vietnam water and sanitation sector assessment report

TỔ CHỨC Y TẾ BỘ Y TẾ QUỸ NHI ĐỒNG THẾ GIỚI CỤC QUẢN LÝ LIÊN HIỆP QUỐC

MÔI TRƯỜNG Y TẾ

VIETNAM WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR ASSESSMENT REPORT

YEAR 2011

August 2012

WATER AND SANITATION SECTOR ASSESSMENT REORT VIETNAM 2011

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CONTENT

Abbreviation .................................................................................................................................... ii

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1

2. Situation of water and sanitation in Vietnam .......................................................................... 4

2.1. Situation of water and sanitation in urban areas.............................................................. 4

2.1.1. Urban water supply situation................................................................................... 4

2.1.2. Current situation of drainage and wastewater treatment ....................................... 10

2.2. Situation of water and sanitation in rural areas ............................................................. 16

2.2.1. Current situation of rural water supply.................................................................. 16

2.2.2. Current situation of sanitation in rural areas ......................................................... 18

3. Water, sanitation and development: health, social and econmomic aspects ......................... 20

4. Water, sanitation and environment........................................................................................ 28

5. Institutional structure, legal framework and information...................................................... 32

6. Provision of finance and investment for the sector ............................................................... 41

6.1. Investment for urban water supply and drainage system and sanitation ....................... 41

6.1.1. For water supply .................................................................................................... 41

6.1.2. For drainage:.......................................................................................................... 42

6.1.3. For urban sanitation and solid waste treatment: .................................................... 42

6.1.4. For financial policy................................................................................................ 43

6.2. Investment in rural water supply and sanitation............................................................ 44

7. Major issues and limitations in WATSAN sector ................................................................. 50

8. Main plans and programs in the sector .................................................................................. 52

9. Sector recommendations........................................................................................................ 55

Reference ....................................................................................................................................... 60


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Abbreviation

ADB Asian Development Bank

BCR Benefit-cost rate

BOD Biological Oxygen Demand

CBA Cost-benefit analysis

CN&VSMT Water Supply and Sanitation

CLTS Community Lead Total Sanitation

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand

DHS Demographic Health Survey

DO Dissolved Oxygen

ESI Economic Sanitation Initiative

FAO Food Agriculture Organization

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GNP Gross National Product

GOS General Office of Statistics

GoV Vietnamese Government

IEC Information, Education and Communication

JBIC Japanese Bank of International Co-operation

JICA Japanese International Co-operation Agency

JMP Joint Monitoring Program (WHO, UNICEF)

Kg Kilogram

KHCN Science Technology

KHCNAT Water Safety Plan

MDG Millenium Development Goal

Mg/l Miligram/Litre

NGO Non-government Organization

NTP National Target Program

ODA Official Development Aid

PTEs Potential Toxic Elements

PTI Permissible Lượng dung nạp cho phép

PTNT Rural Development

QCVN Vietnamese Standard

SDD Malnutrition

CTR Solid waste


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TA Technical assistance

TCCP Permissible standards

UBND People Committee

UNICEF United Nation International Children Fund

URENCO Urban Environmental Company

USD, US$ US dollar

USAID United State Agency of International Development

VSMT Sanitation

VWSA Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association

WB World Bank

WHO World Health Organization

CNVS Water and Sanitation

TXLNT Wastewater Treatment Plant


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1. Introduction

Water and sanitation is one of millennium development goals (MDGs) that Vietnamese government has already committed and this sector always plays an important role in socio-economic life of Vietnam. The Communist Party, the Government and Vietnamese people have been trying to improve infrastructure, enhance living standards for people, contributing to poverty alleviation and national socio-economic development. However, in terms of water and sanitation issues, Vietnam still has to face many challenges that require a lot of efforts to deal with. While there have been a considerable amount of investment to solve problems in water and sanitation, the goals to be achieved seem to be still far away. There is a huge lack of water and sanitation works, low awareness, inappropriate hygiene behaviors and habits in many places, causing negative impacts to community's life and the quality of environment.

In the sector of water and sanitation in Vietnam, there is still a lack of mechanism for sector assessment as well as other related inter-sectoral assessment. The effects of co-operation and information exchange among stakeholders in water supply, sanitation and environmental protection, pollution control in rural areas, urban areas, industrial parks are very limited.

While there were programs, projects and activities related to water and sanitation effectively implemented in many areas, it is necessary to collect lessons learnt from those activities to get basis for evaluating, drawing experience and scaling up further.

Since 2009, World Health Organization (WHO) has been co-operated with Vietnam, supporting the implementation of the activity entitled "Development of Water and Sanitation Sector Assessment Process"

Objectives of the assessment include: • To create evidence-based tools to support decision making process towards

increased investment to achieve water and sanitation goals throughout the country, MDGs as well as objectives of Action Decade, of Sanitation International Year ;

• To demonstrate the linkage among drinking water, sanitation, health and economic development;

• To support initiatives in planning, reforming relevant national policies. • To provide guidance to relevant technical supporting programmes; • To be used as basis for information exchange via a web-based database (or

another effective mechanism) containing data and information to analyze the sector performance.

Water and Sanitation (WATSAN) Sector Assessment Process in Vietnam, through activities to collect and analyze data and information, will develop a sector assessment report, based on regular evidence in the implementation of activities in the water and sanitation sector. These reports will include a series of issues such as sector organization, limitations in the development of the sector, managerial and institutional issues, system operation and maintenance issues etc. This WATSAN sector assessment process in Vietnam will help data collection and information sharing among


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policy and decision makers, service providers, planners and public from local to central levels become more synchronized. Expected outputs from WATSAN Sector Assessment Process:

• Setting up a process of data collection, information appraisal, systematic analysis of the information at the national scale.

• Developing a national report on assessment, surveillance of WATSAN sector in Vietnam.

• Recommending policies and decisions based on the information obtained from WATSAN Sector Assessment Process.

• Having a reliable information system, an appropriate analysis of outputs from relevant activities, through regular sector assessment reports and a dynamic web-based information system, regularly updated with reliable information and data. Process of developing the 2011 report

The former Department of Preventive Medicine which is no Health Environmental Management Administration (HEMA) under Ministry of Health is a focal agency to implement WATSAN Sector Assessment Process. In the first phase of the process (2009-2010), with the support from WHO and UNICEF, HEMA in co-operation with other relevant stakeholders and consultants conducted the activities with the following products: (1) Framework and a table of content for sector assessment report (2) A set of questionnaires for information collection, defined data sources and modes of information collection; (3) Working Plan for the whole WATSAN Sector Assessment Report and Database (4) Guidelines on managing the database management and procedure for developing the first sector assessment report

"The First WATSAN Sector Assessment Report – 2011" is one of outputs of the Phase 2 in the above process. The leading agency for this process was HEMA (MoH) (Dr. Tran Dac Phu, MSc Nguyen Bich Thuy and BSc. Cao Tuyet Hanh and other staff). The report was financially and technically supported by WHO Representative Office in Vietnam (MSc. Ton Tuan Nghia, Environmental Health National Professional Officer and international consultant, Dr. Jose Hueb). The report was prepared by two national consultants, including Associate Prof. Dr. Nguyen Viet Anh as Team Leader and Associate Prof. Dr. Nguyen Khac Hai. Members of a Technical Assessment Team (TAT) from relevant ministries, agencies and expert Eng. Nguyen Trong Duong from Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA) provided information and data, reviewed and commented.

Major contents in the report:

This report covered water supply activities to serve population for drinking, cooking and domestic purposes in the urban and rural areas in Vietnam, types of sanitation, situation of waste management in residential areas in urban and rural areas, including


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wastewater from domestic activities as well as livestock waste from farms, households and hygiene. In the report, water supply and sanitation in schools and public works in rural areas were assessed. Those activities took place in the context of political, socio-economic conditions, geographical features and resources related to water and sanitation. Along with time, trends in the progress of coverage in the WATSAN sector, trends in budget provision for the sector and ratio of State Budget allocated to water and sanitation sector, strategies and policies of the Government for development of the sector were also mentioned in this report.

Based on the framework developed from the Phase 1, consultants' team has co-operated with ministries, agencies to collect information through a set of questionnaires that are classified based on ministries, working areas, in combination of interviews at relevant agencies and ministries. In this phase, information collection just stopped at the central level. Based on the obtained main data, the team of report preparers focused on expressing comments, assessment and analysis of the results of sector performance, and eventually came up with recommendations to improve the situation and increase effectiveness of the activities in the region.

Members of TAT from related ministries, agencies taking part in the assessment process, provided materials and comments for the reports included the following representatives from: - Investment Department (MoF) - Administration of Technical Infrastructure (ATI) (MoC) - Standing Office of the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation National Target Programme, MARD - National Centre for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (NCERWASS), MARD - Environmental and Social Statistic Department, GSO - Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA) This is the first WATSAN Sector Assessment Report in Vietnam. During the preparation for this report, due to the limited time and sources of information; it is unavoidable that there were some errors or mistakes in the report. We hope to receive your comments from you as readers.


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2. Situation of water and sanitation in Vietnam 2.1. Situation of water and sanitation in urban are as

Up to the end of 2011, according to MoC, Vietnam has had 753 urban areas that are classified as follows:

- 2 special urban areas including Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City

- 3 central cities are categories I - urban areas, including Hai Phong, Da Nang and Can Tho.

- 8 provincial cities are categories I – urban areas, including Hue, Da Lat, Nha Trang, Quy Nhon, Buon Ma Thuot, Thai Nguyen and Nam Dinh.

- 11 provincial cities are categories II – urban areas, including Bien Hoa, Ha Long, Vung Tau, Viet Tri, Hai Duong, Thanh Hoa, My Tho, Long Xuyen, Pleiku, Phan Thiet and Ca Mau.

- 47 urban areas are categories III that are a town or a provincial city

- 42 urban areas are categories IV that are towns or township, townlets

- 640 urban areas are categories V that are townlets

According to GSO, 2011, by the end of 2010, the national average population is around 86.93 million people, increasing 1.05% in comparison to the year 2009, including male population of 42.97 people, accounting for 49.4% of the total national population, increasing 1.09%; while female population is 43,96 million people, accounting for 50.6%, increasing 1%. In the total national population in 2010, urban population is 26.01 million people, accounting for 29.9% of the total national population, increasing 2.04% in comparison to the previous year; while rural population is 60.92 million people, accounting for 70.1% of the total national population, increasing 0.63%. The growth rate of population is quite high, especially in the centres of large urban areas, creating a certain pressure on the infrastructure systems that were already backward, not keeping pace with the development rate and causing difficulties and challenges to technical infrastructure, especially water supply and sewerage and sanitation.

2.1.1. Urban water supply situation

The Government issued the Decree No 117/2007/ND-CP dated July 11, 2007 on drinking water production, supply and consumption including activities in production, supply and consumption in centralized water supply systems in urban areas, rural areas, industrial parks, export processing zones, high-tech zones and economic areas (commonly called industrial zones). This decree stipulated rights and obligations of organizations, individuals and households taking part in activities related to production, supply and consumption of drinking water in Vietnam. After a short time of application, the Decree No 124/2011 ND-CP dated December 28, 2011 to amend and update the


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Decree No 117/2007/ND-CP on production, supply and consumption of drinking water was timely issued.

In 2009, Vietnamese Government updated orientations for development of urban water supply sector. The Decision No 1929/QD-TTg dated November 20, 2009 described the orientation for development of water supply sector in Vietnam in urban areas and industrial parks by the year 2005, the vision to 2050. The process of urban water supply development was studied to meet 100% of the demand for water use with a norm of water usage of 120 L/capita/day and reduction of non-revenue water down to 15% and 24 hours/day water supply service in all urban areas in Vietnam up to the year 2025.

Table 1. Objectives of urban water supply developme nt

Indicator Urban type 2015 2020 2025 Categories III or

higher 90

Categories IV 70 90 Service

coverage (%) Categories V 50 70

100

Categories III or higher

120

Categories IV 100 120 Unit demand of

water supply (L/ person/d)

Categories V - 100

120


Categories IV 25 18 Non-revenue

water (%) Categories V 30 25

15


24

Categories IV - 24

Degree of stable service

(number of hours in

operation) Categories V - -

24

(Source: JICA, 2011, Study Report on Urban Environmental Management in Vietnam)

Coverage of urban water supply services

During the past years, urban water supply systems in Vietnam have been paid attention by the Communist Party and the Government with a priority given to investment in upgradation and new construction. As a result, water supply situation has been considerably improved. Many projects with domestic capital investment, grants and soft loans from other governments and international organizations have been implemented.

According to MoC (ADB, 2010 & MoC, 2009) current situation of urban water supply in the whole country is as follows:

- In Vietnam, there are 68 water supply companies, supplying drinking water to urban areas. Surface water sources account for 70% of the total source water and 30% of the rest is ground water. There are more than 420 water supply systems with a total designed capacity of 5.9 million m3/day. Operation capacity reaches 4.5 million m3/day, equal to 77% of the designed capacity.


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- By the end of the year 2010, 18.15 million people could have access to drinking water, accounting for 69% of the total urban population. Percentage of the population using drinking water in urban areas is recorded as follows: 70% of urban population in special urban areas and Categories I - urban areas, 45-55% of urban population in Categories II and III, 30-35% population of Categories IV - urban areas and 10-15% of population in Categories V - urban areas. Correspondingly, average amount of water use of urban areas is 80-90 L/person/d; in which the amount of water use in large cities is 120-130 L/person/d (according to Benchmarking study, WB – VWSA). The actual data above mentioned is lower than that of national target program on urban water supply development.

Water supply system;

- Capacity of the water supply system is still limited due to inadequate investment in water treatment plants, pipe networks for transmission and distribution of drinking water supply.

- According to VWSA, because distribution networks are not upgraded in synchronization with treatment plants, the rate of non-revenue water due to water leakage is 30%, especially even up to 38-40% in some cities such as Hanoi, HCM City (ADB, 2010)

- Although current capacity of urban water supply has increased to 3 times and 2 times in comparison to that of 1975 and 1990, rapid urbanization process and many industrial parks, newly formed urban areas and sharply increased urban population, water supply system has not been able to meet all demands of water use from urban residents. Therefore, two third of small towns are without centralized water supply systems. Besides, due to difficulties in investment fund and capacity of water supply companies, the lack of synchronization in planning development of water supply systems and implementation of the plan, many water supply systems have been upgraded and their capacities were increased; however, their operation is still under their designed capacity.

- According to Benchmarking data from VWSA (VWSA, 2009), only 35 out of 67 cities surveyed (accounting for 60%) could ensure continuous water supply with 24 hrs/day. In most of the rest cities, their water supply systems were only in operation in 14-20 hrs/day and for 3-4 cities, the operation was only in 8-10 hrs/day. Due to the rapid decrease of pressure in the distribution network, water only could flow into underground tanks at households, but could not flow up to higher water tanks by itself. In addition, quality of supplied water at households was not guaranteed according to sanitation standards, although the quality of treated water from treatment plants could meet the standards of supplied water. The cause is that water is distributed in pipes with low pressure or without pressure or even negative pressure, and connections are broken. These causes could lead to the situation in which water easily is filtrated when flowing in the pipes. When the inside pressure increases so adequately that water can flow in the pipes by itself (higher than 0.6 m/s), sediments staying long in the pipe systems can flow pipes too and decreases water quality when supplying to households. According to the survey results, at present there are around 50% of distribution networks to meet standards of drinking water.

- According to MoC, continuing upgrading and expanding water distribution network will be a priority of urban water supply sector in Vietnam. In the coming period,


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investment will focus on works such as culvert to extract raw water, transmission line systems, water treatment plant, transferring and distributing pipe systems. Water supply sector will have to correct the delaying, dephasing in the progress of the above construction works to ensure exploitation efficiency of the system to be the highest. Main water treatment technology used in water treatment plants with surface water in Vietnam is mixing flocculants (alum, lime and synthetic organic polymers to promote coagulations), sedimentation, filtration and disinfection by liquid chlorine or javel.

