science illustrated australia - issue 24 2013
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MagazinTRANSCRIPT
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ISSUE #24ScIEncEIllUStratEd.com.aU
QUANTUM SPYCRAFTCreating a truly uncrackable code
ZOONAUTSThe amazing history of animal astronauts
lIcE: oUr conStant companIonS + amazIng StonE agE toolS + nExt gEnEratIon aIrcraft carrIErS + and mUcH morE!
How our cities will decay, and how nature will bounce back - fast!
What happens to the Earth
MEDICAL NANOBOTSSoon you’ll be fixed from the inside
DEEP SUITArchaeology’s latest toy
GIANT BLACK HOLESCracking a cosmic mystery
personally, I don’t
think the world is
going to end any
time soon. The
human world, I mean.
I think we’ve reached
a level of technology,
knowledge - wisdom even
- that will dramatically increase our ability to
bounce back from even the worst disasters.
If you look at the great plagues and eruptions
and impacts of the past, they massively disrupted
populations and even wiped many cultures out.
But this was in a world where the total human
population was small - only a few millions - and
we didn’t go extinct.
If a comet hits central Europe tomorrow
(touch wood it won’t), the loss of life will be
unprecedented. But - harsh as it sounds - if even
two billion people are killed or die in the resulting
nuclear winter and tectonic aftershocks, that
leaves five billion humans to pick up the pieces
(and hopefully not kill too many more in the
inevitable wars that follow).
When the Black Death ravaged Europe, it
killed up to 200 million and plunged the continent
into total chaos and is a major chapter in human
history. Contrast this to the Spanish Flu in 1918.
Coming on the heels of World War I (nine million
combatants killed) it caused the deaths of as
many as 100 million around the globe. In terms
of scale, it was similar though much faster than
the Black Death, yet today it’s a historical footnote
(unless you lost someone to that flu, of course).
And what about World War II? We killed another
70 million, but our population continued to
increase faster than ever.
I’m not suggesting that a massive disaster or
disease or some kind of war that has casualties
measured in billions won’t be the worse thing
that’s ever happened to us, or that it won’t
completely change the face of the planet and of
human civilisation. All I’m arguing is that it won’t
end the world.
Our population and sophistication now is such
that even if a dinosaur-killer asteroid is detected
tomorrow, we have the technology to preserve a
core population and vast amounts of information,
even the DNA of many species. We already have
“seed banks” that are preserving plant species
against environmental collapse. It’s not a humane
or maybe even ethical way to think - billions
will be abandoned to save the lives of only a
few hundred thousand. But in terms of species
survival, it is what it is.
On any sort of reasonable time scale -
centuries for instance - our return from a
near-extinction-level event will be fast. We
understand our reproductive system. We know
how to increase our population rapidly. We
know how to establish a food supply, almost
even without a biosphere.
There will be several generations of people
who live only to survive and to carry forward a
(probably religious) vision of a restored world. But
within the sort of span of time that the universe
considers a mere twitch - even a thousand years -
we’ll have a population in the billions again.
Is the extinction of humans impossible? No -
there are many unlikely events that could scythe
the planet clean of all life, or disrupt us beyond
recovery. Am I just arguing semantics by suggesting
that being reduced to 300,000 people living in
bunkers isn’t the end of the world? Perhaps.
But around 70,000 years ago, something cut us
down to as few as 3,000 breeding pairs. And with
barely any technology, we came back. I think, in
this universe, humans are here to stay.
Anthony Fordham
Twitter: @sci_illustrated
Facebook: facebook.com/ScienceIllustratedAus
Things we learned in this issue
+ lIcE are among humanity’s oldest parasites,
and they enjoy really long lovemaking sessions.
+ nanoBotS are an engineering challenge
to create, but are actually relatively simple
machines that are smarter in large numbers.
+ anImal aStronaUtS paved the way for our
space programs, and have repeatedly shown
that life can adapt to weightlessness and other
literally otherworldly conditions.
EDITOR’S LETTER
The eNd OF The WORldIssue #24 (24 July 2013)
EDITORIAL
Editor Anthony Fordham
Contributors Caitlin Howlett, Damon Wilder
Photographers Damon Wilder
DESIGN
Group Art Director Kristian Hagen
Art Director Malcolm Campbell
ADVERTISING
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INTERNATIONAL EDITION
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THE SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED CREDO
We share with our readers a fascination
with science, technology, nature, culture
and archaeology, and believe that through
education about our past, present and
future, we can make the world a better place.
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contentsSCIENCE ILLUSTRATED AUSTRALIAN EDITION
PUbLIShED 24Th jULy 2013
40STONE AGE TOOLS
Apart from giving us the ability to hunt
almost every animal on the planet, stone
tools had another surprising benefit: they
helped us develop sophisticated language.
60UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY
Using a combination of state-of-the-art
“articulated submersibles” and amazing 3D
image processing, archaeologists are making
astounding underwater discoveries.
26Cover Story LIFE AFTER HUMANS
Are our mighty works really that
mighty? What would happen to our
cities and monuments if we all just
disappeared overnight?
ISSUE #24
4 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
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REGULARS
8BUll’S-EYEThe world’s largest telescope!
12ScIEncE UpdatEThe latest news and developments
in science!
16SKYWatcHThe team from Macquarie Uni
handles all your astronomy needs.
22aSK USCan we see the core of our galaxy?
74anImalS In orBItThe unsung heroes of the space program
78BY tHE nUmBErS
The insane size of US aircraft carriers
80trIVIaNow with more rocket riddles!
82BacKYard JUnglEStuck on sticky sundews...
46LICE
these tiny parasites are the bane of the
public school system, but the fact is we (or
at least our ancestors) have been living
with them for tens of millions of years.
54NANOBOTS
the days of getting cut open by your surgeon
are numbered. Soon, you may be injected with a
swarm of sub-microscopic machines that will fix
you from the inside.
68QUANTUM CRYPTOGRAPHY
How can it be possible to create a truly
uncrackable code? With a quantum
computer, that’s how. Here’s the
secret story of the qubit.
72MASSIVE BLACK HOLES
Just when we think we’ve got a handle on how
black holes work, along come a new kind that’s
more massive that it should really be. How will
our model of the universe change now?
SUBSCRIBE
NOW! 66
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AMAziNg phoTogrAphy by AUSTrAliAN ArTiSTS, boTh AMATeUr ANd profeSSioNAlAUSSIE IMAGE
www.pittsburghglasscenter.org/exhibitions/lifeforms
6 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
australian glass
artist cas davey’s
“radiolarian” - a sort
of plankton whose
skeletons make up the
thick layer of ooze on
the ocean floor.
[left]
alex mcdermott’s “Big-
leaf maple Seedling”
[below left] Beau tsai’s
“common Kingfisher”
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CApTUred
iN glASS
Story by Anthony Fordham
Believe it or not these amazing images
are actually made out of glass. They’re
entrants from the Lifeforms Award, a
competition organised by the
Pittsburgh Glass Centre in the US. The
exhibition took 50 works from around
the world - including Australia - and
handed out awards for the best.
Award of Excellence winner
”Greater Blue-ringed Octopus on a
Teeming Coral Reef” was created by
Joe Peters from Battleboro, Maryland
in the US, while the other large image -
called Radiolarian - is by Aussie glass
artists Cas Davey.
Another Aussie, Mark Elliot, went for
a more realistic look with ”Little Terns”
(small marine birds). It’s made from
flame-sculpted and blown borosilicate
glass, while Davey’s piece was made
with a blowtorch and flame.
Why make biological sculptures
out of glass? “Lifeforms” was organised
and coordinated by Robert Mickelsen,
a Florida-based glass artist, and
inspired by father-and-son team
Rudolf and Leopold Blaschka. They
made glass biological models back in
the 19th and 20th centuries for
Harvard University’s museums.
Glass sculptures were preferred in
the days before durable plastic,
because they lasted much longer than
painted plaster or even porcelain
models. Today, museum curators
have access to realistic-looking resins
and - for actual artefacts - humidity-
controlled display cases and special
lighting systems that shield objects
against the degenerative effects of
ultraviolet radiation.
Still, it’s somehow uplifting to see
master glassblowers are still out there,
and still able to make these amazing
and beautiful objects from little more
than melted sand, a few trace
elements, fire and their own breath.
If you happen to be in
Pittsburgh in the latter half of 2013,
the exhibition is on at the Glass
Centre until 17 November.
scienceillustrated.com.au | 7
Joe peters’ coral reef
might not be the kind
of thing you’d put in
your house, but it’s
amazing to think this is
made entirely of glass.
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8 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
BULL’S-EyE aStronomY
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scienceillustrated.com.au | 9
In the Atacama Desert, four antennas
are aimed at the Milky Way. They are
part of ALMA, the world’s largest and
most recently inaugurated telescope.
ALMA measures cosmic radiation
from galaxies millions of light years
away. The individual, 100-tonne
antennas stand up to 16 km apart,
depending on their function.
ALMA is professional stargazers’
most sophisticated tool, and the
expectations of learning new things
from primordial gas and dust, which
form planets and stars, are huge.j.f
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FOR A NEW
ASTRONOMICAL
front row
VIEW
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SCIENCE UPDATE
10 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
Life found in
sub-Antarctic
lake
palEontologY one of the biggest
land animals that ever roamed
the earth now confirms the
saying that size doesn’t
necessarily matter.
In 2007, palaeontologists
found a 70 million-year- old
ampelosaurus fossil near
the Spanish city of
Cuenca. the
specimen is a
15-m-long
herbivorous
sauropod.
Now, Spanish scientists have
completed a reconstruction of
the giant’s brain, and size-wise,
it’s less than impressive,
measuring just 8 cm: about the
volume of a tennis ball.
Scientists had expected to
find a bigger brain in an animal,
which had evolved over 160
million years. “But increased brain
size wasn’t needed during the
sauropods' evolution,” says Fabien
Knoll, one of the scientists behind
the reconstruction.
Three teams of scientists compete to find life in sub-Antarctic lakes. American scientists were the first to prove the existence of bacteria.
BIologY For the first time ever,
American scientists have
found signs of life deep below
the Antarctic ice sheet.
In late January, a drill, which
melts through the ice by using
jets of hot water, worked its
way 800 m down through the
ice to the underground fresh
water Lake Whillans.
Scientists secured 30 litres
of water from the lake, which
has since proved to contain
large amounts of living,
biological material.
Analyses of the samples
have revealed around 1,000
bacteria per mm of water.
the discovery is
sensational, as scientists have
never before found signs of life
under the Antarctic ice sheet,
which measures up to 4,500 m
in the thickest places.
Lake Whillans covers an
area of 59 square km and is
located in the western part of
Antarctica. the lake is only
some two metres deep, but
still highly important to
scientists. For at least 500,000
years, the lake has been cut off
from the outside world, and the
microorganisms, which live in
the water, can provide
scientists with a unique
knowledge of the evolutionary
history of early life.
Moreover, the exploration
can give scientists a hint of
whether it will be possible to
find life under similar extreme
conditions in space, including
under the semi-permanent
Co2 ice caps of Mars.
Editors: Carsten Nymann & Emrah Sutcu
drill chief frank rack from the
University of nebraska, USa,
inspects the equipment.
Giant dino had
miniature brain Brain
The ampelosaurus' brain
and internal ear, which
controls equilibrium and
rotation, were rather
small, so scientists
assume that the giant
was unable to even move
its head quickly.
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LATEST NEWS AND DISCOVERIES
Lake
eLLsworth
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scienceillustrated.com.au | 11
THE Neanderthal
died 10,000
years earlier Based on new datings of Neanderthal
remains, an international team of
scientists has shown that this human
species probably died out 10,000 years
earlier than we thought. According to
the new studies, most Neanderthals
died around 50,000 years ago. It makes
scientists question how much
contact there really
occured between
Neanderthals and
modern humans,
who came to
Europe 40,000
years ago.
FUSION reSearcherS
develOp NeW caBleS
in 2020, the world’s first
nuclear fusion plant will
start to come online. The scientists
behind the iTer test plant have
completed the reactor’s super-
conductive cables (cables with
virtually no electrical resistance),
which produce the core's
plasma-controlling
magnetic field.
The galaxy’s youngest black hole foundaStronomY In the 1,000-year-old
remains of a supernova, scientists from
the American Massachusetts Institue of
technology have discovered what might
be the youngest black hole in our
galaxy, the Milky Way.
the supernova remnant is located
some 26,000 light years from the earth
and is the result of an unusual explosion.
Material from the dying star was not, as is
usually the case, flung into space in all
directions - it emerged faster from the
poles than from the rest of the star. When
heavy stars collapse, their centres
typically become very dense neutron
stars, but astronomers cannot find a
neutron star. this indicates that a black
hole has formed.
the W49B phenomenon captured by naSa’s
chandra x-ray telescope.
Toxins from bee stings
may be used in a future HIV
vaccine, according to new
scientific results from India.
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The UK had to give upIn December 2012, a
British team of scientists
had to give up drilling 3
km down through the
ice to Lake Ellsworth.
Technical breakdowns
caused the project to be
shelved. The British
team plans a new
attempt in 2016 or 2017.
Americans were the firstOn 28 January, scientists
from the American
Whillans Ice Stream
Subglacial Access
Research Drilling project
managed to get through
to Lake Whillans, 800 m
below the ice sheet.
Scientists retrieved 30 l
of water from the lake.
Russians drill the deepestAfter more than 20 years
of preparations, in 2012
Russian scientists drilled
their way down to Lake
Vostok, 3.7 km under
the ice cap. The
scientists have collected
water samples, but so
far, there are no
confirmed signs of life.
Lake whiLLans
Lake Vostok
a n ta r c t i c a
Three drill sites:
Scientists from three countries have set
up camps on the ice above Lake Ells-
worth, Lake Whillans, and Lake Vostok.
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SCIENCE UPDATE
Mussel glue to save
unborn babies
Drinking water is filled
with bacteria
mEdIcInE Mussels will stick to
almost anything below the surface
of the oceans. they liberate a
secretion of proteins, which
hardens into nature’s own version
of waterproof superglue. Scientists
from the North-western University
in Illinois, USA, now intend to copy
the mussels and make a similar
glue for the benefit of medicine.
the glue can be used, when
prenatal surgeons repair spina
bifida in unborn babies. At the
moment, doctors carry out surgery
on unborn babies in the womb, but
it is difficult to seal the hole in the
womb afterwards. Synthetic
mussel glue is expected to be very
well-suited in connection with this
type of surgery.
A laser-based method of analysis named
flow cytometry has revealed that drinking
water contains a lot more bacteria than
previously believed. Even top quality
drinking water contains 100-10,000 times
more micro-organisms than documented
by other test methods. Flow cytometry is
normally used by doctors for counting
such things as blood cells.
Scientists test mussel glue
on rabbit foetal membranes.
Ground water
Tap water
Mineral water
10,000 100,000 1,000,000 10,000,000 100,000,0001,000100
Lakes and rivers
Waste water
Living cells per ml
bird species have died
out in Pacific islands
due to human
colonisation, according
to scientists. Islands like
Fiji and Hawaii were
conquered by humans
700-3,500 years ago.
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Even purified drinking water
contains much more
bacteria than expected.
tEcHnologY By using a brain implant,
American scientists from Duke University
have given rats able the ability to feel
infrared light waves.
Normally, rats – like humans – cannot
see infrared light. But the scientists
developed an artificial device, which
provides rats with this ability. Before the
experiment, the rats were trained to get a
liquid reward from one of three light diodes,
which lit up in a random order.
Subsequently, the rats were implanted
with an infrared detector attached to
microscopic electrodes in the part of the
brain which handles the sense of touch.
the scientists then exchanged the light
diodes with infrared light sources. After a
month, the rats had learned to identify the
infrared light source which was turned on.
Scientists provide rats
with infrared vision
Rabbit foetus
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Rat
a rat finds the infrared light and gets
its reward in the shape of water.
Three of the world’s top car makers, Ford, Daimler, and Renault-Nissan,
cooperate to revive hydrogen-powered for a series of 2018 models.
12 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
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SkyWATCH THE LATEST IN ASTRONOMy AND COSMOLOGy
T he search and study of planets outside
our Solar System is still in its infancy.
However, despite the first discovery of an
extra-solar planet (exoplanet) less than 20
years ago, this field has become one of the
most active topics in modern astronomy
and is a major driving force behind the
development of new instruments.
Most of these planets were found
indirectly, their presence inferred from
perturbations of the light emitted from the
host star. one method measures Doppler
wavelength shifts in the starlight to detect
small velocity changes of the star with
respect to us, as it orbits the star-planet
centre of mass. However, intrinsic
pulsations on the surface of stars can
generate signals that mimic the presence of
planets. this is particularly problematic
during the final and most turbulent stages
of a star’s life (the giant phase). one way to
overcome this problem is to observe a giant
star frequently and for long enough to
determine which signals come from
pulsations, remove them, and then look for
the planetary signatures. one example of a
planet orbiting a giant star is that of BD +48
740b, in which the host star shows high
amounts of Lithium suggesting that this is a
planetary system being engulfed by the
star’s expansion, as shown in the image on
this page. this type of search, however, is
inefficient and expensive to do on large
telescopes, but can be done with small
telescopes, provided they can be equipped
with precise and calibrated spectrographs.
one such instrument is currently being
developed at Macquarie University, led by Dr
Michael Ireland with PhD students tobias
Feger and Carlos Bacigalupo. the replicable
High-resolution exoplanet and
Asteroseismology (rHeA) spectrograph is a
compact single-mode fibre-fed
spectrograph that uses novel approaches
for careful calibration and temperature
stability, which are key requirements for
precise Doppler measurements. We will be
testing the prototype using the 16”
telescope at Macquarie University’s
observatory and aim to install copies of the
rHeA spectrograph on various 0.3-1m
automated telescopes around the world.
the discovery and study of large numbers
of planets found around evolved stars are
key towards understanding the latter stages
of planetary systems, and any findings will
shed some light on what will happen to our
own Solar System in the future!
by Dr joao bento, Department of Physics and
Astronomy, Macquarie University
www.physics.mq.edu.au
14 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
NIGHT SkyStand out featureS in
the CoSmoS BETWEEN 24
JULy AND 17 SEPTEMBER:
Compiled by dr david frew, research
fellow, department of physics and
Astronomy, Macquarie University
SEE WITH yOUR EyE
At this time of year the grand arc of the Milky
Way is visible by mid-evening. for those lucky
enough to observe from a dark rural sky, the
Milky Way’s central bulge is prominent, crossed
by intricate dark patches of foreground dust.
