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SOCIOLOGIE URBAINE
COURS 4
Patrick Le Galès, FBA
Directeur de recherche au CNRS, Centre d’études européennes de
Sciences Po, Doyen Ecole Urbaine de Sciences Po
Chaire 2016
Brussels Studies Institute et
Citydev.brussels
ECOLE URBAINE
SOCIOLOGIE URBAINE
• Chicago : interactions
• Sociologie marxiste
• Sociologie wébérienne
• Sociologie post moderne
• Changements d’échelle
• Mobilités
• Technologie
• Sociologie politique des usages, des instruments, de la
gouvernance
20/04/2016 2
I MEXICO URBAN AREA
• 20 MILLION D’HABITANTS
• 9 DANS LE D.F. ET 11 DANS L’ÉTAT DE MEXICO
• INTÉGRÉE PAR 16 DÉLÉGATIONS ET 59 COMMUNES
• FRONTIÈRE DF-E.MEXICO SUR LE PLAN DES POLITIQUES DES SERVICES PUBLICS
SUBWAY IN THE 60’S
• Expansion of transport halted by the economic crisis, 1982
• Transport is about finance
• Chaos in ransport
• Bus labour Union, control of the company
DEMOCRATISATION
• Elected Mayor PRD, after PRI
• Cardenas, Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador (2000 2005), marcelo Ebrard 2006-2012)
• Negociation of the budget against the state
• Motorway (12kms highway), BRT, subway, bike sharing
EXISTING JITNEYS (PESEROS, COMBIS MICROBUS)
• Corridor stragegy : use of space
• Historically a very powerful interest groups in Mexico city, very strong organisationASOCIATIONS CUPULES, (10) , control over routes negociated with mayors
• Long history of opposing transport ratinalisation
• 3,3% of journeys in 1972, 54% of journeys in 2000
• Small size vehicles, flexibility
• 30 000 Members, 100 associations
• Regulated fares
• Security ? Vehicle standards,
• Dangerous, polluting, unreliable, uncomfortable
• Race to compete for passengers
IMITATION
• BRT : (Brazil) then the Transmilenio in Bogota
• World Bank money, (5 million $-), Japan policy and human resources development fund (1,3M$), Shell and Hewlett foundation ( 1 million each)
• Network of expert
• Think tanks and associations, NGO
BRT AGAINST JITNEYS
• BRT seen as a way to prevent jitneys from benefiting from the most profitable routes
• Negociation : an environmental framing, institutionalisation,
• First year general strike
•
• Enrol jitneys as employees and stockholders if not independent entreprneurs
• Fare collections at the station (BRT managers) to ensure information and predictable revenue stream
• Jitneys owners, incentives to buy new subsidised buses, financial support
• Informal micro buses forbidden in the corridor
• A proposal : insurgents, one organisation for 262 firms, negociation with key individuals
• A pilot
• Key point : private operators fiance bus and fare equipment and are paid for the services, complex formula. Fares collected in a fund, then redistribution, a subcontractors, not metrobus
• Guaranteed income for individual bus owners to secure buy in
DETAILED NEGOCIATION
• With drivers
• With neighbouring group (UNAM)
• With the government
• With different interest groups
• Major success of the first route
• Mayor Ebrard uses first success to develop a series of BRT road (plus subway)
• Strong popular pressure, consultation
• New deal less generous
YEARS OF NEGOCIATION
• The more the system is successful the more the negociation for expansion is tougher in terms of financial conditions for the jitneys
• Also because PRD is reelected : only one game in town
• New set of protest and strikes
• Direct negociations with leaders, exension of routes for BRT
SAFER CLEANER MORE RELIABLE
• Between 2005 and 2014, creation of the longest BRT corridor in Latin America (Metrobus)
• 6 lines, 115 kms, bus exclusive lanes, 80 stations plus 246 of stratagic corridors
• Electronic fare system
• Low floor,low emission, 40%quicker than micro buses
• 900.000 daily users (4%)
DUAL MANAGEMENT
• DF. Concessions for corridors and roads
• Organisés an ASOCIATIONS CUPULES, (10) relations with local authorities
• Mexico state : concession, lack of transparency for private groups, corruption
• Border Mexico DF versus Mexico state
• Limit the role of the new public bus company RTP
• Select key routes and strategic corridors
• Exchange fare increase for new buses
• Progressive enrolment of various association, particularly when PRD wins the election again
MOBILITY GOVERNANCE
• Serious policies being implemented
• Scale is limited
• Renovation of the city centre
• Governance : different organisations
• Cases of corruption : metro, concessions, negociations, political support, elections
II POLITIQUE DES TRANSPORTS EN
RÉGION PARISIENNE
• Recherche en cours avec Charlotte Halpern
• Gouvernance
• Secteur versus territoire
• Politique versus administratif
• Rationalité, illusions de rationalité
• Comment l’investissement dans le transport structure la
gouvernance de la région parisienne
• Expérimentation et incrémentalisme
Patrick Le Galès 34
A METROPOLITAN GOVERNMENT
• 124 municipalities
• Fusion of departements
• 6 million
• A bureaucratic monster or effective governance of the
metropole
• Everything into place (2016)?