- For ground water source, the most popular treatment technology is aeration, removal of iron by aeration system, air blower or packed tower aerator, contact sedimentation, filtration and disinfection. In many places, urban water suppliers tried to apply new technologies in management of water supply system, typically the application of information technology in management of water supply networks, combining GIS and SCADA; installation of network management equipment like water quality control equipment, valve for reducing pressure in the network, devices to detect water leakages, non-revenue water, inverters in the pumping station, use of advanced measures to clean the pipe systems like hydraulic hoses, foam balls etc.

- In general, water quality at water treatment plants supplying water to urban areas meets the standards for drinking water, QCVN 01:2009/BYT issued by MoH. However, due to the bad quality of pipe systems and high non-revenue water rate, water supplied to households does not meet requirements for directly drinking water at the taps, but meeting the standards for domestic water, QCVN 02:2009/BYT. For rural water supply systems, there are still many challenges and problems with the control of water quality.

- In many places, pollution of hazardous substances becomes pressing such as arsenic contamination, ammonium compounds, pesticides or industrial chemicals etc.. In the context in which water sources are getting more and more polluted and traditional technologies do not allow to remove all special pollutants such as persistent organic substances, heavy metals and dissolved hazardous ions etc... it is required that water source protection, upgradation of water treatment plants and reform of water supply system management be carried out.

Implementation of Water Safety Plan (WSP)

The concept of Water Safety Plan (WSP) was introduced to Vietnam in 2006 by WHO, and after that programs for implementation of WSP were carried out by WHO (in urban areas) and UNICEF (in rural areas) in Vietnam with an approach of prevention, control and management to minimize risks from catchment, water treatment plants, distribution network to water users.

Ministry of Construction (MoC) made the Decision No 16/QĐ - BXD dated December 31, 2008 to issue Regulations on Water Supply Safety. This decision is a legal framework for preparation, implementation and monitoring WSP to ensure safety in production, supply and consumption of drinking water. WSP initiative of Vietnam was supported by WHO, USAid and AusAid in 2006. According to the plan, WHO will continue supporting WSP at the national level and there will be activities to scale up the implementation of WSP in provinces and cities.

Since 2006, WHO in co-operation with MoC and VWSA has trained, disseminated knowledge and application procedures as well as organized assessment of WSP implementation for all 68 water suppliers in provinces, cities in Vietnam up to the end of


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2011; at the same time, trained on assessment by using WHO QA Tool for 15 water suppliers. In the whole country, there are 6 models of WSP implementation at Hai Duong, Hue, Vung Tau, Hai Phong, Khanh Hoa and Quang Tri and 3 models in towns of Quang Tri province. Thua Thien Hue Water Supply Company had implemented WSP and declared drinking water safety ("Water Supply Safety Declaration" for the whole city in June 2008. At present, the company expands its services to rural areas while continuing the implementation of WSP in urban areas. Ba Ria – Vung Tau Water Supply Company has been implementing WSP up to step 8 toward to completion of WSP implementation, especially reduction of risks of pollution at water source. At present, most of water sources of the company rely on water from Da Den Dam. According to the plan, the company will be able to declare "Water Supply Safety" after the completion of raw water transmission works from a reservoir in Ray River.

Beside the above pilot water supply companies, the program for scaling up WSP initiated by WHO has had wide effects to other water supply companies throughout the country. Big companies such as Sai Gon, Hanoi and Da Nang have had plans for implementation of WSP. Other water supply companies have been in the period of preparation for WSP implementation.

Since 2006, UNICEF in co-operation with NCERWASS (MARD) has supported implementation of WSP pilots in Loc Binh commune, Phu Loc district in Thua Thien Hue province and Dong Thap province in order to find a solution for supplying clean water for people, preventing risks of water source pollution, raising public awareness in using and protecting water sources.

However, successful implementation of WSP still depends a lot on whether water sources are protected or not; and this depends a lot on co-operation among related stakeholders in the localities, on the commitment and determination of the management boards of water supply companies, on capacity of operators as well as typical factors of natural, economic and social conditions of the localities.

Water source and protection of water source in large urban areas

In Hanoi City, urban areas are mainly served with underground water. Most amounts of underground water are exploited to serve central areas in the city, including districts and suburb areas in the South West of Red River. Since the decade of 90s, threats to underground water source were reported, including reduction of water level in wells, reduction of exploited water amount, water pollution and land subsidence. Therefore, the city government has banned new exploitation of underground water inside the city and oriented that exploitation and usage of underground water inside the city should be gradually decreased. Water supply development in the coming years will rely mainly on surface water sources from Da, Red and Duong Rivers.

In Hai Phong City, 5 main rivers including Bach Dang, Cam, Lach Tray, Van Uc and Thai Binh flow through the city to the Gulf of Tonkin. Because these rivers affected by tides, the main water source of the city is the secondary sub-river, protected from tide impacts (intrusion of saline water). Culverts to collect raw water are located in suburb areas and at present, there is no problem of raw water quality. Data of monitoring water quality collected by Hai Phong DoNRE show that surface water source has sign of pollution due to wastewater intrusion from domestic activities. The city has to take into account measures to protect water source in the future.


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Thua Thien Hue province and Da Nang City have to apply measures to cope with salination at raw water intake works. Because these rivers in the provinces have typical features of rivers in the central region of Vietnam with a large seasonal variation in water levels, ensuring water supply needs to consider in the view of long-term integrated water resources management.

Da Den Dam supplies 94% of water source for large urban areas such as Vung Tau city and Ba Ria Town in Ba Ria - Vung Tau province. In 2010, water level of Da Den Dam abnormally decreased due to extension of the dry season. Ba Ria – Vung Tau Water Supply Company has a plan to supply additionally water from a reservoir which will be built in Ray River to Da Den Dam through an open channel with a distance of 30 km.

Dong Nai River is a huge water source for HCM City, Dong Nai and Binh Duong provinces. At present, the river serves 74% of raw water source for HCM City, 64% - for Dong Nai and 87% - for Binh Duong. However, some parameters of raw water quality exceed permissible limits for Type A of the national standards on surface water - QCVN 08:2008/BTNMT. With water source from Dong Nai River, water treatment process allows to meet standards for domestic water and drinking water in the urban areas. However, if intake points of raw water collection are impacted by salination due to the impacts from climate change, it is very difficult to ensure water quality.

At raw water intake works in Sai Gon River, the risk of water pollution became very serious. HCM City government has considered moving raw water intake works in Sai Gon River to a farther location in the upstream area, at lake Dau Tieng in Tay Ninh province.

In general, water source protection is crucial since it affects to quality and quantity of water supplied to users and to business activities of water suppliers. Due to a huge seasonal variation of water quantity and quality, overlapping and gaps in water source management, while water source for domestic purposes in most cases is shared with other water using activities, wastewater discharge taking place at the same catchment, water supply sector has been facing many challenges related to water source protection. Several issues related to water source protection to be improved include:

- Necessity of developing a framework for co-operation in water resources protection among agencies in charge of water supply and related organizations.

- Raising awareness on water resources protection among water supply companies, relate agencies and people;

- Development of human resources to protect water resources for water supply companies

- Appropriate planning for water source, ensuring the principles of integrated water resources management, encouraging water safe and measures to identify new water sources and recycling water.

- Investment in infrastructure, exploitation systems, transferring and supplying water, integration in water resources protection.


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2.1.2. Current situation of drainage and wastewater treatment

The Government issued the Decree No 88/2007/ND-CP dated May 28, 2007 on urban and industrial drainage, stipulating activities related to drainage in urban areas, industrial parks, export processing zones, high-tech and economic zones. The decree stipulated rights and obligations of organizations, individuals and households to take part in drainage activities. For rural residential areas, if possible, the decree also encourages the construction of centralized drainage systems. At present, the decree has been reviewed and updated to be more appropriate to the actual situation.

In 2009, the Government updated the orientation for development of urban drainage and wastewater, issuing the Decision No 1930/QD-TTg dated November 20, 2009, in which there was description of development orientations of drainage sector (urban drainage and wastewater) in urban areas and industrial parks up to 2025 and a vision to 2050.


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Table 2. Objectives for development of urban draina ge and wastewater treatment

Items 2015 2020 2025

Flood

Will be solved in categories II or higher urban areas

Will be solved in categories IV or higher urban areas

Will be solved in all urban areas Drainage

(rain water discharge)

Service coverage 70-80% >80%

90-95%, 100% in categories IV or higher urban areas

40-50% in categories III or higher urban areas

60% in categories III or higher urban areas

70-80% in categories IV or higher urban areas

40% in categories IV, V urban areas and craft villages

50% in categories V urban areas and craft villages

Service coverage of collection and treatment system

Wastewater treatment plants at different levels of management are located in craft villages

The whole wastewater is treated

Industrial and hospital wastewater

All industrial parks have their own discharge system

Wastewater discharge

Other items

Public toilets are installed in categories IV or higher urban areas

Pipes, sewers, channels will be upgraded to prevent pollution at concentrated residential areas

20-30% treated wastewater will be reused.

(Source: JICA 2011, Research Report on Vietnam Urban Environmental Management)

Coverage of urban drainage

Drainage systems in many urban areas in Vietnam started to be established in the period of French colony (when Vietnam was occupied by French colonialists) and was much damaged by the war and rehabilitated after the country was reunited in 1975. In many urban areas, drainage systems just considerably developed in the past two


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decades, when the country moved to free economy. Characteristics of these systems are the common drainage, using the same sewers or channels for both run-off (rain water) and wastewater. Drainage systems in Vietnamese urban areas are managed by state-run enterprises (a type of Drainage Company, Water Supply and Sewerage Company or Urban Environmental Company etc.). Domestic wastewater from households is mainly pre-treated at septic tanks, after that is discharged to a common sewer, flowing without treatment into water bodies (rivers, springs, lakes and seas). At present, only some urban wastewater treatment stations are built and operating at 6 urban areas, including Hanoi, HCM City, Da Nang, Da Lat, Buon Me Thuot and Ha Long. The amount of treated urban wastewater accounts for 10% of the total generated amount of wastewater (Nguyen Viet Anh, 2008). A statement from MoC and VWSA was mentioned in a Report on Water Sector Assessment Project (ADB, 2009), showing that service coverage of drainage and wastewater treatment is still too low in comparison to coverage of drinking water supply services. Drainage coverage is just average 40-50% in which 70% in large urban areas and only 10-20% in categories IV, V – urban areas.

Large urban areas in Vietnam were mainly established on alluvial plains, impacted by tide conditions or seasonal variation of sea levels in surrounding river/sea areas, leading to a situation in which natural discharge and disposal became difficult in rainy seasons. Therefore, urban flood is considered a leading issue of urban drainage. In the rainy seasons, around 30% of the area of urban areas in Red River Delta was under the water, normally from 1 to 12 hours. Although drainage systems of urban areas that are usually flooded are dredged and unclogged, the situation of flood still takes place regularly due to the following causes:

- Drainage channels and sewers were blocked due to construction processes, illegal construction or construction without planning;

- Many lakes and ponds were filled to build houses and roads, leading to reduction of capacity for storage and discharge of rain water.

- With a high density of houses and concrete roads, flowrate of rain water increases due to the loss of vegetation which is able to slow the flow and create infiltration;

- Situation of uncontrolled waste discharge also caused the clog of water flows in the drainage system.

According to a basic survey on sanitation management in urban areas in Vietnam (WB, 2010), the rate of population having access to sanitation services in 2008 is 91%. The most common sanitation works in the urban areas is septic tanks, accounting for 80% of the total households. This rate varies in urban areas. Some outstanding issues for household drainage are as follows:

- Many households have latrine with septic tank but it is not connected to a common sewerage system due to the lack of sewerage network in small lanes. As a result, wastewater flows into open small channels or to surrounding areas or infiltrates into soil.

- Some households have flush latrine, flushing directly wastewater into the common sewerage system, bypassing septic tanks or other on-site treatment works

- In general, septic tanks usually have small volume while sludge removal is not carried out periodically. Many households have not conducted sludge removal from their


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septic tank for tens years. Wastewater; therefore, is discharged into a common sewerage sewer together with sludge from storage tanks, leading to a situation in which it is easy to get sediments in the sewer and there is a serious odor, especially in the dry seasons.

- Activities of sucking, transporting and disposing sludge in septic tanks from households, institutions, enterprises and businesses, services etc. in urban areas have not been controlled. No city has well managed this activity. Private enterprises unpromptedly provide sludge sucking services and mostly dispose sludge into open land sites, channels, drainage sewer or directly into the rivers, lakes etc. close to sludge sucking place (to save transport cost) without being controlled in environmental pollution and disease transmission. Every year, according to the research conducted by Institute for Environmental Science and Techniques, the amounts of faecal sludge from septic tanks in Hanoi, Hai Phong, HCM Cities are 189,000; 80,500 and 336,000 m3

respectively (Nguyen Viet Anh et. al, 2012). Faecal sludge collection and treatment stations do not meet the demand for treatment of those amounts. Hai Phong Drainage Company provides the service of sucking faecal sludge free of charge for households based on the schedule, and this cost is compensated by extraction from the drainage fee of households, via city budgets, but only meets partly the demand from the market and the amount of faecal sludge transported to be treated at Trang Cat treatment station is very limited. Business of public utilities in this sector is not profitable and has to be compensated by other business activities or by the budget of the city government (Nguyen Viet Anh et. Al, 2012)

- According to the assessment of strategy and roadmap for water supply and sanitation of Vietnam (ADB, 2010), the degree of necessary investment for achieving objectives of covering drainage system from the Government for the urban drainage program within 10 years from 2005 to 2015 was estimated as USD 1.4 billion (according to the estimate in 2004). According to the recent calculation by experts in the drainage and sanitation field, the degree of necessary investment should be USD 4.3 – 16.2 billion up to 2020, depending on selected technologies (Nguyen Viet Anh, 2008)

Technologies for urban drainage and wastewater treatment

At present, drainage systems in urban areas in Vietnam are common drainage systems of which most were established long ago, mainly for serving drainage of wastewater from central areas, drainage of surface water, preventing flood along with street routes. Gradually, when many construction works raised, connecting wastewater discharge outlets to the drainage system, the drainage systems became a common drainage systems with a situation of inconsistent construction and operation and not being able to meet the demand of drainage. In many places, routes of sewer have uncontrolled elevation, causing sediments and flood, leading to difficulties in the management of operation, maintenance and renovation. In the new urban areas, drainage systems are separate systems; however, because most of wastewater is not treated, wastewater and surface water from these urban areas flow together in sewer routes along with roads in the suburb or the main drainage channels of the city.

Several urban drainage projects were implemented, applying separate drainage option, typically Buon Ma Thuot city drainage project (funded by Danish government, put into operation in the first Phase from 2008), water supply and sanitation project for small towns in Vietnam (funded by Finnish government, starting to put into use).


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Regarding wastewater treatment technologies at centralized wastewater treatment stations, the commonly applied technology is the one using aeration tanks with activated sludge. Several projects applied low cost wastewater treatment technologies with biological lagoon such as urban drainage projects in the coastal provinces in the Central region (Dong Hoi, Lang Co etc.) funded by WB, Binh Tan wastewater treatment station project (funded by Belgium government) in HCM City.

Several projects tried to apply new technologies such as batch activated aeration (SBR) like the wastewater treatment stations in Ha Long, Bai Chay, Quang Ninh in the sanitation project of 3 cities funded by WB, Yen So wastewater treatment project (BT model) or combination of activated batch aeration tank and biological lagoons (Bai Chay wastewater treatment station in Quang Ninh).