The central bulge, positioned in the constella-
tion of Sagittarius, the Archer, represents the
centre of our galaxy, and is composed of
ancient stars much older than the Sun.
SEE WITH BINOCULARS
Sagittarius holds many star clusters of
various sizes and ages, as well as several
emission nebulae, the birth places of stars.
binoculars will how that many of the bright
patches of the Milky Way are made up of
innumerable stars at the limit of vision.
Messier 8, and Messier 17, two of the
brighter emission nebulae, can also be seen
as small misty patches of light. A good star
atlas is necessary to locate them.
SEE WITH A TELESCOPE
Messier 17 (the Swan nebula) is the brightest
of the emission nebulae in Sagittarius, and
can be seen with a small 6-cm telescope. it
appears as a small “bar” of greyish light,
without the embedded stars like other
emission nebulae such as the orion and
Carina nebulae. yet, the stars are there,
heavily dimmed by the dust located in the
molecular cloud from which they were born.
Searching for Survivors
Around Giant Stars
2Mass/u
Mass/IP
ac-caltech/n
asa/n
sf
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IncrEdIBlE
– but true!
16 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
SCIENCE UPDATE
lightning migraine Arthritis and weather changes
are often interconnected, but for
the very first time, a new study
demonstrates a connection
between lightning strikes and
headaches. American scientists
have studied 100 migraine
patients and shown a clear
connection. exactly how
lightning provokes headaches is
still not clear.
dogs in their
owners' shoesA new study shows that dogs
understand their owners better
than previously believed.
british scientists banned 42
dogs from eating the food in
their feeding bowls. As long as
the room was lit, the dogs
obeyed, but once the scientists
could not see, what was going
on, they stole food.
diamonds improve sperm qualityThe way sperm cells waste away
in a culture dish, are a well-
known problem in connection
with artificial insemination.
New scientific results show that
the surface of a petri dish
becomes toxic to cells, once it
gets wet. by adding a diamond
nanocoat, the cells’ chances of
survival improve.
Grim fate of the forams
BIologY Look closely at the rocks on
your next dive, or examine the bottom
layers of your marine aquarium, and
you’ll see dozens of tiny shells, pink
spiky tree-shapes, and other odd forms.
these are the foraminiferns (forams for
short), a kind of protozoa that builds
itself a hard shell (also called a test).
And they’re at risk from climate change.
“As Co2 levels increase, our oceans
will become more acidic, making it more
difficult for small marine creatures to
form the shells they need to survive,”
says Dr Sven Uthicke from the
Australian Institute of Marine Science
(AIMS), the lead author of a study
published in Scientific Reports, an online
journal of Nature.
Dr Uthicke and his team looked at
underwater volcanic seeps in Papua
New Guinea, an area where he says the
water has “already reached acidification
levels predicted for our oceans by 2100
in all but the most optimistic emissions
scenario… So, these seeps provide
important clues to what the marine
world might look like in the future.”
Previous studies of underwater
volcanic seeps in the same area by AIMS
scientists found that corals have trouble
growing in acidic water, as they require
alkaline conditions to precipitate calcium
carbonate out of the water to build their
skeletons. the new study confirms that
forams too suffer in acidic conditions.
“Forams are much like an amoeba
with a shell,” explains Uthicke. “these
simple organisms are vulnerable to
increasing ocean acidification as they
lack the complexity and energy reserves
of other skeleton-based marine
creatures, like corals and sea urchins.”
www.gmagazine.com.au
Tiny shelled protozoans could suffer as ocean acidity rises by CAitliN Howlett
thInkstock
forams build shells
(called tests) out of
various materials,
including the same
calcium carbonate that
corals use to build reefs.
So they’re vulnerable to
the same changes in
ocean acidity.WIkIPedIa
WIkIPedIa
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scienceillustrated.com.au | 17
Australian recreates 17,000-year-old facepalaEontologY She is more rare
than pretty, says Australian
anthropologist Susan Hayes. By
means of forensic techniques,
the scientists recreated the
face of a 30-year-old woman of
the Homo floresiensis species.
the extinct species is named
after the Indonesian island of
Flores, where the diminutive
1-m-tall and 30-35 kg heavy
hominids lived some 17,000
years ago. Because of their
smallness, the species members
have been nicknamed hobbits.
thanks to Susan Hayes’ face
reconstruction, we can now for
the very first time get an
impression of what the species
looked like. the Homo
floresiensis face has been
reconstructed based on a skull
found in 2003.
Scientists reconstructed the face of a
30-year-old Homo floresiensis woman
based on a fossil skull.
A HANDy HEXAPOD
aEroSpacE It could have starred in a Star Wars
film, and it can jump, dance, climb, walk, and roll,
thus the name. Athlete: short for All-terrain
Hex-Limbed extra-terrestrial explorer. the
eight-metre-plus-tall rover is to be sent to the
Moon in 2017 to work for a new American wave
of exploration and maybe colonisation.
NASA’s Californian rover shop, the Jet
Propulsion Laboratory, is responsible for the
development of Athlete. the scientists were
asked to design a remote-controlled lunar rover,
which can overcome all possible hurdles and
operate in any type of terrain. the rover’s
mission will be to transport containers with up to
450 kg of goods and supplies to and from
manned spacecraft or space bases, and to take
samples from the Moon’s surface.
Several prototypes have been developed, and
the central element of the concept is six flexible
legs with a wheel at each end. on even surfaces,
the rover will drive like a car, but when it encounters
obstacles, such as a large rock or a steep slope, the
wheels are locked and become feet, allowing
Athelete to walk across the obstacle.
NASA’s new space rover Athlete is the ultimate cross-country rover.
BRIAN WILCOx
The brain behind
Athlete is NASA
engineer Brian
Wilcox. He also
developed the two
Martian rovers
Spirit and
Opportunity.
1. Busy beeOne of the rover's tasks will be to
carry goods. When a pallet lands on
the Moon, an operator directs the
rover to the goods.
2. Parts in twoThe rover splits in two. The two
three-legged halves approach
the pallet from different sides.
3. handles pallets with hooksThe two tripods grab the pallet using hooks,
and the rover stretches it legs, lifting the pallet.
4. walking roverWhen the rover moves in rugged
terrain with its load, it can walk
or crawl instead of driving.
5. split personalityUpon arrival, the goods are
lowered to the surface.
Athlete splits again and
releases the pallet.
48 cameras send images to an operator, who remote-controls the rover from Earth or a spacecraft.
Athlete is equipped with a drill, a shovel, and gripping arms.
Each wheel features clips to attach tools.
Puncture-proof tyres
ke
vIn
ha
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sa
hayes, sutIkna & MoRWood, unIveRsIty of Wollongong
50% of africa’s lions could disappear over the next 40 years, according to a study. The lions will starve to death or be shot by hunters.
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18 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
SCIENCE UPDATE
Waste
protects
astronauts
Astronauts produce huge
amounts of waste, which
takes up space in a small
spacecraft. But now, NASA
has had a bright idea. The
waste can be reused and
converted into a shield, that
protects space travellers
against cosmic radiation.
Water bottles and other
plastic packaging is
compressed into 1.3-cm-thick
discs with a 20 cm diameter.
The discs can be used to
protect the spacecraft's
sleeping quarters.
Erupting
volcanoes can
blow bubbles
gEologY volcanoes erupt in two
ways. either lava flows slowly, or
the volcano explodes, sending
lava into the sky. Now, scientists
from england and New Zealand
have identified a third type of
eruption, called tangaroa, in
which lava is emitted in bubbles.
Scientists have studied the
ocean floor around the under-
water Macauley volcano in the
Pacific. the volcano emits
pumice, which is normally
connected with explosive
eruptions. But the rocks, that
scientists found in the ocean,
looked very special. Pumice has
a lot of gas-filled cavities, but in
this case, the cavities were
round and even, almost like
fossilised chocolate mousse.
rather than exploding, the
rocks had expanded slowly.
According to the scientists, this
means that the lava moved to the
surface in the shape of bubbles.
Scientists identify new type of eruption.
lava balls produced in the oceanThe ocean functions as a
heavy blanket preventing
volcanoes from exploding.
At the surface, the gas has
expanded so much that the outer
shell of the ball, which is coarse after
having been cooled by the water, cracks.
Incoming water makes the
ball fall apart, and pieces fall to
the ocean floor.
The lava consists of molten
pumice. As the lava balls move to-
wards the ocean surface, gas trapped in
pumice cavities expands.
Magma moves towards the
ocean bed. The weight of the
water prevents an explosive eruption.
Instead, ball-shaped lava appears.
2
1
3Pumice
Volcano
Ocean surface
Magma
Pumice:
A porous,
volcanic rock,
which contains so
much air that it
will float.
Tangaroa:
A sea god in Maori
mythology. He is
the son of
Ranginui and
Papatuanuku, the
Sky and the Earth.
dIctIonarY
claus lunau
17,425,170
na
sa
PEKING maN drEssEd IN LEaTHEr
The peking Man, an extinct homo erectus subspecies, made leather clothes and knew about fire, according to new studies of finds made in 1920. Thus, the species was probably more sophisticated than scientists thought.
digits - the length of a newly discovered prime number found by a supercomputer,
which made 150 trillion calculations a second for 39 days.
chemical pollution causes malformed sex organs in many otters, say British scientists are concerned, as the same could happen to people.
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1. Up to 16 cameras
film the field and the
players from indivi-
dual angles. The
cameras produce
25 images/second.
2. A computer
compares the images
from several cameras,
and each player is
assigned x, y, and z
coordinates.
A field player typically runs 10 kmRunning distance measurements indicate that a field player typically
covers 10 km during a top-of-the-league match. On average,
a field player sprints 800-1,200 m during a match, whereas
he is only in possession of the ball for a total of 200 m.
3. By following
individual players
second by second,
the computer can
calculate the
distances run.
4. The ball is
also monitored,
and the system
can thus tell the
length of a goal kick.
Cameras
Soccer
field
st
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tHE anSWErS to lIfE’S lIttlE mYStErIES
ASk US
EDITOR: Morten Kjerside Poulsen
20 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
the StatS company has developed
a new 3-camera tracking system.
HoW IS a SoccEr plaYErS’ WorK load mEaSUrEd?TV soccer matches are often accompanied
by information concerning how far indivi-
dual players run and how many successful
assists they produce. But how are these
statistics collated?
Up to 16 cameras are located along the side-
lines in modern soccer stadiums to follow the
players' every move. Second by second, they
are assigned a set of 3D coordinates, and their
positions are described by x, y, and z coordi-
nates. As the cameras produce 25 images a
second, the system is able to measure every
movement in the field very accurately.
The ball and the referee are also monito-
red, and by means of computers, the measu-
rements are converted into information about
the distance run by individual players, but the
system can also indicate the speed of the ball.
The technology is partly inspired by missile
tracking systems and is very accurate. Tests
show that only 2-3 % of the measurements
are faulty. The system was first introduced
officially during the 2008 European Champi-
onship, but was tested the previous year in
Champions League matches. Now, soccer
without stats is only half the game!
Camera
st
at
s l
lc
Cameras
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5TOP
heaviest
reptiles
1. SaltWatEr crocodIlEMaximum weight: 2,000 kg Length: 3.85 m
2. BlacK caImanMaximum weight: 1,310 kg Length: 3.6 m
3. nIlE crocodIlEMaximum weight: 1,089 kg Length: 3.7 m
4. SEa tUrtlEMaximum weight: 932 kg Length: 2 m
5. orInoco crocodIlEMaximum weight: 900 kg Length: 3.6 m
do cranBErrIES rElIEVE cYStItIS?
Is the core of
the milky way
visible from
EARTH?
From our position in the
galactic arm, the view of a
large part of the Milky Way is
unfortunately blocked by
dark dust clouds. The perfect
place to see the glow of the core
in our hemisphere is at 27 degrees
south, in late winter, where the band
of the Milky Way is parallel to the horizon -
the furthery you move away from 27S, the more
tilted the band will appear. The core is mostly blocked by dust, but is
appreciably brighter than other parts of the galactic arm.
Soccer player
Distance run: 10 km
Top speed: 35 km/h
Fastest shot: 130 km/h
NRL player
Distance run: 7 km
Top speed: 25 km/h
Hardest impact: 13G
AFL player
Distance run: 12-15 km
Top speed: 30 km/h
Longest kick: 100 m
a saltwater crocodile may
weigh up to 2000 kg and also
try to eat you...
According to an old piece of good
advice, cranberry juice is efficient
against cystitis, and scientific experi-
ments indicate that it is true. Bacteria
such as E. coli feature long protein
threads, which can bind to the bladder
wall and cause inflammation.
But apparently, proanthocyanidin
and glucose, which are contained in
cranberry juice, prevent bacteria from
binding to the cells, and instead, they
are rinsed out in urine.
A daily intake of cranberry juice
may thus reduce the risk of cystitis
in some women.
Up to 16
cameras
follow each
player’s
every move.
Soccer players work harder
Centre of the Milky Way
t. a
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22 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
Was the ring finger always the ring finger?The fourth finger counted from
the thumb has been the ring
finger since Antiquity. Several
Roman writers describe the custom of
wearing an iron ring on the ring finger, which was believed to be directly connected
with the heart via a blood vessel. And the rings were not only engagement or
wedding rings, they were also worn as a symbol of friendship, trust, or status.
Is it really true that cyclones rotate
differently, depending on which side of the
Equator they are?
In the northern hemisphere, the wind of a
cyclone will always move counter-clockwise,
and vice versa in the southern hemisphere.
Cyclones are huge depressions, and air mas-
ses will always try to move directly from high
to low pressure. This is, however, impossible
on a planet, which is rotating, because of the
Coriolis effect. All motion is affected by this
effect, and the result is that any motion north
of the Equator will be bent to the right, and
to the left south of the Equator. In most eve-
ryday situations, Coriolis forces have little
effect, but for motion across long distances
or time, it may affect the air particles of a
pressure system such as a cyclone. The Corio-
lis effect increases with the distance to the
Equator, where it is 0. Between 5° N and 5° S,
it is so weak that cyclones rarely occur.
do cYclonES alWaYS rotatE In tHE SamE dIrEctIon?
the coriolis effect is the result of
different speeds of rotation at
different degrees of latitude.
At the Equator, the speed is
1,675 km/h, going from
west to east, in Hobart
approx. 1,000 km/h, and
at the South Pole, zero.
A pilot on his way north
from the Equator will
observe the Earth
rotates more slowly, the
further north his plane
gets. The aircraft itself keeps
the rate of rotation from the
Equator and thus its course will
be bent to the right (east).
Several scientific studies have
demonstrated that dogs can
actually smell cancer. Cancer
cells release odorants, and a
dog's unique sense of smell
reacts to those. Depending on
the breed, a dog’s nose is
10,000-100,000 times as
sensitive as a human's. You
may hear many dog owners
tell stories about how their
dog repeatedly sniffed or
nibbled at a birth mark, which
later turned out to be a case
of skin cancer. Likewise, there
are plenty of accounts of
family dogs, which have
suddenly changed their
behaviour, becoming anxious,
exited, or seeking a sense of
security in connection with
their owners being diagnosed
with cancer.
Can dogs
smell
cancer?
What dogs can smell:
Breath: lung cancer
Urine samples: bladder cancer
Biopsies: ovarian cancer
dogs
can smell
cancer.
b. h
on
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/aP
/Po
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Southern hemisphere
Northern hemisphere
Right bend
Left bend
tHE anSWErS to lIfE’S lIttlE mYStErIES
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scienceillustrated.com.au | 23
Physics in PRACTICE
How severe is a human bite?
We bite with only 90kg of force (compared to a
shark’s 1500kg!) but our mouths contain
bacteria which often cause terrible infections.
1. A magnetron
produces the micro-
waves, which are
directed into the oven.
2. The electro-
magnetic radiation
makes the water and
fat molecules of the
butter vibrate.
3. The microwaves
affect fat molecules
less than water mole-
cules, and conse-
quently, water is
heated faster.
4. Frozen butter contains a little bit
of water in the shape of small balls.
When the water becomes vapour,
it expands several hundred times,
and it can only escape by exploding
its way out of the butter.
What is the difference between
an ocean and a sea?How big must a body of water be, before it is an
ocean, and what are the definitions of seas and
oceans?
Oceans are the primary bodies of salt water
on Earth. The definition of an ocean varies
from country to country, but oceanographers
generally recognise five: the Pacific Ocean,
the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the
Arctic Ocean, and the Southern Ocean. The
International Hydrographic Organisation
(IHO) defines boundaries and international
names of seas and oceans. A sea is typically
smaller than an ocean and is located where
an ocean encounters land, just like the Tas-
man Sea, which is located, where the west
coast of New Zealand encounters the Pacific
Ocean. Confusingly though, many scientists
refer to the whole interconnected body of salt
water on Earth as ”the sea”.