1975 1997 2015
Paris city
council
Non existing Emergent
ideas
And project
No decision
capacity
Massive innovation
Tram, velib, less cars, auto lib,
transport and mobility services
Ile de
France
Region
Non existing Roads and
emerging
piecemeal
small projects
in the
periphery
Control of the regional transport
policy, planning and
implementation
Control of the regional agency
Implementation
Renovation of the train system and
RER
Support and renovation of the bus
and tram system in the regional
periphery
Innovation in services : Navigo pass
single price
Application
French
state
Dense Metro
and bus
system in Paris
RER regional
transport
system
Underinvestm
ent in the
network in the
region
(RER and
trains)
SGP : grand Paris Express (30 bn
Euros)
Charles de Gaulle Express
THE MODERNISING STRATEGY OF THE GAULLIST STATE
• Keynesian era: voluntarist planning policies led by de
Gaulle government during the 1960’s. The state,
understood as a technical and administrative
apparatus, is considered to be responsible for
managing demographic and urban growth. It undertook
then two important reformes
• 1959: creation of the district of Paris (La défense)
• 1964: Seine département dismantling) : the deal
between gaullists and communists
• PADOG : Planning the metropolitan regions (new
towns, RER, transport)
• Divide and rule, strong localism
Patrick Le Galès 36
PLANIFICATION URBAINE ET TRANSPORT L’HERITAGE DE L’ETAT MODERNISATEUR
• Lucien Sfez, Critique de la décision : illusion de la
rationalité
• Villes nouvelles
• Voies sur berge
• Voies pompidou
• Banlieue rouge
Map 1. The SNCF-RATP joint infrastructure ownership and operation of RER lines B and A.
Source: SIA-Partners’ Blog on transport and distribution: http://transport.sia-partners.com/files/2011/07/GI-RATP2.png
• LA MOBILISATION POUR LE
TRANSPORT STRUCTURE L ACTION
COLLECTIVE AU SEIN DE LA REGION
ILE DE FRANCE
20/04/2016 40
Transportnetworksandlevels
National level Regional level Municipal level
HighwaysDepartmental&municipalroads
TrainsRER&
TransiliensMétro
Vélib&Autolib
BusRapidBustransit
METROLITAN GOVERNANCE : 3 DYNAMICS, 15 YEARS OF DEBATE
• Paris city councils and its neighbours, Paris Metropole :
cooperation between municipalities
• The rise of the region : a metropolitan region
• Grand Paris : a political economy led by the State with
president Nicolas Sarkozy
Patrick Le Galès 44
RENOUVEAU DES POLITIQUES PUBLIQUES
• 15 years of ongoing urban transport major policy initiatives and experimentation Paris Ile de France
• Velib, bike lanes, autolib, buses safe lane, planning (less parking), new services, the development of a tram network, the renovation of suburban railways, the Navigo card for all public transports now with a unique price for the whole Paris Ile de France region, more public space, no congestion charge, some coercion to limit the use of cars in case of pollution.
• not only were they extended from the center towards the periphery, but the periphery itself recently started developing policy initiatives and experimentations.
COMMENT EXPLIQUER CELA ?