There are more and more methods of decentralized wastewater treatment for services, productions and healthcare facilities and residential clusters applied in Vietnam due to the demand for meeting stricter environmental standards in wastewater discharge, and advantages of reduction of construction costs, flexibility in investment and management.

Beside imported products, there are more and more decentralized wastewater treatment technologies that were researched and developed by national agencies or adapted from foreign countries like the new type of septic tank made of ready reinforced concrete with thin walls (Ba Ria – Vung Tau Drainage Company), combined aerobic and anaerobic tanks readily made of composite materials base on BASTAFAT and AFSB (Institute for Environmental Science and Techniques, University of Civil Engineering), decentralized wastewater treatment tanks made of reinforced concrete with activated sludge technology, biological filtration, bioreactor etc. developed by many national institutions. Many new technological solutions and equipment also were applied more and more in operation and maintenance of the network, asset management and customer service etc. such as drainage network management, customer management in service of sucking sludge from septic tanks by GIS, solution for cleaning sewers by mechanically operated winch etc.

Some shortcomings: at present, there is a lack of wastewater treatment stations in urban areas in Vietnam. However, in many places, some wastewater treatment plants were built but not operated with the full designed capacity, due to non-synchronized investment, lack of wastewater collection sewer, leading to the lack of intake wastewater flowing into the station. In many places, there are inappropriate reduction and minimization of cost, improper operation of the stations. In general, there is no full research and assessment on the situation of application of wastewater treatment technology in urban areas in Vietnam to be basis for orientation of the future appropriate technologies. Issues: combining septic tanks with the common drainage network, separate or combined, organizing centralized or decentralized wastewater treatment, reusing wastewater, treatment and reuse of sludge, selecting wastewater treatment technologies, optimizing operation and maintenance of works in the drainage system etc. are all concerns to be solved.

Model of service management


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According to the Assessment Report on Water Sector in Vietnam (ADB, 2009), there are 76 companies currently providing drainage and wastewater treatment services, in which there are 49 companies of the central cities or provincial cities, 23 categories IV urban areas at provincial level and 4 townships under city or provincial management. Out of those companies, only 4 companies belonging to Hanoi, HCM, Hai Phong Cities and Ba Ria - Vung Tau are specialized in providing services of drainage and wastewater treatment. The rest companies provide both services of drainage and wastewater treatment and other services such as solid waste collection, street management, green parks and urban lighting as well as cemeteries etc. The current management model of drainage services in big cities are mainly operated with a mechanism of ordering in which drainage enterprises are assigned by local governments to manage asset of urban drainage systems with the ownerships from provincial and city governments (channels, sewers, vehicles and facilities etc.). Operation and maintenance budget for drainage and wastewater treatment systems generally is from city or provincial budgets

Decree No 88/2007/ND-CP stipulated the necessity of collecting drainage fee from households to cover operation and maintenance cost of the drainage systems. However, drainage fee at present is commonly regulated as 10% additional of drinking water bill under supervision of the City People Committees. In general, this drainage fee only meets 10-20% of operation and maintenance cost for wastewater collection system, not covering sufficiently cost for operation and maintenance for wastewater treatment station (if any) and annual depreciation cost. Only does Hai Phong City collect drainage fee at the level of 15% of water tariff and it is planned to increase this fee up to 45% of water tariff in 2015 as mentioned in the roadmap. Soc Trang City also recently studied applying a framework of new drainage fee, toward to compensating adequately the operation cost of the drainage and wastewater treatment system. In those two cities, responsibilities for management of the drainage system also increase. Households in Hai Phong were provided with services of sucking faecal sludge from septic tanks free of charge based on the schedule (if out of the schedule, fee is applied) while Soc Trang Urenco is responsible for management of the drainage system till the connection points at households.

In the traditional concept of municipal authorities, urban drainage system consists of sewerage routes, lakes and ponds, channels that are managed relatively simply without much necessary knowledge and technical solutions. However, nowadays, when the urban areas are getting bigger and bigger, service coverage is increasing, the demand for accessing to service of the poor needs to be met. In addition, requirement for environmental protection is getting stricter. More complicated technologies are applied. Budget demand for drainage is getting more and more. The traditional way of management based on asset management of the local government in drainage sector is no longer appropriate. It is needed to reform and move to the mode of providing drainage services based on commercial principles. Model of ordering – bidding for carrying out the public services, including operation, maintenance of wastewater collection and treatment is an appropriate way at present for urban drainage sector while private sector has not found attraction for investment in those activities because the income does not pay off the costs.

Regarding healthcare wastewater management activities, the results of investigation in 854 hospitals throughout the country conducted by NIOEH (MoH) in 2006 show that 41% of hospitals have a collecting sewer system for wastewater, separated from rain


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water; 34% of hospitals has wastewater treatment stations but only 27% of wastewater treatment systems are in operation. The rest have been out of order.

With the average amount of wastewater from each hospital, varying from 20 to 360 (m3/day), many hospitals were located in the residential areas. Wastewater is discharged into the same drainage system of residential areas; therefore, control of environmental pollution caused by hospital wastewater throughout the country has been a big challenge. On November 15, 2011, the Prime Minister signed the Decision No 2038/QĐ-TTg on the approval of the General Project for Healthcare Waste Management in the period of 2011 – 2015 and orientation to the year 2020 in which concrete objectives for wastewater by the year 2015 are as follows:

- 100% of healthcare facilities at central level, 70% of healthcare facilities at provincial level, 50% of healthcare facilities at district level and 100% of private healthcare facilities carry out wastewater treatment to meet the national standards on environment. By the end of 2012, 100% of healthcare facilities causing environmental pollution carry out wastewater treatment, ensuring to meet the national standards on environmental protection.

- 30% of the rest healthcare facilities at provincial level, 50% of the rest healthcare facilities at district level and 100% of healthcare stations at which hazardous wastewater is initially treated before discharging into the environment.

2.2. Situation of water and sanitation in rural are as

When carrying out National Target Programme on Water Supply and Sanitation in Phase 1 (1998 – 2005) and Phase 2 (2006 – 2011), with the concern from the Government, international support and active participation of people, a considerable part of infrastructure system for rural water supply and sanitation was developed in which remote and poor areas got priorities in investment. Backward customs and behaviors of people have been improved. The situation in which latrine is not used or the use of untreated feces was gradually decreased in many localities, especially in the Northern mountainous areas and Red River delta. Fish pond latrines in Mekong River Delta step by step were replaced by sanitary latrines. Rural environment has been changing toward positive directions. The rate of population in rural areas having access to water supply and sanitation has increased. However, in comparison to the requirements set in the National Strategy for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation up to 2020, with an indicator as 100% of rural population provided with services of water supply and sanitary latrines, the achievements are still very modest and there are still many challenges to face for achieving these objectives.

2.2.1. Current situation of rural water supply

According to the material of the National Target Programme for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in Phase 3 (2011 – 2015), by 2010, a total rural population using sanitary water was 48,752,457, increasing 8,630,000 people in comparison to the end of 2005. The rate of rural population having access to sanitary water increased from 62% to 80%, lower than planned 5% and an average increase of 3.6%/year, in which the rate of rural people used domestic water meeting Vietnamese standard QCVN 02/2009: BYT or higher is 40%, 10 % less than planned.


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In 7 ecological economic zones, South East area has the rate of rural population having access to sanitary water of 90%, 10% higher than the national average rate. The lowest rate 72% was in the West Highland area and 73% in the Central North, lower than the average of 8% (MoH, 2011).

Some advances in technological science in water supply appropriate to topographical, meteorological and hydrographic conditions of the locality were applied. In the small scaled water supply, water treatment technology and techniques were renovated such as aeration system for removal of iron and arsenic from drilled wells using underground water in the shallow aquifers. A lot of synchronized equipment made of different materials to treat water were introduced and applied throughout the country. Some centralized water supply schemes applied automatic filtration technology without valves, chemical treatment (for removing iron arsenic, and manganese and handling hardness etc.), inverter pumping systems, IT systems in operation management etc. Technology of hanging ponds was renovated with a larger scope and higher quality to contribute to solving scarcity of water source in the mountainous and hilly areas in dry seasons. When natural disasters occur, localities used chloramine B and Aquatab, Pur bag etc. to treat water for drinking and cooking purposes.

Several appropriate and initially effective models and management mechanisms for operation and maintenance of centralized water supply schemes appeared in many localities such as model of business with income (provincial CERWASS), model of output-based public-private enterprises, model of private bidding for management of water supply schemes etc..

Many water suppliers organized entering into accounts, calculating accurately and adequately all costs and forming water tariff based on the Decree No 117/NĐ-CP dated July 11, 2007 issued by the Government on production, supply and consumption of drinking water; Inter-circular No 95/TTLT-BTC-BXD-BNN to submit the competent authority to approve water tariff for water users. Many provincial governments issued a framework of water tariff at their localities with the water tariff that covers accurately, fully all operation and maintenance costs, partly recovering basic depreciation. This framework for water tariff has enabled water suppliers to be active in financial activities, promoting creation and bringing attractions to water suppliers.

However, many models and mechanisms for management of exploitation of water supply schemes in some areas are still not effective and unsustainable. The mode of those activities still remains characteristics under the period of planned economy, not yet moving to the mode of services in the free market economy in which water is considered a commodity. Selection of management model in many areas was not appropriate. There were still many models of management that are not professional such as the model of commune People Committees, community and collective management. Capacity of staff and operators is still weak. Many localities have not issued regulations on operation, maintenance of centralized water supply schemes.

Management mechanism, especially financial mechanism is not appropriate, leading to a situation in which sustainable activities of the works is not ensured. Testing, supervision and control of water quality have not been adequately paid attention.

People's responsibilities in management, use and protection as well as supervision of water supply schemes are not high. In many places, centralized water supply systems were located with a good quality, but the rate of connection to the distribution network is


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still low. Many households only use piped water for cooking purposes, but use water from other unsanitary sources for domestic purposes.

Many rural water supply schemes were built but could not operate well or operated but not effectively, causing the waste of investment and negative impacts to people's lives and their views and altitudes to the service of water supply and sanitation.

2.2.2. Current situation of sanitation in rural areas

According to the document of National Target Program for Rural Water and Sanitation Phase 3 (2011-2015), around 11,436,500 rural households have latrines, accounting for 77% of the total number of households, in which 8,905,988 households have sanitary latrines, increasing 1,762,000 households in comparison to the number when the program starts implementation in Phase 2 (2006-2011), increasing average 2%/year, increasing the rate of rural households that have sanitary latrine of 40% at the end of 2005 to 55% in 2010, lower than planned 15%.

Around 32,006 schools, kindergartens have drinking water and sanitation works, achieving 80%, lower than planned 20%. The number of schools with drinking water and sanitation works increase 4,000 schools in comparison to the number when the program of Phase 2 started implementation, increasing average 2%/year. Around 8,675 commune medicine centers have drinking water and sanitary works, increasing 24% in comparison to that at the end of 2005, average annual increase of 4.6% accounting for 80%, lower than planned 20%. The number of water and sanitation works at rural markets is 1,537, increasing from 17% at the end of 2005 to 48%, lower than planned 52% (MoH, 2011) In the number of 9,728 offices of commune people committees, there were 7,003 offices have water and sanitation works, accounting for 72%; in which, 1,459 works were newly built in the program NTP 2 in the period of 2006-2010 (MoH, 2011).

The number of farming facilities upgraded and newly built, meeting the requirements of waste management has increased. By the year 2010, around 2,700,000 households had sanitary farms, accounting for 45% of the total 6,000,000 husbandry households; around 18,000 husbandry farming facilities collected and treated waste. The number of farming facilities having biogas works was 1,000,000, accounting for around 17% (MoH, 2011)

Solid waste collection and treatment also started to be paid attention. Around 3,310 communes and townships have waste collection teams, accounting for 32% in the total number of 9,728 communes throughout the country.

At present, there are 2,790 handicraft villages, unevenly distributed among regions and areas. In the North, there are around 60%; in the Central region – 30% and in the South – 10%. Some handicraft villages were planned in which solid waste was collected and treated, initially controlled environmental pollution (MoH, 2011).

Through financial support to build pilots and soft credit program of Bank of Social Policy, sanitary latrine pilots standardized based on the Decision No 08/2005/QD-BYT were disseminated to public and communities. HEMA (MoH) has prepared and issued the Guidelines on design, construction and maintenance of household latrines and public works, with nearly 20 types of latrines that could meet sanitary requirements for regions and areas. MoET also had issued design models of sanitary works for secondary schools, high schools, elementary schools and kindergartens, friendly and appropriate to all ages of pupils. Besides, new models of biogas tanks such as plastic and ready-made


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composite biogas tank or advanced reinforced concrete etc, and model of treatment of waste from husbandry farms have shown up. Technologies for producing compost from agricultural and farming waste, with or without the use of micro-organism products have been applied in many areas.

Management of operation after investment has been paid more attention than before. Implementing units determined that the objectives of the program only could be achieved when there was a mechanism for effective and sustainable management of exploitation and use of the works. However, organizing implementation, capacity and skills of rural water and sanitation still have many limitations and challenges.


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3. Water, sanitation and development: health, socia l and econmomic

aspects Results of survey on rural sanitation conducted by MoH in 2007 showed that at

present, structure of main drinking and domestic water sources in rural households is as follows: 33.1% borehole, 31.2% shallow well, 1.8% rainwater harvest, 11.7% piped water, 7.5% spring water, 11% river, pond and lake water and 3.7% other water sources. Only 25.1% of the total 2,958 water samples taken from domestic water sources of rural households from 8 ecological regions meet microbiological standards.

The rate of rural people having access to domestic water meeting Vietnamese standard QCVN 02:2009/BYT is 40%. 80% of elementary and secondary schools and kindergartens have drinking water and latrines. 48% of rural markets have drinking water and sanitation works (MoH, 2011).

According to the report of project entitled "Study relation between sanitation, household water source and mothers' behaviour of looking after children with nutritional status of children under 5 in Vietnam" conducted by HEMA in co-operation with UNICEF in 2010, water source condition, household latrines in the surveyed area are not the same and there are still a lot of difficulties. 15.1% of households currently are using water from rivers, springs, ponds and lakes as the main source for drinking and domestic purposes. 30.4% of households have unsanitary water source. 4.6% and 15.3% of water sources have high and very high risks of pollution respectively. Provinces with high and very high rates of household water source in risks of pollution include An Giang with the highest rate (54.1%) and Ha Tinh with the lowest rate (3.6%)

Figure 1. Rate of households with water source assessed visually as sanitary (Source: HEMA - UNICEF, 2010)

Many recent studies showed that Vietnam has groundwater sources in many areas relatively seriously polluted by arsenic. In order to minimize negative impacts from arsenic in the water source, MoNRE issued Decision No 1115/QĐ- BTNMT dated August 25, 2006 on approval of the project entitled " Mitigation of arsenic impacts in domestic water source in Vietnam". Main contents of the project included:


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- General survey to determine current situation of arsenic contamination in domestic water sources throughout the country; scopping polluting areas to survey in more details.

- Investigation of pollution levels in the areas that are surveyed in details and recommendation of measures for overcoming.

- Investigation of impacts to community health due to using arsenic polluted water sources.

- Summarize and evaluate effects, possibilities of applying technologies for treatment of arsenic and recommend appropriate technologies to apply in concrete conditions in the key areas.

- Build database on arsenic in domestic water sources. Disseminate information on the current situation of arsenic contamination in domestic water source, impacts of arsenic polluted water to community health and measures to mitigate the impacts.