Seas are often the product of human geo-
graphy, and may not always be named seas.
Examples include the Gulf of Carpentaria, the
Persian Gulf, and Hudson Bay in the northern US.
Microwaves
1
2
Fat
Water 3
4
Vapour explosion
OceAnS
The Atlantic Ocean
The Pacific Ocean
The Indian Ocean
SeAS
The Tasman Sea
The Gulf of
Carpentaria
The Mediterranean
Hudson Bay
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WHY doES BUttEr ExplodE In a mIcroWaVE oVEn?A microwave oven heats food by using electromagnetic
”micro” waves, which make water and fat molecules vibrate.
The motion produces heat, and as water is more easily affected
than fat, it is heated much faster. This may make the butter
explode – but only if it is frozen.
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How Things Work
A. A laser beam
is produced, when an
exterior energy source
briefly exposes the
laser atoms to light.
c. The atom sheds
the extra energy
by emitting a light
particle, a photon,
which stimulates
other atoms to emit
photons as well.
e. One mirror
is semitransparent,
allowing a fraction
of the photons to
escape the chamber.
F. The lens unites the
escaped photons and
concentrates them
into a laser beam.
D. Mirrors at the ends of the laser
reflect the photons and stimulate
the emission of even more photons
with the same amount of energy,
amplifing the light intensity.
B. The light from the flash
hits the atom's electrons,
increasing its energy level.
Why do plants
germinate in
Spring?In tropical regions, seeds germinate as soon as they fall
off plants. But in order for plant seeds to survive in a
cooler climate, they must hibernate in the winter. When
a seed hibernates, the biochemical processes in the
cells run much more slowly. The seed will not
germinate until affected by sufficient light,
which converts the phytochrome photo-
receptor into its active version,
generating growth hormones.
Laser beam
th
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la
us
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A
B
c
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F
Switch
Power source
Semitrans- parent mirror
Quartz flash tube
Reflectingaluminium cylinder
Atom
Photon
24 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
ASk US
tHE anSWErS
to lIfE’S
mYStErIES
WHIcH BodY cEllS
arE tHE longESt?
The motor neurons are the
longest cells of the human
body. They send signals from
the brain to the leg and feet
muscles and extend from
spine to hallux. The longest
motor neurons may measure
more than 130 cm,
depending on your height.
IN SHORT
HoW IS a laSEr
BEam prodUcEd?A laser beam consists of light particles, photons, which all have
the same wavelengths and vibrate with the same frequency.
The first photon starts a chain reaction, as it stimulates the
emission of other photons, producing a beam. Laser: Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
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magpies are often said to be clever
thieves, but is this really true?
Keys, coins, and jewellery. Legend has it,
that they are irresistible treasures to
magpies. However, the indications are
that magpies' preference for shiny
objects is nothing but urban folklore.
No scientific studies have yet proven
that magpies are particularly fond of
shiny things. In the book “The Magpies”,
biologist Tim Birkhead declares, that, in
nature, magpies will neither steal, nor
hide anything but food.
The reason why magpies are said to
be thieves is probably that, particularly in
the past, the bird was often in conflict
with humans in rural areas. There,
magpies would steal fruit from fruit trees
and food, eggs, and sometimes chickens
from open chook pens.
Australian magpies don’t often get
accused of stealing - they’re in a complet-
ely different family to the Eurasian Mag-
pie. In the early years of the NSW colony,
the term ”Bell-magpie” was proposed to
distinguish the bird, but failed to gain
widespread acceptance since our maggie
looks so much like the European species.
In any case, our magpie is more fea-
red for its fierce territorial swooping be-
haviour, while accusations of stealing
(especially blue items - see box) are
mostly levelled at the satin bowerbird.
Which baby animal is the heaviest?
blue whales are the heaviest animals that ever
lived on earth, and they give birth to the biggest
babies. A newborn calf may thus weigh 3 tonnes
The composer who
Defamed a Species
Italian composer Gioacchino Rossini
(1792-1868) contributed to giving
magpies a bad reputation. His opera
“The Thieving Magpie” is about a house-
maid, who is accused of
stealing, but it turns
out that a magpie
was the culprit.
Satin bowerbirds attract females by building
elaborate ”bowers” - these aren’t nest, but
rather a sort of performance space filled with
blue objects. Traditionally these were berries
and flowers, but since pegs, straws and milk
bottle tops went blue, the bowerbirds seem
to love or even prefer these human objects -
perhaps because they stay bright blue for
weeks, not days.
Eurasian magpies
(shown) are corvids,
while aussie magpies
are more closely related
to butcherbirds and are
in the artamidae family.
Bowerbird’s blue moves
IS It rEallY trUE tHat ...... magpIES StEal SHInY oBJEctS?
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scienceillustrated.com.au | 25
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In the film ”After Earth”, Will Smith and his son make an emergency landing on Earth 1,000 years after a mass evacuation from the planet. But what would a world without people be like? According to scientists, nature will bounce back fast. Predators will spread, human artefacts will break down, and after 1,000 years, all that will remain of us are our quarries and waste.
Nature restores itselfEcOLOgIcAL SUccESSION For nature, the
disappearance of humans will not be a loss. On the
contrary. Nature will return to the ecological
balance, which humans have disrupted. Biologists
call it “ecological succession”, by which plants and
animals will produce tougher original forms through
natural selection.
Why our world will decay ENTROPy When houses decay, it is due to the
thermodynamic law of entropy. The degree of
entropy or disorder increases over time. A shapeless
pile of sand has high entropy, while a sandcastle has
low entropy. A structure with low entropy will move
towards a state of still higher entropy, disorder, and
disintegration over time.
THe cURe FOR HUMAnITY? Humans have made drastic changes to the Earth, but to restore a pristine
wilderness, all we need to do is leave... and wait. Fundamental laws of
physics will cause our structures to decay, and life will surge into the
spaces we leave behind...
a+
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LAW
THEORy
26 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
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By Antje Gerd Poulsen
the “life after people” tV series
created this cgI image of what Hollywood
might look like after 175 years.
scienceillustrated.com.au | 27
FEATURE | after humans
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DAY 7 (After the sudden disappearance of
all humans) in houses and flats, on farms and
in zoos throughout the world, animals starve
to death. The majority of the world’s 1 billion
pigs die, as do many of our 400 million dogs.
YeAR 1 Wild animals enter our cities
and farmlands – particularly adaptive
species like bears and wild hogs, which eat
many types of food. On the other hand, the
population of vermin like cockroaches and
rats will initially fall dramatically as their
current numbers are supported by us.
YeAR 5 Despite our pampering,
domestic cats never lost their desire to
hunt. In Australia, where there are few
small predators, cats thrive and might
even drive native predators extinct.
YeAR 7 By now, most fish species
have recovered from decades of overfishing.
YeAR 8 A new equilibrium has
emerged. Predators and prey have
populations that can be sustained. The real
winners are the big predators - bears,
wolves, tigers, sharks: every animal
humans saw as a threat is back on top.
In Europe and northern
america, the wolf
population would explode.
In australia, cats and
dingos may dominate
WIlDlIFe Predators reclaim their hunting grounds
Day 7
year 1
year 7
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C a r s T e n r a h b e k President of the International Biogeography Society.Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution of plants and animals.
la
Rs
ju
ul
ha
us
ch
Ild
t
nature is drawn toward a dynamic balance“[In the abscence of
humans] The animals,
that benefited from a
man-made environment
will be under severe
pressure, and the
majority of our
domesticated animals
will die quite fast. But a
few of them will adapt.
In a few generations,
natural selection will see
to this. We have
observed it before. The
Australian dingo was
originally a tame dog
turned wild. Nature will
not be drawn to an
original state, it will
always be drawn
towards a
dynamic balance.”
28 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
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The first years after the loss of humanity will mean fires, flooding, and decay. But within
days, nature will begin to conquer cities, and millions of pets and domestic animals will starve to death or be
eaten by predators.
cITIeS · SIlenT, DARk, cHAOTIc
DAY 14 As many as 50,000 power
plants worldwide have shut down.
At night, the globe is almost
completely dark. Electric pumps
normally keep cities like London,
Amsterdam, and New York clear of
water, but now, tunnels are
flooded, and canals overflow, filling
basements with water.
YeAR 1 Plant seeds find
nourishment in gutters and
cracks between pavements and
high-rise facades.
YeAR 3 Windows break in
storms and temperature
fluctuations. Once wind and
water get inside, the structures
will decay quickly.
sc
an
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hIn
ks
to
ck
I. fIl
IMo
no
v/t
hIn
ks
to
ck
DAY 20 The world’s 441 nuclear
power plants are close to disaster.
Cooling systems collapse, and a
few weeks later, the coolant
water has evaporated. Then,
reactors melt down or catch fire.
The air, land, and water around
the plants become radioactively
contaminated, and many animals
and plants die.
lAnDScAPeS · FIReS AnD FlOODIng
MOnTH 6 Forest fires run wild
without humans to fight them. In
nature, the fires serve
a purpose, and new plants
emerge from the ash after their
seeds are cracked in the heat. In
other places, dykes collapse, and
vast areas are flooded. Reclaimed
land (such as some airports) slips
back beneat the waves.
YeAR 5 Farm fields are now
overgrown. In 1882, British
scientists demonstrated how fast
other plants will take over an
abandoned wheat field. After
four years, only a few wheat
spikes remained, and the next
year, they were gone. Without
humans, aggressive species like
trees and hedges can dominate.
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YeAR 10 Grass grows
between paving stones, cracking them.
Trees already grow into houses.
YeAR 25 Skyscraper
windows are broken, letting wind and
rain in. The steel inside reinforced
concrete rusts. Bolts and screws corrode,
and panels fall out.
YeAR 50 The world’s one
billion cars have corroded beyond
recognition. In the humid coastal
climate, after 20-30 years a car is
barely recognisable.
YeAR 100 The steel wires of
suspension bridges have corroded. Their
flexibility is gone, and one single gust of
wind will make the bridge collapse.
YeAR 200 The joints of
the Eiffel Tower have corroded, and it
collapses. Most skyscrapers and many
older structures follow suit – particularly
those with submerged foundations.
cITIeS · Air, water and rust undoes our mightiest creations
Frost + rust break
down concrete
From high-rises to bridges – concrete is the most common building material of modern times and has been used since Antiquity. Concrete is highly weather resistant, and reinforced concrete even more so. Nevertheless, nature makes concrete crumble over time.
PlAnTSIf plants are allowed to climb a concrete structure, the roots will find even the tiniest cracks and draw water. The concrete continues to crumble.
cORROSIOnOnce the concrete is cracked, moisture gets to the reinforcement, and the steel rods corrode. They expand, making the concrete burst even more.
FROSTFrost damage occurs when water in concrete pores expands in frosty weather, first cracking and then bursting the concrete, and flaing off the surface.s
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year 25
year 50
year 200
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J o h n s T u b b sProfessor of Preservation Practice (historical buildings) and Director of Preservation Studies at the Tulane School of Architecture in New Orleans.
After 200 years without maintenance, most houses have become overgrown
ruins. Structures which have not already collapsed continue to come down.
Cities are as quiet as deep forests.
YeAR 10 Static electricity or
lightning strikes cause fires on
oil rigs throughout the
world, and unmanned
supertankers, container
vessels, and cruise liners
drifting with the current
plough into the rigs, which col-
lapse. Result: millions of litres
of oil gushing into the ocean.
YeAR 200 Corrosion makes
time bombs explode
all over the world. Silos, tanks,
and other containers with
encapsulated nuclear waste,
fuel, and chemicals begin to
leak or even explode. Animals
and plants die, but over time,
bacteria will break down
most oil and toxic residue.
YeAR 200 New ecosystems have been
established. Australia’s vast eucalypt forests have
returned, and native birds thrive. Horses are well-
established in some niches where rainfall is
constant - other less-hardy European animals are
driven out by our variable climate.
YeAR 50 Almost no
nitrate and phosphorous
remain in fresh water, but cor-
roded tanks filled with chlorine
for swimming pools leak. Toxic
chlorine gas clouds spread in
the environment, and when
chlorine encounters water
vapour, acid is produced.
Tankers with chemicals leak.
YeAR 100
Domestic animals
and pets have
reverted to their
original forms.
Racehorses have
become brumbies, ,
and the descendants
of domestic cats
resemble forest cats.
lAnDScAPeS · TOXIc TIMe BOMB
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year 50
After 200 years, most buildings will be gone
“the temperature of buildings
is key to their lifespan. With
no people around, they would
be subjected to disrupting
temperature fluctuations.
the materials will expand and
contract, until the structures
fall apart. New, mass-
produced buildings will not
last as long as carefully
constructed historical
buildings, which are often
huge and made of more
durable materials than
modern buildings.”
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More than ever, Earth is a blue planet. Even several hundred years after the last gram of coal is burned, ocean water levels are still rising, swallowing cities and landscapes.
YeAR 300 The Statue of Liber-
ty in New York collapses, and
parts fall into the harbour.
YeAR 500 The Sydney Harbour
Bridge, which contains iron, has
crumbled. Now concrete buil-
dings collapse: the twin towers
of Kuala Lumpur and St. Peter’s
Basilica in Rome.
YeAR 1000 The world’s metro-
polises have lost their famous
skylines. Instead, the cities are
hilly landscapes with rivers and
lakes. Everything is overgrown.
An archaeologist could find the
ruins, if they looked closely.
Huge trees have
overgrown angkor
Wat in cambodia -
but it’s a well-built
monument. modern
buildings would
collapse under a
tree this size.
cITIeS · A HIllY lAnDScAPe
YeAR 500 Lack of habitats and
the intense search for tusks kept
down the elephant population,
when humans lived on
the planet. But now, they migrate
with rhinos from Africa and Asia
to Europe. Those venturing far
north develop fur in cold weather.
Predators also move north. The
Romans were the last to hunt wild
lions in Greece, but now the big
cats are back to take advantage of
booming prey populations.
WIlDlIFe · RHInOS AnD
lIOnS MOve nORTH
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YeAR 400 Most cities have
been totally taken over by plants.
In 1860, French explorer Henri
Mouhot discovered what an
overgrown city looks like,
when he found the great temple
complex of Angkor Wat in
Cambodia. In 400 years, the city
had been almost devoured by
the big roots of silk cotton trees.year 500
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aniMaLs in The european virGin foresT
BisonWild hogBearWolfLynxEagleBlack storkBeaver
central Europe would be like the
Bialowieza national park in 500 years.
The virgin forest is self-sustaining
The Bialowieza National Park in Poland and
Belarus is an example of what Europe may look like after 500
years without humans. The virgin forest remains the way it
was after the ice age, and rare animals like bison, lynx, and
beaver thrive. Nature has its own ways, and when a forest is
left alone, old trees collapse, leaving room for new ones.
Thus, the forest becomes varied with trees of different ages,
swamps, and clearings: habitats for many animals.
after 300 years, the Statue of
liberty’s internal iron structures
collapse, and she falls into the ocean.
lAnDScAPeS · Oceans swallow countries. new habitats appear
Water will break free, providing new habitats
Humans and nature compete for water. Everywhere,
humans built cities near large waterways and
redirected rivers by means of dams and canals. The
course of waterways and different water levels are key
factors determining which plants thrive. Different
plant species have adapted to different moist levels,
and when the water once breaks free of its man-made
barriers, there will be habitats for more animals and
plant species.
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YeAR 400
Low-lying cities throughout the
world are underwater. Large
parts of the Netherlands have
disappeared due to collapsed
dykes, but the ocean water levels
are also still rising. Even if we
stopped emitting greenhouse
gasses tomorrow, water levels
could still rise by 1.8 m until 2500
due to the long response times
of oceans and ice.
YeAR 300
Restored fresh water wetlands are
efficient water purification plants,
which absorb chemicals.
YeAR 500
The wildwood is back in Europe,
and the African jungle and Australia’s
eucalypt forests have regrown.
YeAR 1000
Flooded cities and sunken ships
have become new homes
for marine animals. The oceans
are filled with whales, tuna,
and sea turtles, and destroyed
coral reefs recover.
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34 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
Few traces of humans will remain after 1,000 years. But humans have managed to create a few things that will endure for a millennium or more - not all of them good.
Diamonds are forever
The Mona Lisa and other paintings have long
crumbled, but works of art made of gold and
precious stones will remain for more than 1,000
years – such as “The Love of God”, a human skull
made of titanium and studded with 8,601 dia-
monds. The jewels of royal treasuries and national
banks’ gold bars will also remain intact, as will
works of art made of ceramics, glass, marble, gra-
nite, and bronze, like the presidential faces of
Mount Rushmore, which are carved into granite.
the mount rushmore granite will
remain for 1,000+ years.
ART
We should build like the RomansIn Antiquity, the Romans used granite, sandstone, and marble, which can all last for more than 1,000 years. Plus a highly durable type of concrete consisting ofcalcium, crushed tiles, and volcanic ash.
The cupola of the Pantheon in Rome is made of this material and has nowremained for almost 1,900 years. Only a
few modern buildings are constructed to similar levels of toughness.
The Channel Tunnel will still link England and France
A millennium from now, only the ruins of very few
buildings will remain. Paradoxically, some of the
most ancient ones such as the Sphinx and the Gre-
at Pyramid of Giza are still around, protected by
the warm, dry climate. Sandblasted, they are
about to be swallowed by the desert, however.
The Great Wall of China has crumbled, but still
marks the landscape. Of modern structures, only
protected concrete buildings like military facilities
will remain, and the tunnel between France and
England still exists, as it was made in an intact
chalk layer and is unlikely to collapse.
