrainoutputsandplantedareas

A.

Outputs (1000MT) Plantedareas ('000C加ngbo)Paddy Barley Othel･S Total Paddy Barley Others Total

&wheat

1944 1,008

1946 1,052

1947 1,101

1948 1,350

1949 1,158

&wheat

996

670

013

127

,112

1.1.乳

2I2

脚

仰

脚

莞

306

185

235

282

309

400

388

420

444

382

'=･議

∵

叫

159

762

837

165

960

1

1

0

4

1

3

2

5

8

3

5

1

2

1

1

2

B.

Riceyieldpertan (inbrownrice,sa丘)

1936 1.31 1944 1.34

1937 1.66 1946 1.45

1938 1A5 1947 1AO

l939 1.55 1948 1.62

1940 1,33 1949 .1.62

averageOver averageover

1936-40 1.46 1946-9 1.52

Sottl･ces:Government-General,eachissue;BankofChosen(1948,I1238-9,

244);NTIS(1960,68).

28

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30