In 2010, Department of Water Resources (MoNRE) mainly completed development of a map to scope areas with risks of arsenic pollution in groundwater in 1,385 communes in 207 districts of 40 provinces throughout the country. High risks of arsenic pollution concentrate in the Northern delta, Mekong delta and the coastal delta in the Central region.

Arsenic pollution in groundwater has a main cause from geological structure. Besides, arsenic in plant protection drugs used in agriculture and wastewater from chemical factories in which arsenic is released from crevices into groundwater (WHO, 1999). According to many researchers, overexploitaion of groundwater, especially in some areas in Red River delta and Mekong River delta is also a cause to accelerate arsenic pollution in the shallow groundwater sources.

Results of a state-level scien-technological project KC.10.06/06.10 entitled "Study on impacts of arsenic in drinking and domestic water source to health, diseases of population in Red River delta and measure for overcoming" in 2005 – 2007 showed that people used many types of water sources, but borehole well is still a main source in 74.2% of households, 90.1% of which could be used for drinking, washing vegetables and rice. 87.5% of households used borehole wells from 6 to 10 years. 88% of households used borehole wells more than 10 months/year. 77.6% of water samples before filtration had arsenic content higher than 50 mg/L, in which 50% samples had the content higher than 100 mg/L. However, water after going through locally made sand filter tanks had considerably reduced arsenic content. 85.3% samples met permissible standards of domestic water (<50 mg/L) in which 36.5% samples could be used for drinking purposes.

According to the statistics in 2010 of MoC, although there were many progresses in comparison to the previous years, by the end of 2010, there was only 62% of urban population has access to drinking water. Only 35 out of 67 cities in the survey (accounting for 60%) ensure continuous water supply 24 hours/day. Most of the rest cities only operated for 14-20 hours/day and 3-4 cities only could operate 8-10 hours/day. Content of residual chlorine in water at water treatment plants is 0.3 – 0.5 mg/L, reaching 90%, but the content of residual chlorine at household has not been recorded yet. Only around 50% of distribution networks meet standards for drinking water.


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According to the survey on rural sanitation conducted by MoH in 2007, the rate of rural household latrine in Vietnam meeting sanitation standards based on the Decision No 08/2005/QĐ-BYT was still very low. Only 18% of rural households have latrines meeting sanitation standards in construction, use and maintenance, including 7.9% flush latrine; 7.7% septic tank, 2.0% double vault and 0.3 % biogas latrine. 22.5% of rural households in Vietnam have latrines meeting sanitation standards in construction, including 8.8% flush latrine, 8.6% septic tank, 4.8% double vaults and 0.4 biogas latrines. 22.2% of number of rural households have latrines meeting sanitation standards in use and maintenance, including 10.2% septic tanks, 9.0 % latrines with flush latrines, 2.3% of latrines with double vaults and only have 0.6% of Biogas latrines. 75% of rural households have latrines, but only 33% of them have sanitary latrines. However, the quality of construction and use has not been evaluated. The number of households without latrines concentrates in Mekong Delta, Central Highland and the areas of minority groups. Poor people, people with a low education, minority people, mountainous people have less chance to access to sanitary latrines than not poor people, King people and people who live in delta areas.

At present, 30.1% rural households in Vietnam are using human excreta in agricultural production and in fish farming. Majority of these households do not compost or compost but less time than regulated. This is one of important causes contributing to pollution of human excreta to water sources and environment (MoH, 2007).

By 2010, around 45% of households have sanitary livestock facilities in the total number of households have livestock facilities. The number of livestock facilities with biogas works only accounts for 17%. Waste collection and treatment also start being paid attention. Around 32% of communes and townships have waste collection teams (MoH, 2011).

According to the report of project entitled "Study relation between sanitation, household water source and mothers' behaviour of looking after children with nutritional status of children under 5 in Vietnam" conducted by HEMA in co-operation with UNICEF in 2010, 30.9% of households have sanitary latrines (Table 3). Dien Bien and Kon Tum have the lowest rate of sanitary latrines – 4.3% and 10.2% respectively.

Table 3. Rate of latrines meeting sanitary standard s on construction, use and maintenance in the total surveyed households

Type of latrines Nam Dinh

(n=489)

Dien Bien

(n=494)

Ha Tinh (n=506)

Kon Tum

(n=403)

Ninh Thuan

(n=482)

An Giang

(n=495)

Total (n=2869)

Septic tank 56.0 1.8 15.0 8.9 35.9 14.7 22.3 Two vaults 0.8 2.2 9.9 0.2 0.2 0.0 2.3 Underground with ventilation 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.0 0.1 Flush and infiltration 1.6 0.2 0.6 0.5 9.3 21.8 5.8 Biogas 1.2 0.0 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.3 Total 59.7 4.3 25.9 10.2 45.9 36.6 30.9 (Source: HEMA - UNICEF, 2010)


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Results of the survey on rural sanitation conducted by MoH in 2007 also showed that:

The rate of people who regularly carry out hand washing by soap before eating is 12%, after making water – 12.2 and after defecation – 15.6%. Group of people who have high education, women, Kinh people, people who live in Red River delta, South East area has the rate of hand washing with soap higher than that of other teams.

11.6% of interviewed people usually drink water without boiling. The habit of drinking unboiled water will bring serious consequences to community health due to water-borne diseases.

The rate of people who usually drink unboiled water is very high in the group with low educational level, minority group people of Ba Na, E De, Van Kieu, Ra Glai, Mnong and in Central region, Mekong River and South East deltas.

In 2010, situation of hygiene in the community were better. According to the survey of MoH in 2010, 59% of households had soap/gel for washing hand on-site, in which the lowest rate was in Dien Bien (29.1%). Many mothers/child care-givers lacked of knowledge and did not carry out hygiene behaviours in looking after children; 23.8% of mothers/child care-givers just washed their hands sometimes; 36.2% regularly wash hands with soap after defecation; 22.8% washed their hands before eating; 19% washed hands before and after preparing foods and 14.9 washed their hands after disposing children excreta or cleaning children; 41.2% of mothers/child care-givers did not treat children's excreta properly, such as let dog or pig eat children's excreta (21.1%), disposed to the garden (16.3%) or release to the river/field (13.6%) etc. The rate of people who know what should be done to ensure hygiene during preparation of foods, when using and maintaining food was low: the rate of knowing that it is needed to wash their hands before preparing foods and before eating was low (36.4%). The rate of people who know that it is necessary to keep foods under the water for a long time and wash carefully was 38.9%. The rate of people who know that it is necessary to keep raw food and cooked food separately was 13.8%.


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Figure 2. The rate of usually washing hand with soa p vs total interviewed people

(Source: Health Environmental Management Agency (HEMA) - UNICEF, 2010)

According to the assessment of WASH, 2011, only less than 15% of rural people wash their hands when going to toilet and before eating and only around 5% of rural schools have soap for pupils to wash their hands.

As described above, for the past years, the situation of water supply, sanitation and hygiene has not been improved much, especially in rural areas. This has affected health of people and development of socio-economy.

According to MoH Statistics in 2008, water-borne diseases including diarrhoea, dysentery, bacillary dysentery were 3 among 10 diseases with the highest rate, in which diarrhoea was the 6th among diseases with the highest mortality (00.9/100,000 people). In 2009, the situation was not improved yet, the rate/100,000 people with diarrhoea is 1,081.66; cholera – 0.56; dysentery – 30,55; amoebic dysentery – 10.97; typhoid – 1.77. The rate of diseases is just 5th after several respiratory diseases.

In 2008, the number of typhoid cases in children was 1,316; cholera – 1,049. In 2009, those rates were reduced (typhoid – 823 and cholera – 474 children) but the rate of mortality was unchanged (HEMA, 2008, 2009).

According to the report of project entitled "Study relation between sanitation, household water source and mothers' behaviour of looking after children with nutrition status of children under 5 in Vietnam" conducted by HEMA in co-operation with UNICEF in 2010, malnutrition rate in the surveyed areas was still high and there was much difference among types of malnutrition as well as among localities. The rate of malnutrition of short and stunted types of children under 5 in 6 surveyed provinces was 35.4% and the rate of malnutrition in the type of light weight was 21.3%. Both of these rates were the highest in Kon Tum (45.4% and 27.8%) and the lowest in Nam Dinh (23.9% and 14.9%). The rates of malnutritional infant with short and thin type as well as light weight type have a tendency to increase with ages, since the child is 1 year old and older. The rate of malnutritional children with short and stunted type and light weight type in Kinh nation is lower than other nations; in poor families the rate is higher than that in non-poor families; in mountainous areas the rate is higher than that in deltas. The rate of malnutritional children with short and stunted type and light weight type has a tendency to decrease gradually along with education of mothers/care-givers of the children, and increase with the number of children of the mothers.


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Figure 3. Rate of malnutrition in 6 provinces in su rvey vs the national result in 2009

(Source: HEMA - UNICEF, 2010.)

Main criteria for health related to water and sanitation in Vietnam are listed in the Table 4.


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Table 4. Main health criteria related to water and sanitation in Vietnam

Mortality of children under 1/1,000 infants 24 DALYs due to diseases related to water and sanitation (year) 765 738 The rate % DALYs due to water-borne diseases in the total

DALYs 6%

Number of death of diseases related to water and sanitation /year

14 531

The mortality rate due to diseases related to water-borne and sanitation

3%

(Source: WASH: Vietnam Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Sector Brief, 2011).

Also according to the assessment of WASH in 2009, around 90% of population in Vietnam, especially in rural areas were infected by intestine worms.

Survey at Nghia Phu commune, Nghia Hug district, Nam Dinh where there are 65 ponds and lakes used for farming fish by using untreated wastewater showed that 31% of people got small parasite called fluke worm when their excreta is tested. The reason is that people in this commune have a custom to eat a dish made of vegetables and raw fish. Fluke worms from human excreta enter wastewater and then fish raised by wastewater, and finally enter people who eat that dish with raw fish and vegetables (Chau LV, De NV, Son DT et al. 2001).

Diseases related to waste are common diseases in Vietnam. In wastewater, especially hospital wastewater, there are many pathogents, including bacteria, virus, protozoa, worm eggs etc. There are 30 different diseases due to infections from waste, one of important issues of community health (Dalsgard A, 2009). Some studies showed that popular diseases in farmers who grow crops using wastewater are diarrheoa, skin dieseas, trachoma and gynaeocological diseases (Trang DT and Lan NTP, 2002).

Reuse of untreated wastewater made the situation of worm infection more serious to producers and consumers. Farmers, especially who work with bare feet, exposing to wastewater, are easier to get infection by hook worms than farmers working without exposure to wastewater. Reusing appropriate treated wastewater, there is no case of getting infected by worms in producers and consumers (Dalsgard A, 2009).

Results of testing health status of 3,700 people who used groundwater source polluted by arsenic with its content over than 0.05 mg/L for drinking and domestic purposes in 8 provinces of Red River delta in the state level scientific research KC 10.06/06-10 in 2007 showed that several signs of diseases related to arsenic such as nervous depression (64.7%); cardiovascular disorder (32.8%); pathology of foetus (32.7%); loss hairs (25.6%) and sense disorder (19%) etc.. The rate of chronic arsenicosis (light level) in the community using arsenic polluted water for drinking and cooking was 1.6%.

Results of a study conducted by HEMA in 2010 on real situation of arsenic infection and health, diseases of arsenic polluted bore hole wells in 10 communes representative in Red River and Mekong River deltas showed that 27.2% of hair


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samples, 44.2% of urine water samples have arsenic contents over than ordinnary and 15.9% of hair samples, 25.9% of urine water samples have arsenic content at the level of toxic infection. Contents of arsenic in hair and urine in men are higher than that in women and the rate of toxic infection in men is also higher than that in women. There is a clear correlation among arsenic content in water source and arsenic in hairs and urine. Common pathological wounds related to arsenic are: keratosis (8.4%), decreased skin pigment (5.6%), sunburn (4.9%) and increased skin pigment (4.6%). 6.3% of people were found to be affected by chronic arsenocosis (188 people).

According to Economics of Sanitation Initiative (ESI) study of Water Sanitation Program (WSP), WB, annual economic loss due to bad sanitation in Vietnam is around USD 780 million, in which the loss due to bad water source and health impacts account for a considerable ratio, approximately USD 260 million (accounting for one third)

Water supply and sanitation programs like National Target Program for Rural Water and Sanitation will increase the rate of households using drinking water and sanitation, contributing to the reduction of the rate of children in diarrhea, other digestive diseases, worms diseases, contributing to the reduction of malnutrition in children. Improvement of rural water supply and sanitation will bring positive impacts to prevention and fighting against malnutrition in children. Improvement of water supply and sanitation will limit diseases in population, especially water-borne diseases such as typhoid, diarrhea, dysentery, malaria, trachoma etc.. and common diseases for children, women, reduction of medical costs for families and society, strengthening people's health.


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4. Water, sanitation and environment

Bad sanitation, especially wastewater, solid waste, excreta are getting more and more increased in both flowrate and concentration of pollutants, causing serious impacts to water sources, especially surface water. Most of amount of urban wastewater in Vietnam are untreated and discharged directly to rivers and lakes.

Annual monitoring data showed that environment in 4 main rivers and some lakes in Hanoi were polluted alarmingly, especially pollution of organic subtances. Odor emitted from the rivers causes air pollution seriously. Pollution in sewerage channels and rivers causes pollution of Nhue and Day Rivers, causing impacts to the areas in the downstream. According to many researchers, over-exploitation of groundwater, especially in Red River and Mekong River deltas, is also another cause to increase arsenic pollution in the shallow source of ground water.

Some researches showed that in many peri-urban areas, farmers use wastewater to grow vegetables and aquatic products to take advantage of water source and organic substances in wastewater. Every 1,000 m3 of treated wastewater contains average 52.9 kg nitrogen, 13.9 kg of P2O5 and 28 kg K2O. That is a valuable source of fertilizers for vegetables and good food for fish (Huong VTT, 2001).

However, since urban wastewater source includes industrial and hospital wastewater which is untreated or treated not effectively, vegetables and aquatic products raised by wastewater have risks of contamination of heavy metals and pathogents to impact to the health of farmers and consumers, at the same time, there is a high risk of water pollution at the source (dug wells, shallow wells, lakes and ponds etc.).

In Hanoi, people use wastewater for farming mainly in suburban districts such as Gia Lam, Hoang Mai and Thanh Tri. Water is pumped from 4 rivers (mainly from Kim Nguu and To Lich) into the canal systems and after that distributed to production areas and farming (Edwards P, 2005; Phuong NTD, Tuan PA, 2005; Phuong NTD, Tuan PA, Tien NTH, Bau P, Diep HK, Tan NT, 2006). Once or twice a week, water is pumped. Around 2,563 m3 of wastewater is used for 1 hectar of winter-spring paddy rice, accounting for 47.6% of the total demand for water in a season. For maize – 1000 m3/season, accounting for 35.7% and for potato – 900 m3/season, accounting for 34.2% of the total demand. After 5 days of irrigation, the amount of BOD5 decreases 74.6%; COD decreases 63.8%; total coliform decreases 97.2% and E-coli decreases 98.6% (Huong VTT, 2001)

In Vietnam, reusing wastewater is mainly for growing vegetables and farming fish. Vegetables in Hanoi suburb areas is the main source of vegetables for the city. Vegetables types irrigated by wastewater include Morning Glory, Chinese cabbage, water mimosa etc. Area of land for growing Morning Glory in two districts Hoang Mai and Thanh Tri (Hanoi) is 1669 ha with a product of 50,145 tones/year (Lan VT, 2004). Another survey showed that in two hamlets of Tran Phu and Bang B, Hoang Lien commune, District Hoang Mai and Thanh Tri, Hanoi, area of land for growing Morning


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Glory with wastewater use is average of 536 m2 – 563 m2/household. In two places of growing vegetables by using wastewater in Bang B, Hoang Liet commune, district Thanh Tri, Hanoi, the amount of wastewater used is 13,400 m3 and 52,000 m3/year (Khai NM, Ha PQ, Öborn I, 2007).