GreaT survivors
of The aGe
of huMans
The Lascaux cave paintings, Southern France
The Sphinx of Egypt
The Great Pyramid of Giza
Bronze church bells, statues, and propellers
Mount Rushmore’s presidential faces
Venus de Milo – a marble statue
The tunnel between France and England
Military concrete facilities
Gold, silver, and other precious metals
Diamonds
STRUcTUReS
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dolls can remain for
1,000+ years in a dry,
oxygen-free
environment.
environmental toxins will remain on Earth long after
humans. Heavy metals like mer-
cury, lead, chromium, and cadmi-
um. Plus radioactive waste and
plastic like the polyethylene of
carrier bags.
Plastic will remain in the sea.
Humans left more than 100 milli-
on tonnes of plastic in the oce-
ansÐ including some of the 500
million straws used in the US
every day. Plastic leaves toxic
chemicals in the food chain.
The landscape still
features traces of humans after
1,000 years in the form of mines
and quarries. But the dams of the
Panama Canal and elsewhere
have long collapsed, and the
water has blazed its own trails.
TOxiNS ARe FOReveR
Cadmium compounds: 7,500 years
Lead compounds: 35,000 years
highly radioactive nuclear waste:
100,000 years
polyethylene, pCb, and pbDe: Unknown
WASTe · RUBBISH WIll Be OUR legAcY
SOMe ARTeFAcTS WIll
SURvIve In lAnDFIll
Mobile phones, computers, TVs, and other electronics
Wine bottles and glasses
Kitchen aids and tools made of plastic and stainless steel
Car/bike tyres + other rubber objects
Newspapers, magazines, and books
Shoes and bags
Dolls, Lego, and other plastic toys
Landfill will be the pyramids of our time Ironically, our waste will survive for at least a millennium or perhaps even longer.
Huge landfills dot the landscape in the form of hills containing objects, which reveal details about
human life on Earth. Deep inside a large landfill, which is dry like a pyramid and low in oxygen like a
bog, even newspapers and books can survive, along with millions of tonnes of domestic waste.
Today, itÕs a problem - in a distant future, our junk might be a boon to visiting aliens who want to
study the long-disappeared human race.
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36 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
the first stone tools were made by
knocking two stones against each
other, producing sharp flakes.
HOMO HABIlIS
One of the earliest human species is known from 1.8- mil-
lion-year-old fossils. The bones indicate a 130-cm- tall
creature with a brain weighing 550 g. Homo habilis was a
good climber and spent much of their time in trees.
Where: east africa
When: 1.6-2.5
million years ago
prey: Small mon-
keys and small
gazelles
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FEATURE | anthropology
the secret is to bang the rocks togetheR...Up to 2.6 million years ago, one of our ancestors
knocked two stones against each other and started
an arms race, which made her (or his) descendants
efficient hunters and thoughtful artisans.
With primitive stone tools, our ancestors gained better access to meat and fat – and a more efficient brain food.
Weapons date back 2.6 million years
In 1913, a German archaeologist found
some primitive stone tools in Tanzania’s
Olduvai Gorge. The tools turned out to be
1.6 million years old, and since then,
similar spectacular finds have been made
throughout Africa. Like when, in the
1990s, scientists excavated 2.6-million-
year-old stone tools in Ethiopia.
The primitive tools marked the
beginning of an unknown weapons
technology, and according to most
experts, the first members of the
Homo genus, the 130-cm-tall Homo
habilis, made the tools. The evidence?
Habilis bones had already been found
together with similar 1.8 million-year-
old stone tools.
With stone tools at their
disposal, our ancestors could sudden-
ly cut into thick-skinned animals and
crush bones, obtaining access to
highly concentrated energy in the
shape of fat, meat, and marrow, which
does not require a strong mouth and
jaws. The Homo genus’ teeth and jaw
muscles began to shrink, and so, the
skull could leave room for brain
expansion, nourished by the new,
energy-rich food. Mention that at your
next vegetarian dinner party!
The first stone tools were
made by knocking flakes
off stones. Studies have shown that
the process requires both knowledge
and training. The tool maker must know
different stone types to find the right
stones, and the technique requires
control and coordination, as the stone
must be hit at the perfect angle.
BasHING Or coup de poing..
Can cut through thick animal skin
Can cut meat chunks
Can crush bones
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Around 1.7 million years ago, the
first sharp hand axes appeared.
The weapon was so sophisticated
that, according to experts, the produ-
ction required a brain which could
make complex and long-term calcula-
tions, since the toolmaker needed to
plan the final result before he set to
work. Subsequently, he had to keep
up a mental image of the design,
which he was working on.
Once again, a new weapons tech-
nology coincides with a new, distinc-
tive human species: Homo erectus –
the oldest fully upright human. The
erectus is the first to leave Africa, and
their stone axes have also been
found in Europe and Asia.
The new sophisticated
weapons technology played an
important role in the erectus’
marked success, and hand
axes were used in Europe
until 140,000 years ago.
Homo erectus left
africa armed with
sharp stone axes
and a large brain.
Complex hand axes are evidence of humans’ mental development.
Stone axes: a planned tool
The erectus’ flat, drop-shaped hand axes are evidence of a sophisticated striking technique and thorough
knowledge of the qualities of different stones. This knowledge enabled the toolmaker to produce a more
symmetrical and sharp weapon, and waste was reduced. Some hand axes show that the erectus “fine-tuned”
its tool using softer striking tools like bones and antlers, which could knock finer pieces off the stone.
HaNd axE fine-tuned using bones
1.8-million-year-old Homo erectus fossils show a tall,
slender human with a brain of 800-1,000 g.
The erectus is considered to be the first hunter, who
could kill large herbivores like zebra and antelope.
Where:
africa and asia
When: 300,000-1.8
million years ago
prey: Zebra,
antelope, and deer
HOMO eRecTUS
1. A hammer stone is used
to knock a large flake off the
core stone, which will eventu-
ally become a hand axe.
2. The hole resulting from the first
flake can now be used to knock off
more flakes, so the holes overlap. The
edge becomes more even.
3. When the shape of the stone
is complete, light strokes with
a bone can remove small flakes,
making the edge even sharper.
4. When the hand axe
is finished, the result is a
symmetrical stone weapon
with two razor-sharp edges.
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our ancestors conquered nature with stone spearheads.
Spears: the silent killers
Finds of 500,000-year-old spearheads in
South Africa reveal that Homo heidelber-
gensis was much more intelligent than pre-
viously believed. Scientists used to think
that the Neanderthal and Homo sapiens
invented the stone spear, but the newly-
found stone spearheads show that the
heidelbergensis attached stones to spears
200,000 years before the other two.
From a technological point of view, the
stone spear is evidence of yet another IQ
leap. Apart from knowledge about the cha-
racteristics of different stone materials,
humans now also knew a lot about natural
binding agents. Stone spear production
required the heidelbergensis to collect and
process juice from trees and tendons from
prey to fasten the stone spearheads.
Unlike earlier spears, which consisted
of pointed sticks, the finished stone spears
could penetrate thick skin, and they enab-
led heidelbergensis to kill silently and effi-
With the new spears,
heidelbergensis was
able to kill large
animals such as
the buffalo.
The heidelbergensis invented the levallois
technique, which focused on making tools with
stone flakes (such as knives). After the core sto-
ne was processed with small strokes, a single
well-performed stroke could knock long, sharp
flakes off the stone.
FLaKEs fashioned into sharp knives
The heidelbergensis was a tall, slender human with a
brain of 1,100-1,400 g. The species is the ancestor of
both modern man and the Neanderthal, who split into
two branches approximately 6-700,000 years ago.
Where: africa,
asia, and europe
When: 200,000-1.3
million years ago
prey: oxen and
buffalo
HOMO HeIDelBeRgenSIS
the heidelbergensis’
brain was almost
as large as that
of a modern human.
ciently at a distance of up to thirty metres. As a
result, hunting became more efficient and less
risky, and our ancestors became the first
animals with the ability to secure a steady flow
of energy-rich meat and fat.
Can kill large prey
Makes hunting less risky
Provides a better hit rate
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70,000 years ago, there was a sudden explosion of sophistication
Brain: the ultimate weapon in the evolutionary war
New finds indicate that Homo sapiens
experienced an explosive technological
and creative development some 70,000 years
ago. Stone points found in South Africa show
that humans used modern weapons like
arrows and could harden stone tools using
fire. By using the improved weapons, humans
wrought more resources out of nature and
were able to kill small, fast prey like birds and
rabbits, giving Homo sapiens an advantage
over the Neanderthal and other species.
The new creativity produced clothes,
which made European Ice Age winters tolera-
ble, and scientists have found snowshoes,
harpoons, and scales, which is evidence of a
highly developed culture. Around the same
time, our ancestors also began to use
abstract symbols - writing - which has long
been considered a milestone in the develop-
ment of the brain. These finds demonstrate
that the human brain was just as sophisti-
cated 70,000 years ago as it is now.
FIrE converts harmless stones into sharp superweapons
Heat processing was one of Homo sapiens’
most important contributions to the stone
weapon technology. When heated to around
300 °C, some stone types are converted from
a weak material into hard stone, which is
easier to knock flakes off, results in less
waste, and is as sharp as a modern knife.
Because of its larger
brain, Homo sapiens
was able to kill all
types of prey.
A study from Emory University in
Atlanta, USA, shows that the abili-
ty to speak draws on the same
area of the brain which is used
when we make stone tools. Accor-
ding to scientists, this demonstra-
tes that the development of stone
weapons must have affected
humans’ ability to speak.
The scientific results are
based on brain scans of test sub-
jects, who watched films about
the production of stone tools.
Existing scientific results have
demonstrated that the brains of
onlookers activate the same are-
as, which are required to carry
out the activity studied. The
scans revealed that stone tools
activated the area of the frontal
lobe, which generates sentences.
Other scans showed that a
brain area, which is related to lin-
guistic expression, became four
times as active when scientists
exchanged primitive stone tools
with more sophisticated ones. The
conclusion: more sophisticated
tools triggered a more
sophisticated language.
The results make sense
because the structure of language
is divided into the same sequen-
ces of behaviour as toolmaking.
Sentences - or more accurately,
clause complexes - are words in
complex sequences, and similarly,
the production of stone tools is a
complex sequence of actions.
StonE WEaponS taUgHt US to SpEaK
Scans show that stone tool
production activates the brain’s
language centres.
Before
AFTER
1. Stones are
placed in a hole and
covered with sand to
secure uniform heat.
2. A fire is lit on
top and fed for
around 24 hours.
At a temperature of
300 °C, the stone is
chemically altered.
3. The stone is
cooled and has
now been trans-
formed into a pre-
mium material
that is easier to
process - and
more durable.
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The anatomically modern man originated about
200,000 years ago, only to leave Africa shortly after.
With their excellent IQ, Homo sapiens was the first
human species to conquer almost all parts of the globe.
When: Originated about 200,000 years ago
prey: everything
HOMO SAPIenS
Homo sapiens’
weapons technology
was sophisticated
enough to produce
modern weapons such
as arrows.
modern man’s IQ and
creativity generated new
weapons, which were much
more efficient than those of
our ancestors.P. PlaIlly, e. daynes/euRelIos/lookatscIences
benjaMIn schovIlle/asu
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FEATURE | SCARy BUGS
42 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
Back in the 1930s, American
entomologist Henry Ellsworth Ewing
carried out a simple experiment at his
local zoo. He took a louse from a spider
monkey and made it suck blood from his arm.
The louse died. Ewing repeated the
experiment with lice from a baboon. And got
the same result. With his simple experiment,
Ewing demonstrated that the small, blood-
sucking parasites are so adapted to their
hosts that they cannot survive on other
species. Strange blood is poison to them.
This dependence on specific, sometime
single-spieces hosts has been developed
over millions of generations. And in recent
years, the very close connection between lice
and their hosts has made them the subject of
renewed interest from scientists, who are
working with family trees and evolution.
Lice are a gold mine of knowledge – from
how epidemics spread to when humans
began to wear clothes. And thus, the itchy
parasites can help us map out the earliest
stages of human evolution very accurately.
A TASTE FOR BLOOD
The story of the louse begins some 130
million years ago, when the small, parasitic
insect originates. Scientists base their
estimate on a comparison of gene
sequences from different lice species.
In the Cretaceous period, some 70 million
years ago, mammals and birds experienced
an explosive evolution. New species meant
new habitats for parasites, and the different
lice families started to spread.
Today, the louse family includes more than
3,000 different species, which are Blood
Crawling through our hair and clothes, lice are the perfect human parasite...
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Buddies
Using its powerful
claws, the louse
clings tightly to
individual hairs, and
is almost impossible
to get rid of.g. beRnaRd/sPl/scanPIx
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lice go through 5 life stagesOver just 10 days, the newly hatched lice reach adulthood
and are thus ready to find new hair to colonise.
1. A louse’s life begins in the
egg. Under optimal conditions, a
female louse lays four eggs a day.
2. Eggs hatch into nymph lice
in just one week. With so many
eggs, lice are hatching constantly
in the host’s hair.
3. The nymph sheds its skin three ti-
mes before maturing into an adult, and
each nymph stage last three days.
Even as a nymph, the louse sucks blood.
4. The louse becomes sexually mature
immediately before shedding for the third time.
New eggs can be transferred between hosts (people)
though touching and sharing living space.
Female
Second nymph stage Third nymph stage
Male
parasitic on just as many thousands of
different birds and mammals, including
primates, that were included among the
ranks of lice meals approximately 25
million years ago.
Thus, lice have accompanied humans all
through our history of evolution, but
amazingly we had very little understanding
of these tiny insects until just 350 years ago.
Using primitive microscopes, the naturalists
of the times could finally begin to paint a
precise picture of the small animals.
Customized mouth parts were designed for
sucking blood, and its flat body made a louse
more difficult to get hold of, once it stuck to
our hair. The naturalists also established that
the small beast could change colours,
depending on whether it had been eating
recently or not. Later, scientists discovered
that the pigmentation of head lice adjusts to
the hair and scalp colour of the host.
MICROSCOPIC EGGS
Once the louse came under a microscope, it
was clear that, like other insects, it’s life cycle
includes mating and egg-laying. The new
knowledge made more efficient measures
possible. Previously, humans had fought
against an invisible itch, but now, they could
suddenly see the small eggs and thus
combat the lice more efficiently. Despite this,
lice are still common around the world.
This is primarily due to their exact
adaptation, which is particularly revealed
by a unique detail of the louse anatomy:
The legs feature special claws and
“thumbs”, which enable a perfect grip of a
human hair. It is this tight grip that makes
lice so difficult to defeat, once they have
settled in your scalp.
Nevertheless, humans have made
energetic attempts to defeat lice; attempts,
which probably started long before humans
took shape. Delousing is also observed
among some of our closest relatives in the
animal kingdom. And their lice are very much
like ours – at least on the face of it.
LICE NEED US MORE THAN
WE NEED THEM
Our most well-known louse species is
normally just called a louse, but its proper
designation is a head louse. Today,
scientists know for sure that head lice
were the first lice to live on humans,
and have evolved specifc traits to
do so. In fact, they adapted to
human hair and scalp to such an
extent that they cannot hope
to survive for more
The first comb was a delousing comb Combs are the earliest known measure
against lice, and fine-toothed combs have
been found in Egyptian tombs from 3000 BC.
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lice are persevering loversAs soon as lice reach adulthood, they
reproduce around the clock. The sex act
can last up to one hour. Moreover, body
lice have wild group sex, where up to six
males try to mate with a single female.
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couplingAt the back, you will find the
genitals. The male lice are poin-
ted at the back, while the fema-
les have two “pins”. This is where
the lice couple during mating.
Pointed mouthpartsThe mouth is designed to
penetrate skin and suck
blood. When lice do not
eat, they can withdraw the
mouth parts into their heads.
Hopelessly Addicted to... Us Lice are wingless insects measuring 2.5-3 mm and with flattened bodies. Their greatest strength is the powerful claws, which enable them move throughout your hair.
Breathe through side tubes Like other insects, lice do not have lungs, but
breathe through trachea tubes. On the abdo-
men, you will find the spiracles, which direct
oxygen into the trachea tubes.
Blood colours skin redA louse’s semitransparent to greyish
skin normally makes it hard to spot.
But when it has just finished a meal,
the skin becomes reddish from blood.
Tough claw
The reason why lice are
so hard to defeat is located
at the end of each leg.
The powerful claws enable
lice to cling tightly to a
single human hair.
Speed up and down hairsLice have six short,
powerful legs, which
are designed for fast
motion up and down
hairs. Yet despite the
rumours, lice cannot
jump. In the males,
the two forelegs are
extra strong and used
to hold on to the
female during mating.
nits: not lice, just their eggs Lice eggs are oval and measure about 0.8 mm. They are
virtually transparent or skin coloured. Once the nymph has
left the egg, the shell becomes more whitish - this is
what people see when they call lice ”nits” .
1. First, the louse se-
lects a good place on
the hair close to the
warmth of the scalp,
providing the
best conditions.
2. Then, the louse
deposits a highly
sticky secretion
of keratin-like
proteins and places
the egg in it.
3. The secretion
hardens around the
egg, but still allows
it to breathe. It is
now very difficult
to detach.
Sticky secretion
Single hair
Louse egg
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than a few hours, when they are
away from their hosts.
David Reed from the Florida
Museum of Natural History is one of
the world’s leading louse scientists.
In the past 10 years, he has
publ ished several sensational
results based on genetic analyses of
69 different lice variants.
By looking at how much the
different species deviate from each
other, David Reed and other
scientists can reconstruct the family tree
of the parasites and estimate how long
ago two given lice species split up.