• Urbanisation et effet capitale : compétition avec Londres
• Dynamiques politiques
• Concurrence coopération
• Rivalité RATP/SNCF
20/04/2016 47
• Trois (et demi) niveaux de gouvernement
• Trois périodes :
Avant 1977 : planification et transport organisés par
l’administration centrale d’Etat
1977-1997 : Etat et montée en puissance de la ville de
Paris et de la région Ile de France
2001-2015 : Coopération compétition entre Paris et la
Région (même coalition) mais consensus contre puis avec
l’Etat
20/04/2016 48
QUESTIONS
• Le cadrage et la politisation de la question des
infrastructures de transport
• Les changements d’échelle : qui est en charge, qui pilote
?
• L’évolution des régulations et de la réglementation
• Qui paye ?
• Qui sont les intérêts mobilisés et comment ?
20/04/2016 49
BUDGETS
• Regional council : 5 billion Euros
• City of Paris : 12 M inhabitants, 9 billions Euros budget
• Département , Between 1 and 1,6 billion Euros
• Paris Ile de France, 22% of the population, about a third
of GDP
Patrick Le Galès 50
3 FACTEURS POLITIQUES
• 1) Mobilisation de la nouvelle équipe à Paris
• 2) La mobilisation de la région , negociated leadership
• 3) Sarkozy et le grand Paris : action collective par le
conflit qui crée le consensus
20/04/2016 52
1) L’INVENTION D’UN MODÈLE PARISIEN DE TRANSPORT URBAIN
DURABLE
• Innovation : Tramway, velib, autolib
• Plus important : pas congestion charge mais
transformation de l’espace public pour limiter le poids de
l’automobile (pour les habitants de Paris contre l’Ile de
France)
• Diffusion dans la métropole : expansion du système
parisien contre soutien politique
•
Réaction de la région
20/04/2016 53
L’EFFET « GAUCHE PLURIELLE »
• Elected Mayor 1977
• Region in 1986
• Chirac and Tiberj: the conservative city
• After 2001, the mobilization of the elected mayor of
Paris Bertrand Delanoe (and his team and networks).
He starts a series of innovation (tramway, velib,
Autolib). This is a case of strong collective political
leadership. This constitutes a major explanatory factor
in order to understand why transport developments
resulted from tensions between the city of Paris and the
rest of the region.
SUCCÈS POLITIQUE : PEAK CAR
• Paris Ile de France counts among those few metropolises in which a “peak car” appears to have been reached in the center, and seems to be spreading (IAURIF 2013). The evolution of car use between 2001 and 2010 in the Paris Ile de France Region indicates that the daily use of cars is stagnating, while at the same time the evolution also indicates a shift towards an increasing use of public transport. Within Paris the shift is more spectacular as 40% of the inhabitants do not have a car anymore, a rapidly growing trend.
PARIS AND THE REGION
• Socialist/green alliance
Modernist social democrat and green priorities
• Conflict with the central state
• Three priorities :
Social cohesion, housing, social services,
integration of immigrants
Ecological priorities : transport in particular
Economic development
Patrick Le Galès 64
• Region is worried, strong political rivalry
• Very democratic way of working, the president changes
every year, Consensus building
• Implementation of a series of initiatives on buses, bikes,
infrastructure, housing
• Tough negociations of contract with utility firms
• The core of the metropolitan region
Patrick Le Galès 65
• Regional council: although also left-oriented, refers to the administrative region as the only legitimate scale, thus based on political representation. -> struggle btw. Delanoë and Huchon, which leds to Government/Capital-city alliances.
• Private interests: have constituted themselves in a specific lobby from the CCIP: “Paris-Il-de-France Capitale Economique”. Together with the government they focus on an hypothetical metropolitan area with strong functional powers. Their claims bout strategic planning are similar to the government: more infrastructures (roads, transportation system) to compete with the Great London.
Patrick Le Galès 66
LA REGION CONTRE L’ETAT
• The mobilization of the regional council of Ile de France (ie the region) as part of the French decentralization process. The region took over of the agency in charge of transport (STIF : Syndicats des transports d’Ile de France) together with key stakeholders (central government, SNCF, RATP..) a case of negotiated leadership leading to collective action between key players in the Region.
• This is particularly relevant in order to highlight a less visible but nonetheless transformative dynamic in transport networks that is mainly driven by technological innovations (e.g., signaling, NTIC, reorganization of the infrastructure, new trains ...).