Fish production in Hanoi in 2004 was around 8,972 tones in which 57% was raised in Hoang Mai and Thanh Tri districts (Phuong NTD, Tuan PA, 2005). In 1,019 ha for raising fish in those two districts in 2002, there were 417 ha using wastewater. The duration from the time fish was dropped to the time of havest is around 10 months. Fish types normally raised by using wastewater are ordinnary tilapia, weed tilapia, Chinese silver tilapia, Indian tilapia, big head tilapia, Mozambique tilapia and Nile belti etc. There have been quite a few surveys on consumption of fish. A survey of 500 households in Hanoi on the consumption of fish types (fresh water fish, sea water) showed that average consumption in inside the city is 50,5 g/person/day, in the suburb – 36.9 g/person/day (Ali M, Quan NT, Nam NV, 2006). Another study in the North of Vietnam (Dey MM, Rab MA, Paraguas FJ, Piumsombun S, Bhatta R, Alam MF, Ahmed M, 2005) showed that consumption of fish was 6.86 – 19.32 kg/person/year depending on income levels. According to the announcement of FAO in 2003, average fish consumption of Vietnamese people was 14.7 kg/year, in which 6.9 kg is fresh fish (FAO, 2003).

A study in Yen So commune, Thanh Tri district, Hanoi showed that Kim Nguu River passing Yen So is the most polluted river because everyday around 100,000 m3 of wastewater containing many industrial chemicals, fertilizers, chemical to protect plants and animal and even human excreta are discharged into it. BOD5, COD contents are higher 3-7 times than permissible standards. Total coliform is higher than standards hundred times, even thousands times (Trang DT and Lan NTP, 2002). In this commune, over 50% area of agricultural land (around 185 ha) is used for raising fish, in which most of the area uses wastewater from Kim Nguu vegetables River. Every 7-10 days, water is pumped once from the river to fishing ponds, each time, around 10% of pond volume. Around 25 ha of vegetables field, mainly Morning Glory, is irrigated by water from Kim Nguu River. However, water from Kim Nguu River is pumped into fishing ponds, after that passing paddy rice and vegetables fields or passing paddy rice field then to neighbouring vegetables field.

Elements such as Cr, Cu, Fe, Mo, Mn, Ni, Zn are micro-elements necessary for activities and development of human body. However, uptaking much those elements also can cause toxic. For some elements among those elements, the gap between benefitial and toxic loads is very fragile. For other elements such as Be, Cd and Pb, they almost do not have any function in the human body and can cause toxic with a very low load. According to Marcussen's study in 2007 on reuse of wastewater to grown vegetables and farming fish in Thanh Tri and Hoang Mai districts, Hanoi showed that the maximum content of pottentially toxic elements (PTEs) in Morning Glory vegetable is as follows (Table 5)

Table 5. Hazardous elements and their contents in M orning Glory irrigated by wastewater in Hanoi suburban areas


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Element Content (mg/kg wet weight)

Element Content (mg/kg wet weight)

As 0.190 Ni 0.412 Cd 0.032 Pb 0.206 Cu 2.950 Zn 9.080

(Source: Marcussen H, Holm PE, Dalsgaard A, 2007)

Content of PTEs in Morning Glory vegetables that is irrigated with wastewater has a tendency to be higher but not significant in comparison to their content in the vegetables irrigated by clean water. According to calculation, with the amount of daily consumption at present, for people who use Morning Glory irrigated with wastewater, the amount of PTEs uptaked into the body only accounts for 11% of the permit tolerantable intake. Therefore, Morning Glory irrigated by wastewater only has low risk to users.

Contents of As, Cd and Pb in fish flesh, liver and fish skin from the fish that is raised with wastewater are mostly lower than detectable threshold. However, average amount of Cd and Pb in an African carp is 0.336 mg/kg and 0.31 mg/kg of wet weight respectively. Also accroding to the calculation, the amount of As, Pb and Cd intake into the body due to eating fish raised by wastewater only accounts for 9% PTI. Therefore, it is also possible to say that the risk of contamination of those heavy metals due to eating fish raised by wastewater here is not high (Marcussen H, Holm PE, Dalsgaard A, 2007,III).

Also according to this study, sedimented sludge in To Lich River, river water used for farming are polluted by As, Ba, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Sb. The maximum content of Cd in the sludge from To Lich River is 427 mg/kg of dry weight. According to the author, ability to remain PTEs in the sludge in drainage river in Hanoi is a mechanism to prevent movement of PTEs to wastewater reused in the farming system (Marcussen H, Dalsgaard A, Holm PE, 2007,IV).

At present, there has not been any study in Vietnam to assess content of hazardous substances, heavy metals in food crops and fruit trees irrigated by reused wastewater.

If human excreta is not collected and treated properly will cause water source pollution, food contamination, environmental pollution and cause many kinds of diseases, including diarrhoea, worms and parasites, gynaecological disease, eyes and other diseases. Human excreta need to be collected, treated to disinfect pathogens by all types of sanitary latrines.

According to survey results of rural sanitation of MoH in 2007, 25% of Vietnamese rural households do not have latrines; therefore, the families' members have to go to toilets of others or go for open defication or wherever possible. Among households with latrines, 82% of the latrines do not meet the standards on construction or on the use based on the Decision No 08/2005/QĐ-BYT. Around 30% of households use human excreta in agricultural production, in which only 20.6% compost excreta for 6 months as required.


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These are important causes contributing to causing excreta pollution to water sources and surrounding environment.

Presence of E.Coli in a water source is a sign of excreta pollution in this water source. Research results of Nhi, TTH, 2009 at two communes of Ta Poi and Hop Thanh, Lao Cai showed that more than 90% of water samples at household tank and more than 70% of drinking water samples were polluted E.Coli, while from 15% to 65% of water samples with the amount of E.Coli over 100 microbes/100 ml water. According to the results of survey on rural sanitation conducted by MoH in 2007, the rate of water sources that do not meet standards for microbiological factors (excreta pollution) is also high, accounting for 75% in the total 2,958 water samples throughout the country, in which surface water and water from shallow are the most polluted (83.6% surface water samples and 87% of water samples from shallow wells do not meet microbiological standards".

In general, reuse of wastewater, human and livestock excreta in agriculture, aquaculture contains many problems that have not been comprehensively studied yet. It is necessary to conduct systematic research programs to provide scientific basis for issuing appropriate policies. Those policies really need to be developed early to strengthen control of environmental pollution, control of outbreaks, protection of people, and besides, still maximize the use of useful resources such as wastewater, nutritions etc. to serve for agriculture. Reuse of excreta, wastewater in suburban areas, agricultural areas in downstream needs to be considered carefully when developing masterplan for urban drainage. Public awareness in reuse of waste in agriculture, aquatic farming need to be strengthened.


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5. Institutional structure, legal framework and inf ormation

Activties such as urban water supply, waste management and sanitation have been managed by many ministries, agencies such as MoC, MoH, MoNRE and MoST etc. MoC is responsible for development planning, introducing technologies, issuing regulations and construction standards for these activities. Rural water supply and sanitation belong to management of MARD. Water source and water source protection belong to responsibility of MoNRE. Water quality and standards for drinking water and domestic water belong to management of MoH. MPI in co-operation with other related ministries and agencies as well as provincial people committee is responsible for investment planning and investment decision for development of water supply and sanitation. Besides, many water supply and sanitation activities were implemented with supports from donors, international organizations, local community or private sector investing and exploiting based on services (mainly in water supply and solid waste management). Setting water tariff is carried out according to the guidance of MoC and MoF. Decision on water tariff is made by Provincial People Committees (PPC) after approved by Provincial People Councils.

Local management of water supply plays a key role and directly affects to the development of water supply and sanitation. To carry out water supply to serve demands for domestic, industrial and service purposes, Provincial People Committees make decisions on development plans to submit Prime Minister for approval of water supply projects at the localities.

In all cities under provinces, there are water supply companies, but these companies mainly produce and distribute drinking water to urban areas of categories IV and higher. In rural residential areas, urban areas of categories V, there is a lack of water supply works. Local government or Provincial Center for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (PCERWASS) under DARD usually play a focal role in implementing projects for investment in water supply in those areas. Investment capital is provided by the Government and after completion of the construction, those works are handed over to the locality for management. Due to their weak capacity of managment and the lack of professional characteristics, budget for activities does not include depreciation and maintenance and repair costs; therefore, such water supply works usually are degraded quickly. MoC has issued several documents to request provincial governments to assign water supply tasks at small townships and towns to water supply companies. Up to now, only some provinces has complied with this requirement. Model of transferring water supply system in the urban areas of categories V, at rural residential spots, sub-urban areas to provincial water supply company to manage, invest in upgradation and development of water supply toward centralization and specialization to ensure principle of service provision and the relation between service providers and customers based on free market mechanism has shown that there are many positive signs. It is necessary to evaluate, draw experience and replicate this model to strengthen effectiveness of investment and more importantly to ensure increase of the number of people to be served by water supply services sustainably.

Equitisation of water supply enterprises


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Decision No 38/QĐ-TTg dated March 20, 2007 stipulated criteria for classification and list of enterprises with 100% of state budget, mentioning that state-run enterprises taking part in urban water supply and wastewater treatment were classified into equitized enterprises with more than 59% of shares held by the government.

Although there was process of equitisation of water supply companies as above, ADB still pointed that the process of decentralization has been carried out and local governments and related agencies still have not been ready to take decentralized responsibilities due to the following current reasons:

- Process of equitisation did not bring higher operational effectiveness because water supply companies still carried out responsibilities of a public utility as assigned and have not had encouragement for expanding distribution networks to the surrounding areas.

- Decisions related to increase of water tariff are not decided by water supply companies, but by Provincial People Committee while those Provincial People Committees do not have many incentives to increase the water tariff.

Because there was a lack of clear possession of infrastructure for treatment, transfer and distribution of water supply systems, operation and maintenance is in risks of ineffectiveness; therefore, the value of these works is getting more and more degraded.

Drainage management based on the mode of asset management

Management mode for drainage system in urban areas still have not changed much in comparison to the mode used in tens of years before. The biggest change was the apparatus of management to be moved from non-profit agencies to public enterprises. In big cities, drainage enterprises established by PPC and belong to DoC, but in other urban areas, established and managed by Town People Committees. The rate of connection to the drainage system in many areas is still very low, average around 60-70%. Connection costs are paid by service users. Urban drainage services by the year 2004 was provided free of charge, except industrial drainage. Since 2004, fee for domestic wastewater started to be collected but with a very low level of charge (10% additional payment on the water bill). Service of sucking excreta and sludge from septic tanks has to be paid and mostly provided by private sector.

Management of urban drainage system consists of development planning, investment, design, from construction to operation, cleaning sewers, swiping storm water canals, dredging canals, periodical and non-periodical repair etc. Most of costs for management of drainage system are covered by provincial budget or budget of urban areas. Objectives of the management mainly are to ensure span of works, maintaining un-clogging status, avoiding floods of sewer and canal systems. This mode of management revealed the following shortcomings:

- Due to not collecting domestic wastewater fees directly from service users, drainage service has not had high responses to the demand from waste dischargers. In turn, users also do not pay attention to operation of drainage system, protect and


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maintain, except when there is flood due to heavy rains or when wastewater receiving spots (canals, lakes, stream and coastal water strip) and polluted groundwater aquifer.

- Because the source of wastewater fee is inconsiderable, operation of drainage system mainly has to rely on local budget. However, the local budget always is shortage because in the only infrastructure service, beside this budget is used to subsidize water supply and public transport due to low fees for these services, it also has to cover other types of service without fees such as pavement, public lighting, green parks etc. Due to the inadequate operation and maintenance budget, the drainage systems were degraded quickly.

In the areas of urban poor people, roads and streets are usually narrow without drainage system; therefore, storm water and wastewater are discharged directly to ponds, lakes and surrounding canals. Municipalities have a tendency to replace these areas by modern urban areas, but while there are no development projects yet, drainage companies pay no attention to these areas because there is no drainage system there to manage! In the recent years, 4 large cities with supports from WB carried out urban upgrading program by encouraging households to devote their related lands to straighten and expand roads so that fire fighting vehicles could access, street lights and sewers at two sides of the streets were installed. This program was very successful but its experience has not been scaled up yet due to different reasons.

- Number of people in the public places in urban areas such as commercial buildings, streets, markets, flower gardens, railway stations and bus stations etc. is getting increased very fast while there is a lack of public toilets there.

- Because of fast urban development, amount of wastewater also increases very fast but it is discharged directly to receiving sites without treatment; therefore, not only water environment but also river downstream areas are getting more and more polluted seriously.

- Drainage systems are usually developed slower than water supply systems and electricity supply. The coverage rate of drainage system is also much lower. The reason is that municipalities and people think that drainage can be waited but electricity and water supplies should not be waited. They forget that the dephasing development of the infrastructure system will cause more costs than synchronized development.

The existing mode of management of urban drainage system in Vietnam can be called "Asset management" because actual asset as infrastructure of drainage systems is considered a target to manage, register asset, exploit and maintain the asset based on technical standards and collect information. This mode is only effective within the scale of provided budget so that service criteria will be met as assigned. Clearly, this mode of management is not appropriate with the thinking of modern urban development that respect sustainability and social equity, causing obstacles to development of urban drainage of Vietnam in the future to keep pace with advanced trends in the world.

Organizing and steering work

Organizing water supply and sanitation in localities has not been united. Co-operation and steering among MoC, MARD, MoH, MoNRE and MPI is not carried out actively and closely.

Model of organizing state management of water supply and sanitation at provincial and district levels has not been carried out consistently based on the Inter-


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Circular No 61/2008/TTLT-BNN-BNV dated May 15, 2008 issued by MARD and Ministry of Interior. Functions and responsibilities of Water Resources Department and CERWASS are not defined clearly and there are still overlaps.

Planning, construction and management of works construction: for planning of water supply and sanitation, many localities have not fully and timely updated, paying not enough attention to the impacts of climate change. Quality and management of planning are still limited and not close to reality, not meeting fully requirements from water supply and sanitation planning.

Planning, synthesis of plans and carrying out procedure of planning development are still influenced by the idea of subsidy, top down allocation without participation of people as implementers and at the same time as beneficiaries of the program.

In some cases, preparation of project development, investment reporting, design investigation did not ensure quality, especially investment preparation including investigation works was disregarded etc. causing affects to the quality of design, leading to the impacts to progress of annual implementation and liquidation.

In many places, ownership of operation of the works has not been clearly defined right from the time when investment projects were commenced. Many localities have not followed the regulation that investors are the unit to manage operation of the works except some localities recently assigned enterprises or PCERWASS to be investors, building and directly managing centralized water supply works.

Though rural water supply and sanitation works have a big number, their scope is small, especially in remote areas, not attracting to investment and construction units who are capable to take part ; therefore, quality of the works is also affected.

Investment preparation work is slow, still in the situation in which development of investment project, design has only been done after the plan for budget allocation is available. Most of works are in the implementation at the end of the year; therefore, the expenditure is very slow.

Most of household latrines were built by themselves or by workers who were not trained and lacked of information on the norm of construction cost, lacked of guidance, supervision; therefore, many latrines did not ensure quality and meet requirements, even construction of latrine with supports from programs.

Management, exploitation and use

Many model and mechanism for management of exploitation of centralized water supply systems are not effective and unsustainable. Operation mode mainly still has characteristics of non-profit public utilities instead of moving to be the mode of service provision, market of commodities.