Reed’s reconstruction shows, that the
chimpanzee louse, Pediculus schaeffi, and
our own louse, Pediculus humanus, shared
the same ancestor some six million years
ago, and this knowledge has now been
used as yet another piece in the puzzle of
human history.
Scientists already suspected that the
ancestor of humans split from the chimp at
that time, but Reed’s work confirms it.
Moreover, a number of scientists believe
that part of the selective pressure that
made us naked was due to parasites like
lice. Because no fur equaks no lice.
It must be the irony of fate that
humans ended up with more lice types
than other monkeys. This was primarily
due to our sporadic and different hair on
heads and bodies. But clothes also offer
several different habitats for the blood-
sucking parasites.
CRAB LICE CAME
FROM GORILLAS
Head lice have been with us from the start,
but Pthirus pubis, the crab louse, only found
us later on. Studies of crab lice noncoding
DNA demonstrate that they were originally
gorilla lice, which began to suck our blood
some 3.3 million years ago. Noncoding DNA
is DNA sequences, which do not code
directly for any proteins. Mutations in
noncoding DNA do thus not immediately
have any harmful effect on the organism,
and so the mutations are able to remain as a
kind of DNA history archive. And this very
history has presented scientists with a
number of mysteries.
While humans have had a type of gorilla
lice for 3.3 million years, the split between
gorillas and human ancestors dates more
than three times as long back. We split from
the gorillas 12 million years ago. In other
words, gorilla lice found their way to humans
millions of years after the two primates’
family trees split.
How this happened is still quite a
mystery. As crab lice are primarily transferred
by sexual intercourse, the natural and rather
shocking answer would be that our
ancestors mated with gorillas. That is
however inconceivable, and according to
scientists, early humans hunted gorillas and
took over parasites from their prey through
this activity. If so, the crab lice may have
been the dead gorillas’ itchy revenge.
PUBIC HAIR RESEMBLES
GORILLA FUR
As lice are so adapted to their hosts and
rarely able to survive on other species, the
gorilla lice should actually not be able to
survive on humans. Part of the explanation is
the non-uniform hairiness of human beings.
A crab louse cannot live in our scalps
today either. Instead, it lives in our groins,
and the hair in human groins is more like
gorilla fur than human scalp hair – and this
was probably even more so among our more
hairy ancestors 3.3 million years ago.
The hair of the groin and surrounding
regions of humans was consequently a
habitat, which gorilla lice could conquer,
because it resembled their former home.
Unfortunately for crab lice, this private
habitat is now under pressure in many
places of the world.
Pubic hair shaving is such a common
phenomenon today that according to
preliminary studies, it constitutes a
Ancient, deadly
remedies for
head lice Around 1200 BC, the
Chinese used mercury and
arsenic mixtures against lice
– undoubtedly bad for both
lice and human health.
delousing has been
a social ritual
throughout the
history of mankind.
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The 130 million year itch...Head lice have accompanied humans, ever since we crawled down from the trees. Subsequently, they developed into body lice, and then gorillas gave us yet another variant.
130-70 million years ago
Lice arise 130 million
years ago, and 70 million
years ago, the different
louse families seriously
start to spread.
25 million years ago
Lice’s long
coexistance with
primates begins. 12 million years agoGorilla lice split up
from the lice, which
later become human
and chimp lice. 6 million years agoThe human ancestor
and the chimp split up.
Their lice split into
head lice and
chimp lice.
3.3 million years agoA human ancestor,
probably Australopi-
thecus, takes over lice
from the gorilla. The lice
live in pubic hair and
become known as crab lice.
Approx. 100,000 years agoHumans began
to wear clothes,
providing
habitats for a
new louse type
called Pediculus
humanus corporis –
the body louse.
8000 BC
The earliest direct proof
that lice lived in human
hair can be seen in
Brazilian finds.
Around 350 BC
Aristotle introduces his theory that lice
arise spontaneously on human bodies.
1250
The English philosopher Roger Bacon
perfects the magnifying glass.
1500s
The flea glass, a predecessor of the
microscope, is invented.
Pediculus schaeffi
GoriLLa
ChiMpanzee
hoMo sapiens
hoMo sapiens
hoMo sapiens
Pediculus humanus
Body lice
Crab lice
Head lice
Pthirus gorillae
major problem for crab lice, which are
almost extinct on women in several places
in the western world.
BODy LICE ARE VILLAINS
As humans had less and less hair, the
original lice’s habitats were under increased
pressure. Luckily for the lice, humans began
to cover their naked bodies with something
else than fur – clothes – and thus, a new
chapter in the history of lice began.
A few visionary pioneer lice colonised
the new habitat. The lice were not yet
adapted to life in clothes, and most of them
died in the process. But the survivors
thrived. They developed a brand new niche,
as the competition for space and food was
much less intensive on people’s clothes
than on their heads.
Previously, scientists believed that the
body louse was a different subspecies than
the head louse. The debate has been going
on since the mid-1700s and has still not
been finally settled. But still more seems to
indicate that head and body lice are the
same, only they manifest themselves
differently in different situations. At the
gene level, it is impossible to distinguish
In spite of 3.3 million years of separate evolution, crab lice and gorilla lice are still much alike.
crab lice were originally gorilla lice, which were transferred to humans.
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A house full of uninvited guests Lice are not the only creatures which have invaded our bodies. Living with parasites is the price you pay for being a reasonably large animal. Even in the modern world, a wide range of creepy-crawlies have found
humans very well suited as a home and a source of food.
letting bedbugs bite LenGTh: 5 mm.
habiTaTs: Hide in cracks of beds or
in other places and creep up on the
body at night and gorge on blood.
fooD: Blood.
syMpToMs: Itching and rash.
Disease: Do not transmit diseases.
TreaTMenT: Bagging clothes and beds
DiD you knoW ThaT adult bedbugs can survive
for 18 months without feeding?
The humble flea LenGTh: 2-3 mm.
habiTaTs: Throughout the body.
fooD: Blood.
syMpToMs: Skin irritation and intense itching.
Disease: Suspected of carrying the plague.
TreaTMenT: Shaving, shampoo, special comb.
DiD you knoW ThaT fleas are a sign of
poor hygiene and sanitation?
Subdermal itch mites LenGTh: 0.3 mm.
habiTaTs: Right under the skin
fooD: The top skin layer.
syMpToMs: Itching and subsequently violent
allergic reaction to mite eggs.
Disease: Itch mites are a disease in themselves.
TreaTMenT: Non-prescription drugs.
DiD you knoW ThaT the female gnaws its way
down through the upper layers and lays its
eggs in paths under the skin?
Deadly but tiny: the tickLenGTh: 3 mm, but the tick can grow to measure
up to 11 mm, once it is saturated with blood.
habiTaTs: Moves from blades of grass to the
bodies of passing humans or animals.
fooD: Blood.
syMpToMs: You will not notice the tick.
Disease: Can transmit a virus, which causes menin-
gitis, and bacteria, which cause lyme borreliosis.
TreaTMenT: If the tick is removed within 24 hours,
infection is normally not transmitted.
DiD you knoW ThaT ticks can hide everywhere
on the body, and often in the groin?
Mites in the dust size: 0.5 mm.
habiTaTs: Live in beds, duvets, pillows, bed linen,
and similar places inside the house. Housedust
mites thrive with high humidity.
fooD: Skin flakes and other organic waste.
syMpToMs: Allergies.
Disease: Worldwide, housedust mites are the
main cause of asthma.
TreaTMenT: Ventilation to avoid high air
humidity and frequent, thorough washing
of bed linen at a high temperature.
DiD you knoW ThaT just one single
gramme of dust can harbour up to
500 house dust mites?
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between body lice and head lice in spite of
different lifestyles, behaviour, and size. This
means that body lice are actually head lice,
which just found a different habitat.
Anthropologists and other scientists have
confirmed this and observed a particular
pattern over and over again: In very poor and
dirty environments, body lice always occur,
after head lice have spread.
Thus, head lice have developed an ability
to move into our clothes under the right – or
seen from a human point of view the wrong
– circumstances. Body lice are often observed
in prisons, refugee camps, and other places
with poor standards of hygiene.
Unfortunately, the situation goes from bad to
highly dangerous, when head lice play the role
of body lice, as they can be disease carriers.
During a plague outbreak among
humans, the Y. pestis bacterium has been
found on body l ice. From animal
experiments, scientists know that lice can
transmit Y. pestis infection from sick to
healthy rabbits and kill after a few days. It is,
however, unknown, how big a role body lice
play in connection with other disease
carriers such as rats, which also thrive under
the miserable conditions, which usually
precede severe epidemics.
CLOTHES MADE HUMANS
LEAVE AFRICA
Apart from the plague, body lice probably
also transmit typhus and trench fever. It is
thus easy to conclude that body lice are in
many ways harmful, but in one respect, they
are beneficial to science.
Scientists have long discussed, when
humans began to wear clothes, and the
estimates vary a great deal. Some believe
that humans started to wear clothes three
million years ago, while archaeological finds
of primitive sewing needles indicate that our
textile adventure began 40,000 years ago.
The question is an important one, as the use
of clothes can reveal, when our ancestors
left Africa.
Now, it finally seems that Melissa Toups
from the Indiana University has found the
answer. In 2011, she compared four genes
from head lice and body lice, and her results
indicate that the body louse appeared
83,000-170,000 years ago.
As body lice live and breed in textiles, the
scientist concludes that within this interval,
humans began to wear clothes, and the use
of clothes thus only began with anatomically
modern humans, who evolved in Africa by
the end of the Middle Pleistocene period and
in the Late Pleistocene.
The clothes played a very important role
for humans’ ability to move out of Africa
and expand further north, where the
climate was cooler. For a naked ape, this
would have been impossible.
But the price was high, and humans have
paid for clothes and expansion by being
attacked by body lice and the resulting
diseases. Luckily, body lice are now rare
guests in many parts of the world, but in
very poor countries, there is still a long way
to go, and body lice tend to appear in times
of war and chaos.
Moreover, like many other animals with
a relatively short life cycle, lice are very
good at developing resistance, just as fast
as humans develop new remedies against
lice. Consequently, there is every indication
that the lice are here to stay – unless we all
begin to shave our heads. And when all is
said and done, humans are probably so vain
that we would rather keep our hair than
get rid of lice.
The Romans’
long struggle against liceShortly after the birth of Christ, Roman
armies were tormented by lice. Pliny the
Elder thought that the soldiers could defeat
the lice by drinking a snakeskin solution.
Questionable
household tipsIn the 1900s, housewives used both
paraffin oil and petrol as inflammable
“louse shampoo”. Less hazardous
methods included rubbing hair and
scalp in mayonnaise or vaseline.
1664 Robert
Hooke pub-
lishes a draw-
ing of lice on a
human hair seen
through his
microscope.
1758 Carl
Linnaeus declares
that humans have
one type of lice.
He names it Pediculus
humanus, which
includes both head
and body lice.
1767 Swedish businessman and
entomologist Charles De Geer splits
human lice into two subspecies:
head lice and body lice – a split,
which is still controversial today.
1812 Lice typhoid fever stops Napoleon’s
troops, before they reach Moscow.
1864 Louis Pasteur once and for all rejects
the millennia old theory that lice arise
spontaneously on humans.
1944-1970
Widespread use of DDT almost defeats
head lice in the US, but body lice develop
resistance quite quickly.
1990s-today Repeatedly, lice prove
to develop resistance against different
recent lice remedies. The short-lived
generations and the relative great number
of lice mean that the parasites adapt to
the chemicals fast. Lice thus still pester
humans throughout the world.
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FEATURE | nanotech
50 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
Via the blood vessels, future
nanorobots will be sent on
missions deep inside the body. d. Mack/sPl/scanPIx
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SUrgErYSoon, nanorobots will be ready to enter the body
and wage war against bacteria, cancer, and
other diseases. Scientists have already designed
much of the content of the nanorobots’ medical
tool box, and now, they have started to develop
motors and navigation equipment.
T he nurses have completed the pre-op checks,
and the patient waits for the surgery to begin.
Finally, the door opens, and two million nano-
robots in a glass ampoule enter the room on a trolley
pushed by a porter. As soon as the chief surgeon has
injected the clear liquid with the tiny robots into the
patient’s blood vessel, the bots head for the brain,
where their job is to remove a blood clot. the robots
cooperate efficiently. Some lead the team to the blood
clot and at the same time send out signals, allowing
the surgery to be monitored on screens in the operating
theatre. others are equipped with nippers, which grab
the blood clot and hold on to it, while tiny robotic
surgeons cut it up into small pieces with their sharp
scalpels. the pieces are collected by a gripping arm and
carried away in a container, while other nanorobots
dose drugs directly into the injured tissue, boosting its
ability to heal. After the successful surgery, the
nanorobots go dormant, and are flushed into the
bloodstream to be later excreted from the body. the
surgery lasts less than half an hour.
this could be the future blood clot (and a series of
other surgeries) treatment scenario. Scientists have
already managed to develop nanoscale robots and to
send them into the human body. For several years,
doctors have used very simple nanorobots, which can
trace and eliminate cancer cells by burning them
without harming the healthy tissue nearby. But the
real challenge is to develop robots which are able to
move about the body on their own, find the sick tissue,
and use tiny tools to carry out a surgeon’s job by
acting directly on tumours, blood clots and more.
today, the first prototypes are ready for trials, and it
has proved possible to customise sophisticated robots
with highly unique qualities.
CUT OUT THE CUTTING
the advantages of nanoscale robotic surgeons are
obvious. the vast majority of diseases are caused by a
defect in a cell or in one of the cell’s tiny components.
Consequently, it is often way out of proportion for
doctors and surgeons operate with scalpels and
EXTREMELy SMALL TOOLS
TARGETED DRUGS
EFFECTIVE DIAGNOSES
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sick cells. Almost all drugs have been
developed to be effective against certain
types of cell. But when the drug is given in
the shape of a pill or an injection, it affects
the entire body, markedly increasing the risk
of side effects.
Scientists have long dreamed of being
able to carry out surgery and dose drugs
deep inside the body and directly onto the
sick tissue - and only the sick tissue.
In continuation of the most recent
scientific results, the dream may very well
soon come true. One of the great
breakthroughs came in 2006, when Paul
Rothemund from the California Institute of
Technology in the US managed to fold a DNA
strand into an arbitrary figure. Since then, DNA
has become one of scientists’ favourite
building blocks for nanorobots. DNA can be
interwoven and bound to molecules in different
tHE EartH is as
many times bigger
than a soccer ball ...
... as a SoccEr Ball
is bigger than ...
... a partIclE with
a diameter of 1 nanometre.
HUMAN HAIR
(DIAMETER): 90,000 NM
nano mEanS SmallReally small. the prefix ”nano” comes from the greek word for dwarf
and is used as a designation for ”one billionth”. consequently, one
nanometre (nm) is one billionth of a metre. a nanoscale object is
anything measuring up to 100 nm. above 100 nm, you can image the
object in an optical microscope. once a thing becomes big enough to
see with visible light, it is considered merely microscopic.
a SpEcIal JEt EngInE for nanorobots uses
hydrogen peroxide as fuel. In four seconds,
the nanorobot moves eight millimetres.
Nanorocket
1 NM
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Little nippers could save livesby means of tiny grids and cutting nippers, robots are to repair the body from the inside.
At nano-scale, the tools a robot needs do tra-
ditional jobs (cutting, suturing) in strange
new ways. Robert Freitas from the Institute
for Molecular Manufacturing in California has
developed round nanorobots, or clottocytes,
which can repair a burst blood vessel very
fast, using a fine-meshed grid, which will seal
the hole and prevent blood cells from esca-
ping. At the same time, signals are sent to
other clottocytes, which will quickly come to
the accident site. According to Robert Freitas,
the clottocytes are 1,000 times faster than
the body’s own blood coagulation processes.
1. In the initial position, the
cutting nippers are open.
2. The teeth are tiny
receptors, which can
recognise fibrine from
coagulated blood.
3. When encountering
fibrine, the teeth capture
their prey – a blood clot.
DNA MOLECULE
(DIAMETER): 2 NM
CELL (DIAMETER):
25,000 NM
structures, making it ideal as a nanorobot skeleton. Since
then, DNA has been used to build nanorobots shaped as
drug-carrying containers.
Another great advance was made, when scientists
managed to utilise some proteins’ ability to bind to
particular molecules. Scientists can use the technology to
develop nanorobots, which can hold on to a cancer cell or
grab hold of a blood clot.
TINy ENGINES TO POWER ROBOTS
One of nanotech engineering’s greatest challenges is to enable
the nanorobots to move about the body. The tiny surgeons
must be equipped with a type of engine, fuel, and navigation
equipment, so they can get to the sick tissue. However,
scientists are well on their way to solving these problems.
In 2010, Liangfang Zhang and Jospeph Wang from the
University of California, San Diego, developed an example of
an extremely efficient engine, which can power nanorobots.
Their rocket-shaped nanorobot uses hydrogen peroxide
(H2O2) as its fuel. The rocket’s jet engine consists of layers
of four metals – platinum, gold, iron, and titanium. When
placed in a liquid, which contains a weak solution of
hydrogen peroxide, the engine will suck in the fuel through
its front aperture and split it into water and oxygen, so
thousands of tiny air bubbles are forced out through the
rocket’s tail. The engine provides the nanorobot with so
much power, that it can move at a speed of up to 2 mm/
second. This may not sound fast, but considering the size,
it is like a car driving at 600 km/h.