THE ILE DE FRANCE REGIONAL COUNCIL
• Right then left : Socialist with green and communist
• Priorities : planning, environment, inequalities
• New master plan against roads, more public transport
• Gained new powers : the regional transport agency
Patrick Le Galès 68
ECHEC DE LA PLANIFICATION URBAINE
• Le Schéma directeur de la région Ile de France contre
l’Etat : transports publics, logement, écologie, faible pour
le développement économique
• Forte mobilisation : opposition de Paris, rejet de l’Etat
20/04/2016 71
3) PRÉSIDENT SARKOZY ET LE GRAND PARIS
• Discours de 2007
• Développement économique, nouveau capital….isme
20/04/2016 74
GRAND PARIS
• Creation of a ministry for « le Grand Paris »
• Political attack against the region, the master plan is not
accepted by the government (elections)
• Creation of « Atelier International du grand Paris »
ministry of culture, international consultation
• 2010 act : creation of the Société du Grand Paris to
create first, a new transport system
Patrick Le Galès 75
• A complex political conflict
• (government with poor suburbs against Paris and the
region)
• Plan for a new massive transport system
• Competition between the subway company (RATP) and
the train one (SNCF)
• Competition between the region and the state : leading
to a compromise approved by the new government in
2013
Patrick Le Galès 76
LE CONFLIT DU GRAND PARIS
• The conflict for leadership over the design of the Grand
Paris transport project between the Region and
President Sarkozy, which ultimately led all actors to
unify against this classic central government led
policymaking process in order to promote a
negotiated mode of transport governance as part of
the Grand Paris Express project.
GRAND PARIS EXPRESS
• How much ? 40 Bn euros ?
• How long ? 30 years
• 200 kms of new subway line, or train,
• 72 new stations
• Improving normal trains too
• New consultation process
• The sarkozy Grand Paris project becomes a transport
system
Patrick Le Galès 82
LE GRAND PARIS EXPRESS
• A major public investment, the Grand Paris Express (minimum 25 billion Euros until 2030, more likely to be 35), 68 new stations, new financing mechanisms, to which should be added a new transport between Paris city centre (Gare de l’Est) and Charle de Gaulle airport.
• The urban regional transport system used to be a case of governance quasi failure with bad suburban trains, an ageing specific transport (RER) built in the 1970’s and not reliable, and increased congestion on the roads.
• massive transformations were observed as part of the Grand Paris Express project. This project combines a massive renovation of existing public transport networks, including the metro, the RER and the bus network, and the expansion of the transport and mobility offer in the Paris Ile-de-France Region through major investments in new infrastructures and services. These investments were planned from 2010 onwards.
TOUS CONTRE L’ETAT
• STIF
• Consensus pour le transport : rapport parlementaire
• Combiner les deux projets
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CONCLUSION
• Mobilisations et conflits autour des transports dans la
région urbaine métropolitaine crée des capacités
d’action collective,
• Transforme la planification urbaine
• Changement d’échelle
• Expérimentations et incrémentalisme
• Coopération et compétition dans la mise en œuvre
• Gouvernance Ile de France in the making
20/04/2016 87
1975-1997 1997-2015 Main mechanisms
Paris city
council
Marginal Delanoe and the Greens Leadership and
political innovation
Ile de
France
region
Marginal Reaction to planning
failure (roads)
Serious indepth
renovation of the rail
networks but failed
political political
leadership
Reaction against Paris
Reaction against Sarkozy,
mobilisation against the
state
Not leadership but
political competition
and reaction
State In charge :
planning,
RER and the
roads
Weak
political
legitimacy
and conflict
Political leadership and
massive innovation
(architect, transport)
Main political
mechanism : everybody
against the Sarkozy
project
Leadership
Reaction against
Negotiation and
governance
1975-1997 1997-2015
Paris City
Council
No expertise
No instruments
No resources
No legitimacy
Increasing public expertise
Public private partnership (resources
and expertise)
Public tendering
and resource allocation
Strong political legitimacy to deal with
conflicts
Ile de France
region
No expertise
No instruments
No resources
No legitimacy
Transport, planning implementation
Strong expertise
(IAU), control of the regional transport
authority (STIF)
Weak political capacity
New forms of contract with public
and private partners (economic
regulation)
Information
French State
State specialised engineers in
the administration AND in public
and private companies
Public financial resources
Control of planning and
implementation
Roads, roads and more roads
(and the RER)
Fragmented expertise
Competition and conflicts between
different subgroups
Financial resource (fiscal resources
and instruments)
Decentralisation : divide and rule