Selection of management models in many places is not appropriate, in which there were still many models of management which are un-professional such as the model of commune People Committees, community and collective management. Capacity of staff and operators is still weak. Many localities have not issued regulations on management of operation, maintenance of centralized water supply systems.


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Management mechanism, especially including financial mechanism, is not appropriate; therefore, sustainable operation of the works is not ensured. Monitoring, supervision and control of water quality have not been adequately paid attention.

Responsibility of people in management, use, protection and supervision of water supply works is not high. Many places had centralized water supply works with a good quality, but the rate of connection was still low in which many households only use piped water for cooking and drinking while unsanitary water is still used for domestic purposes.

Investment in water supply system in many places was carried out without synchronization, mainly focusing on water treatment plants rather than distribution networks and service; therefore, service quality is still very limited and investment effectiveness is not maximized.

Communication

Awareness on the importance of communication in water supply and sanitation is getting more and more improved. Investment for this component of activities is getting increased in budget, the way of implementation and scale of effects. Communication programs in community, on mass media are more and more and welcome by the community. It is possible to list programs and communication activities creating positive effects such as Hand Washing with Soap (WB, Uniliver, MoH and NTP Office), Goodwill Ambassador of Water and Sanitation (Artist Xuan Bac), Go Green Program (Toyota and Vietnam Television) etc. Programs for trainings, raising awareness, trainings for strengthening capacity appear more and more popularly as compulsory components in water supply and sanitation projects, including international and national projects.

Although there was a considerable improvement in investment, the number of activities and the number of agencies, sectors and units taking part in organizing implementation, communication activities have not created a big change in people's behaviour in using drinking water, sanitary latrines, practising hygiene behaviours and protecting public environment. Up to now, only around 15% of Vietnamese people have habit of washing hand with soap before eating. Situation of using sanitary latrine improperly is still popular. In many areas, people still keep habits of using raw excreta as fertilizers and for feeding fish. Situation of throwing waste to public places became a pressing issue in the community etc.

Especially, progress in construction of household latrines is still slow. A part of population has not been active in investment, still waiting for supports from the government. The rate of households with sanitary latrines increases slowly, especially in the provinces that applied the mode of subsidy for building latrines, while in places where communication works were carried out very well to promote behaviours of safe sanitation and mobilize community, the rate of households invested in building sanitary latrine is higher. In places where subsidy for building latrines was focused but there were quite a few of communication activities to change behaviour, households usually do not change habits in going to their toilets.

Causes of the above situation are due to:

- Most of provinces and sectors did not develop an overall communication programs for water supply and sanitation.

- Frequency of communication activities is not regular. Mainly, all activities take place in the occasion of the National Week of Water and Sanitation. In the rest time,


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activities are scattered or carried out not systematically, mainly by sectors, organizations, projects in the local sites to build centralized water supply works or build pilot of household latrines.

- Coverage of IEC activities is very limited. Except programs on TV and radio broadcasting, majority of IEC activities only take place in communes, hamlets with projects for building centralized water supply works or building household latrines rather than scaling up due to the lack of budget and limitation in human resources.

- Lack of co-operation among sectors, agencies, organizations in implementing the activities. Each unit which is provided budget designs by themselves and organizes communication activities separately and rarely co-operates with each other and with other mass organizations that have advantages in implementation of communication activities such as Women Union, Farmer Union and Youth Union etc.

- Collaborators at the local level were insufficient and weak. At hamlet level, there was no troop of communication collaborators in sanitation. Instead, it only relied on integrated activities conducted by mass organizations and unions. Some projects supported by international donors established a network of communication facilitators at the hamlet level but its sustainability was not high due to the lack of budget to support these troops after the project ended.

- Budget allocated for communication was not much, not being able to attract participation of collaborators and mass organizations. Proportion of budget allocation for IEC only accounted for 1.4% to 3.0% of the total annual state budget of the program to allocate to each province. Most of organizations at provincial level and lower levels were not provided with direct budget for implementation of communication activities. In addition, those units were requested to implement in the co-operation manner, not be assigned a concrete responsibility.

- Drainage enterprises also have not really paid attention to communication activities, partly because of their viewpoints and awareness, and partly due to low business benefits; therefore, it is not enough to invest in supporting programs in the enterprises.

- Communication activities in schools were mainly training for teachers. There were quite a few activities linked to pupils. In schools with sanitation works, communication was also not paid adequate attention.

- Many communication lessons and communication measures were already piloted successfully, but not yet scaled up for implementation.

- There have not been any set of indicators to consistently assess impacts of IEC activities.

Science and technology

Implementation of programs for research and application of science and technology was carried out slowly. There was a lack of low cost water supply technologies and latrines appropriate to remote and poor areas.


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MoH, MoET had introduced models of sanitary latrines for households and schools. Beside the issue of construction cost norm for each household latrine as mentioned before, those models still had some limitations:

- Models of sanitary latrines are still not diversified. MoH issued regulations on sanitary latrines; however, enclosed guidance on the design is still limited. There is still a lack of types of new, appropriate latrine works that are researched and developed as well as evaluated effectiveness in Vietnam.

- Models for school latrines were designed in details and issued, but they are not diversified in types of latrines. In addition, their costs are high, inappropriate to difficult and poor areas and small single schools. Actual application of those models have not been evaluated to draw experience, corrected and updated adequately.

- There has not been any clear, concrete and easy-to-use orientation of technology for treatment of solid waste from handicraft villages, wastewater, domestic waste, agricultural and husbandry wastes.

- Options for low cost and appropriate technologies have not been popular and encouraged to apply.

- Enterprises and institutions that conduct research and development of technological measures were not encouraged and supported sufficiently.

- Reusing wastewater, sludge in agriculture, aquaculture has not been paid appropriate attention. Inter-sectoral co-operation to integrate reuse of wastewater and sludge etc. in agriculture and aquaculture and urban development planning is still very weak.

- Management of excreta sludge from septic tanks has not been paid appropriate attention.

- There are still many gaps in institutional arrangement, co-operation among agencies, sectors, from state level to local level.

System of national standards and sectoral standards still has many problems. At present, monitoring and control of water quality still apply "passive, curative" approach – e.g. testing water quality at user points rather than other "active and preventive" approach – e.g. identifying hazards and risk and actively preventing, mitigating risks from water source to the taps of consumers (the principle of Water Safety Plan).

There are too many parameters to test. Many procedures to test those parameters are too difficult or impossible to apply while many parameters have been tested in the world but not yet studied in Vietnam to put into standards. For example, in Victoria state (Australia), criteria on by-products generated in disinfection by chlorine were put into regulations in quality standards such as trihalomethanes, chloroacetic acid, dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, bromate and forlmaldehyde (Source: Safe Drinking Water Act 2003). In addition, in the system of 14 criteria for monitoring and evaluation of MARD, the concepts of sanitary water and clean water, sanitary latrine are used inconsistently, at the same time, there is a difference from the concepts used internationally (comparison to UN Monitoring and Evaluation Program via JMP of WHO/UNICEF to assess progress of achievement of MDG No 7), leading to the discrepancy in assessment between national and international data.


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- Control of environmental pollution is still very weak. There is a lack of encouragement or a mechanism for supervising, treating violation appropriately. Many violators, causing environmental pollution were overlooked, causing stress to people as well as other enterprises.

There are still many problems in the connection of household drainage system to the drainage system of the residential areas. In most of urban areas, management of tertiary sewer network which does not belong to control scope of the drainage enterprises. Local government, in principle, was assigned to manage this sewer network, but in the reality, is not sufficient capable to manage. Activities such as building sanitary works at household level, connecting to outside sewer system or discharging wastewater to the environment, dredging and unclogging canals, sewer lines in small lanes are all spontaneous and almost impossible to control. Households are not forced to follow the existing technical guidance. Technical standards and legal documents regulating in details on sanitary works, local treatment, connection and waste discharge are still insufficient and inconsistent.

- There are still many problems with water source protection, urban and rural water supplies because the principle of integrated water source protection has not been carried out yet.

- The issue of water saving, energy saving in water supply and sanitation has not been really paid attention yet.

Awareness on climate change and responses in water supply and drainage planning, design options, construction and operation of water supply and drainage works have not been paid adequate attention. There are still many challenges in climate change, including inadequate awareness, limited investment and unfound appropriate technologies in design, construction and operation. Master plan of water sources and application of adaptation solutions to climate change in urban and rural water supply still lack of scientific basis and face difficulties in the implementation.

International co-operation

In the recent years, international organizations, donors, foreign partners played active roles in providing information, changing awareness, financial supports, transferring technologies and technical supports in water supply and sanitation in Vietnam. Foreign resources for water supply and sanitation in Vietnam play an important role in promoting, changing structure of infrastructure of water supply and sanitation in Vietnam in the past time. Besides, there are still many problems related to co-operation, co-ordination, mobilization and increasing effectiveness of resources from international co-operation in the water supply and sanitation sector. Causes of the difficulties in co-operation among NGOs and state management agencies are the difference in the cycle of planning and implementation progress, the lack of contribution and participation of state management agencies to receive initiatives, experience from NGOs and other international organizations.

Sanitation of households and public places

Awareness and behaviours of people in using household latrine are still limited. At present, there are still around 23% of rural households without latrines. Around one third


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of households have sanitary latrines but their use and maintenance were not in compliance with the regulations in the Decision No 08/2005/QD-BYT.

The policy of building model sanitary latrines along with each commune has not contributed to disseminating and scaling up all types of latrines. In addition, people have had a tendency to expect the government supports rather than investing in construction by themselves.

Consultation and guidance to households in construction and use of sanitary latrines have not been adequate yet.

Management and use of sanitation works in school, healthcare stations and markets are facing difficulties. There are still some sanitation works that were built but have not been used yet. Some works were degraded due to the lack of repair budget. Awareness and behaviours of using sanitation works of pupils are still very weak. Many schools lack of budget for cleaning sanitation works everyday.

There is still a situation in which untreated human and animal excreta is used as fertilizers and for feeding fish in some rural areas, spreading pathogens to the environment, causing risks of forming outbreaks.

Along with fast economic development, living standards of rural people are increased, leading to the increased amount of domestic waste. By 2007, the amount of domestic solid waste generated in the rural areas throughout the country was 9,939,000 tones/year, in which, the amount of domestic solid waste from residential areas was 7,585,000 tones/year, accounting for 76%; solid waste from public places, commercial and services areas was 2,354,000 tones/year, accounting for 24%. It is estimated that each person in the rural areas discharges an average amount of 0.34 kg solid waste/day into the environment.

While reserved land for housing is getting more and more shrunken, untreated waste causes environmental pollution at an alarming level. In the past years, many localities had waste collection teams; however, the current rate of collected domestic waste is still very low. The main treatment measure is open dumping and manually incineration. Mostly there have not been sanitary landfill and recycling inorganic waste etc. According to the survey results in 2007, 85.7% of townlets and 28.5% of communes have waste collection teams. Activities of those waste collection teams are not regular with a frequency of 0.5-2 times/week. For townlets, the frequency of collection is 2-6 times/week, leading to a situation that even in all localities where waste collection teams are available, the rate of timely waste collection is still very low and the situation of waste piled up in the residential areas is still very common.


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6. Provision of finance and investment for the sect or 6.1. Investment for urban water supply and drainage system and sanitation

6.1.1. For water supply

According to the report of MoC in 2012, at present, there are around 500 urban areas with centralized water supply systems (around 200 urban areas of categories V without centralized water supply systems) with a total designed capacity of around 6.2 million m3/day, in which exploiting capacity of around 5,68 million m3/day, accounting for 80% of designed capacity.

Water supply systems were invested with different sources of fund, such as ODA, state budget, budget from other economic sectors etc. Since 1998, total investment for urban areas has been over VND 19,000 billion. Foreign investment accounted for 81% of the total budget for construction and upgradation of water supply systems. In the recent years, with the policy of socialization of water supply sub-sector, many enterprises, national and international individuals invested in construction of water supply systems with the mode of BOO, BOT and BT. Many water supply companies used their own budget, loans to invest effectively in construction of water supply system such as Thua Thien Hue, Vung Tau and Son La water supply companies. Besides, many companies are less dynamic in investment and development of water supply system, especially in the aspect of expansion of service system, leading to the situation that their capacity of the treatment plant is high but the rate of exploitation is low. There is inconsistency between municipalities, water supply companies and investment companies in investment for water treatment, leading to the situation in which urban areas lack of water while the project is delayed and operates with a low effectiveness. For example, Da River Water Supply Company with designed capacity of 300,000 m3/day was completed with its construction within 3 years but at present, producing water with a capacity of 120,000 m3/day.

Estimated total demand for investment in development of water supply in the period of 2011-2020 is around VND 98,500 billion, in which:

- For the period of 2011-2015: the estimated demand for water in urban areas and industrial parks is around 8.8 million m3/day. Demand for investment capital for construction and expansion of capacity of water treatment plants by the year 2015 is around VND 27,000 billion. In addition, investment capital for development of pipe network is around VND 32,000 billion. For rehabilitation, replacement of old pipe network to prevent non-revenue water, it is estimated that VND 4,500 billion as investment capital is needed. Total demand for investment by 2015 is around VND 63,500 billion.

- For the period of 2015-2020: the estimated demand for water in urban areas and industrial parks is around 9.5 million m3/day. Demand for investment capital for construction and increase of capacity of water treatment plants is around VND 10,000 billion; for expansion of pipe network – around VND 20,000 billion; for continuing replacement of old pipe lines to prevent non-revenue water – around VND 5,000 billion. Total demand for investment in this period is around VND 35,000 billion.


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6.1.2. For drainage:

For the last 10 years, the drainage system in urban areas in Vietnam has had large investments in order to upgrade and expand the drainage system, reduce local flood and improve sanitation conditions. Out of 100 cities and towns, 32 urban areas had ODA projects that have been implemented with different progresses. Total investment of those projects is around VND 32,000 billion; however, there are still many shortcomings in the drainage systems in the urban areas.

Estimation of investment demand for drainage by the year 2020:

* In the period of 2011 – 2015: a total investment demand for drainage (including committed projects) by 2015 is around VND 85,000 billion, focusing on addressing the following main tasks:

- Developing master plan for drainage in urban areas from categories III to higher ones that have not got master plan yet.

- Continuing implementation of the approved urban drainage projects with the funds committed by donors.

* In the period of 2015 -2020: a total investment demand for development of drainage in this period is around VND 70,000 billion, focusing on the following main tasks:

- Investing in completion of wastewater treatment stations and sewer routes for collection in large cities such as Hanoi, HCM City, Da Nang with the estimated budget of around VND 30,000 billion.

- Continuing to invest in drainage system for urban areas of categories from IV to higher with the estimated budget of VND 40,000 billion.

6.1.3. For urban sanitation and solid waste treatment:

- The option of disposal of solid waste in the landfill is the most popular option in the urban areas and localities throughout the country. According to statistic reports from localities, at present there are around 450 landfills (in which unsanitary landfills or the landfills with high risks of causing environmental pollution due to their odour and landfill leachate accounting for 80-85%)

- At present, throughout the country, there are around 20 solid waste treatment facilities (including solid waste treatment plants and sanitary landfills) operating with a total capacity of around 17,000 tones/day and 15 facilities are under construction, but they are concentrated in several urban areas, mainly with composting technology (Hanoi, Nam Dinh, Thua Thien Hue, Thai Binh, HCM City, Hai Duong, Hai Phong, Binh Phuoc and Binh Dinh etc.). Socialization of solid waste collection and treatment has just been carried out in several urban areas.