The splitting up of hydrogen peroxide also provides the
power of another nanotech engine developed by scientists
from the Pennsylvania State University in the US. The
engine consists of a small metal rod with platinum at the
front and gold at the back. The hydrogen peroxide is split
into oxygen and two free protons and electrons, when it
comes in contact with the platinum. After the split, the
electrons move through the metal rod to the gold at the
back, where they encounter the protons, which have made
the same trip – only on the outside of the metal rod. Now,
the protons and the electrons are united with the
EXTREMELy TINy TOOLS
In 2012, Gabriel Lavella from
the University of California
designed a pair of nano-cut-
ting nippers. Only 100 nm
long, the nippers consist of
two jaws, which capture
blood clots when encounte-
ring the fibrine protein, which
is found in coagulated blood.
CapTure bLooD CLoTs
Nano-cutting nippersBlood
clot
EFFECTIVE DIAGNOSES
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hydrogen peroxide, generating a water molecule. The process
is repeated and creates momentum, which forcess the metal
rod through the liquid at a speed corresponding to a car driving
180 km/h. Not too shabby at all for a little tacker.
While hydrogen peroxide has so far been the favourite
nanorobot fuel, blood sugar may provide energy for the work,
which the robots are to carry out in the future. Glucose is
always present in the blood, and it can be metabolised by
utilising the oxygen red blood cells carry around. According to
calculations made by Robert Freitas from the Institute for
Molecular Manufacturing in Palo Alto, California, the principle
can be utilised by a nanorobot to generate at least 10
picowatts. This might sound pretty low-end, but it’s actually
10,000 times more power than the amount used by an e-coli
bacterium, when it swims using its flagellas. At this stage, no
glucose-powered nanobots have been prototyped - this
remains a tantalising theory.
BATTERIES NOT INCLUDED (OR NEEDED)Many nanorobot designs actually don’t need an external
energy supply. By using well-understood bio-chemical
processes, nano-cutting nippers can be made to ”bite”,
and the leg of a nanorobot can take a step forward by
itself - simply by utilising chemical reactions at the
molecular level. In 2012, Milan Stojanovic from the
Columbia University in New York used this principle to
design an extremely tiny nanorobot, which resembles a
three-legged spider.
The nanospider is only four nanometres long – five million
times smaller than an ordinary spider. The three legs are
made of short, individual DNA strands. DNA is normally a
double-stranded molecule made up by two corresponding
strands, which always seek to join up. The robot’s DNA legs
are, however, single-stranded, and thus, they will constantly
stretch in search of a corresponding DNA strand. When the
nanorobot is let loose on a surface of single-stranded DNA, it
moves its three small legs step by step. In this way, the spider
can move forward at a speed of 180 nm/h – corresponding
to an ordinary spider moving 1 m/h.
However, scientists do not only utilise the DNA molecule to
power the spider. They also use the DNA’s genetic code as a
map, with which the spider can navigate. Milan Stojanovic and
his colleagues have consequently demonstrated that the
nanospider’s movements can be controlled by laying out a trail
of single-stranded DNA sequences, which correspond precisely
to the legs of the robot. Just like Hansel and Gretel followed a
The end of side effects?Two different methods make it possible to deliver drugs accurately.
Almost all drugs involve side effects, as the harsh
chemicals will also affect the healthy cells of the
body. With this in mind, in 2012, George Church
from the Harvard Medical School in Boston
developed a nanorobot, which almost hand feeds
bacteria and sick cells with drugs. The nanorobot
is a DNA strand folded into a pill box, which can
be opened and filled with different drugs. The pill
box is closed with two locks and will not open,
until it contacts certain molecules – such as pro-
teins from bacteria flagella. Since the drugs have
been delivered directly into the sick tissue, the
side effects are reduced to a minimum.
The brain is normally so well-protected that it
is difficult for drugs to move from the blood into
the delicate brain cells. A group of American
scientists have designed a nanorobot,which may
solve the problem. The nanorobot looks like a
group of trees,with drugs instead of fruit on their
branches. In experiments with rabbits with
spastic paralysis, the nanorobot had a positive
effect, as it could pass freely from the blood into
the brain. The experiment showed that the
treatment was up to 10 times as efficient
compared to injecting drugs willy-
nilly into the blood.
Cancer? Get infected with nanowormsThe earlier cancer is detected, the
greater the chances of an efficient
treatment. Tiny nanorobots can
move deep into the body’s tissue
and study every single cell to
determine if it is healthy or has
mutated into a cancer cell. In 2008,
Erkki Ruoslahti from the University
of California in Santa Barbara
designed a nanoworm by joining
5-10 tiny magnetic iron oxide
particles into short chains. The
nanoworm was subsequently
equipped with a type of “fur” made
of bits of protein, which bind to
cancer cells. When the nanoworms
were injected into the body, they
found the cancer cells and
collected around them. In this way,
the worms’ magnetic iron content
made even the smallest of tumours
stand out in an MRI scanner.
When the nano-pill box
encounters bacteria, it opens
and dispenses drugs.
nanoworms bind to
cancer cells, so it is
easier to see them
in mrI scans.
Nanoworm Sugary substance Iron oxide nanoparticle
Cancer cell
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EFFECTIVE DIAGNOSES
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scienceillustrated.com.au | 55
trail of breadcrumbs through the wood, the
nanospider follows the DNA trail laid out by
the surgeon. In this way, scientists can control
the robot, so it will either move directly to the
target or follow an alternative route, which will
wind once or twice on the way.
TINy STEPS TOWARD
A TINy FUTURE
Other scientists have also suggested how to
direct nanorobots to particular places in the
body. Sylvain Martel from the Ecole
Polytechnique de Montreal in Canada
invented a system in 2009, in which a
nanorobot is directed through a blood
vessel by means of magnets, which are
moved along the outside of the
body. And in 2011,
scientists of the Indian
Institute of Science
invented a methodto
help nanorobots find a
blood clot. The scientists took
it as their starting point, that
the blood pressure increases
around a blood clot. They
attached a nanowire which is
affected by the pressure
change, to the nanorobot.
Thus, the robot could feel,
whether it swam in the right
direction towards the blood clot,
or if it had to change its course.
Other scientists imagine that, in
the future, nanorobots can be
equipped with sensors, which can
measure everything from blood
oxygen content to histamines
from inflamed tissue, so the
nanorobots will automatically
move to the place, where their
help is needed.
It is still the job of real doctors to
carry out the work, diagnose the
illnes, and determine when and if
patients should undergo surgery.
But nanorobots will soon be
ready to leave the lab. And
when that happens, they will be
able to navigate safely to sick
cells inside patients, where, by
targeting only unhealthy
tissue, they can live up to
that ancient oath taken by
doctors everywhere: first
do no harm.
mICrOCHIPs? yOu GOTTa
THINK smaLLEr
Individual nanobots will be surprisingly basic, with a single specialised
tool and a simple communications system. But when they swarm
together, they could combine their internal processors into a powerful
distributed computer. Surgeons could reprogram nanobot swarms during
operations by using ultrasound... or even a standard WiFi network!
shutteRstock
real nanobots will be too small to
see with an optical microscope.
this artist’s impression is fanciful -
a real nanobot will be a very simple
machine that looks like strangely
geometric arrangement of
molecules.
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FEATURE | archaeology
56 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
3d mapping: a new frontier for underwater archaeology?
At the bottom of the Mediterranean, french scientists are
revolutionising deep-sea archaeology. They’re using ground-
breaking 3d imaging technology to excavate the wreck of the
the la lune – a warship which sank 350 years ago and
claimed as many as 900 lives. if this dig is successful,
the technique may soon reveal thousands of
hidden wrecks to archaeologists.
deep-dive pressure suits
like this one are expensive
to operate. By 3d-mapping
a wreck before the dives
begin, teams can save
thousands and reduce the
time spent on dives.os
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Using “haptic gloves” which transmit simulated touch ,
scientists can uncover artefacts which may not be
immediately visible to the eye.
Archaeologists and computer experts utilise the latest 3D technology to create a
virtual copy of the wreck at the bottom of the Mediterranean. Eventually,
the technology will allow scientists to explore sunken ships from their offices.
Remote photography The first step consists in collecting as much visual
data as possible from the wrecksite of La Lune.
The sea floor is divided into squares of 3 x 3 m,
which are each systematically mapped out by the
archaeologists. A sophisticated camera, which
takes high-resolution photos, is mounted on a
remote-controlled submarine robot, which moves
about the ocean floor, documenting the wreck at
different depths and angles.
a remote-controlled
submarine photographs
the wreck site.
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STEP 1
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T he French King Louis XIV only had one thing on his
mind in 1664: to flex his military muscle and
shoewwhat France could do. A war in Europe was
too risky, so he focused on the North African coast,
where pirates looted European vessels. By conquering
Jijel, a fortified city in Algeria, Louis could establish a
Photo processingPhotos taken under water are often blurred due
to haze, sediment, and more. With an image
processing programme, scientists refine
the underwater photos and intensify the
colours, so the image becomes sharper.
creating the cloudScientists compare the photos to find key points – special
characteristics of the wrecksite or the objects, which are present in two
or more photos. Using telemetry from the camera, scientists can see from
which angle the many photos were taken and calculate the subject’s
location and proportions. When a sufficiently high number of identical
subjects have been registered, the data is entered into a 3D coordinate
system, so scientists can generate a cloud consisting of points.
BEFORE
AFTER
Scientists combine
photos which have the
same subject.
bridgehead, from where he could fight the pirates. A
successful expedition would secure him public
admiration and seafaring Europe’s respect.
The expedition began in the port city of Toulon in July
1664, but it went terribly wrong. Bad planning,
incompetent officers, and worn-out ships forced Louis’
fleet to return home after just four months.
For one of the vessels, the defeat was fateful. The
three-masted La Lune flagship sunk off Toulon with
almost all 900 men aboard.
La Lune was remembered only in history books – until
one day in May 1993, when, during a submarine dive,
deep-sea diver Paul-Henri Nargeolet suddenly received
sonar signals indicating metal nearby. Shortly after, he
first registered several guns and then an entire wreck –
partly covered in sand, but intact. According to the
French ministry of cultural affairs, the wreck was La Lune.
Back then, scientists did not have the equipment to
carry out archaeological work at a depth of 90 m. But
two decades later, this is no longer the case, and in
October 2012, archaeologists were ready to take a look
at La Lune. What they discovered confirmed the
historical sources. Thßße ship sank like “a marble block”,
the leader of the expedition informed the king after the
shipwreck. Thanks to the fast demise and the large
depth, archaeologists found a remarkably well-
preserved wreck, a virtual time capsule on the oxygen-
poor sea floor.
a special instrument
carefully “blows” sediments
away from la lune without
harming it.
A cloud of points creates a 3D version of the photos.
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STEP 2 STEP 3
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The excavation of La Lune at a depth of 90 m
requires sturdy equipment, which can endure the
extreme conditions on the sea floor. The
atmospheric diving suit (ADS) is actually an
”articulated submersible”, or submarine, which can
maintain normal air pressure inside, making it
possible to operate at extreme depth. At the site of
La Lune, the pressure is 10 atmospheres. The suit has
been approved for use at depths of up to 300 m, but
was used by the US Navy in 2006 as deep as 610 m.
18 flexible joints allow the
diver freedom of movement,
as he walks about the sea floor.
Two propellers
– and their individual
blades – can be
moved in different
directions, so the
suit can be controlled
very precisely.
Foot pedals in the boots
allow the diver to control the
speed and direction of the suit.
Grip hooks allow scientists
to examine objects found
on the sea floor.
The oxygen
cylinder contains
enough oxygen for
48 hours. A special
rebreather system
removes CO2 from
the expired air, so
the air can be cycled
through again.
Two 75 watt light bulbs provide
light on the sea floor. The bulbs are full
of xenon gas, which produces brighter
light than traditional halogen bulbs.
the atmospheric diving SuitA motor-powered aluminium suit is
marine archaeologists’ most important
tool on the sea floor.
Wireless communication takes place
via radio waves and a unit, which is also
found in small subs. The diver can talk
to the ship within a 1.6 km radius.
The face shield consists of 2-cm-thick,
polycarbonate coated plexiglass polished
with small particles, making the glass
both very strong and very clear.
Extremely heavy in air, the adS requires a
crane for deployment.
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“Nothing has been stolen, as the wreck is located too
deeply for amateur divers. To us, La Lune is like Pompeii,”
says Michel L’Hour, the head of the French ministry of
culture’s marine archaeologists, referring to the Roman
city, which was buried in a thick layer of volcanic ash in
79 and excavated in an intact condition in the 1800s.
Among the finds made so far are guns, ship bells, and a
large collection of kitchenware. The archaeologisists
have not yet excavated the earthly remains of the crew,
but they hope that DNA analyses of teeth and bones
will reveal e.g. where the men came from and their
state of health.
In order to make a complete snapshot of La Lune’s last
hours, the scientists use the most modern and
sophisticated tools of archaeology. For instance, the
entire wreck site has been carefully explored by remote-
controlled robots, which can bring back interesting finds
to the André Malraux expedition vessel. The ship was
designed for expeditions like this one, and by means of
GPS, sensors, and powerful engines, it can remain directly
above the wreck without the use of disturbing mooring
lines. And with a Newsuit diving suit – a type of
customized miniature submarine, which equalizes the
pressure on the sea floor – the archaeologists can explore
La Lune without fearing decompression sickness, which is
normally involved in deep sea diving.
WRECkS CAN BE EXCAVATED FROM
THE OFFICE
The photos from the sea floor have e.g. been used to
create 3D models of the objects of La Lune, allowing
archaeologists to study them without having to dive or
rescue them. Moreover, scientists are working on a
complete 3D model of the wrecksite, so they can “walk”
about the sea floor, before they start diving.
The virtual test dives can e.g. help archaeologists find
the best route to an object, that they wish to study in
detail. The route planning will make dives more efficient
and less risky, archaeologists expect.
The excavation of La Lune will be carried out over the
next four years, but the new technologies, which
scientists are developing, reach far into the future. “This
project is aimed at developing methods for archaeological
studies at great depths. What robots can do at 100 m (La
Lune), can also be done at 2,000 m,” says Michel L’Hour.
He expects a lot from the 3D models of wrecks.Once
the system has been fully developed, scientists will not
only see the wreck. A special 3D helmet and gloves will
provide sensory impressions of the structure, shape, and
weight of objects. The helmet and gloves will be connected
to a submarine robot, which repeats the motions of the
archaeologist, eliminating the physical limitations involved
in excavating at great depths and allowing scientists to
explore more of the three million wrecks, which are
scattered across oceans and seas, according to UNESCO.
“By means of virtual reality, I will be able to explore
every wreck in the world directly from my office,” says
Michel L’Hour.
3D image generationA sophisticated computer programme connects each
of the calculated points in the “cloud”, generating
a virtual grid, which is placed across the sea floor.
As a result, the wrecksite and all objects appear
in a coarse 3D shape. Even before further refinement and
image enhancement, objects like guns and other large
items can already be identified.
objects such
as guns begin
to appear.
the conditions at the bottom of the
mediterranean have protected the
remains of the la lune warship
and e.g. preserved the anchor.
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STEP 4
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Gun including surface structure
combining 3d data with existing 2d photos
gives the model realistic texture - here’s
what it looks like before that step
Finalising the model The computer programme connects the dots of the
cloud to give the image solid surfaces and make it
more realistic. Later in the process, the objects are
also coloured by covering the 3D model with photos
from the sea floor. An underwater photo of a gun
is placed over the a virtual gun, providing it with
the right colour and structure.
virtual explorationThe last step consists in making the 3D world interactive. Different
camera angles are coded into the model, so archaeologists can either
see the wrecksite from different angles or move freely about on the
sea floor. Moreover, all objects’ qualities are defined, so scientists
can interact with them virtually, even picking up and moving objects.
In the virtual world,
scientists can touch
and move all the
objects at the
bottom of the sea.like a sophisticated
videogame, scientists
can simulate and plan
actual dives using the
3d model
cédRIc sIMaRd/3ds.coM/dassault systèMes
cédRIc sIMaRd/3ds.coM/dassault systèMes
STEP 5
STEP 6
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FEATURE | quantum physics
62 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
crEatIng an UncracKaBlE codE
J ulius Caesar, the roman dictator, was
in a dilemma 2,000 years ago. In
charge of a huge army like rome’s,
the general depended on being able to
send orders and receive reports from even
the most remote corners of the empire.
the risk of messages being intercepted by
enemies en route was constant, but the
romans found a solution.
By writing messages to victorious
legions in code, the emperor made sure
state secrets were not revealed, even if
enemies laid hands on the letters. today,
Caesar’s code, by which the letters of the
alphabet were moved three positions,
would be a piece of cake for any hacker.
But throughout history, code systems
have become ever more sophisticated, and
the best modern encryption, used for
military and civil communication, has never
been cracked.
World history is, however, ripe with
examples of totally “uncrackable” codes,
which have been cracked sooner or later.
But perhaps the first truly uncrackable
code is here, thanks to quantum
computers, which utilise the laws of
physics to make calculations by means of
atoms instead of transistors. Nobody
knows for how long the encoded bulwarks
will be able to resist the massive
calculating powers of quantum computers,
and consequently, over the past 20 years,
physicists and cryptologists have
developed a new coded language:
quantum cryptography.
In 2016, the new codes will be put to
the test, when Chinese scientists launch
the world’s first quantum satellite, which
can send these codes round the world.
OPEN MAILBOX USED TODAy
the quantum-encrypted messages will
first be employed for safe exchange of
strategic information between countries
esa
In 2012, austrian scientists
tightbeamed quantum-encoded
photons between the islands
of la palma and tenerife.
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in 2016, a Chinese satellite will pave the
way for uncrackable, quantum-encrypted
codes to be sent round the world. if the
experiment is successful,cryptologists may
finally win their 2,000-year-old battle
against hostile spies.
light-speed transmissionA laser beam shoots quantum-encoded photons off
towards the receiver. Photons can act as particles or wa-
ves. Unless directly observed, they can exist in several
different ”states” at the same time.
and for military uses. Civil modes of
application are however also a logical step
– such as moving money in global bank
transfers. today, public key systems are
used for sensitive communication. the
systems are based on the sender and the
receiver possessing two codes. one is
publicly known, the other is secret. When
A sends a message to B, A uses B’s public
code to encode his data, before sending it
over the Internet. B decodes the message
with his private code – the key.
the method may be compared to a
mailbox, into which everybody can put
letters, but only the owner can open. the
Quantum mechanics make hackers dizzyImmediately illogical phenomena
arising in particles, which are smaller
than atoms, are the domain of
quantum mechanics. This marvellous
physics field e.g. dictates that a
particle’s state is indefinite, until the
moment it is measured. And the very
measurement may alter the particle’s
qualities. It all corresponds to a
situation, in which you wrongly
measure a vertical column to be
horizontal, and it is horizontal, once you
have measured it. This phenomenon
makes quantum cryptograpy
uncrackable. The very moment a hacker
tries to read a quantum-encoded
particle, he will alter the particle’s
qualities. The hacker’s interference thus
disrupts the coded message, and the
recipient will immediately know and
scrap the message.
key is produced by a complex mathematical
formula, so a computer, which is sufficiently
powerful, will be able to calculate the key, if
it has enough time.
PHOTONIC AMBIGUITy
Quantum cryptography is revolutionary,
as it is not based on sophisticated maths,
but on the laws of physics.
Quantum mechanics, which regulates
subatomic particles such as electrons and
photons, has a number of odd qualities, of
which one is well-suited for encoding. A
photon, which is the primary constituent of
light and some radiation, can (unlike
Werner Karl Heisenberg is the father of
modern quantum mechanics. He invented
the uncertainty principle, which is a
prerequisite for quantum cryptography.
aRchIve
macroscopic things such as
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1
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macroscopic things such as computer
chips) be in several different states at the
same time. You can only find out which state
photons are in, by making a measurement.
But the very measurement may alter the
photon’s state. This is uti l ised by
cryptologists. If a hacker tries to monitor
quantum-encoded photons, many of the
photons’ qualities will inevitably be altered.
The hacker achieves nothing, and he will be
revealed, as the message becomes
nonsense to the rightful recipient.
Cryptologists have been able to send
data via quantum-encrypted connections in
fibre-optic cables for more than 10 years.
But the cables have practical limitations.
The codes cannot be sent across distances
of more than 100 km, as data is lost in the
fibres, and thus, quantum-encrypted fibre-
optic cable networks are only suitable for
local communication.
SCIENTISTS TARGET THE Sky
Instead, scientists intend to send the
photons through the air, by which it will be
possible to send codes across much longer
distances. The present record (143 km) was
set in 2012, when scientists from the
University of Vienna sent quantum-encoded
photons between the Canarian Islands of La
Palma and Tenerife.
Earlier this year, German physicists from
the Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich
and the German Centre for Aviation and
Space Travel in Wessling took up the baton,
exchanging quantum codes between Earth
and an aeroplane 20 km away and moving
290 km/h.
A new milestone will be reached in 2016,
when a team of Chinese scientists from the
University of Science and Technology of
China (USTC) in Hefei will be the first to launch
a satellite, which is to send uncrackable code
keys from China to Austria. The Chinese
quantum satellite plans were developed as
early as around the turn of the millennium.
According to Yu-Ao Chen from the team of
scientists, the design is now complete, and
the satellite is under construction.
HOSTILE SPIES DEFEATED
Once the satellite has been built, the
scientists will carry out a series of lab tests,
before the 600 kg device is launched by a
Chinese rocket. The project is carried out in
cooperation with the Austrian team of
scientists, which was responsible for the
experiment in Tenerife, and the first aim is to
exchange encrypted code keys between
Beijing and Vienna.
The quantum-encoded photons are sent
off one by one from an oscillating laser diode.
For practical reasons, the satellite functions
as the sender, and the two earth stations
function as receivers, as big, extremely
sensitive detectors are required, and those
are much too heavy to be sent into space.
It is a feat in itself that the detectors are
able to distinguish individual quantum-
encrypted photons from the myriad of
photons in sunlight.The scientists use
photons with wavelengths, which are rare in
sunlight, and the detectors have been
designed to filter out all other wavelengths.
If the exchange of quantum-encrypted
code keys between Asia and Europe
becomes a success, the way will be paved for
100% safe global communication, and
cryptologists will finally win their long war
against criminals and hostile spies.
Quantum codes locked by physicsThe codes, scientists intend to send between Beijing and Vienna via satellite, are based on photon swing directions.
Photon encoding
A laser sends out one
photon at a time. The
sender, a satellite, notes
whether the photon swings
vertically or diagonally at
angles of 45 or 135 degrees.
FiLters receiVe Photons
The recipient in Beijing adjusts his
filters randomly. When a filter mat-
ches a photon, he makes a correct
measurement, and vice versa.
Beijing does not yet know which
measurements are right or wrong.
The photons are read using filters, which
measure either rectilinearly or diagonally.
If the filter does not match the photon, the
filter will alter the photon’s swing direction
into one which the filter can measure. If a
hacker makes a wrong measurement, he
alters the sender’s bit - say from 0 to 1. The
satellitte and recipient in Beijing detect the
attack when they compare measurements.
HAckeRS AlWAYS lOSe4 directions = 4 Bits
Each swing direction
represents 1 bit. Vertical
may signify 1 and
horizontal 0. Likewise, 45
degrees may mean 1, and
135 degrees may mean 0.
1. BeIjIng WRITeS
A MeSSAgeA secret message is to be sent
to Vienna, and the Chinese wish
to make sure that the message
cannot be decoded if it is inter-
cepted en route. Thus, the parties
must generate a quantum-
encrypted one-shot key kode,
which only they possess.
2. SecReT cODeS
ARe geneRATeDBoth cities contact the quantum
satellite. First, it sends a secret,
quantum-encrypted code to
Beijing – in this example (1 0 0 1)
– and subsequently another
secret code to Vienna (0 0 1 1).
BEIJIng
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resuLt coordination
Beijing contacts the satellitte to learn,
which filters were adjusted correctly.
The photons Beijing measured incor-
rectly are scrapped. The sequence of
ones and zeros from the correct measure-
ments makes up the secret key. Hackers
will not benefit from monitoring the fil-
ter communication, as it is not revealed,
if the bits measured were ones or zeros.
QUAnTUM cODeS TRAvel FROM ASIA TO eUROPeFor clarity, we’ve used a 4-digit code, which would be easy to guess.
The real codes will be much, much longer.
5. One-SHOT keY IS ReADY
Beijing now knows Vienna’s secret code. Thus, the cities
have a common key, that can be used to encode and
decode their mutual message. Only the common code
has been sent through the open network.
6. BeIjIng SenDS leTTeR
The code key is ready, and Beijing encodes its
message and sends it to Vienna by e-mail,
which can be compared to an open postcard.
Only Vienna can decode the message.
The parties need not worry about the letter
being intercepted en route, as it cannot be
decoded by parties, which do not possess the
quantum-encrypted one-shot code key.
3. SATellITTe PRODUceS
A cOMMOn cODe
The satellite compares the two codes,
(1 0 0 1) and (0 0 1 1), and produces a
new common code according to this
principle: Two identical bits, two
ones or two zeros,
signify 1, and two
different bits
signify 0.
SatEllItE SatEllItE KEY BEIJIng common codE
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
1 1 1
common codE
0
1
0
1
4. cOMMOn cODe IS SenT
The satellite sends the common code to both
cities without encrypting it. According to the
same principle, Beijing now compares the com-
mon code to the secret code received from the
satellite. The result matches Vienna’s code:
IllustRatIoneR: claus lunau
VIEnna
Satellite
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100
,00
0,0
00
,000
40
,00
0,000,000
500,00
0
FEATURE | ASTRONOMy
68 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
In a galaxy at the centre of
the pKS 0745-19 cluster,
there is a black hole with
an event horizon bigger
than our Solar System.
100 BIllIon Km is the diameter
of the event horizon, the
point, beyond which nothing
is able to escape.
500,000 lIgHt YEarS is the dia-
meter of the pKS 0745-19 galaxy.
At its centre, you will find
the ultramassive black hole.
cxc/nasa
40 BIllIon SUnS is the weight of
the most massive black holes
discovered so far.
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GIANT
HOLESBLACK
Quite by chance, a group of astronomers stumbled across the heaviest
black holes ever discovered. The holes are located at the centres of
huge, remote galaxies and harbour an unsolved mystery.
The Chandra telescope hunts
B lack holes are the most peculiar
structures in the universe – and
they are also among the most
massive. Recently, astronomers found
black holes which weigh up to 40 billion
Suns – four times the heaviest that
cosmologists otherwise knew. The holes
are so huge that astronomers had to
create a brand new category: ultramassive
black holes. So far, scientists have only
found a few confirmed examples of the
heavyweights, but there are strong
indications that they exist in droves – and
perhaps some are even heavier.
Common to the black holes are that
they consist of a so-called singularity – a
huge amount of matter compressed into
one point. The matter is so dense that
even atoms have been compressed, so the
electrons no longer orbit the atomic
By Lone Djernis Olsen
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MIkkel juul jensen
j. h
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nucleus, rather they have been
compressed into it. Normally, this is
impossible, because the electromagnetic
force and the strong and weak nuclear
forces make sure that the atoms have an
extent and that the electrons maintain their
orbits around the nucleus. But because the
gravity of black holes is so extreme, it
outcompetes the other forces, so the
atoms collapse.
The extreme characteristics of the
gravity also mean that nothing – not even
light – can escape, if it has passed a point
called the event horizon. The bigger the
mass of the black hole, the further away the
event horizon. The newly-found black holes
have an event horizon the size of our Solar
System. So if there were a black hole, where
our Sun is, it would encompass everything all
the way to the other side of Neptune’s orbit.
RAyS PUT SCIENTISTS ON
RIGHT TRACk
The discovery of the ultramassive black
holes was made by a group of scientists from
the Stanford and Cambridge Universities led
by astrophysicist Julie Hlavacek-Larrondo.
She almost stumbled across them, while she
was solving another one of the universe’s
many mysteries concerning the rays of
material called jets, which some black holes
Stars collapse under their own weightblack holes are the tombs of supergiants – some of the most massive
stars of the universe. When they die, their giant masses collapse and
are compressed into one point with an infinite concentration of matter.
A gas cloud contracts
due to gravity.
eject. Julie Hlavacek-Larrondo studied 18
black holes in remote galaxy clusters. There,
she found jets, which were ejected in both
directions along the black holes’ axes of
rotation in the same way as in black holes
near us. But one thing puzzled the astro-
physicist: Only a few of the black holes
shone. Light from black holes is normally a
sign that matter is being sucked injested.
And black holes get the energy for jets from
matter, which is sucked in from the
surroundings. On its way towards the hole,
the matter, which primarily consists of gas, is
heated and starts to shine. Astronomers can
see the light in their telescopes, until the gas
crosses the black hole’s event horizon.
But there was only very little light to be
seen, so where did the energy for the
spectacular jets come from? One possibility
was that the black holes were much heavier
blue supergigantgas cloud
2. The giant starts to shine As the gas is concentrated,
the temperature at the centre becomes so high that atomic nuclei fuse.
The fusion processes make the star emit light and heat. The energy is
released at the centre and keeps the star balanced against gravity.
1. Star originates from gasStars are formed by a large cloud
of gas and dust, which becomes
unstable and begins to contract.
Julie Hlavacek-Larrondo is fascinated by
black holes. The so-called singularity at the
centre of a black hole is extremely small,
but its forces reach far into the universe. Her
studies of black holes put Julie Hlavacek-
Larrondo on the track of the ultramassive
holes of big galaxies. Larrondo works for the
Stanford University.
Black hole hunter
Gravity from
the huge mass.
Radiation pressure
generated by
energy transport
from the centre.
Fusion- processes
I wouldn’t be surprised, if I end up finding a 100 billion solar mass black hole.
Julie hlavacek-larrondo, astrophysicist
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The outermost layers
are rejected in a
supernova explosion.
Remaining matter
is attracted by
gravity.All mass is compressed
into one point.
Black holes are formed
everywhere in the universe.
Several may fuse into
supermassive holes.
blacK Hole
than previously believed. Extra mass would
provide the weight necessary to eject
permanent jets – even without sucking in
new matter. Consequently, Julie Hlavacek-
Larrondo began to investigate, whether the
holes could in fact be an indication of a mass
of unknown dimensions.
ASTRONOMER HAD
BRILLIANT IDEA
The most accurate method for determining
the mass of a black hole is looking at how the
hole makes nearby gas or stars rotate
around it. The black hole itself is invisible, as
no light escapes. But by studying how much
it affects other heavenly bodies,
astronomers can estimate the mass.
Right now, only the Hubble space
telescope can produce data of sufficient
quality. But unfortunately, Hubble has never
observed the 18 black holes, which Hlavacek-
Larrondo studies, and it was not possible to
get it to do so within a foreseeable future.
Instead, the astrophysicist used her
knowledge about a simple, fundamental
correlation between the amount of X-rays
and radio waves emitted by the gas
surrounding a black hole and the black hole’s
mass. And the very X-rays around the
interesting black holes had been measured
very accurately by NASA’s Chandra satellite.
This meant that there was either an error
in the new calculations, or the old theory was
incorrect: a classic dilemma in scientific
research. Hlavacek-Larrondo chose to
maintain that her calculations were correct,
because the correlationbetween the amount
of X-rays and radio waves on the one side
and the black hole’s mass on the other had
held water on so many other occasions. At
the same time, she could explain how the
black holes managed to eject powerful jets.
The new numbers demonstrated that the
black holes had masses of up to 40 billion
Suns – heavier than any other holes known
by scientists.
The next step was to fit the discovery
into the catalogue of black holes. Until
recently, astronomers believed that black
holes primarily came in two versions: small
holes with a mass of 10-30 Suns and evenly
distributed across most galaxies, and
supermassive black holes, which weigh
supernova
4. A black hole remains The atoms
cannot resist gravity, and the star collapses into
a so-called singularity, whose density is in
principle infinite. A black hole has formed.
3. Fireworks end the party After millions or
billions of years, there is no more fuel. When the star stops
generating energy, the radiation pressure drops, and the matter
collapses. The outermost gas layers are rejected in a giant explosion.
X-rays are absorbed by the atmosphere, so it
is necessary to use telescopes like Chandra,
which orbit the Earth.
Radio waves, on the other hand, pass
right through the atmosphere, so in this case,
telescopes on Earth are sufficient. The
astrophysicist could obtain the observations
of radio waves she needed from Earth-based
telescopes like the Karl G. Jansky Very Large
Array, New Mexico, and the Australia
Telescope Compact Array.
Other astronomers had already
estimated the weight of the 18 black holes
– based on a theory that there is a fixed
correlation between the mass of a black hole
and the mass of the galaxy, at whose centre
the hole is located. But when Julie Hlavacek-
Larrondo calculated the mass based on data
from X-ray and radio telescopes, the values
did not match. The black holes were on
average 10 times heavier than scientists
used to believe.
light years is the distance to the big black hole at
the centre of the Milky Way. There may be many
smaller black holes in other places of our galaxy.
26,000
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asa
10,000-10 billion solar masses and are
located at the centres of galaxies. But recent
observations indicate that there is also a rare
type of medium-sized holes. And now, the
family of black holes has grown by yet
another type: ultramassive holes with a mass
of up to 40 billion suns.
DO BLACk HOLES SWALLOW
EACH OTHER?
The last – and still unsolved – mystery is
how the ho les became so huge.
Astronomers know that small black holes
arise, when big stars die. The stars
collapse under their own gravity and end
up as a singularity with the entire mass
compressed into one point. Supermassive
black holes may have occurred in
collisions between small black holes.
But in the case of the newly-found giants,
this explanation is not sufficient.
Astronomers are not sure, but according to
one theory, they occurred when several big,
very active galaxies collided. The central
black holes swallowed each other and grew
to massive sizes. This assumption is
consistent with the fact that scientists are
now quite positive that the majority of galaxy
centres harbour a supermassive black hole
– including our own galaxy, the Milky Way. The
black hole at the centre of the Milky Way is
located approx. 26,000 light years from our
Solar System. And by looking at how nearby
stars orbit it, astronomers have estimated
the mass at 4.1 million Suns.
NEW DESIGNATION
Julie Hlavacek-Larrondo would still like to
have her discovery confirmed by the Hubble
telescope. With Hubble, the mass can be
determined by analysing how heavenly
bodies close to a black hole are affected by
it. If Hubble provides the same result, the
theory is very reliable.
In connection with some of the 18
mysterious black holes, it has so far only been
possible to determine a lower limit of their
mass – a minimum weight of the holes. In
principle, the real mass may be much greater.
By means of the Hubble telescope, Julie
Hlavacek-Larrondo believes she may find a
black hole with a mass of 100 billon Suns.
If so, she must go back to work and find
an explanation of its formation. And
astronomers will probably also need to study
their dictionaries in detail to find another
word for the massive giants, as ”super” and
”ultra” are already taken.
PHENOMENON: Black holes outside
galaxy centres are normally relatively
small and light. Consequently, it is a
mystery that two black holes found
in the arms of the IC 342 spiral galaxy
are still able to make gas nearby shine
brightly – this would usually require
a much bigger mass. The two black
holes are so-called ULXs (ultra-
luminous X-ray sources). The holes
have been spotted by an X-ray
telescope, and the image has been
fused with an ordinary photo taken
in visible light, so the location in
the galaxy becomes clear.