Estimation of investment demand for solid waste treatment by the year 2020:

Estimated total investment demand for construction of municipal and hazardous solid waste treatment facilities in the period of 2011 – 2020 is around VND 74,100 billion (see details in the bellow table)

Table 6. Estimated investment demand for solid wast e treatment in the various periods

TT Content Unit By 2015 By 2020


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Municipal solid

waste

Hazardous solid

waste

Municipal solid waste

Hazardous solid waste

1 Demand for treatment tone/day 35,990 2,860 39.196 2.726

2 Demand for investment in treatment

VND billion

28,800 7,200 31.300 6.800

3 Total demand for investment

VND billion

36,000 38,100

(Source: Ministry of Construction, 2012).

6.1.4. For financial policy

At present, financial policy in urban water supply and drainage and sanitation in Vietnam mainly is reflected in the Decree No 117/2007/ND-CP on drinking water production, supply and consumption, Decree No 88/2007/ND-CP on drainage in urban areas and industrial parks and Decree No 124/2011/NĐ-CP on revision and amendment of the Decree No 117/2007/ND-CP

Regarding investment of capital:

According to the Decree No 117/2007/ND-CP and the Decree No 124/2011/ND-CP, investment of capital for urban water supply works can be from 3 sources: state budget (only supporting construction of infrastructure works outside the fence of premises such as electricity supply, roads, cost of compensation and clearance of land and a part of investment cost for construction of the work for projects in specially difficult areas in terms of water sources, ethnic and minority groups, mountainous and islands); own budgets of enterprises taking part in investment of water supply development and ODA, soft loans, credit at banks. The government has a policy of establishing revolving fund managed by Vietnam Development Bank. Enterprises can get soft loans from those funds for development projects in small towns and centralized residential areas. According to the Decree 88/2007/NĐ-CP, drainage systems of urban areas were invested from state budget and other legal funds.

The government encourages and enables economic sectors to take part in investment in building a part or the whole drainage system in compliance with the master plan for drainage under every mode of investment. Investors benefited from privilege policies, supports for investment under regulations of the law. Drainage system of industrial parks, new urban areas invested by supporting budget, own budget, other legally mobilized fund of the units assigned to be investors in business, development of infrastructure of industrial parks and new residential areas.

Regarding water tariff and wastewater fee:

According to the Decree No 117/2007/NĐ-CP, MoF issues a framework of water tariff in the whole country. Provincial People Committee approves the option of water tariff and issues the norm of domestic water tariff in the areas managed by itself, in compliance with the framework of water tariff issued by Minister of Finance. Water suppliers decide by themselves water tariff for other purposes of water use, ensuring the water tariff to be in compliance with the water tariff approved by Provincial People Committee. Bulk rate of water tariff is defined by an agreement between bulk water suppliers and water


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retailers. In case there is no agreement reached, one of the two parties (or both parties) will have a right to request a commercial negotiation based on price regulated by law. At present, water tariffs of domestic water in urban areas are very different at each locality and for each water user, but the minimum rate is VND 4,000/ m3.

According to the Decree No 88/2007/NĐ-CP, all households who discharge wastewater into the drainage system are responsible for paying drainage fee and if they discharge directly to the environment, they are obligated to pay additional environmental protection fee for wastewater based on the regulation of the Decree No 67/2003/NĐ-CP dated June 13, 2003 issued by the government on the fee of environmental protection for wastewater and the Decree No 04/2007/NĐ-CP dated on January 8, 2007 on revision and amendment of several articles of the Decree No 67/2003/NĐ-CP. Drainage fee levels are calculated based on the amount of wastewater for domestic wastewater and the amount and content of pollutants in the wastewater for other types of wastewater. For domestic wastewater, if drinking water is used from centralized systems, the amount of wastewater taken into fee calculation is equal to 100% of drinking water amount consumed as reflected in the water bills. In the case of little consumption, the amount of wastewater taken for calculation is 4 m3/person/month. For other types of wastewater, if water used is from centralized water supply systems, the amount of wastewater taken for drainage fee collection is equal to 80% of the amount of drinking water consumed as reflected in the water bills.

Drainage fee is determined as the rate % and is not less than 10% of water tariff for different consumers and the content of pollutants to be calculated for drainage fee will be determined based on criteria COD (mg/L). The level of drainage fee collection at present is too low, not sufficient to cover operation and maintenance costs of wastewater drainage system. That is one of main reasons why private sector is not attracted to invest in drainage management at present.

6.2. Investment in rural water supply and sanitatio n

In rural areas, according to the report on the situation of implementation of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation program in the period of 2006 – 2010, mobilized budget was around VND 20,700 billion, accounting for 91.6% of the planned budget, 3 times higher than the mobilized budget in the period of 1999-2005. As a result, the major requirements for the implementation of the objectives of the program were met.

Especially, capital mobilization was diversified in comparison to many other programs, projects in which, some funding sources that play a very important role such as international funding source, credit source with preferences and sources from people, were initially formed in compliance with the policy of the program which is: users of the works mainly have to take care by themselves. Specifically:

- International support is estimated around VND 3,566 billion, accounting for 17.2% of the total mobilized fund. This financial source has strongly increased over the years, from VND 270 billion in 2006 to thousands billion in 2009 -2010.

- Soft credit source which was carried out is VND 8,820 billion, accounting for 42.6% of the total mobilized fund. This is the largest mobilized fund for the program and also the most effective source because users by themselves could get the loan, pay back and just get the soft interest defined by the government.


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- Estimated budget from individuals is VND 3,073 billion, accounting for 14.8% of the total mobilized fund, reflecting the policy of socialization which was highly welcome by ordinary people.

Regarding operational management of water supply systems: several models and mechanisms for operational management, maintenance of centralized water supply works and public sanitation are appropriate, initially showing effectiveness and promising sustainability in many localities such as the model of public utilities with profits (provincial centre for rural water supply and sanitation), model of output-based public and private enterprises, model of private bidding and managment etc.). Many water suppliers have organized accounting, correct calculating and adequate calculation of all costs, setting up water price based on the Decree No 117/ND-CP dated July 11, 2007 issued by the government on drinking water production, supply and consumption; Inter-Circular No 95/TTLT-BTC-BXD-BNN is submitted to the competent authority to approve water price for users. Many provinces had issued the framework of water tariff at the locality with correct and adequate calculation of appropriate operation and maintenance costs, recovering a part of basic depreciation cost. This framework of water tariff has enabled active financial activities, promoting creation and attraction of water suppliers.

However, implementation of financial provision and investment for the sector in this period of time still has many shortcomings.

Though rural water supply and sanitation works have a large number but small scope, especially in remote areas, therefore, they are attractive to capable consulting and construction entities, leading to the limited quality of the works. Most of household latrines were self-built by families or workers without being trained and information on the level of construction cost, lack of guidance, monitoring; therefore, many sanitary works were not in a good quality or did not meet required standards, even construction of latrine with the funding from the program.

- Allocation of the budget is still inappropriate:

+ Budget arrangement: State budget of the program is still limited; therefore, it is difficult to make balance to meet the demands from poor provinces that are in difficulties in water sources; some provinces have not paid adequate attention to the allocation of state budget for the program.

+ Structure of budget allocation focused too much on investment, but less on business (in the period of 2006-2010, only 9% of the totel mobilized fund was allocated). In the investment capital, objectives of water supply are focused much more than that of sanitation (in VND 3,200 billion of the state budget in this period for the program, 72% was invested for water supply and 28% was for sanitation) etc.

+ Allocation of the state budget has not reflected clearly the policy with a given priority to poor provinces, remote areas etc...

+ Poor households, households in prioritized policy was not distinguished from farmers' one.

- Source of soft credit played an important role but the interest was not stable (at the beginning, it was 0.5%/month but at present, it is 0.9%/month)

- Socialization of budget sources was still limited due to the slow process of setting up concrete policies; therefore, the development was not encouraged.


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- International supports always play a very important role but there are too many mechanisms of management; therefore, management is not given favorable conditions.

- Many projects and programs have the same objectives but their integration faces many difficulties.

Trong Chương trình giai ñoạn 2011-2015 tổng vốn dự kiến huy ñộng là: 40.000 tỷ ñồng, trong ñó bố trí như sau (Tài liệu NTP3, 2011):

In the program with the period of 2011 – 2015, the total estimated mobilized budget was VND 40,000 billion in which the structure of budget allocation was as follows (NTP3 document, 2011):

a. Investment in development: VND 31,423,977 billion

- Water supply : VND 15,852,031 billion

- Sanitation: VND 7,490,326 billion

- Environment: VND 8,081,620 billion

b. Economic business : VND 8,576,024 billion

Including: budgets for supporting poor households, households in the list of priority in building small water supply schemes, household latrines, communication budget, training; allowance for collaborators, survey; hiring national and international experts; appraisal; management, monitoring, evaluation of the program; other necessary budgets.

c. Structure and mobilization of budget source

- State budget: VND 6,800 billion, accounting for 17%

- International aid: VND 8,600 billion, accounting for 21,5%

- Local budget: VND 5,342 billion, accounting for 13,4%

- Soft credit: VND 12,900 billion, accounting for 32,2%

- Budget from people: VND 3,808 billion, accounting for 9,5%

- Investment of private sector: VND 2,550 billion, accounting for 6,4%

d. Structure of budget allocation:

- Investment in construction, upgradation of water supply works, improving water quality VND 15,852,031 billion, accounting for around 39.6%, increasing 1.8 times of NTP2 (VND 9,000 billion)

- Investment in construction of sanitation works, VND 7,490,326 billion, accounting for around 18.7%, increasing nearly 1.6 times of NTP2 (VND 4,800 billion)

- Investment in construction of environmental protection works, VND 8,081,620 billion, accounting for around 20.2%, increasing 1.2 times of NTP2 (VND 6,800 billion)

- Budget for non-profit business was allocated: VND8,576,024 billion, accounting for around 21.4%, incrreasing 4.25 times of NTP2 (VND 2,000 billion), mainly for supporting difficult households in the list of priority to build sanitary latrines and water supply, IEC activities, capcity, support collaborators and manage programs ect.


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d. Implement measures to form and develop market of rural water supply, calling for investment and operation monitoring of centralized water supply according to the Decision No 131/QĐ-TTg. Specifically:

Effective and sustainable management of centralized water supply works is a focus which will be paid special attention. Model of organizing, mechanism of operational management have to ensure professional characteristics, educated human resources with professional terms, capacity of operational management in compliance with the existing standards.

Based on the common mechanism of economic management, development trend, characteristics of rural centralized water supply system, 4 models of organizing operational management of rural centralized water supply works, including: enterprises, non-profit units with income, individuals and collectives. Two models were encourage to be applied, including model of enterprises and non-profit units with income. Too small or scattered works can be assigned to individuals, collectives to manage operation. Non profit units or enterprises in the locality provide technical supports, logistics and repair of the works to ensure sustainability. Individuals and collectives will be like satellites in management network of non-profit units or enterprises.

Water tariff needs to be calculated correctly, adequately all apropriate costs during production, distribution of drinking water, tax and profit to ensure legal right and benefits of water suppliers and water users approved by provincial people committees.

Water tariff is determined appropriately based on characteristics of water sources, socio-economic conditions of each area, locality by provincial people committee within the framework of water tariff issued by MoF, ensuring that farmers in rural areas can afford.

With a principle that service price is calculated correctly, adequately all appropriate costs, tax and norm profit including all basic depreciation and repairing depreciation, it is a condition for the asset management units to expand their production. When the budget of operation management unit is stably maintained, it means the state budget to support the national target program is ensured.

It is possible to base on socio-economic conditions of each area to determine water tariff for users as follows:

- Areas of stable and good income: collecting correct and adequate water tariff with a framework of VND 5,000 – 8,000/m3 taking into account various purposes of use to be able to cross subsidize. Of course, to meet this requirement, it is necessary to develop a roadmap and carry out step by step to prevent any shock from water users.

- Areas of middle income: receiving a part from water tariff, the government partly subsidizes, particularly water tariff without recovery of initial state investment capital with a framework of tariff as USD 3,000 – 5,000/m3, taking into account different purposes of use to cross subsidize.

- Areas in difficult situation: water tariff is just adequate to cover maintenance and regular repair without receiving depreciation of big repair and initial capital with a framework price from 1,000 – 3,000 VND/m3. When the works need to get fixed, the government will invest in substancial repair from the state budget.

Mobilization of budget for WATSAN


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- Total mobilized budget does not meet the demand. Many localities do not allocate local budgets for the programs.

- Budget allocation is still inappropriate:

+ Arrangement of budget: state budgets for programs are still limited and difficult to make balance in order to provide poor provinces to overcome difficulties in water sources. Some provinces with adjusted rate of income sources from state budget are little supported the budget for business to implement training and communication etc. These provinces have not paid appropriate attention to local budgets for the programs. Especially, some sectors, mass organizations at central level also are allocated budget for development investment while they should focus only on communication and co-operation for management of sector activities at the locality.

+ Structure of budget allocation is not balanced, focusing more on investment than on business. In the investment budget, the goal of water supply is focused more than sanitation. Moreover, the fund for building household latrines is arranged within the investment budget, leading to difficulties in implementation due to two complicated procedures.

- Mechanism for supporting capitals is unclear, not consistent with other projects in the same location.

+ Allocation of state budget has not shown the policy of priority for poor and remote provinces etc..

+ There is no distinguishment between poor households, households under the policy of priority and other farmer households. Mechanism to support capitals for people in the program allows supporting 100%; however, this program just supported maximum households in priority not over than 90%; at the same time, there has been no priority given to poor households.

+ Source of soft credit plays an important role but the interest is not stable (initially 0.5%/month but at present, it is just 0.9%/month)

+ There has been no mechanism to support collaborators as many other projects do; therefore, it is difficult to promote and maintain the movement, especially in building latrines at households.

+ Supporting the construction of model latrines has not contributed to making a lever for increasing coverage of sanitation, partly because financial supports have not been as adequate as expected, and on the other hand, when funding source is available, people seem to expect using that fund instead of their own money for building their latrines.

- Many localities have not paid an appropriate attention to the program, considering the program not theirs or; therefore, they expect or rely too much on the government or lack of responsibilities in implementation at the locality.

- Socialization of funding sources is limited due to the late concrete policies; therefore, development is not encouraged (until the end of 2009, the decision of the government on policy of priority in construction and management of water supply works).


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- International funding sources always play an important role, but there are many modes of mechanism, leading to a situation that management has not been enabled with favorable conditions.

- Many projects, programs have the same goals but it is difficult to integrate them.


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7. Major issues and limitations in WATSAN sector

The rate of access to water supply and sanitation in Vietnam is higher than that of the neighbouring countries. However, with the total population of 87 million people, Vietnam is the 13 th populated country in the world, in which the rate of poor people and people who have no access to water supply and sanitation is still high. Vietnam has been in the period of fast development in economy and population. In the present context, to keep pace with the development rate, a challenge raised is that construction and implementation of water supply and sanitation activities need to be in compliance with planning and investment activities, centralizing resources, carrying out the planning in the development.

At present, sanitation improvement issue is still lag behind the schedule in comparison to water supply.

Urban drainage systems are all common and combined sewerage and drainage system to drain run-off and wastewater, including open channels, ponds and lakes, concrete sewer, ditches with lids. There are only several areas in some urban areas that have relatively complete drainage system, including drainage network and wastewater treatment plant. For the rest, wastewater has not been treated in most of urban areas. Wastewater is only pre-treated via septic tanks and is discharged directly to the common drainage system or directly into the environment. Wastewater and sludge have not been treated, causing environmental pollution and impacts to community health. Control and prevention of waste at the source have not been carried out yet.

Climate change and pollution of water source: Vietnam is determined as one of five countries in the world most impacted by sea level rise. At present, raw water source is in high risk of being polluted. Due to a huge seasonal variation in terms of quantity and quality, overlapping and gaps in water source management, while domestic water sources in most of the cases have to share with water-using activities, wastewater discharge taking place at the same catchment, water supply sector still has to face many challenges related to water source protection. Integrated management based on catchment, sustainable water source protection depend much on co-operation among related local stakeholders, on determination and commitment of implementation from management boards of water supply companies, on capacity and expertise of operation as well as typical factors of natural, socio-economic conditions of the locality.

There have been positive progresses in recent years in the institutional arrangement and management of planning, investment, operation of exploitation and works for water supply and sanitation supply services. Un-synchronization in management from central level to local management agencies, as well as the shortage of finance and human resources of local utility services is an obstacle for sustainable services. Many models and mechanisms for management and exploitation of centralized water supply works have not been effective and sustainable. The basic operation mode is still a kind of subsidized services, not services in a commercial market. Selection of management models in some areas is not appropriate in which there were still many models of management that are not professional such as the model of commune People Committees, community and collective management. Capacity of staff and operators is still weak. Monitoring, surveillance and control of water quality have not been paid enough attention.


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Responsibility of people in management, use, protection and supervision of water supply works is not high. In many areas, centralized water supply works have a good quality, but the rate of connection is low. Many households only use piped water for drinking and cooking. For domestic purposes, they still use water from other unsanitary sources.

Fee for wastewater collection and treatment in urban areas is still too low. Urban drainage sector is not attractive to private sector to invest in; therefore, resources from private sector have not been mobilized. There is still a lack of policies, appropriate models, including public and private partnership, to mobilize resources other than the state budget and loans to invest in the sector in order to reduce the financial burden from the government and increase the coverage and quality of services. So far, there have not been sufficient scientific basis and information to orient technological options in integrated and sustainable management of water and solid waste and technical infrastructure system. Planning for water supply and drainage systems is still weak, inconsistent, not updated and synchronized.

Awareness on water supply and sanitation of a part of management boards and community is still limited. Investment in water supply and sanitation has not been considered a priority in many areas. Economic losses due to backward water and sanitation conditions, considerably impacting on human health, living conditions, environment and causing negative impacts to socio-economic life of the locality and the whole country. It is necessary to have great efforts, key decisions in the arrangement of institutional system, issuing legal document system and setting up mechanisms for legal enforcement as well as strong investment of resources to improve water supply and sanitation in Vietnam in the coming period so that Vietnam is able to become an industrial country by 2020.


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8. Main plans and programs in the sector

For 15 years, from 1991 to 2005, the government had invested in water supply sector with a total investment of VND 18,567 billion (equal to USD 1.2 billion) in which foreign investment was VND 15,020 billion (equal to VND 1.0 billion) accounting for 81% of the total investment (JICA, 2011). Vietnamese water supply sector has strongly grown since 1990 when a series of projects for upgrading, renovating and newly building water supply systems, mainly based on official development aids (ODA).

From 1993 to 2011, there were a total of 135 international investment projects in urban WATSAN in Vietnam with loans, 67 technical assistance projects and 98 grant projects were implemented (Source: ADB, 2012)

Table 6. Water supply development projects in big c ities in Vietnam

Province/ city

Project Main fund source Period

Water supply project for urban areas in Vietnam

WB 1997-2006

Hanoi City urban infrastructure development project ( Thang Long North wastewater treatment plant – Van Tri)

Japan 1999-2009

Da River water supply project Private 2004-2009

Hanoi

Duong River water supply project PPP (possible implementation)

In preparation

Hai Phong City water supply and sanitation program

Finland 1991-2004

Vietnam water supply project WB 1997-2006 Vietnam water supply development project

WB 2004-on –going

Hai Phong

Hai Phong City water supply project ADB On-going

Hue Hue City water supply project ADB In preparation

Da Nang Da Nang City water supply project ADB In preparation

Dong Nai/ Ba Ria – Vung Tau water supply project

Japan 2000- on-going Dong Nai

Dong Nai environmental improvement project

Japan (possible implementation)

In preparation

Binh Duong Vietnam water supply development project

WB 2004- on-going

Ba Ria –Vung Tau

Dong Nai/ Ba Ria – Vung Tau water supply project Japan/ Vietnam 2000-2007

HCM City water supply and sanitation project

ADB 1994-2004 HCM City

Vietnam water supply development WB 2004- on-


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project going Thu Duc BOO project Private 2004-2009 Dong Channel water supply project Private on-going

HCM City water supply project ADB In preparation

(Source: JICA research, 2011)

According to the assessment, strategy and roadmap or WATSAN in Vietnam (ADB, June 2010), the estimated necessary investment degree to meet the goal of water supply coverage was USD 750 million for urban water supply in a 10-year program from 2005 to 2015 (according to the estimate in 2004). According to a recent calculation of urban water supply sector, the necessary investment degree should be USD 2 billion to cover 100% urban population to be supplied drinking water by the year 2020 (according to the estimation in 2008).

Table 7: Urban drainage development projects in Vie tnam

Province/ city

Project Main fund source Period

Hanoi City environmental rehabilitation and drainage project (Phase 1)

Japan 1997-2005

Hanoi City urban infrastructure development project ( Thang Long North – Van Tri)

Japan 1999-2009

Hanoi City environmental rehabilitation and drainage project (Phase 2)

Japan 2007- on-going

Yen So Part development project (construction of wastewater treatment plant)

Private On-going

Hanoi

Yen Xa wastewater treatment station construction project

Possible implementation

In preparation

3-city sanitation project WB, Finland 2000-2008

Vietnam urban upgradation project WB 2005- on-going

Drainage and wastewater treatment component in the drainage, wastewater and solid waste management project in Hai Phong


Hai Phong

Water supply and drainage project for small towns (Minh Duc township)

Finland 2005 – on-going

Hue Hue City water environment improvement project


Da Nang 3-city sanitation project WB 2000-2008


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Dong Nai Dong Nai water environment improvement project (drainage, wastewater)

Japan (possible implementation) On-going

Binh Duong Binh Duong South environment improvement project


Ba Ria – Vung Tau

Vung Tau drainage development project

France On-going

HCM City sanitation project WB 2001- on-going

Vietnam urban upgradation project WB 2005- on-going

HCM City water environment improvement project

Japan 2000-2010 HCM City

Binh Hung wastewater station project Belgium 2003 – 2007

Buon Ma Thuot

Wastewater treatment station project Denmark 2003 – 2008

Da Lat Drainage and wastewater treatment station project

Denmark 2003 – 2008

Bac Can Water supply and drainage project for small towns (Bac Can: Cho Moi township, Cho Ra township)


Cao Bang Water supply and drainage project for small towns (Cao Bang: Township Nuoc Hai)


Thai Binh Water supply and drainage project for small towns (Thai Binh: An Bai township)


Hung Yen Water supply and drainage project for small towns (Hung Yen: Hung Nhan township)


7 provinces + 3 provinces

Wastewater and solid waste management program in provinces: Bac Ninh, Hai Duong, Nghe An, Soc Trang, Tra Vinh, Can Tho. From 2011, Lang Son, Cao Bang and Hoa Binh were added.

Germany 2005 – on-going


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9. Sector recommendations Strengthening governance

- The government needs to establish a national agency responsible for management of assessment, data collection and maintenance of the database on water and sanitation throughout the country in which a mechanism for co-operation among ministries, agencies related to water supply and sanitation needs to be improved to correct the overlapping and fill all gaps in the state management in the sector, especially in the planning issues, legal frameworks and control measures, system of legal documents and standards in the sector, allocation of investment resources to technical infrastructure and environmental protection.

- Develop, upgrade and enhance management effectiveness, effective and sustainable operation of water supply works, ensure all quantity and quality of supplied water. Promote drinking water supply from an ordinary service to become a commercial business. Newly build, upgrade rural and urban water supply works in both technical and social aspects to increase coverage of water supply. The focus is to develop sustainably, effectively to ensure water quality appropriate to the environment and adaptable to climate change. Strengthen monitoring, controlling water quality of rural and urban water supply works, especially centralized water supply schemes.

- Issue and carry out policies to attract participation of private sector in water supply and sanitation.

Developing apropriate and realistic legal documents and policies

- Add and update Master plan for rural and urban water supply and sanitation up to 2020, a vision to the year 2030 of cities and provinces. Well integrate planning for technical infrastructure and general master plan for urban development.

- Pay attention to saving energy, water recycle, recovery of natural resources from waste management, adaption to climate change. Regarding rural water supply and sanitation, concretize planning to district and commune levels, closely link to the planning for implementation of the National Target Programme for Construction of New Rural Areas.

Strengthening implementation of scientific research and application

- Continue scaling up application of WSP in both urban and rural water supply sectors, considering it an effective measure to ensure safety of water supply, reduce risks to prevent water-borne diseases and protect community health.

- Continue conducting research and development in setting up pilots of management models, appropriate technologies in typical localities; organize assessment and scaling up successful pilots in the areas with similar conditions throughout the country. Continue conducting research and development, using and producing materials and equipment locally that are appropriate to typical


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areas, reducing price in construction and water treatment, forming network of supply services.

- Provide new information on technical options for low-cost latrines and information on financial options, providing capitals or soft loans to enterprises. Co-operate with Vietnamese Social Policy Bank, UNICEF and other NGOs for a better propaganda on soft loan programmes for household sanitation purposes, and better orientation on poor people in building and using effectively household latrine works. Enable each household to select, invest and build a latrine appropriate to their demand, interest and financial capacity and use effectively household sanitary latrine.

- Strengthening international co-operation. Continue calling for international supports in experience, science and technology and capital investment. Strengthen co-operation with NGOs in the actual application, strengthening scientific research, technology and inheriting experience in operation management, building new mechanisms and effective approaches.

Strengthening training, information-education-communication (IEC)

- Strengthen IEC to raise awareness and responsibilities of people in using drinking water, sanitation latrines, building and using sanitary livestock farms, practising hygiene and environmental protection behaviors in urban and rural areas.

- Strengthen IEC to raise awareness and to practise hygiene behaviors in schools, kindergartens, healthcare stations and public places.

- Strengthen training activities, human resources development in both long-term and short-term trainings, on-site training to provide human resources to water supply and sanitation, especially for rural and remote areas.

Applying the new trends of appropriate approaches in water supply and drainage management

Principles of Integrated management of water sources should be complied with (Dublin Statement, 1992):

• Natural water is limited and vulnerable;

• Management and development of water sources should be based on a participatory approach

• Women play a central role in supplying, managing and saving water

• Water has economic value and needs to be considered an economic commodity.

Many reformed approaches in urban wastewater management were developed based on the following principles:

• Respecting human dignity, quality of life and environmental safety

• Sensitive to local demands, management of wastewater based on the demand


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• When making decision, it is necessary to get participation of all related parties, especially consumers and suppliers.

• Wastewater needs to be considered natural resources and managed at the source. Limit the use of water to transfer solid waste. Maximizing reuse of wastewater.

Based on the above viewpoints, at present, there are three international trends in urban wastewater management, including:

1) Decentralized wastewater management

2) Reuse of wastewater

3) Return to the mixed run-off and wastewater drainage system with planning options and technical systems and works with a sustainable trend.

Except the last trend, development of urban drainage management based on the two initial options requires a change in the existing institutional framework.

Changing the mode of drainage management to the mode of service provision

While the mode of asset management puts focus on construction, operation and maintenance of infrastructure of drainage system, the mode of service provision pays attention to the management of drainage system based on commercial principles with 4 basic features as follows:

• Have clear and consistent objectives, focusing on service provision

• Paying attention to the actual span of the works, including economic span which is limited by economic effectiveness during operation and service span which lasts till the exploiting operation no longer meets technical criteria.

• Autonomy with accountability in the results;

• Being independent in finance

To move drainage management to the mode of service provision, municipal authorities have to face the following challenges:

1) Business to be fully reorganized, e.g. enterprises need to earn sufficient income to cover their activities and have autonomy in organizing and managing human resources.

2) Having policy for setting up water tariff to ensure financial independence for the enterprise

3) Municipal authority signs contract for service provision with the enterprise

In fact, the above challenges link closely to each other. If setting up service price is done correctly, it enables signing a contract for service provision. Only after the contract is signed, the enterprise will be able to run business based on commercial principles. Therefore, the initial and crucial step is to set up price for the service.

Service price consists of two main parts: part A for basic depreciation to recover investment capital and part B for operation and maintenance cost plus norm profit. In principle, consumers have to pay fully to suppliers both part A and part B as in developed countries, but in Vietnam it's very difficult to carry out since it needs to take


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into account affordability and low willingness to pay of service consumers. At present, a common trend is that consumers only pay the part B, but urban budget has to cover the whole part A.

Consumers only pay drainage service according to the principle of "polluters pay" while consumers of treated wastewater have to pay according to the principle "beneficiaries pay". Enterprises have to enter this income into their account by themselves.

Due to having direct contact with consumers, urban drainage management based on the mode of service provision will be sensitive to their demands, having advantages in organizing decentralized drainage at new urban areas scattered in suburban areas, and paying attention to treatment of wastewater as well as storage of rain water for reuse.

Strengthening right-oriented investment and enhancing effectiveness of rural water supply and sanitation

In rural water supply and sanitation, the national strategy for this activity up to 2020 has been reviewed, updated to ensure meeting new requirements from reality and orientation of investment in resources for the necessary objectives that are toward poor, people in remote areas to make sure sustainability and stability in financial aspect etc. The National Target Program (NTP) for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Phase 3 (2011 – 2015) also focuses on sanitation and hygiene, together with water supply activities need to be maintained. This adjustment was emphasized in the program documents or implementation activities in the Phase 1 and 2, drawing experience from the results of the NTP Phase 1 and 2 before (1996 – 2004, 2005 – 2010).

Several programmes, projects with a new typical approach in communication have been implemented, evaluating and scaling up in the rural water supply and sanitation in Vietnam as follows:

- Creating markets for water supply activities and marketing for sanitation;

- Community led total sanitation CLTS

- Campaign for hand washing with soap.

- Community Health Clubs


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Acknowledgement

HEMA (MoH) and report preparing team express gratitude to the financial and technical supports from WHO Office and UNICEF Office in Vietnam. Sincerely thank all units and individuals who provided information, read and provided comments during the development of this report in 2011. Especially, we would like to thank:

- Investment Department, MoF

- Administration of Technical Infrastructure, (MoC)

- Standing Office of NTP for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (MARD).

- Centre for Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (MARD).

- Division of Social and Environmental Statistics, Statistic Department (MPI)

- Vietnam Water Supply and Sewerage Association (VWSA)


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PHỤ LỤC

Danh sách Nhóm công tác k ỹ thuật (TAT) của quá trình ñánh giá l ĩnh vực CN&VSMT ở Việt Nam

1. Bà Nguyễn Bích Thủy- Phó trưởng phòng Sức khỏe môi trường cộng ñồng, Cục

Quản lý môi trường y tế, Bộ Y tế- Nhóm trưởng;

2. Bà Nguyễn Thị Hồng Khánh- chuyên viên Cục Hạ tầng kỹ thuật, Bộ Xây dựng-

Thành viên;

3. Ông Trịnh Xuân Lai- Hội Cấp thoát nước Việt Nam- Thành viên;

4. Ông Phạm Xuân Lượng- chuyên viên Vụ Thống kê xã hội và Môi trường, Tổng

cục Thống kê- Thành viên;

5. Ông Phạm Quốc Hưng- chuyên viên Vụ Quản lý nguồn nước và Nước sạch nông

thôn, Tổng cục Thủy lợi- Thành viên;

6. Ông Đào Ngọc Tú- chuyên viên Trung tâm Quốc gia Nước sạch và Vệ sinh môi

trường nông thôn, Bộ Nông nghiệp và Phát triển nông thôn- Thành viên;

vietnam water and sanitation sector assessment report

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