POSSIBLE EXPLANATION:
The ULXs may be a rare type of mid-size
black hole. However, scientists do not
rule out that we could be talking about
ordinary black holes, which shine
brightly for a so far unknown reason.
Rogue giants: a new black hole subclass?
Shining gas reveals black holes
-273273 dEgrEES below zero is the temperature
inside black holes. The extreme cold is very
close to absolute zero.
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in 2012, scientists discovered a black hole moving fast out of its galaxy. The peculiar
behaviour is only one of a number of phenomena, astronomers are trying to explain.
four puzzling interstellar discoveries
PHENOMENON: Big black holes
are usually located at the centres of
galaxies, where they suck in mass
for millions or billions of years . By
combining data from several tele-
scopes – including NASA’s Chandra
X-ray telescope – scientists discove-
red in 2012 that a black hole is
moving out of its galaxy at a speed
of several million km/h. The black
hole is already far away from the
centre, and at its present speed, it
will leave its galaxy entirely some
time in the distant future.
POSSIBLE EXPLANATION:
According to one theory, the black
hole was originally two holes located
at the centres of two different gala-
xies. Several billion years ago, the two
galaxies collided, and the holes at
their centres fused.
The collision generated so-called gra-
vitational waves, a type of
ripple in space time – the medium, in
which all heavenly bodies move. Gra-
vitational waves can have a
huge effect on their surroundings,
and astronomers believe that the
waves may have sent the black hole
on its a long journey, essentially
washing it out like a stone on a beach.
collission sent black hole on long journey
Impossible twins, impossibly close
Black holesejectpowerful jets
PHENOMENON: In the M82 12
galaxy millions of light years from Earth,
new stars originate all the time. But
among all the new stars, scientists have
also spotted two black holes close to
each other. The holes have not been
sucked into the centre of the galaxy.
POSSIBLE EXPLANATION:
Scientists believe that these type of
holes can be the beginning of super-
massive holes at galactic centres. They
do not have sufficient masses yet.
PHENOMENON: When a black
hole sucks in gas due to its violent
gravity, the gas collects into a disc,
which it is compressed and heated.
Immediately before the gas passes
the black hole’s event horizon, part
of it is sometimes suddenly accele-
rated and sent far into space. The
two opposite gas columns, called
jets, are ejected along the black
hole’s axis of rotation.
POSSIBLE EXPLANATION:
The two jets consist of particles,
which move at a speed close to
the speed of light. Astronomers
do not quite understand how they
are formed, but scientists have
discovered that when the particles
of the two jets collide at extreme
speeds, they emit energy-rich
gamma radiation. Analyses of
the radiation are expected to
indicate how the jets arise.
Black holes
Jet
Gas cloud
Area enlarged
Galaxy centre
Black hole
Direction of motion
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laika was a stray dog from moscow,
who was chosen because the
scientists concluded that she was
used to tough conditions.
laika’s cruel high-temperature fate EXPERIMENT: Nobody knew whether
humans could endure weightlessness. So a
stray dog, Laika, became the first living
creature to orbit the Earth. Scientists did
know that Laika would not return alive, as
technology for reentering the atmosphere
was not available, but they expected the
dog to survive for a couple of days.
Unfortunately, Laika died of super-
heating after a few hours, as the launcher
did not part from the space capsule as plan-
ned. But scientists still managed to measure
normal pulse and breathing in the dog.
WHAT WE LEARNED: In spite of her tragic
fate, Laika proved that living organisms can
survive without gravity, and she laid the
groundwork for launch of humans.
1957
RIa novostI/scanPIx
SURvIvAl
FEATURE | space travel
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by lea holtze
in the early space age, scientists wrestled with a great mystery:
Can humans survive in conditions of weightlessness? To find out,
animals took the first dangerous trips to test the extreme conditions
in the name of science and pave the way for humans.
Y uri Gagarin of Russia became the
first human in space in 1961. But his
achievement took place four years
after the space dog Laika. She proved that
living creatures can endure the conditions
outside Earth’s atmosphere and function in a
state of weightlessness.
Laika is only one of a long series of animal
pioneers who have tested everything from
gravity’s influence on the nervous system to
space missions’ effect on our ageing
processes. The mission of each animal was
basically to test what humans could not or
dared not do themselves.
When Laika was launched in a Sputnik 2
rocket – sadly with no return ticket in her
suitcase – the humans in charge of various
space programs were not in any way sure that
living creatures could survive without gravity,
and they did not know how the body
from tHE ScIEntIfIc arcHIVES
1961
EXPERIMENT: In January 1961, Ham the Astrochimp became an American
space pioneer when he joined Project Mercury. The experiment involved
testing whether Ham could carry out duties in space. The monkey had
been trained to push a lever after seeing a blue light. If he did not, he
immediately got a mild electric shock via small electrodes on his body.
WHAT WE LEARNED: Ham diligently
pushed the lever during the space
mission – pausing only one second longer
than on Earth, proving that living creatures
could do work in space.
Space chimp was a space champ
nasa
after a job well done,
Ham was pensioned off
and lived another 17
years in two zoos.
animaLS in SPaCe:
WORk cAPAcITY
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as early as 1970, bullfrogs
were tested on space flights.
In the photo, microelectrodes
are attached to measure
bodily functions.
coweb spun without gravityEXPERIMENT: Scientists wanted to find out, whether a
spider could spin a coweb without gravity, and the cross
spider Arabella was included on the Skylab Mission in
1973. After 24 hours, Arabella began to spin a web,
which was not one of her best. An astronaut removed
the web, and Arabella - now acclimated to weightless-
ness, spun a new, and more well-constructed web.
WHAT WE LEARNED: Living creatures soon learn to adapt
in conditions of weightlessness.
arabella’s first coweb did not
quite measure up to the usual
quality standards.
1973
1992
getty/all oveR
nasa
Frogs breed in space
EXPERIMENT: Embryos of a female frog were aboard NASA’s Endeavour
space shuttle in 1992. Half were incubated in weightlessness, the other
half in a centrifuge, which simulated normal gravity.
For scientists, the mystery consisted in the fact that when an egg
divides, a type of symmetry occurs at one point where it becomes clear,
what is right and what is left. The theory was that the egg was
guided by gravity, but the space experiments demonstrated
that embryos can easily develop without gravity. In 1995, American
scientists also carried out artificial insemination of eggs aboard
the Atlantis space shuttle.
WHAT WE LEARNED: Frogs can easily be conceived and born in weight-
lessness – and the same probably goes for humans.
WeIgHTleSSneSS
FeRTIlITY
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2003
Roundworms survived crashEXPERIMENT: All seven astronauts were killed when the Columbia space shuttle
exploded upon reentering the Earth’s atmosphere on 1 February 2003, but by contrast,
microscopic roundworms from the species Caenorhabditis elegans were found alive in
a container among the wreckage in eastern Texas.
The worms had been sent on a space mission, because they were the first multi-
celled life forms whose genomes had been completely
sequenced. At the same time, humans share 50-60 % of
our genetic muscle material with the tiny
creatures. The worms are thus very well
suited for stuying how long space
missions will affect our physiology
and muscles.
Scientists could see that the
worms thrived in space, and
their muscles contained fewer
toxic proteins than in peers
on Earth. This is so, because
seven genes change into a
slower and less stressful
rhythm of life.
WHAT WE LEARNED:
Muscles – including those
of humans – are probably
able to adapt to long space
missions and may even age
at a slower rate.
1998oyster toadfish quickly find
alternatives to gravity.
EXPERIMENT: Like all other vertebrates,
fish have a sense of balance, which is
controlled by gravity. But what happens
to the nervous system, when the balance
organ is invalidated by weightlessness?
On a mission with the Columbia
space shuttle, scientists carried out no
fewer than 23 experiments with oyster
toadfish to see how their brains and ner-
ves reacted to the unfamiliar conditions.
WHAT WE LEARNED: The nervous system
proved to be the body’s most adaptive
system. Without gravity to guide them,
fish quickly got used to swimming with
their backs to the light.
would react to being launche at a speed
of more than 3,000 km/h.
Scientific experiments showed that
animals tolerated life in space surprisingly
well. In the early days, the zoonauts could not
be returned to Earth, as spacecraft were not
designed to survive atmospheric re-entry.
But measurements revealed that breathing,
pulse, and other life functions functioned
normally in most cases, even when the
animals were hundreds of kilometres above
Earth. Laika demonstrated that animals in
space can both eat and react to their
surroundings by barking.
After Neil Armstrong’s Apollo 11 moon
landing, the ranks of zoonauts came to
include turtles, insects, fish, and algae. Such
creatures are smaller and easier to handle,
and muscle reactions might as well be studied
in roundworms as dogs. Algae could also be
useful in connection with future utilisation of
photosynthesis on space missions. Moreover,
the small creatures are not as cute as big,
furred animals and thus cause fewer
problems with animal protection groups.
MICE PAVE THE WAy TO MARS
Today, scientists would like to venture further
into space and stay there for longer periods of
time, particularly in connection with a future
Mars mission. Staying in space for 500+ days
has an unknown effect on the body, and once
again, animals are to help scientists.
Before 2020, Danish Profesor of
Gravitational and Space Physiology Peter
Norsk must answer 32 questions about
physiological risks facing astronauts on
long-term missions: how they can be
protected against muscle degeneration,
kidney stones, and visual disorders caused
by the increased pressure on the brain
generated after a few months.
To answer the questions, Peter Norsk and
his colleagues will carry out a number of
experiments, in which at least 1,000 rats and
mice are sent to the International Space
Station. So zoonauts will not be out of a job
anytime soon.
roundworms may live longer
lives in space.
Fish adapted
The C. elegans roundworm
nasa
nasa
BAlAnce AgeIng
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first appearing in WW2, these ocean giants are still being built. in 2015, the USS gerald
r. ford will leave Virginia, USA, as the first of a new generation of aircraft carriers.
aIrcraft carrIErS
300,000,000watts of electricity are generated by the aircraft carrier’s two
A1B nuclear reactors. In comparison, an electric locomo-
tive typically generates 5,000,000 watts.
1922 The first vessel designed
to be an aircraft carrier,
the Japanese Hosho, is put into service.
Five years earlier, the British HMS Furious
(above), was modified to allow planes to land.
1945The first jet aircraft lands on
an aircraft carrier, the British
HMS Ocean, which is subsequently employed
in the Korean War. Decommisioned in 1962.
1961The world’s first nuclear
aircraft carrier, the USS Enter-
prise, joins the US Navy. The last oil engine-
driven ship, the USS Kitty Hawk, is introduced.
2001The first non-American,
nuclear aircraft carrier,
the Charles de Gaulle, is deployed in France.
It is Western Europe’s largest warship.
2012China’s first aircraft carrier,
the Liaoning, is introduced.
The refitted ship was originally Russian.
SecOnDStime it takes the
airstrip wires to bring
the 25t combat aircraft
from 240 km/h to a standstill.2SHIPS ARe FlOATIng cITIeS
Modern aircraft carriers are whole communities with up to
7 levelS below deck. Crew sleep in dormitories with as
many as 60 colleagues – and sailors working below deck often
go without sunlight for stretches up to 2 WeekS at a time.
The ships are complete with everything from cinemas and
gyms to restaurants and dental clinics. The mess halls and
cafeterias of an aircraft carrier serve up to 18,000 MeAlS
a day. The Harry S. Truman even has its own Starbucks cafe.
91 yrs
by søren bjørn-hansen. Photos: us navy & us naval historical center
BY THE NUMBERS
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scienceillustrated.com.au | 79
333metres - length of the
ship’s hull. The beast has a
beam of 40 metres, and
the flight deck itself is an
epic 78 metres.
370 km/h
is the speed of a jet, when launched by electromagnetic catapults.
BIllIOn DOllARS is the price of one aircraft carrier. That many dollar coins would weigh 87,600 tonnes –nearly twice the weight of the ship. 14
30knots - top speed of the ship,
(approx. 56 km/h). Roughly as
fast as a grizzly bear can run.
47,000 t of steel
are used for the construction of
the Gerald R. Ford supercarrier.
types of aircraft can take off from the
Gerald R. Ford. Their reach is only
limited by refuelling requirements.
7 coloUr palEttEDifferent coloured worksuits indicate
the roles of the deck crew.
Violet aircraft refuelling
blue aircraft parking and lift operation
Green catapult control, cargo
yellow flight control officers
reD weapons and ordnance specialists
brown aircraft take-off
white aircraft mechanics
people work on the
Gerald R. Ford. That’s
actually 1,500 than
its predecessor, as
several systems have
been automated to
reduce the total size
of the crew.
75 4,500
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1. Which indigenous inhabitants
of Japan, especially of the
northern islands, were only
officially recognised by the
Japanese government as a
distinct ethnic group in 2008?
2. Of all the weird and wonderful
quantum particles, which type of
quark has the strangest name?
3. Consisting of many folded
plates or ”pages” that maximise
surface area, which unique organ
do spiders and other arachnids
use to breathe?
4. What can Spacex’s
Grasshopper rocket do that no
NASA rocket has ever done in the
history of the space program?
5. If ”perigee” means the point in
an orbit closest to the Earth, what
does ”perihelion” mean?
6. In mathematics, does i (the
square root of -1) come before e
(the exponential function)?
7. If you drop a 2mm-diameter
cylindrical magnet down a
2.5mm-diameter copper tube,
will it fall faster or slower than it
would in empty air?
8. In what ratio do people with
Type II Diabetes (usually caused
by obesity + genetics) outnumber
those with Type I Diabetes
(usually congenital)?
9. Established in 1583 with a
voyage to Newfoundland and
following the creation of the
Plantations of Ireland, when did
the British Empire finally come to
an end (according to historians)?
10. Which US electric car
company, owned by the
sometimes zany billionaire
creator of PayPal, is named after
a famous Serbian ”mad scientist”
who competed with Edison (and
also the measure of magnetic
field strength?)
Trivia countdown (use fewer clues, get a higher score!)
5 POINTS 4 POINTS 3 POINTS 2 POINTS 1 POINT
Much of the conflict
took place in the
Crimean peninsula,
which is located in
the northen part of
the black Sea.
The war was
fought in 1853-
1856. one famous
clash is the battle
of Sevastopol.
Among the war
heroes is nurse
florence
Nightingale, who
took care of
wounded soldiers.
russia fought
against an
alliance made up
by england, france
and some others.
The english
photographer
roger fenton's
photos from this
war are among the
earliest war photos.
3. CONFLICTs
Name this
war
This metro is
located in england
in the same city as
buckingham
palace, Westminster
Abbey, and big ben.
The citizens rarely
call their beloved
subway anything
other than
the Tube.
A total of 11 lines
make up the
system, including
the bakerloo line,
the piccadilly line,
and the Circle line.
The first train left
in 1863, making
this metro the
oldest in the world.
This subway
features (as of
2013) 270
stations, and it
boasts a total
length of 400 km.
This film was
directed by
hungarian Michael
Curtiz and produced
by hal b. Wallis for
Warner bros.
2. TraNsPOrT
Name this
famous
subway
The film, from
1942, is about war
refugees trying to
get to the US via
the city of
Casablanca.
The lead actors are
humphrey bogart
and ingrid
bergman. peter
lorre plays a
secondary role.
it featured several
classic lines, not
least“here’s
looking at you, kid”
and “play it, Sam”.
it was inspired by
a by then never-
performed play
named everybody
Comes to rick’s.
1. FILms
Name this
classic
80 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
TRIVIA
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82 | SCIENCE ILLUSTRATED
What’s covered in tentacles,
lives in a swamp and has a
voracious appetite for bugs?
the sundew plant of course.
Nature has many ingenious ways of
surviving in adverse environments. Unlike the
majority of animals, plants are destined to
live or die in the exact spot that they strike
their first roots. If the water or soil nutrient
supply is lacking, they will likely wither and die
there. through an ingenious adaptation,
sundews are able to thrive in wet and boggy
soil too nutrient-poor for most other plants.
their leaves are covered in hundreds of
tentacle-like stalks each crowned with a
BACkyARD JUNGLE
KIllEr VEgEtaBlES: SUndEWS
FAmILy NAmE Drosera
cOmmON NAmE Sundew
DISTRIbUTION throughout Australia and every
continent apart from Antarctica
DIET Insects
but where nutrient-poor soil means mosses
and other damp-loving plants can’t
proliferate. Sundew patches may be very
small, just a few metres across, but crowded
with dozens or even hundreds of plants.
these patches are often quite isolated.
Sundews are easy to find in the Blue
Mountains near Sydney - the sandy soils and
shady creeks provide an ideal habitat.
Damon Wilder is an award-winning photographer and the editor of naturalselectionmedia.com
sticky blob of mucilage that both catches
their insect prey and also digests them. the
sticky secretion is sweet smelling and
attracts passing insects looking for a feed.
once caught, the sundew can bend its
tentacles around the ensnared victim
ensuring it doesn’t escape. As the victim
succumbs, either to exhaustion or
suffocation from the sticky secretions
clogging its spiracles, the leaves begin to
secrete enzymes that fast track the
digestive process. the plant then absorbs
the nutrients through its leaves.
Sundews can be found in damp or boggy
areas, often in shade, where water collects
trivia answers: 1. The Ainu 2. The Strange Quark 3. A book lung 4. land and launch again 5. The point closest to the sun 6. Though i is an imaginary number, its square is -1, which is less than e which
equals about 2.718. So... kind of! 7. Slower - and it will also generate a small electric current. 8. 10:1 9. in 1996 with the return of hong Kong to China. 10. Tesla
trivia countdown: name this film: Casablanca name this subway: The london Underground name this war: The Crimean War
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